Elasticity

Stress and strain

The stress on a body acted on by a deforming force is equal to F/A, the magnitude of the force divided by
the cross-sectional area A over which it acts. The unit of stress in SI units is newtons per square meter, which
is known as the pascal (Pa). In the British system it is customary to use pounds per square inch. The three
categories of stress – tension, compression, and share – are illustrated in the figures bellow. The unstressed
shape is shown by the dashed lines, and the stressed shape by the solid lines.

No stress Compression Tension Shear

The relative change in the size of a body due to applied stress is called strain. Strain is a dimensionless
∆L
quantity, for instance, the longitudinal strain that tension produces in a body is its change in length ∆ L
L0 ,
divided by its original length L0, which is a pure number.

Elasticity
The elastic limit of a material is the maximum stress that can be applied to a body without causing a
permanent deformation. For stresses below the elastic limit, the material exhibits elastic behavior: when the
stress is removed, the body returns to its original size and shape.
Below elastic limit, strain is found to be proportional to stress. This relationship is known as Hooke’s Law. In
the case of tension, for example, doubling the applied force on a body will double the amount by which the
body stretches. The modulus of elasticity of a material subjected to a particular kind of stress below its
elastic limit is defined by the relationship

stress
Modulus of elasticity =
strain

σ
Y=
ε

The ultimate strength of a material is the greatest stress it can withstand without rapture. In many materials
the ultimate strength considerably exceeds the elastic limit. When a stress greater than its elastic limit but
less than its ultimate strength is applied to such a material, the result is permanent deformation. Bending a
piece of metal is an example.

Example 1
A nylon rope 24 mm in diameter has a breaking strength of 120 kN. Find the breaking strengths of similar
ropes (a) 12 mm and (b) 48 mm in diameter.

Since the breaking stress F / A is the same for all the ropes, their breaking strengths F are in proportion
π d2
to their cross-sectional areas A . The cross-sectional area of a cylinder of diameter d is A= , and so in
4
each case F varies directly with d 2.
 1
F F 120,000 N 4(120,000 N )
σ= = 2
= 2
= 2
A πd π ( 24 ×10 ) π ( 24 ×10−3 m )
−3

4 4
2
4 (120,000 N ) π ( 12 ×10−3 m )
a ¿ F=σA=
(
π ( 24 × 10−3 m )
2
)4
=30 kN

2
4 (120,000 N ) π ( 48 ×10−3 m )
b ¿ F=σA=
(
π ( 24 × 10−3 m)
2
) 4
=480 kN

Young’s Modulus
When a tension or compression force F acts on an object of length L0 and cross-sectional area A, the result
is a change in length ∆ L. Below the elastic limit, the ratio between stress and strain in this situation is called
Young s' modulus :

F/A
Y=
∆ L /L0

stress
Young ' s modulus=
strain

The value of Young’s modulus depends only on the composition of the object, not on its size or shape. The
usual units of Y are newtons per square meter or pounds per square inch.

Example 2
An aluminum wire 3 mm in diameter and 4 m long is used to support a mass of 50 kg. What is the elongation
of the wire? Young’s modulus for aluminum is 7 ×1 010 Pa .

The cross-sectional area of a wire of radius r =1.5 mm=1.5 ×10−3 m is

2
A=π r 2 =π ( 1.5 ×10−3 ) =π (2.25 ×10−6)m 2

The applied force is

F=mg= (50 kg ) ¿

And so the elongation of the wire is

L0 F ( 4 m ) ( 490 N)
∆ L= =
YA ¿¿

Example 3
The elastic limit of aluminum is 1.3 ×108 Pa. What is the maximum mass that the wire of example 2 can
support without exceeding its elastic limit?
 Since the cross-sectional area of the wire is A=π (2.25× 10−6 )m2 and

σ= ( FA )
max
=1.3 ×10 8 N /m 2

2
the maximum force is
F=σA

F max=¿

which corresponds to a mass of

w F max 919.91585 N
m= = = 2
=93.77 kg
g g 9.8 m/s

Example 4
A wire 8 ft long with a cross-sectional area of 0.01 ¿ .2 stretches by 0.05 in. when a weight of 100 lb is
suspended from it. Find the stress on the wire, the resulting strain, and the value of Young’s modulus for the
wire’s material.
F 100 lb
σ= = =1 ×104 lb/¿2
A 0.01 ¿ 2

∆L ¿
ε= =0.05∈ ¿
L0 96 ∈¿=5.21 ×10−4 ¿

F/A 1× 104 lb/¿ 2 7 2

Y= = =1.92×10 lb /¿
∆ L /L0 5.21× 10−4

Example 5
A steel pipe 3.6 m long is placed vertically under a sagging floor to support it. The inside diameter of the pipe
is 80 mm, its outside diameter is 100 mm, Y =2×1 011 Pa. A sensitive strain gauge indicates that the pipe’s
length decreases by 0.1 mm. What is the magnitude of the load the pipe supports?

The cross-sectional area of the pipe is

A=π ( R 2−r 2 )=π [ ( 0.05 m )2−( 0.04 m )2 ]=0.9 ×10−3 π m2

Here ∆ L=1× 10−4 m , so

∆L
F=YA =¿
L0
 r R

3
Example 6
By how much can a steel wire 3 m long and 2 mm in diameter be stretched before the elastic limit
exceeded? Young’s modulus for the wire is 2 ×1011 Pa. and its elastic limit is 2.5 ×108 Pa.

A=π r 2 =π ×10−6 m2

The maximum force that can be applied without exceeding the elastic limit is therefore

F=σA=( 2.5 ×10 8 m 2 ) ( π × 10−6 m 2 )=250 π N

When this force is applied, the wire will stretch by

L0 F ( 3 m ) (250 π N )
∆ L= =
YA ¿¿

Example 7
A steel cable whose cross-sectional area is 1 in. 2 is used to support an elevator cab weighing 5000 lb. If the
stress in the cable is not to exceed 20 percent of the cable’s elastic limit of 40,000 lb/in 2, find the maximum
permissible upward acceleration.

The force that corresponds to a maximum stress in the cable of (0.20)(40,000 lb/in 2) = 8000 lb/in2 is

F=σA=¿

This force is to equal the weight w of the cab plus the force ma that provides it with an upward acceleration
so that
F=w+ ma

F−w g( F−w)
a= = =¿ ¿
m w

Shear Modulus
A shear stress changes the shape of an object, not its volume. The figure below shows a rectangular block
acted by shear forces F. the shearing stress is equal to F/A, and its shearing strain is equal to the angle of
shear ∅ , express in radians. Because ∅ is always small, it is very nearly the same as the ratio s/d between
the displacement s of the block’s faces and the distance d between these faces. Below the elastic limit, then
there are two equivalent expressions for the shear modulus or (modulus of rigidity):
 F/A F/A
s= =
∅ x /d

shear stress
Shear modulus=
shear strain

Example 8
The shearing strength of a certain steel alloy is 2.5 ×108 Pa. Two 5 mm-diameter bolts of this alloy are used
to fasten a bracket to a wall. What is the maximum load the bracket can support with shearing off the bolts?

F=σA=¿

The combined load is twice this, or 9.82 kN . The corresponding mass is 1000 kg.

Example
1
How much force is required to punch a hole ½ in. in diameter in a steel sheet in thick whose shearing
8
lb
strength is 4 ×104 ?
¿2
 The shear stress is exerted over the cylindrical
surface that is the boundary of the hole. The area
of this surface is

A=2 πrh= ( 2 π ) ¿

Since the minimum shear stress needed to

rupture the steel is σ =4 ×104 lb/¿2.

The required force is

F=σA=( 4 ×10 4 lb /¿2 ) ( 0.0625 π ¿2 )

¿ 7,853.98 lb

5
Bulk Modulus
When compressive forces act over the entire surface of a body, its volume decreases. If the compressive
force per unit area F / A is uniform, the bulk modulus is given by

−F / A
B=
∆ V /V 0

−Volume stress
Bulk modulus=
volume strain

The minus sign is included because an increase in the volume stress leads to a decrease in the volume.

Volume stresses occur when objects are immersed in liquids, since liquid exerts a uniform force
perpendicular to any surface in its interior. The stress F / A exerted by a liquid is called pressure p ,

−p
B=
∆ V /V 0

Example 10
The pressure at a depth of 300 m in the ocean exceeds sea-level atmospheric pressure by 3.03kPa. By how
much does the volume of a 0.2 m3 aluminum object contract when lowered to this depth in the ocean? The
bulk modulus of aluminum is 7 ×1010 Pa.

− p V 0 −( 3.03 ×103 Pa )( 0.2 m3 ) −9 3 1000 mm

3
∆V =
B
= 10
7 ×10 Pa
=−8.66× 10 m
1 m ( )
=−8.66 mm 3
The minus sign means that the volume of the object decreases.

Example 11
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus B of a liquid is called its compressibility k , so k =1/B . The bulk modulus
of water is 2.3 ×109 Pa. (a) Find its compressibility per atmosphere of pressure, where 1 atm=1.013 ×10 5
Pa is the pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere at sea level. (b) How much pressure in atmospheres is
needed to compress a sample of water by 0.1 percent?

(a) In terms of atmospheres, the bulk modulus of water is

2.3 × 109 Pa 4
B= 5
=2.27 048 ×10 atm
1.013 ×10 Pa /atm

And so its compressibility is

1 1
k= = =4.40 ×10−5 /atm
B 2.27 048 ×10 4 atm

∆V
b ¿ Here =−0.1 percent =−0.001 . Hence the required pressureis
V0

−1 ∆ V −−0.001
p= = =22.73 atm
k V 0 4.40 ×10−5 /atm

Exercises
1. A wire 5 m long and 4 mm in diameter supports a load of 80 kg. If the wire stretches by 2.6 mm,
find the value of Young’s modulus for its material.
2. A steel wire ( Y =2.9× 107 lb/¿ 2) 6 ft long and 0.002 ¿2 in cross section supports a load of 15 lb.
(a) What is its elongation? (b) What would its elongation be if the load were be doubled to 30 lb?
3. A lead cube 20 mm on each edge is held in the jaws of a vise with a force of 3 kN. By how much is
the cube compressed? Young’s modulus for lead is 1.6 ×1010 Pa.
4. The ultimate strength in tension of a certain type of steel is 5 ×108 Pa. What is the maximum
tension a rod made of this steel and 25 mm in diameter can withstand?
5. An elevator cab weighing 3000 lb is designed for a maximum upward acceleration of 12 ft/s 2. If the
stress in its cable is not to exceed 6000 lb/in 2, what should the cable be?
6. A steel cable of cross-sectional area 2.5 cm2 supports a 1000-kg elevator. The elastic limit of the
cable is 3 ×108 Pa. If the stress in the cable is not to exceed 20 percent of the elastic limit, find the
maximum upward acceleration of the elevator.
7. Two steel beams are riveted together to form a single longer beam. Eight rivets 10 mm in diameter
are used. If a tension force of 55 kN is applied to the new beam, what is the shearing stress on the
rivets? How does this compare with their shearing strength 3.5 ×108 Pa?
8. Find the force needed to punch a hole 1 in square in a steel sheet 0.05 in thick whose shearing
strength is 5 ×10 4 lb/in2.
9. A punch press that exerts a force of 20 kN is used to punch holes 1 cm square in sheet aluminum. If
the shear strength of aluminum is 70 MPa, what is the maximum thickness of aluminum sheet that
can be used with the press?
10. When a pressure of 300 lb/in 2 is applied to a mercury sample, it contracts by 0.008 percent. Find
the bulk modulus of mercury.