ECE 470 – Electric Machines

Review of Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

Objectives:

1. To discuss a classification of materials

2. To discuss properties of homogeneous, linear, isotropic,

and time-invariant materials

3. To review Maxwell’s equations in integral form.

Specifically:

4. To discuss Gauss’ Law for the Electric Field

5. To discuss Gauss’ Law for the Magnetic Field

1
 Classification of Materials

(
Good
1. Conductors
Bad

2. Semiconductors

(
Perfect
3. Dielectrics (Insulators)
Imperfect

4. Magnetic Materials

2
 Magnetic Classification of Materials

1. Paramagnetic (µr  1+)

2. Diamagnetic (µr  1−)

3. Nonmagnetic metals (µr = 1)

4. Superconducting (µr = 0)

5. Ferromagnetic (µr = 100 - 1,000,000)

6. Ferrimagnetic (hard and soft materials with low elec-

tric conductivities)

3
 Properties of Materials

• Homogeneous: Characteristics of material do not

depend on the location in the material medium (Op-
posite: Non-Homogeneous)

• Isotropic: Characteristics are not dependent on the

direction of excitation fields (Opposite: Anisotropic)

• Linear: Characteristics are not dependent on the

magnitude of excitation fields (Opposite: Nonlinear)

• Time-Invariant: Characteristics do not change with

time (Opposite: Time-Varying)

Notes: In this course, we will deal with:

1. Homogeneous, isotropic, time-invariant materials.

2. Linear and nonlinear materials.

4
 Concepts

→
−
E Electric Field Intensity Vector (V/m)
→
−
D Displacement Flux Density Vector (C/m2)
→
−
B Magnetic Flux Density Vector (Wb/m2 or T)
→
−
H Magnetic Field Intensity Vector (A-turn/m)
→
−
J Conduction Current Density Vector (A/m2)
ρ Charge Density (C/m3)
 Material Permittivity (F/m)
r Relative Permittivity
o Permittivity of Free Space (F/m)
µ Material Permeability (H/m)
µr Relative Permeability
µo Permeability of Free Space (H/m)
σ Conductivity (S/m)
c Velocity of Light in Free Space (m/s)

5
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

1. Gauss’ Law for the Electric Field:

$
− −→
→
D · dS = ρ dV = Qenclosed
S V

2. Gauss’ Law for the Magnetic Field:

− −→
→
B · dS = 0
S

3. Ampère Law:
I " "
− →
→ − − −→ d
→ − −→
→
H · dl = J · dS + D · dS
C S dt S

4. Faraday’s Law:
I "
− →
→ − d − −→
→
E · dl = − B · dS
C dt S

6
Constitutive Equations for Linear Isotropic Materials

→
− →
− →
−
D =  E = r o E (F/m)

→
− →
− →
−
B = µ H = µr µo H (H/m)

→
− →
−
J = σ E (A/m2)

Constants

o = 8.854215 × 10−12 (F/m)

µo = 4π × 10−7 (H/m)

oµoc2 = 1

c = 2.9979 × 108  3 × 108 (m/s)

o  1 (F/m)
36π×109

7
Linear Isotropic Dielectric Material:

→
− →
−
D = o E (In Free Space)

→
−
P : Polarization Vector

χe: Electric Susceptibility

→
− →
−
P = oχe E

→
− →
− → − →
− →
−
D = o E + P = o(1 + χe) E = or E

→
− →
−
D =  E (In Material Medium)

 = r o (F/m)

o = 8.854215 × 10−12 (F/m)

8
Linear Isotropic Magnetic Material:

→
− →
−
B = µo H (In Free Space)

→
−
M : Magnetization Vector

χm: Magnetic Susceptibility

→
− χm B
→
−
M = 1+χ µo
m

→
− →
− χm B
→
− →
− →
−
B
H = µo − 1+χ µo = µ (1+χ ) = µoBµr
B
m o m

→
− →
−
B = µ H (In Material Medium)

µ = µr µo (H/m)

µo = 4π × 10−7 (H/m)

9
 Gauss’ Law for the Electric Field

dS D

Charge
Density ρ
Surface Qenclosed
S in
Volume V

$
− −→
→
D · dS = ρ dV = Qenclosed
S V

The total electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to

the total charge enclosed.

−→
Note 1: The differential surface vector dS is oriented out-
wards.

→
− →
−
Note 2: D = r o E for a linear isotropic dielectric material.

10
Example 1: Find the electric field E due to a point charge
q at a distance x from the charge.

Gaussian Surface S:
Sphere of radius x q dS
centered at the x E
point charge

− −→
→
D · dS = Qenclosed
S
D dS = q

S
D dS = q
S
o E(4πx2) = q
q
E =
4πo x2

11
Example 2: Find the electric field E due to a charge Q
uniformly distributed on hollow sphere of radius r at a
distance 0 ≤ x < r.

Gaussian Surface S:
Sphere of radius x r dS
E
concentric to the x
sphere of radius r.

− −→
→
D · dS = Qenclosed
S
D dS = 0

S
D dS = 0
S
o E(4πx2) = 0
E = 0

12
Example 3: Find the electric field E due to a charge Q
uniformly distributed on hollow sphere of radius r at a
distance x > r.

Gaussian Surface S:
Sphere of radius x r dS
E
concentric to the
sphere of radius r. x

− −→
→
D · dS = Qenclosed
S
D dS = Q

S
D dS = Q
S
o E(4πx2) = Q
Q
E =
4πo x2
13
 Gauss’ Law for the Magnetic Field

dSo B
dSo
S1

dSi S2

− −→
→
B · dS o = 0
S

The total magnetic flux out of a closed surface is equal

to zero.

−→
Note 1: The differential surface vector dS o is oriented out-
wards.

→
− →
−
Note 2: B = µr µo H for a linear isotropic magnetic material.

14
Another Form of Gauss’ Law for the Magnetic Field

dSo B
dSo
S1

dSi S2

− −→
→
B · dS o = 0
" "S
− −→
→ − −→
→
B · dS o + B · dS o = 0
"S 1 "S 2
− −→
→ − −→
→
− B · dS i + B · dS o = 0
S1 S2

" "
→− −→ − −→
→
B · dS i = B · dS o
| S 1{z } | S 2{z }
φin = φout

15
 Ampère’s Law

dS D

dS J

S dl H

I " "
− →
→ − − −→ d
→ − −→
→
H · dl = J · dS + D · dS
C S dt S

A time-varying electric field induces a magnetic field.

−→
Note: The differential surface vector dS is oriented accord-
ing to the right-hand rule by following the direction of
the contour C .
16
 Ampère’s Law a Magnetic-Field System

dS J

S dl H

I "
− →
→ − − −→
→
H · dl = J · dS = Ienclosed
C S

An electric current induces a magnetic field.

Note: For magnetic-field systems excited with low frequen-

cies: "
d − −→
→
D · dS  0
dt S
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Ampère’s Law a Magnetic-Field System (Cont’d)

dS J

S dl H

C
Cross−Section A

I "
− →
→ − − −→
→
H · dl = J · dS
IC "S "
− →
→ −
H · dl =J dS = J dS
IC A
I A
− →
→ −
H · dl = JA = A
IC A
− →
→ −
H · dl = I = Ienclosed
C
18
 Ampère’s Law a Magnetic-Field System (Cont’d)

θ Cross−Section A
J
dS

S dl
H

A
cos θ

I "
− →
→ − − −→
→
H · dl = J · dS
IC "S "
− →
→ −
H · dl = J cos θ dS = J cos θ dS
IC A/ cos θ A/ cos θ
 A  i
− →
→ −
H · dl = (J cos θ) = JA = A
IC cos θ A
− →
→ −
H · dl = I = Ienclosed
C

19
 Ampère’s Law a Magnetic-Field System (Cont’d)

I1 I2 I3

J1 C J3
dS
dS dS dl
A1 A2 A3

J2

I " " "

− →
→ − − −→
→ →− −→ − −→
→
H · dl = J 1 · dS + J 2 · dS + J 3 · dS
IC " A1 " A2 " A3
− →
→ −
H · dl = J1 dS − J2 dS + J3 dS
IC "A1 A2
" A3
"
− →
→ −
H · dl = J1 dS − J2 dS + J3 dS
IC A1 A2 A3
− →
→ −
H · dl = J1 A1 − J2 A2 + J3 A3
IC
− →
→ −
H · dl = I1 − I2 + I3 = Ienclosed
C

20
 Infinitely-Long Wire

dS J

S dl H

I
− →
→ −
H · dl = Ienclosed
IC
H dl = I
CI
H dl = I
C
H(2πx) = I
I µo I
H = , B = µo H =
2πx 2πx
21
 Faraday’s Law

dS B

S dl
E
C

I "
− →
→ − d − −→
→
E · dl = − B · dS
C dt S

A time-varying magnetic field induces an electric field.

−→
Note: The differential surface vector dS is oriented accord-
ing to the right-hand rule by following the direction of
the contour C .

22
 Faraday’s Law for an Electrostatic Field
(No Magnetic Field)

c C b

dl
E
a C

I
− →
→ −
E · dl = 0
C
Z b Z c Z a
− →
→ − − →
→ − − →
→ −
E · dl + E · dl + E · dl = 0
|a {z } |b {z } |c {z }
KVL: vab + vbc + vca = 0

23
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)

dS B

S=NA, A=Area of One Loop

N turns
C

C dl

Magnetic Flux φ (Unit: weber, Wb):

"
− −→
→
φ = B · dS
1 loop
Magnetic Flux Linkages λ (Unit: weber-turn, Wb-t):
"
− −→
→
λ = B · dS
"S
− −→
→
λ = B · dS
N loops
"
− −→
→
λ = N B · dS
1 loop
λ = Nφ

24
 Gravitational Potential P

a m=1 kg

ha ∆h

g
b dl c

hb g
Sea level

Z b
∆P = Pab = Pa − Pb = −g · →
→ −
dl
a
Z b
∆P = g dh = g(ha − hb) = g∆h
a
Electrostatic Potential V
Z b
− →
→ −
∆V = Vab = Va − Vb = E · dl
a

25
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)

− C dS B
b dl Ei
S

dl
Eo +
a C
Region of Region of
negligible flux considerable flux

I "
− →
→ − d − −→
→
E · dl = − B · dS
C dt S
Z b Z a
− →
→ − − →
→ − dλ
E i · dl + E o · dl = −
|a {z } |b {z } dt
dλ
vab,in + vba,out = −
dt
dλ
0 − vab,out = −
dt
dλ
v = vab,out =
dt

26
 Ohm’s Law for a Resistor

a dl E b
J =σE

+ v = vab −

→
− →
−
Ohm’s Law: J = σE
Z b Z b
→
− →−
v = E · dl = E dl
a a
J 1 i
v = El = l = l
! σ σ A
1l
Ohm’s Law: v = i = Ri
σA

27
 Ohm’s Law for a Capacitor

+q Area A ε

l E E E dl E E

−q Area A

Gauss’ Law: EA = q

Z b Z b
− →
→ −
v = E · dl = E dl
a q a
v = El = l
 A  A
Ohm’s Law: q = v = Cv
l
dq dv
i(t) = = C
dt dt

28
 Ohm’s Law for an Inductor

φ
dS d Depth d
C
+
Cross−Section A = wd
dλ N turns
v =
dt Mean Path Length l
− B
C
µ w Width w

dλ
Faraday’s Law: v(t) =
dt
λ = Nφ = NBA
Ampère’s Law: Hl = Ni
 2 
 µN A 
λ = N(µH)A =   i = Li
l
N2 N2
L = =
R (l/µA)
dλ di
v(t) = = L
dt dt

29
 Maxwell’s Equations for Engineers

1. Gauss’ Law for the Electric Field:

DA = EA = Qenclosed

2. Gauss’ Law for the Magnetic Field:

φin = φout

3. Ampère Law for a Magnetic-Field System:

X
Hk lk = Ienclosed
k

4. Faraday’s Law:

dλ dφ
v(t) = = N
dt dt

30