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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Telecommunication</h1>
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<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-
ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt
noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transmission of information between
locations using electromagnetic technology</div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a
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title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Earth_station" class="mw-redirect"
title="Earth station">Earth station</a> at the satellite communication facility in
Raisting, Bavaria, Germany</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a
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<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>Visualization from the <a href="/wiki/Opte_Project"
title="Opte Project">Opte Project</a> of the various routes through a portion of
the Internet</div></div></div>
<p><b>Telecommunication</b> is the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Information"
title="Information">information</a> by various types of technologies over <a
href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">wire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio"
title="Radio">radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_system" class="mw-redirect"
title="Optical system">optical</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism"
title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> It has its origin in
the desire of humans for <a href="/wiki/Communication"
title="Communication">communication</a> over a distance greater than that feasible
with the <a href="/wiki/Human_voice" title="Human voice">human voice</a>, but with
a similar scale of expediency; thus, slow systems (such as <a
href="/wiki/Postal_mail" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal mail">postal mail</a>)
are excluded from the field.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Transmission_media" class="mw-redirect"
title="Transmission media">transmission media</a> in telecommunication have evolved
through numerous stages of technology, from <a href="/wiki/Beacon"
title="Beacon">beacons</a> and other visual signals (such as <a
href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">smoke signals</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Semaphore_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Semaphore line">semaphore
telegraphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Signal_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal
flag">signal flags</a>, and optical <a href="/wiki/Heliograph"
title="Heliograph">heliographs</a>), to <a href="/wiki/Electrical_cable"
title="Electrical cable">electrical cable</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic
radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Light"
title="Light">light</a>. Such transmission paths are often divided into <a
href="/wiki/Communication_channel" title="Communication channel">communication
channels</a>, which afford the advantages of <a href="/wiki/Multiplexing"
title="Multiplexing">multiplexing</a> multiple concurrent <a
href="/wiki/Session_(computer_science)" title="Session (computer
science)">communication sessions</a>. <i>Telecommunication</i> is often used in its
plural form, because it involves many different technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-3"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>Other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio
messages, such as coded <a href="/wiki/Drum_(communication)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Drum (communication)">drumbeats</a>, lung-blown <a
href="/wiki/Horn_(instrument)" title="Horn (instrument)">horns</a>, and loud <a
href="/wiki/Whistle" title="Whistle">whistles</a>. 20th- and 21st-century
technologies for long-distance communication usually involve electrical and
electromagnetic technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph"
title="Electrical telegraph">telegraph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telephone"
title="Telephone">telephone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television"
title="Television">television</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter"
title="Teleprinter">teleprinter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_network"
class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication network">networks</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microwave_transmission"
title="Microwave transmission">microwave transmission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiber-
optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">optical fiber</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications
satellite">communications satellites</a>.
</p><p>A revolution in <a href="/wiki/Wireless_communication" class="mw-redirect"
title="Wireless communication">wireless communication</a> began in the first decade
of the <a href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</a> with the
pioneering developments in <a href="/wiki/Radio_communications" class="mw-redirect"
title="Radio communications">radio communications</a> by <a
href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a>, who
won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel
Prize in Physics</a> in 1909, and other notable pioneering inventors and developers
in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications. These included <a
href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a>
and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_F.B._Morse" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel F.B.
Morse">Samuel Morse</a> (inventors of the telegraph), <a
href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham
Bell</a> (some of the inventors and developers of the telephone, see <a
href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_telephone" title="Invention of the
telephone">Invention of the telephone</a>), <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Armstrong"
class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Armstrong">Edwin Armstrong</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a> (inventors of
radio), as well as <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K.
Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John
Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo
Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a> (some of the inventors of television).
</p><p>According to <i>Article 1.3</i> of the <a href="/wiki/ITU_Radio_Regulations"
title="ITU Radio Regulations">Radio Regulations</a> (RR), telecommunication is
defined as <i>« Any <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)"
title="Transmission (telecommunications)">transmission</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Emission_(radiocommunications)" title="Emission
(radiocommunications)">emission</a> or reception of signs, signals, writings,
images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by <a href="/wiki/Wire"
title="Wire">wire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, optical or
other <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic" class="mw-redirect"
title="Electromagnetic">electromagnetic</a> systems</i>.» This definition is
identical to those contained in the Annex to the <a
href="/wiki/Constitution_and_Convention_of_the_International_Telecommunication_Unio
n" title="Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication
Union">Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication Union</a>
(Geneva, 1992).
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input
type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox"
style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-
heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel"
for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span
class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span
class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Beacons_and_pigeons"><span
class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Beacons and
pigeons</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Telegraph_and_telephone"><span
class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Telegraph and
telephone</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Radio_and_television"><span
class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Radio and
television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Thermionic_valves"><span
class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Thermionic
valves</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Semiconductor_era"><span
class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Semiconductor era</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Transistors"><span
class="tocnumber">2.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Transistors</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a
href="#Computer_networks_and_the_Internet"><span class="tocnumber">2.5.2</span>
<span class="toctext">Computer networks and the Internet</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Wireless_telecommunication"><span
class="tocnumber">2.5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Wireless
telecommunication</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Digital_media"><span
class="tocnumber">2.5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Digital media</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a
href="#Growth_of_transmission_capacity"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span
class="toctext">Growth of transmission capacity</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Technical_concepts"><span
class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Technical concepts</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Basic_elements"><span
class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Basic elements</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a
href="#Analog_versus_digital_communications"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span>
<span class="toctext">Analog versus digital communications</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Communication_channels"><span
class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Communication
channels</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Modulation"><span
class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Modulation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Telecommunication_networks"><span
class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Telecommunication
networks</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Societal_impact"><span
class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Societal impact</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Microeconomics"><span
class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Microeconomics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Macroeconomics"><span
class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Macroeconomics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Social_impact"><span
class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Social impact</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a
href="#Entertainment,_news,_and_advertising"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span>
<span class="toctext">Entertainment, news, and advertising</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Regulation"><span
class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Regulation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Modern_media"><span
class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Modern media</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Worldwide_equipment_sales"><span
class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Worldwide equipment
sales</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Telephone"><span
class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Telephone</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Radio_and_television_2"><span
class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Radio and
television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Internet"><span
class="tocnumber">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Internet</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a
href="#Local_area_networks_and_wide_area_networks"><span
class="tocnumber">6.5</span> <span class="toctext">Local area networks and wide
area networks</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#See_also"><span
class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#References"><span
class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Citations"><span
class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Bibliography"><span
class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#External_links"><span
class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section:
Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The word <i>telecommunication</i> is a compound of the Greek prefix <i>tele</i>
(τῆλε), meaning <i>distant</i>, <i>far off</i>, or <i>afar</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-4"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> and the Latin
<i>communicare</i>, meaning <i>to share</i>. Its modern use is adapted from the
French,<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-
5">[5]</a></sup> because its written use was recorded in 1904 by the French
engineer and novelist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Estauni%C3%A9" title="Édouard
Estaunié">Édouard Estaunié</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> <i>Communication</i> was first used as
an English word in the late 14th century. It comes from Old French comunicacion
(14c., Modern French communication), from Latin communicationem (nominative
communicatio), noun of action from past participle stem of communicare "to share,
divide out; communicate, impart, inform; join, unite, participate in", literally
"to make common", from communis".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section:
History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a
href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of
telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Beacons_and_pigeons">Beacons and
pigeons</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Beacons
and pigeons">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a
href="/wiki/File:OptischerTelegraf.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/170p
x-OptischerTelegraf.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/2
55px-OptischerTelegraf.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/340px-
OptischerTelegraf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:OptischerTelegraf.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>A replica of one of <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe"
title="Claude Chappe">Chappe's</a> <a href="/wiki/Semaphore_tower" class="mw-
redirect" title="Semaphore tower">semaphore towers</a></div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Homing_pigeon" title="Homing pigeon">Homing pigeons</a> have
occasionally been used throughout history by different cultures. <a
href="/wiki/Pigeon_post" title="Pigeon post">Pigeon post</a> had <a
href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> roots, and was
later used by the Romans to aid their military. <a href="/wiki/Frontinus"
title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> said that <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar"
title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> used pigeons as messengers in his conquest
of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Levi_9-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levi-9">[9]</a></sup>
The <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> also conveyed the names of the
victors at the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic
Games">Olympic Games</a> to various cities using homing pigeons.<sup id="cite_ref-
10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> In the early
19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a>
government used the system in <a href="/wiki/Java_(island)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Java (island)">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumatra"
title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. And in 1849, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Julius_Reuter"
class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Julius Reuter">Paul Julius Reuter</a> started a
pigeon service to fly stock prices between <a href="/wiki/Aachen"
title="Aachen">Aachen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brussels"
title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, a service that operated for a year until the gap in
the telegraph link was closed.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the Middle Ages, chains of <a href="/wiki/Beacon"
title="Beacon">beacons</a> were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a
signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could only pass a single bit
of information, so the meaning of the message such as "the enemy has been sighted"
had to be agreed upon in advance. One notable instance of their use was during the
<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a>, when a
beacon chain relayed a signal from <a href="/wiki/Plymouth"
title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a> to London.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1792, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude
Chappe</a>, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual <a
href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a> system (or <a
href="/wiki/Semaphore_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Semaphore line">semaphore
line</a>) between <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a> and Paris.<sup
id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers
at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres (six to nineteen miles). As a result of
competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned
in 1880.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
14">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Telegraph_and_telephone">Telegraph and
telephone</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section:
Telegraph and telephone">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>On 25 July 1837 the first commercial <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph"
title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a> was demonstrated by English
<a href="/wiki/Inventor" title="Inventor">inventor</a> <a href="/wiki/Sir"
title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Fothergill_Cooke" title="William
Fothergill Cooke">William Fothergill Cooke</a>, and English <a
href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sir"
title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles
Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> Both inventors
viewed their device as "an improvement to the [existing] electromagnetic telegraph"
not as a new device.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a>
independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he
unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837. <a href="/wiki/Morse_code"
title="Morse code">His code</a> was an important advance over Wheatstone's
signaling method. The first <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable"
title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph cable</a> was
successfully completed on 27 July 1866, allowing transatlantic telecommunication
for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>The conventional telephone was patented by <a
href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Bell</a>
in 1876. <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a> also filed
a caveat for it in 1876. Gray abandoned his caveat and because he did not contest
Bell's priority, the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had
filed his caveat for the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to
write down the idea and the first to test it in a telephone.[88]<sup id="cite_ref-
19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> <a
href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a> invented a
device that allowed the electrical transmission of voice over a line nearly thirty
years before in 1849, but his device was of little practical value because it
relied on the <a href="/wiki/Electrophonic_effect" class="mw-redirect"
title="Electrophonic effect">electrophonic effect</a> requiring users to place the
receiver in their mouths to "hear".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> The first commercial telephone services
were set-up by the Bell Telephone Company in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the
Atlantic in the cities of <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New
Haven">New Haven</a> and London.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Radio_and_television">Radio and
television</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Radio
and television">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Starting in 1894, Italian inventor <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi"
title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> began developing a wireless
communication using the then newly discovered phenomenon of <a
href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>, showing by 1901 that
they could be transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-23"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> This was the start
of <a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless
telegraphy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>. Voice and music
were demonstrated in 1900 and 1906, but had little early success.<sup
class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-
space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to
reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Millimetre_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimetre
wave">Millimetre wave</a> communication was first investigated by <a
href="/wiki/Bengalis" title="Bengalis">Bengali</a> physicist <a
href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra
Bose</a> during 1894–1896, when he reached an <a
href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">extremely
high frequency</a> of up to 60<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/GHz"
class="mw-redirect" title="GHz">GHz</a> in his experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-24"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> He also introduced
the use of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>
junctions to detect radio waves,<sup id="cite_ref-emerson_25-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emerson-25">[25]</a></sup> when he <a
href="/wiki/Patented" class="mw-redirect" title="Patented">patented</a> the radio
<a href="/wiki/Crystal_detector" title="Crystal detector">crystal detector</a> in
1901.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-timeline_26-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-computerhistory-timeline-26">[26]</a></sup><sup
id="cite_ref-computerhistory-1901_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
computerhistory-1901-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> accelerated
the development of radio for <a href="/wiki/Military_communications"
title="Military communications">military communications</a>. After the war,
commercial radio <a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM
broadcasting</a> began in the 1920s and became an important mass medium for
entertainment and news. <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War
II</a> again accelerated development of radio for the wartime purposes of aircraft
and land communication, radio navigation and radar.<sup id="cite_ref-28"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> Development of
stereo <a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a>
of radio took place from the 1930s on-wards in the United States and displaced AM
as the dominant commercial standard by the 1960s, and by the 1970s in the United
Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
29">[29]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 25 March 1925, <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie
Baird">John Logie Baird</a> was able to demonstrate the transmission of moving
pictures at the London department store <a href="/wiki/Selfridges"
title="Selfridges">Selfridges</a>. Baird's device relied upon the <a
href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">Nipkow disk</a> and thus became known
as the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_television" title="Mechanical
television">mechanical television</a>. It formed the basis of experimental
broadcasts done by the <a href="/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation" class="mw-
redirect" title="British Broadcasting Corporation">British Broadcasting
Corporation</a> beginning 30 September 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-30"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> However, for most
of the twentieth century televisions depended upon the <a
href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode
ray tube</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand
Braun">Karl Braun</a>. The first version of such a television to show promise was
produced by <a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo
Farnsworth</a> and demonstrated to his family on 7 September 1927.<sup
id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the
experiments in television that had been interrupted were resumed, and it also
became an important home entertainment broadcast medium.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Thermionic_valves">Thermionic valves</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=6"
title="Edit section: Thermionic valves">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The type of device known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Thermionic_tube" class="mw-
redirect" title="Thermionic tube">thermionic tube</a></i> or <i>thermionic
valve</i> uses the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Thermionic_emission"
title="Thermionic emission">thermionic emission</a> of electrons from a heated <a
href="/wiki/Hot_cathode" title="Hot cathode">cathode</a> and is used for a number
of fundamental electronic functions such as signal <a href="/wiki/Amplifier"
title="Amplifier">amplification</a> and current <a href="/wiki/Rectifier"
title="Rectifier">rectification</a>.
</p><p>Non-thermionic types, such as a vacuum <a href="/wiki/Phototube"
title="Phototube">phototube</a> however, achieve electron emission through the <a
href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric
effect</a>, and are used for such as the detection of light levels. In both types,
the electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the <a href="/wiki/Anode"
title="Anode">anode</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric
field">electric field</a> in the tube.
</p><p>The simplest vacuum tube, the <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>
invented in 1904 by <a href="/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose
Fleming">John Ambrose Fleming</a>, contains only a heated electron-emitting cathode
and an anode. Electrons can only flow in one direction through the device—from the
cathode to the anode. Adding one or more <a href="/wiki/Control_grid"
title="Control grid">control grids</a> within the tube allows the current between
the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids.<sup
id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
These devices became a key component of electronic circuits for the first half of
the twentieth century. They were crucial to the development of radio, television,
radar, <a href="/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction" title="Sound recording and
reproduction">sound recording and reproduction</a>, long-distance <a
href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a> networks, and analogue and
early digital <a href="/wiki/Computers" class="mw-redirect"
title="Computers">computers</a>. Although some applications had used earlier
technologies such as the <a href="/wiki/Spark_gap_transmitter" class="mw-redirect"
title="Spark gap transmitter">spark gap transmitter</a> for radio or <a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical
computers</a> for computing, it was the invention of the thermionic vacuum tube
that made these technologies widespread and practical, and created the discipline
of <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>.<sup
id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 1940s the invention of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_devices"
class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor devices">semiconductor devices</a> made it
possible to produce <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_electronics" class="mw-redirect"
title="Solid state electronics">solid-state</a> devices, which are smaller, more
efficient, reliable and durable, and cheaper than thermionic tubes. From the mid-
1960s, thermionic tubes were then being replaced with the <a
href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>. Thermionic tubes still
have some applications for certain high-frequency amplifiers.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Semiconductor_era">Semiconductor era</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=7"
title="Edit section: Semiconductor era">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The modern period of telecommunication history from 1950 onwards is referred to
as the <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> era,
due to the wide adoption of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_devices" class="mw-
redirect" title="Semiconductor devices">semiconductor devices</a> in
telecommunication technology. The development of <a href="/wiki/Transistor"
title="Transistor">transistor</a> technology and the <a
href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">semiconductor
industry</a> enabled significant advances in telecommunication technology, and led
to a transition away from state-owned <a href="/wiki/Narrowband"
title="Narrowband">narrowband</a> <a href="/wiki/Circuit-switched_network"
class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit-switched network">circuit-switched networks</a>
to private <a href="/wiki/Broadband" title="Broadband">broadband</a> <a
href="/wiki/Packet-switched_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Packet-switched
network">packet-switched networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide
%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–
semiconductor">Metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) technologies such as <a
href="/wiki/Large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale
integration">large-scale integration</a> (LSI) and <a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS"
title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a> (<a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering"
title="Radio-frequency engineering">radio-frequency</a> <a
href="/wiki/Complementary_MOS" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary
MOS">complementary MOS</a>), along with <a href="/wiki/Information_theory"
title="Information theory">information theory</a> (such as <a
href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a>), led
to a transition from analog to <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing"
title="Digital signal processing">digital signal processing</a>, with the
introduction of <a href="/wiki/Digital_telecommunications" class="mw-redirect"
title="Digital telecommunications">digital telecommunications</a> (such as <a
href="/wiki/Digital_telephony" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital
telephony">digital telephony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital
media">digital media</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Wireless_communications" class="mw-
redirect" title="Wireless communications">wireless communications</a> (such as <a
href="/wiki/Cellular_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular
networks">cellular networks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile
telephony">mobile telephony</a>), leading to rapid growth of the <a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_industry" title="Telecommunications
industry">telecommunications industry</a> towards the end of the 20th century.<sup
id="cite_ref-Srivastava_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Srivastava-
35">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Transistors">Transistors</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section:
Transistors">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>
technology has been fundamental to modern <a href="/wiki/Electronics"
title="Electronics">electronic</a> telecommunication.<sup id="cite_ref-36"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-
Lambert_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambert-
37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> The first transistor, a <a
href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-
contact transistor</a>, was invented by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John
Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter
Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs"
title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambert_37-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambert-37">[37]</a></sup> The <a
href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (metal–oxide–silicon field-effect
transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was later invented by <a
href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> at Bell Labs in
1959.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
computerhistory-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek_40-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek-40">[40]</a></sup><sup
id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_41-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-41">[41]</a></sup> The MOSFET
is the building block or "workhorse" of the <a href="/wiki/Information_revolution"
title="Information revolution">information revolution</a> and the <a
href="/wiki/Information_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Information
age">information age</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-triumph_42-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-triumph-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Raymer_43-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raymer-43">[43]</a></sup> and the
most widely manufactured device in history.<sup id="cite_ref-
computerhistory2018_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
computerhistory2018-44">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baker_45-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker-45">[45]</a></sup> <a
href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS</a> technology, including <a
href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated
circuit">MOS integrated circuits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power
MOSFET">power MOSFETs</a>, drives the <a href="/wiki/Communications_infrastructure"
class="mw-redirect" title="Communications infrastructure">communications
infrastructure</a> of modern telecommunication.<sup id="cite_ref-46"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-
47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup><sup
id="cite_ref-Whiteley_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whiteley-
48">[48]</a></sup> Along with computers, other essential elements of modern
telecommunication that are built from MOSFETs include <a href="/wiki/Mobile_device"
title="Mobile device">mobile devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transceiver"
title="Transceiver">transceivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Base_station" title="Base
station">base station</a> modules, <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router
(computing)">routers</a>, <a href="/wiki/RF_power_amplifier" title="RF power
amplifier">RF power amplifiers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Asif_49-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asif-49">[49]</a></sup> <a
href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Memory_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory chip">memory chips</a>,
and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication
circuit">telecommunication circuits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Colinge_50-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colinge-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>According <a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's
law</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal
processing)">bandwidth</a> of <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_network" class="mw-
redirect" title="Telecommunication network">telecommunication networks</a> has been
doubling every 18 months.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_51-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-Cherry-51">[51]</a></sup> Advances in MOS technology,
including <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET
scaling">MOSFET scaling</a> (increasing <a href="/wiki/Transistor_count"
title="Transistor count">transistor counts</a> at an exponential pace, as predicted
by <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>), has been
the most important contributing factor in the rapid rise of bandwidth in
telecommunications networks.<sup id="cite_ref-Jindal_52-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-Jindal-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Computer_networks_and_the_Internet">Computer
networks and the Internet</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-
editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section:
Computer networks and the Internet">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>On 11 September 1940, <a href="/wiki/George_Stibitz" title="George
Stibitz">George Stibitz</a> transmitted problems for his Complex Number Calculator
in New York using a <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teletype</a>,
and received the computed results back at <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College"
title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire"
title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> This configuration of a centralized
computer (<a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe
computer">mainframe</a>) with remote <a href="/wiki/Dumb_terminals" class="mw-
redirect" title="Dumb terminals">dumb terminals</a> remained popular well into the
1970s. However, already in the 1960s, researchers started to investigate <a
href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a>, a
technology that sends a message in portions to its destination <a
href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer
Mode">asynchronously</a> without passing it through a centralized <a
href="/wiki/Mainframe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainframe">mainframe</a>. A four-
<a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">node</a> <a
href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">network</a> emerged on 5
December 1969, constituting the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET"
title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>, which by 1981 had grown to 213 nodes.<sup
id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
ARPANET eventually merged with other networks to form the <a href="/wiki/Internet"
title="Internet">Internet</a>. While Internet development was a focus of the <a
href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task
Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF) who published a series of <a
href="/wiki/Request_for_Comment" class="mw-redirect" title="Request for
Comment">Request for Comment</a> documents, other networking advancements occurred
in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial
laboratory">industrial laboratories</a>, such as the <a
href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area network</a>
(LAN) developments of <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> (1983)
and <a href="/wiki/Token_Ring" title="Token Ring">Token Ring</a> (1984)<sup
class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-
space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to
reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Wireless_telecommunication">Wireless
telecommunication</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section:
Wireless telecommunication">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless
revolution">wireless revolution</a> began in the 1990s,<sup id="cite_ref-Golio_55-
0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golio-55">[55]</a></sup><sup
id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
56">[56]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> with the advent of digital <a
href="/wiki/Wireless_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless
networks">wireless networks</a> leading to a social revolution, and a paradigm
shift from wired to <a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a>
technology,<sup id="cite_ref-Baliga_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
Baliga-58">[58]</a></sup> including the proliferation of commercial
wireless technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Cell_phones" class="mw-redirect"
title="Cell phones">cell phones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile
telephony">mobile telephony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pagers" class="mw-redirect"
title="Pagers">pagers</a>, wireless <a href="/wiki/Computer_networks" class="mw-
redirect" title="Computer networks">computer networks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-
Golio_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golio-55">[55]</a></sup>
<a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">cellular networks</a>,
the <a href="/wiki/Wireless_Internet" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless
Internet">wireless Internet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laptop"
title="Laptop">laptop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Handheld_computers" class="mw-
redirect" title="Handheld computers">handheld computers</a> with wireless
connections.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_59-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-britannica-59">[59]</a></sup> The wireless revolution has
been driven by advances in <a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering"
title="Radio-frequency engineering">radio frequency</a> (RF) and <a
href="/wiki/Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">microwave
engineering</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Golio_55-2" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-Golio-55">[55]</a></sup> and the transition from analog to
digital RF technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Baliga_58-1" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-Baliga-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica_59-
1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-59">[59]</a></sup>
Advances in <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-
effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-
effect transistor">metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET,
or MOS transistor) technology, the key component of the RF technology that enables
digital wireless networks, has been central to this revolution,<sup id="cite_ref-
Baliga_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baliga-
58">[58]</a></sup> including MOS devices such as the <a
href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">power MOSFET</a>, <a
href="/wiki/LDMOS" title="LDMOS">LDMOS</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Baliga_58-3"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baliga-58">[58]</a></sup> and <a
href="/wiki/RF_CMOS" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Srivastava_35-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Srivastava-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Digital_media">Digital media</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=11"
title="Edit section: Digital media">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Practical <a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">digital media</a>
<a href="/wiki/Digital_distribution" title="Digital distribution">distribution</a>
and <a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a> was made
possible by advances in <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data
compression">data compression</a>, due to the impractically high memory, storage
and bandwidth requirements of uncompressed media.<sup id="cite_ref-60"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> The most important
compression technique is the <a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform"
title="Discrete cosine transform">discrete cosine transform</a> (DCT),<sup
id="cite_ref-Zhu_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhu-
61">[61]</a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Lossy_compression" title="Lossy
compression">lossy compression</a> algorithm that was first proposed as an <a
href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image compression</a>
technique in 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_62-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-Ahmed-62">[62]</a></sup> Realization and demonstration, on
29 October 2001, of the first <a href="/wiki/Digital_cinema" title="Digital
cinema">digital cinema</a> transmission by <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite"
title="Communications satellite">satellite</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe"
title="Europe">Europe</a><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-
65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> of a <a
href="/wiki/Feature_film" title="Feature film">feature film</a> by Bernard
Pauchon,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
66">[66]</a></sup> Alain Lorentz, Raymond Melwig<sup id="cite_ref-67"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> and Philippe
Binant.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
68">[68]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Growth_of_transmission_capacity">Growth of
transmission capacity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-
editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Growth
of transmission capacity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The effective capacity to exchange information worldwide through two-way
telecommunication networks grew from 281 <a href="/wiki/Petabytes" class="mw-
redirect" title="Petabytes">petabytes</a> (pB) of optimally compressed information
in 1986, to 471 pB in 1993, to 2.2 <a href="/wiki/Exabytes" class="mw-redirect"
title="Exabytes">exabytes</a> (eB) in 2000, and to 65 eB in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-
HilbertLopez2011_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-
69">[69]</a></sup> This is the informational equivalent of two newspaper
pages per person per day in 1986, and six entire newspapers per person per day by
2007.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
70">[70]</a></sup> Given this growth, telecommunications play an
increasingly important role in the world economy and the global telecommunications
industry was about a <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States
dollar">$</a>4.7 trillion sector in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-
plunkettresearch01_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch01-
71">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-plunkettresearch02_72-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch02-72">[72]</a></sup>
The service revenue of the global telecommunications industry was estimated to be
$1.5 trillion in 2010, corresponding to 2.4% of the world's <a
href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic
product</a> (GDP).<sup id="cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_71-1" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch01-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Technical_concepts">Technical
concepts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section:
Technical concepts">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Modern telecommunication is founded on a series of key concepts that experienced
progressive development and refinement in a period of well over a century.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Basic_elements">Basic elements</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=14"
title="Edit section: Basic elements">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Telecommunication technologies may primarily be divided into wired and wireless
methods. Overall though, a basic <a href="/wiki/Communication_system" class="mw-
redirect" title="Communication system">telecommunication system</a> consists of
three main parts that are always present in some form or another:
</p>
<ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a> that
takes information and converts it to a <a
href="/wiki/Signal_(electrical_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal
(electrical engineering)">signal</a>.</li>
<li>A <a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">transmission
medium</a>, also called the <i>physical channel</i> that carries the signal. An
example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication"
title="Free-space optical communication">"free space channel"</a>.</li>
<li>A <a href="/wiki/Receiver_(radio)" class="mw-redirect" title="Receiver
(radio)">receiver</a> that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back
into usable information for the recipient.</li></ul>
<p>For example, in a <a href="/wiki/Radio_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio
station">radio broadcasting station</a> the station's large <a
href="/wiki/Power_amplifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Power amplifier">power
amplifier</a> is the transmitter; and the broadcasting <a
href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antenna</a> is the interface
between the power amplifier and the "free space channel". The free space channel is
the transmission medium; and the receiver's antenna is the interface between the
free space channel and the receiver. Next, the <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver"
title="Radio receiver">radio receiver</a> is the destination of the radio signal,
and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen
to.
</p><p>Sometimes, telecommunication systems are <a
href="/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)" title="Duplex
(telecommunications)">"duplex"</a> (two-way systems) with a single box of <a
href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a> working as both the
transmitter and a receiver, or a <i>transceiver</i>. For example, a <a
href="/wiki/Cellular_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular
telephone">cellular telephone</a> is a transceiver.<sup id="cite_ref-stallings-
intro_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stallings-intro-
73">[73]</a></sup> The transmission electronics and the receiver
electronics within a transceiver are actually quite independent of each other. This
can be readily explained by the fact that radio transmitters contain power
amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured in <a href="/wiki/Watt"
title="Watt">watts</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt" class="mw-redirect"
title="Kilowatt">kilowatts</a>, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are
measured in the <a href="/wiki/Microwatt" class="mw-redirect"
title="Microwatt">microwatts</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nanowatt" class="mw-redirect"
title="Nanowatt">nanowatts</a>. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed
and built to isolate their high-power circuitry and their low-power circuitry from
each other, as to not cause interference.
</p><p>Telecommunication over fixed lines is called <a href="/wiki/Point-to-
point_communication_(telecommunications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Point-to-point
communication (telecommunications)">point-to-point communication</a> because it is
between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio
broadcasts is called <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcast
communication</a> because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous low-
power but sensitive radio receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-stallings-intro_73-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stallings-intro-73">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers
have been designed to cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called
<a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">multiplex systems</a>. The
sharing of physical channels using multiplexing often gives very large reductions
in costs. Multiplexed systems are laid out in telecommunication networks, and the
multiplexed signals are switched at nodes through to the correct destination
terminal receiver.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Analog_versus_digital_communications">Analog
versus digital communications</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-
editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Analog
versus digital communications">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Communications signals can be sent either by <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal"
title="Analog signal">analog signals</a> or <a
href="/wiki/Digital_signal_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital signal
(electronics)">digital signals</a>. There are <a href="/wiki/Analog_communication"
class="mw-redirect" title="Analog communication">analog communication</a> systems
and <a href="/wiki/Digital_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital
communication">digital communication</a> systems. For an analog signal, the signal
is varied continuously with respect to the information. In a digital signal, the
information is encoded as a set of discrete values (for example, a set of ones and
zeros). During the propagation and reception, the information contained in analog
signals will inevitably be degraded by <a href="/wiki/Noise_(signal_processing)"
title="Noise (signal processing)">undesirable physical noise</a>. (The output of a
transmitter is noise-free for all practical purposes.) Commonly, the noise in a
communication system can be expressed as adding or subtracting from the desirable
signal in a completely <a href="/wiki/Random_process" class="mw-redirect"
title="Random process">random way</a>. This form of noise is called <a
href="/wiki/Additive_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Additive noise">additive
noise</a>, with the understanding that the noise can be negative or positive at
different instants of time. Noise that is not additive noise is a much more
difficult situation to describe or analyze, and these other kinds of noise will be
omitted here.
</p><p>On the other hand, unless the additive noise disturbance exceeds a certain
threshold, the information contained in digital signals will remain intact. Their
resistance to noise represents a key advantage of digital signals over analog
signals.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
74">[74]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Communication_channels">Communication
channels</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section:
Communication channels">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the
physical medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver.
Examples of this include the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere"
title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> for sound communications, glass <a
href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fibers</a> for some kinds
of <a href="/wiki/Optical_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical
communications">optical communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable"
title="Coaxial cable">coaxial cables</a> for communications by way of the voltages
and electric currents in them, and <a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication"
title="Free-space optical communication">free space</a> for communications using <a
href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible
light</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared waves</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet
light">ultraviolet light</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio
wave">radio waves</a>. Coaxial cable types are classified by RG type or "radio
guide", terminology derived from World War II. The various RG designations are used
to classify the specific signal transmission applications.<sup id="cite_ref-75"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> This last channel
is called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to
another has nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the
two. Radio waves travel through a perfect <a href="/wiki/Vacuum"
title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds,
or any other kind of gas.
</p><p>The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the
phrase <a href="/wiki/Channel_(communications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel
(communications)">communications channel</a>, which is a subdivision of a
transmission medium so that it can be used to send multiple streams of information
simultaneously. For example, one radio station can broadcast radio waves into free
space at frequencies in the neighborhood of 94.5 <a href="/wiki/MHz"
class="mw-redirect" title="MHz">MHz</a> (megahertz) while another radio station can
simultaneously broadcast radio waves at frequencies in the neighborhood of
96.1 MHz. Each radio station would transmit radio waves over a frequency <a
href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal
processing)">bandwidth</a> of about 180 <a href="/wiki/KHz" class="mw-
redirect" title="KHz">kHz</a> (kilohertz), centered at frequencies such as the
above, which are called the <a href="/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier
wave">"carrier frequencies"</a>. Each station in this example is separated from its
adjacent stations by 200 kHz, and the difference between 200 kHz and
180 kHz (20 kHz) is an engineering allowance for the imperfections in the
communication system.
</p><p>In the example above, the "free space channel" has been divided into
communications channels according to <a href="/wiki/Frequency"
title="Frequency">frequencies</a>, and each channel is assigned a separate
frequency bandwidth in which to broadcast radio waves. This system of dividing the
medium into channels according to frequency is called "<a href="/wiki/Frequency-
division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">frequency-division
multiplexing</a>". Another term for the same concept is "<a
href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division
multiplexing">wavelength-division multiplexing</a>", which is more commonly used in
optical communications when multiple transmitters share the same physical medium.
</p><p>Another way of dividing a communications medium into channels is to allocate
each sender a recurring segment of time (a "time slot", for example, 20 <a
href="/wiki/Milliseconds" class="mw-redirect" title="Milliseconds">milliseconds</a>
out of each second), and to allow each sender to send messages only within its own
time slot. This method of dividing the medium into communication channels is called
"<a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division
multiplexing">time-division multiplexing</a>" (<b>TDM</b>), and is used in optical
fiber communication. Some radio communication systems use TDM within an allocated
FDM channel. Hence, these systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modulation">Modulation</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section:
Modulation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as <a
href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a>. Modulation can be used
to represent a digital message as an analog waveform. This is commonly called <a
href="/wiki/Keying_(telecommunications)" title="Keying
(telecommunications)">"keying"</a>—a term derived from the older use of Morse Code
in telecommunications—and several keying techniques exist (these include <a
href="/wiki/Phase-shift_keying" title="Phase-shift keying">phase-shift keying</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying" title="Frequency-shift keying">frequency-
shift keying</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amplitude-shift_keying" title="Amplitude-shift
keying">amplitude-shift keying</a>). The "<a href="/wiki/Bluetooth"
title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a>" system, for example, uses phase-shift keying to
exchange information between various devices.<sup id="cite_ref-76"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-
77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> In addition,
there are combinations of phase-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying which is
called (in the jargon of the field) "<a
href="/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation" title="Quadrature amplitude
modulation">quadrature amplitude modulation</a>" (QAM) that are used in high-
capacity digital radio communication systems.
</p><p>Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency
analog signals at higher frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analog
signals cannot be effectively transmitted over free space. Hence the information
from a low-frequency analog signal must be impressed into a higher-frequency signal
(known as the "<a href="/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave">carrier wave</a>")
before transmission. There are several different modulation schemes available to
achieve this [two of the most basic being <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation"
title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> (AM) and <a
href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency
modulation</a> (FM)]. An example of this process is a disc jockey's voice being
impressed into a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation (the voice
would then be received on a radio as the channel "96 FM").<sup id="cite_ref-
78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> In addition,
modulation has the advantage that it may use frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Telecommunication_networks">Telecommunication
networks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section:
Telecommunication networks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications
network">telecommunications network</a> is a collection of transmitters, receivers,
and <a href="/wiki/Communications_channel" class="mw-redirect"
title="Communications channel">communications channels</a> that send messages to
one another. Some digital communications networks contain one or more <a
href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a> that work
together to transmit information to the correct user. An analog communications
network consists of one or more <a href="/wiki/Telephone_switch" class="mw-
redirect" title="Telephone switch">switches</a> that establish a connection between
two or more users. For both types of network, <a href="/wiki/Repeater"
title="Repeater">repeaters</a> may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal
when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat <a
href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a> that can render the
signal indistinguishable from the noise.<sup id="cite_ref-glossary_79-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glossary-79">[79]</a></sup>
Another advantage of digital systems over analog is that their output is easier to
store in memory, i.e. two voltage states (high and low) are easier to store than a
continuous range of states.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Societal_impact">Societal impact</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=19"
title="Edit section: Societal impact">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Telecommunication has a significant social, cultural and economic impact on
modern society. In 2008, estimates placed the <a
href="/wiki/Telecommunication_industry" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunication industry">telecommunication industry</a>'s revenue at
US$4.7 trillion or just under three percent of the <a
href="/wiki/Gross_world_product" title="Gross world product">gross world
product</a> (official exchange rate).<sup id="cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_71-2"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch01-71">[71]</a></sup>
Several following sections discuss the impact of telecommunication on society.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=20"
title="Edit section: Microeconomics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>On the <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomic</a>
scale, companies have used telecommunications to help build global business
empires. This is self-evident in the case of online retailer <a
href="/wiki/Amazon.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon.com">Amazon.com</a> but,
according to academic Edward Lenert, even the conventional retailer <a
href="/wiki/Walmart" title="Walmart">Walmart</a> has benefited from better
telecommunication infrastructure compared to its competitors.<sup id="cite_ref-80"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> In cities
throughout the world, home owners use their telephones to order and arrange a
variety of home services ranging from pizza deliveries to electricians. Even
relatively poor communities have been noted to use telecommunication to their
advantage. In <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>'s <a
href="/wiki/Narsingdi_District" title="Narsingdi District">Narsingdi District</a>,
isolated villagers use cellular phones to speak directly to wholesalers and arrange
a better price for their goods. In <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory
Coast">Côte d'Ivoire</a>, coffee growers share mobile phones to follow hourly
variations in coffee prices and sell at the best price.<sup id="cite_ref-81"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=21"
title="Edit section: Macroeconomics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>On the macroeconomic scale, Lars-Hendrik Röller and <a
href="/wiki/Leonard_Waverman" title="Leonard Waverman">Leonard Waverman</a>
suggested a causal link between good telecommunication infrastructure and economic
growth.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
82">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> Few dispute the existence of a
correlation although some argue it is wrong to view the relationship as causal.<sup
id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because of the economic benefits of good telecommunication infrastructure,
there is increasing worry about the inequitable access to telecommunication
services amongst various countries of the world—this is known as the <a
href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">digital divide</a>. A 2003
survey by the <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union"
title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication
Union</a> (ITU) revealed that roughly a third of countries have fewer than one
mobile subscription for every 20 people and one-third of countries have fewer than
one land-line telephone subscription for every 20 people. In terms of Internet
access, roughly half of all countries have fewer than one out of 20 people with
Internet access. From this information, as well as educational data, the ITU was
able to compile an index that measures the overall ability of citizens to access
and use information and communication technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-85"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> Using this
measure, Sweden, Denmark and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>
received the highest ranking while the African countries Nigeria, Burkina Faso and
Mali received the lowest.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_impact">Social impact</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=22"
title="Edit section: Social impact">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Telecommunication has played a significant role in social relationships.
Nevertheless, devices like the telephone system were originally advertised with an
emphasis on the practical dimensions of the device (such as the ability to conduct
business or order home services) as opposed to the social dimensions. It was not
until the late 1920s and 1930s that the social dimensions of the device became a
prominent theme in telephone advertisements. New promotions started appealing to
consumers' emotions, stressing the importance of social conversations and staying
connected to family and friends.<sup id="cite_ref-fischer_87-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fischer-87">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>Since then the role that telecommunications has played in social relations
has become increasingly important. In recent years, the popularity of <a
href="/wiki/Social_networking_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking
site">social networking sites</a> has increased dramatically. These sites allow
users to communicate with each other as well as post photographs, events and
profiles for others to see. The profiles can list a person's age, interests, sexual
preference and relationship status. In this way, these sites can play important
role in everything from organising social engagements to <a href="/wiki/Courtship"
title="Courtship">courtship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p><p>Prior to social networking sites, technologies like <a
href="/wiki/Short_message_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Short message
service">short message service</a> (SMS) and the telephone also had a significant
impact on social interactions. In 2000, market research group <a
href="/wiki/Ipsos_MORI" title="Ipsos MORI">Ipsos MORI</a> reported that 81% of 15-
to 24-year-old SMS users in the United Kingdom had used the service to coordinate
social arrangements and 42% to flirt.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Entertainment.2C_news.2C_and_advertising"></span><span class="mw-
headline" id="Entertainment,_news,_and_advertising">Entertainment, news, and
advertising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section:
Entertainment, news, and advertising">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 5px;">
<caption>News source preference of Americans in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-90"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<td>Local TV</td>
<td>59%
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>National TV</td>
<td>47%
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Radio</td>
<td>44%
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Local paper</td>
<td>38%
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Internet</td>
<td>23%
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>National paper</td>
<td>12%
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small>Survey permitted multiple answers</small>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>In cultural terms, telecommunication has increased the public's ability to
access music and film. With television, people can watch films they have not seen
before in their own home without having to travel to the video store or cinema.
With radio and the Internet, people can listen to music they have not heard before
without having to travel to the music store.
</p><p>Telecommunication has also transformed the way people receive their news. A
2006 survey (right table) of slightly more than 3,000 Americans by the non-profit
Pew Internet and American Life Project in the United States the majority specified
television or radio over newspapers.
</p><p>Telecommunication has had an equally significant impact on advertising. <a
href="/wiki/TNS_Media_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="TNS Media
Intelligence">TNS Media Intelligence</a> reported that in 2007, 58% of advertising
expenditure in the United States was spent on media that depend upon
telecommunication.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
91">[91]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption>Advertising expenditures in US in 2007
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Medium</th>
<th></th>
<th>Spending
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Internet</td>
<td>7.6%</td>
<td>$11.31 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Radio</td>
<td>7.2%</td>
<td>$10.69 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Cable TV</td>
<td>12.1%</td>
<td>$18.02 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Syndicated TV</td>
<td>2.8%</td>
<td>$4.17 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Spot TV</td>
<td>11.3%</td>
<td>$16.82 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Network TV</td>
<td>17.1%</td>
<td>$25.42 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Newspaper</td>
<td>18.9%</td>
<td>$28.22 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Magazine</td>
<td>20.4%</td>
<td>$30.33 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Outdoor</td>
<td>2.7%</td>
<td>$4.02 billion
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Total</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>$149 billion
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Regulation">Regulation</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section:
Regulation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Many countries have enacted legislation which conforms to the <i>International
Telecommunication Regulations</i> established by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is the "leading UN agency for information and
communication technology issues".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> In 1947, at the Atlantic City
Conference, the ITU decided to "afford international protection to all frequencies
registered in a new international frequency list and used in conformity with the
Radio Regulation". According to the ITU's <i>Radio Regulations</i> adopted in
Atlantic City, all frequencies referenced in the <i>International Frequency
Registration Board</i>, examined by the board and registered on the
<i>International Frequency List</i> "shall have the right to international
protection from harmful interference".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>From a global perspective, there have been political debates and legislation
regarding the management of telecommunication and broadcasting. The <a
href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">history of
broadcasting</a> discusses some debates in relation to balancing conventional
communication such as printing and telecommunication such as radio
broadcasting.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
Wood-94">[94]</a></sup> The onset of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II"
title="World War II">World War II</a> brought on the first explosion of
international broadcasting propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_94-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-94">[94]</a></sup> Countries,
their governments, insurgents, terrorists, and militiamen have all used
telecommunication and broadcasting techniques to promote <a href="/wiki/Propaganda"
title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_94-2" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-Wood-94">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garfield_95-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garfield-95">[95]</a></sup> Patriotic
propaganda for political movements and colonization started the mid-1930s. In 1936,
the BBC broadcast propaganda to the Arab World to partly counter similar broadcasts
from Italy, which also had colonial interests in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-
Wood_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>Modern insurgents, such as those in the latest <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War"
title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a>, often use intimidating telephone calls, SMSs and the
distribution of sophisticated videos of an attack on coalition troops within hours
of the operation. "The Sunni insurgents even have their own television station, <a
href="/wiki/Al-Zawraa_TV" title="Al-Zawraa TV">Al-Zawraa</a>, which while banned by
the Iraqi government, still broadcasts from <a href="/wiki/Erbil"
title="Erbil">Erbil</a>, Iraqi Kurdistan, even as coalition pressure has forced it
to switch satellite hosts several times."<sup id="cite_ref-Garfield_95-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garfield-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 10 November 2014, <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack
Obama">President Obama</a> recommended the <a
href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications
Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> reclassify <a
href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">broadband Internet service</a>
as a <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> service to preserve <a
href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a>.<sup
id="cite_ref-NYT-20141110-EW_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-
20141110-EW-96">[96]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20141114_97-0"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141114-97">[97]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_media">Modern media</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Modern
media">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Worldwide_equipment_sales">Worldwide equipment
sales</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section:
Worldwide equipment sales">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>According to data collected by Gartner<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> and Ars
Technica<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
100">[100]</a></sup> sales of main consumer's telecommunication equipment
worldwide in millions of units was:
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Equipment / year</th>
<th>1975</th>
<th>1980</th>
<th>1985</th>
<th>1990</th>
<th>1994</th>
<th>1996</th>
<th>1998</th>
<th>2000</th>
<th>2002</th>
<th>2004</th>
<th>2006</th>
<th>2008
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Computers</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>8</td>
<td>20</td>
<td>40</td>
<td>75</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>135</td>
<td>130</td>
<td>175</td>
<td>230</td>
<td>280
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Cell phones</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>180</td>
<td>400</td>
<td>420</td>
<td>660</td>
<td>830</td>
<td>1000
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Telephone">Telephone</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section:
Telephone">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a
href="/wiki/File:Fibreoptic.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/170px-
Fibreoptic.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/255px-
Fibreoptic.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/340px-
Fibreoptic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="529" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Fibreoptic.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber"
title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a> provides cheaper bandwidth for long
distance communication.</div></div></div>
<p>In a <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a> network, the
caller is connected to the person to whom they wish to talk by switches at various
<a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone
exchanges">telephone exchanges</a>. The switches form an electrical connection
between the two users and the setting of these switches is determined
electronically when the caller <a href="/wiki/Pulse_dialing" title="Pulse
dialing">dials</a> the number. Once the connection is made, the caller's voice is
transformed to an electrical signal using a small <a href="/wiki/Microphone"
title="Microphone">microphone</a> in the caller's <a href="/wiki/Handset"
title="Handset">handset</a>. This electrical signal is then sent through the
network to the user at the other end where it is transformed back into sound by a
small <a href="/wiki/Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">speaker</a> in that person's
handset.
</p><p>As of 2015, the landline telephones in most residential homes are analog—
that is, the speaker's voice directly determines the signal's voltage.<sup
id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
101">[101]</a></sup> Although short-distance calls may be handled from end-
to-end as analog signals, increasingly telephone service providers are
transparently converting the signals to digital signals for transmission. The
advantage of this is that digitized voice data can travel side-by-side with data
from the Internet and can be perfectly reproduced in long distance communication
(as opposed to analog signals that are inevitably impacted by noise).
</p><p>Mobile phones have had a significant impact on telephone networks. Mobile
phone subscriptions now outnumber fixed-line subscriptions in many markets. Sales
of mobile phones in 2005 totalled 816.6 million with that figure being almost
equally shared amongst the markets of Asia/Pacific (204 m), Western Europe (164 m),
CEMEA (Central Europe, the Middle East and Africa) (153.5 m), North America (148 m)
and Latin America (102 m).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> In terms of new subscriptions over
the five years from 1999, Africa has outpaced other markets with 58.2% growth.<sup
id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
103">[103]</a></sup> Increasingly these phones are being serviced by
systems where the voice content is transmitted digitally such as <a
href="/wiki/GSM" title="GSM">GSM</a> or <a href="/wiki/W-CDMA" class="mw-redirect"
title="W-CDMA">W-CDMA</a> with many markets choosing to deprecate analog systems
such as <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System" title="Advanced Mobile Phone
System">AMPS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
104">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>There have also been dramatic changes in telephone communication behind the
scenes. Starting with the operation of <a href="/wiki/TAT-8" title="TAT-8">TAT-
8</a> in 1988, the 1990s saw the widespread adoption of systems based on optical
fibers. The benefit of communicating with optical fibers is that they offer a
drastic increase in data capacity. TAT-8 itself was able to carry 10 times as many
telephone calls as the last copper cable laid at that time and today's optical
fibre cables are able to carry 25 times as many telephone calls as TAT-8.<sup
id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
105">[105]</a></sup> This increase in data capacity is due to several
factors: First, optical fibres are physically much smaller than competing
technologies. Second, they do not suffer from <a
href="/wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crosstalk
(electronics)">crosstalk</a> which means several hundred of them can be easily
bundled together in a single cable.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> Lastly, improvements in multiplexing
have led to an exponential growth in the data capacity of a single fibre.<sup
id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
107">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup>
</p><p>Assisting communication across many modern optical fibre networks is a
protocol known as <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous
Transfer Mode">Asynchronous Transfer Mode</a> (ATM). The ATM protocol allows for
the side-by-side <a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" title="Data transmission">data
transmission</a> mentioned in the second paragraph. It is suitable for public
telephone networks because it establishes a pathway for data through the network
and associates a <a href="/wiki/Traffic_contract" title="Traffic contract">traffic
contract</a> with that pathway. The traffic contract is essentially an agreement
between the client and the network about how the network is to handle the data; if
the network cannot meet the conditions of the traffic contract it does not accept
the connection. This is important because telephone calls can negotiate a contract
so as to guarantee themselves a constant bit rate, something that will ensure a
caller's voice is not delayed in parts or cut off completely.<sup id="cite_ref-109"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> There are
competitors to ATM, such as <a href="/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching"
title="Multiprotocol Label Switching">Multiprotocol Label Switching</a> (MPLS),
that perform a similar task and are expected to supplant ATM in the future.<sup
id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
110">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Radio_and_television_2">Radio and
television</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Radio
and television">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a
href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television"
title="Television">Television</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting"
title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a
href="/wiki/File:Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg" class="image"><img
alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Digital_terrestrial_televi
sion_standards.svg/300px-Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg.png"
decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Digital_terrestrial_tel
evision_standards.svg/450px-Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg.png
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Digital_terrestrial_television_
standards.svg/600px-Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg.png 2x" data-file-
width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div
class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Digital_television"
title="Digital television">Digital television</a> standards and their adoption
worldwide</div></div></div>
<p>In a broadcast system, the central high-powered <a
href="/wiki/Radio_masts_and_towers" title="Radio masts and towers">broadcast
tower</a> transmits a high-frequency <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave"
class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic wave</a> to
numerous low-powered receivers. The high-frequency wave sent by the tower is
modulated with a signal containing visual or audio information. The receiver is
then <a href="/wiki/Antenna_tuner" title="Antenna tuner">tuned</a> so as to pick up
the high-frequency wave and a <a href="/wiki/Demodulator" class="mw-redirect"
title="Demodulator">demodulator</a> is used to retrieve the signal containing the
visual or audio information. The broadcast signal can be either analog (signal is
varied continuously with respect to the information) or digital (information is
encoded as a set of discrete values).<sup id="cite_ref-stallings-intro_73-2"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stallings-intro-
73">[73]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_media_industry" class="mw-redirect"
title="Broadcast media industry">broadcast media industry</a> is at a critical
turning point in its development, with many countries moving from analog to digital
broadcasts. This move is made possible by the production of cheaper, faster and
more capable <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated
circuit">integrated circuits</a>. The chief advantage of digital broadcasts is that
they prevent a number of complaints common to traditional analog broadcasts. For
television, this includes the elimination of problems such as <a
href="/wiki/Noise_(video)" title="Noise (video)">snowy pictures</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Television_interference_(ghosting)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Television interference (ghosting)">ghosting</a> and other distortion. These
occur because of the nature of analog transmission, which means that perturbations
due to noise will be evident in the final output. Digital transmission overcomes
this problem because digital signals are reduced to discrete values upon reception
and hence small perturbations do not affect the final output. In a simplified
example, if a binary message 1011 was transmitted with signal amplitudes [1.0 0.0
1.0 1.0] and received with signal amplitudes [0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9] it would still
decode to the binary message 1011— a perfect reproduction of what was sent. From
this example, a problem with digital transmissions can also be seen in that if the
noise is great enough it can significantly alter the decoded message. Using <a
href="/wiki/Forward_error_correction" class="mw-redirect" title="Forward error
correction">forward error correction</a> a receiver can correct a handful of bit
errors in the resulting message but too much noise will lead to incomprehensible
output and hence a breakdown of the transmission.<sup id="cite_ref-113"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup><sup
id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
114">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>In digital television broadcasting, there are three competing standards that
are likely to be adopted worldwide. These are the <a href="/wiki/ATSC_Standards"
class="mw-redirect" title="ATSC Standards">ATSC</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Digital_Video_Broadcasting" title="Digital Video Broadcasting">DVB</a>
and <a href="/wiki/ISDB" title="ISDB">ISDB</a> standards; the adoption of these
standards thus far is presented in the captioned map. All three standards use <a
href="/wiki/MPEG-2" title="MPEG-2">MPEG-2</a> for video compression. ATSC uses <a
href="/wiki/Dolby_Digital" title="Dolby Digital">Dolby Digital AC-3</a> for audio
compression, ISDB uses <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="Advanced Audio
Coding">Advanced Audio Coding</a> (MPEG-2 Part 7) and DVB has no standard for audio
compression but typically uses <a href="/wiki/MPEG-1" title="MPEG-1">MPEG-1 Part 3
Layer 2</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> The choice of modulation also varies
between the schemes. In digital audio broadcasting, standards are much more unified
with practically all countries choosing to adopt the <a
href="/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">Digital
Audio Broadcasting</a> standard (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Eureka_147"
class="mw-redirect" title="Eureka 147">Eureka 147</a> standard). The exception is
the United States which has chosen to adopt <a href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD
Radio">HD Radio</a>. HD Radio, unlike Eureka 147, is based upon a transmission
method known as <a href="/wiki/In-band_on-channel" title="In-band on-channel">in-
band on-channel</a> transmission that allows digital information to "piggyback" on
normal AM or FM analog transmissions.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, despite the pending switch to digital, analog television remains
being transmitted in most countries. An exception is the United States that ended
analog television transmission (by all but the very low-power TV stations) on 12
June 2009<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
118">[118]</a></sup> after twice delaying the switchover deadline. Kenya
also ended analog television transmission in December 2014 after multiple delays.
For analog television, there were three standards in use for broadcasting color TV
(see a map on adoption <a href="/wiki/File:NTSC-PAL-SECAM.png" title="File:NTSC-
PAL-SECAM.png">here</a>). These are known as <a href="/wiki/PAL"
title="PAL">PAL</a> (German designed), <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a>
(American designed), and <a href="/wiki/SECAM" title="SECAM">SECAM</a> (French
designed). For analog radio, the switch to digital radio is made more difficult by
the higher cost of digital receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup> The choice of modulation for analog
radio is typically between amplitude (<b>AM</b>) or frequency modulation
(<b>FM</b>). To achieve <a href="/wiki/Stereophonic_sound" title="Stereophonic
sound">stereo playback</a>, an amplitude modulated subcarrier is used for <a
href="/wiki/Stereo_FM" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereo FM">stereo FM</a>, and
quadrature amplitude modulation is used for stereo AM or <a href="/wiki/C-QUAM"
title="C-QUAM">C-QUAM</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Internet">Internet</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section:
Internet">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a
href="/wiki/File:OSI_Model_v1.svg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OSI_Model_v1.svg/260px-
OSI_Model_v1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="306" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OSI_Model_v1.svg/390px-
OSI_Model_v1.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OSI_Model_v1.svg/520px-
OSI_Model_v1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="560" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:OSI_Model_v1.svg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/OSI_reference_model"
class="mw-redirect" title="OSI reference model">OSI reference
model</a></div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> is a worldwide
network of computers and computer networks that communicate with each other using
the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet
Protocol</a> (IP).<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
120">[120]</a></sup> Any computer on the Internet has a unique <a
href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> that can be used by other
computers to route information to it. Hence, any computer on the Internet can send
a message to any other computer using its IP address. These messages carry with
them the originating computer's IP address allowing for two-way communication. The
Internet is thus an exchange of messages between computers.<sup id="cite_ref-121"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>It is estimated that 51% of the information flowing through two-way
telecommunications networks in the year 2000 were flowing through the Internet
(most of the rest (42%) through the <a href="/wiki/Landline_telephone" class="mw-
redirect" title="Landline telephone">landline telephone</a>). By the year 2007 the
Internet clearly dominated and captured 97% of all the information in
telecommunication networks (most of the rest (2%) through <a
href="/wiki/Mobile_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile phones">mobile
phones</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_69-1" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-69">[69]</a></sup> As of 2008<sup
class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a
class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, an estimated
21.9% of the world population has access to the Internet with the highest access
rates (measured as a percentage of the population) in North America (73.6%),
Oceania/Australia (59.5%) and Europe (48.1%).<sup id="cite_ref-122"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> In terms of <a
href="/wiki/Broadband_Internet_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadband
Internet access">broadband access</a>, Iceland (26.7%), South Korea (25.4%) and the
Netherlands (25.3%) led the world.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Internet works in part because of <a
href="/wiki/Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications
protocol">protocols</a> that govern how the computers and routers communicate with
each other. The nature of computer network communication lends itself to a layered
approach where individual protocols in the protocol stack run more-or-less
independently of other protocols. This allows lower-level protocols to be
customized for the network situation while not changing the way higher-level
protocols operate. A practical example of why this is important is because it
allows an <a href="/wiki/Internet_browser" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet
browser">Internet browser</a> to run the same code regardless of whether the
computer it is running on is connected to the Internet through an Ethernet or <a
href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a> connection. Protocols are often talked
about in terms of their place in the OSI reference model (pictured on the right),
which emerged in 1983 as the first step in an unsuccessful attempt to build a
universally adopted networking protocol suite.<sup id="cite_ref-124"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p>For the Internet, the physical medium and data link protocol can vary
several times as packets traverse the globe. This is because the Internet places no
constraints on what physical medium or data link protocol is used. This leads to
the adoption of media and protocols that best suit the local network situation. In
practice, most intercontinental communication will use the Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM) protocol (or a modern equivalent) on top of optic fiber. This is because
for most intercontinental communication the Internet shares the same infrastructure
as the public switched telephone network.
</p><p>At the network layer, things become standardized with the Internet Protocol
(IP) being adopted for <a href="/wiki/Logical_address" title="Logical
address">logical addressing</a>. For the World Wide Web, these "IP addresses" are
derived from the human readable form using the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System"
title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a> (e.g. 72.14.207.99 is derived
from www.google.com). At the moment, the most widely used version of the Internet
Protocol is version four but a move to version six is imminent.<sup id="cite_ref-
125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the transport layer, most communication adopts either the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) or the <a href="/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User
Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP). TCP is used when it is
essential every message sent is received by the other computer whereas UDP is used
when it is merely desirable. With TCP, packets are retransmitted if they are lost
and placed in order before they are presented to higher layers. With UDP, packets
are not ordered nor retransmitted if lost. Both TCP and UDP packets carry <a
href="/wiki/TCP_and_UDP_port" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP and UDP port">port
numbers</a> with them to specify what application or <a
href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process</a> the packet
should be handled by.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
126">[126]</a></sup> Because certain application-level protocols use <a
href="/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers" title="List of TCP and UDP port
numbers">certain ports</a>, network administrators can manipulate traffic to suit
particular requirements. Examples are to restrict Internet access by blocking the
traffic destined for a particular port or to affect the performance of certain
applications by assigning <a href="/wiki/WAN_optimization" title="WAN
optimization">priority</a>.
</p><p>Above the transport layer, there are certain protocols that are sometimes
used and loosely fit in the session and presentation layers, most notably the <a
href="/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Secure Sockets
Layer">Secure Sockets Layer</a> (SSL) and <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"
title="Transport Layer Security">Transport Layer Security</a> (TLS) protocols.
These protocols ensure that data transferred between two parties remains completely
confidential.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
127">[127]</a></sup> Finally, at the application layer, are many of the
protocols Internet users would be familiar with such as <a href="/wiki/HTTP"
class="mw-redirect" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> (web browsing), <a href="/wiki/POP3"
class="mw-redirect" title="POP3">POP3</a> (e-mail), <a
href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">FTP</a> (file
transfer), <a href="/wiki/IRC" class="mw-redirect" title="IRC">IRC</a> (Internet
chat), <a href="/wiki/BitTorrent_(protocol)" class="mw-redirect" title="BitTorrent
(protocol)">BitTorrent</a> (file sharing) and <a href="/wiki/XMPP"
title="XMPP">XMPP</a> (instant messaging).
</p><p><a href="/wiki/VoIP" class="mw-redirect" title="VoIP">Voice over Internet
Protocol</a> (VoIP) allows data packets to be used for <a href="/wiki/Synchronous"
class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronous">synchronous</a> voice communications. The
data packets are marked as voice type packets and can be prioritized by the network
administrators so that the real-time, synchronous conversation is less subject to
contention with other types of data traffic which can be delayed (i.e. file
transfer or email) or buffered in advance (i.e. audio and video) without detriment.
That prioritization is fine when the network has sufficient capacity for all the
VoIP calls taking place at the same time and the network is enabled for
prioritization i.e. a private corporate style network, but the Internet is not
generally managed in this way and so there can be a big difference in the quality
of VoIP calls over a private network and over the public Internet.<sup
id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
128">[128]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Local_area_networks_and_wide_area_networks">Local
area networks and wide area networks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span
class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Local
area networks and wide area networks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Despite the growth of the Internet, the characteristics of <a
href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a>
(LANs)—computer networks that do not extend beyond a few kilometers—remain
distinct. This is because networks on this scale do not require all the features
associated with larger networks and are often more cost-effective and efficient
without them. When they are not connected with the Internet, they also have the
advantages of privacy and security. However, purposefully lacking a direct
connection to the Internet does not provide assured protection from hackers,
military forces, or economic powers. These threats exist if there are any methods
for connecting remotely to the LAN.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">Wide area
networks</a> (WANs) are private computer networks that may extend for thousands of
kilometers. Once again, some of their advantages include privacy and security.
Prime users of private LANs and WANs include armed forces and intelligence agencies
that must keep their information secure and secret.
</p><p>In the mid-1980s, several sets of communication protocols emerged to fill
the gaps between the data-link layer and the application layer of the <a
href="/wiki/OSI_reference_model" class="mw-redirect" title="OSI reference
model">OSI reference model</a>. These included <a href="/wiki/Appletalk" class="mw-
redirect" title="Appletalk">Appletalk</a>, <a href="/wiki/IPX" class="mw-redirect"
title="IPX">IPX</a>, and <a href="/wiki/NetBIOS" title="NetBIOS">NetBIOS</a> with
the dominant protocol set during the early 1990s being IPX due to its popularity
with <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a> users. <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP"
class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> existed at this point, but it was
typically only used by large government and research facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-
129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the Internet grew in popularity and its traffic was required to be routed
into private networks, the TCP/IP protocols replaced existing local area network
technologies. Additional technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/DHCP" class="mw-
redirect" title="DHCP">DHCP</a>, allowed TCP/IP-based computers to self-configure
in the network. Such functions also existed in the AppleTalk/ IPX/ NetBIOS protocol
sets.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
130">[130]</a></sup>
</p><p>Whereas Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or Multiprotocol Label Switching
(MPLS) are typical data-link protocols for larger networks such as WANs; Ethernet
and Token Ring are typical data-link protocols for LANs. These protocols differ
from the former protocols in that they are simpler, e.g., they omit features such
as <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">quality of
service</a> guarantees, and offer <a
href="/wiki/Carrier_sense_multiple_access_with_collision_detection" class="mw-
redirect" title="Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection">collision
prevention</a>. Both of these differences allow for more economical systems.<sup
id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
131">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite the modest popularity of Token Ring in the 1980s and 1990s,
virtually all LANs now use either wired or wireless Ethernet facilities. At the
physical layer, most wired Ethernet implementations use <a
href="/wiki/Twisted_pair" title="Twisted pair">copper twisted-pair cables</a>
(including the common <a href="/wiki/10BASE-T" class="mw-redirect" title="10BASE-
T">10BASE-T</a> networks). However, some early implementations used heavier coaxial
cables and some recent implementations (especially high-speed ones) use optical
fibers.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
132">[132]</a></sup> When optic fibers are used, the distinction must be
made between multimode fibers and single-mode fibers. <a href="/wiki/Multi-
mode_optical_fiber" title="Multi-mode optical fiber">Multimode fibers</a> can be
thought of as thicker optical fibers that are cheaper to manufacture devices for,
but that suffers from less usable bandwidth and worse attenuation—implying poorer
long-distance performance.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See
also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r936637989">.mw-parser-output
.portal{border:solid #aaa 1px;padding:0}.mw-parser-output
.portal.tleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output
.portal.tright{margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output
.portal>ul{display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-
width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-
style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li{display:table-
row}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li>span:first-child{display:table-
cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output
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0.3em;vertical-align:middle}</style><div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"
class="noprint portal plainlist tright">
<ul>
<li><span><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/28px-
Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/42px-
Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/56px-Telecom-
icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span><span><a
href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect"
title="Portal:Telecommunications">Telecommunications
portal</a></span></li></ul></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r998391716">.mw-parser-output .div-
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break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"
style="column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Active
networks">Active networks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" title="Digital Revolution">Digital
Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information
Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Teletraffic_Congress" title="International
Teletraffic Congress">International Teletraffic Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_encryption_terms" title="List of
telecommunications encryption terms">List of telecommunications encryption
terms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nanonetwork" title="Nanonetwork">Nanonetwork</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of
telecommunication">Outline of telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_Industry_Association"
title="Telecommunications Industry Association">Telecommunications Industry
Association</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecoms_resilience" title="Telecoms resilience">Telecoms
resilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">Telemetry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division
multiplexing">Wavelength-division multiplexing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wired_communication" title="Wired communication">Wired
communication</a></li></ul></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section:
References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section:
Citations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-
deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-
style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output
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gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6
5/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-
limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation
.cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration
a{background:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d
6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-
subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription
a{background:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a
a/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px
dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4
c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output
code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-
parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-
wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output
.cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-
selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow"
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s/oth/02/02/S02020000244501PDFE.PDF">"Article 1.3"</a> <span class="cs1-
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constitution and Convention of the
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3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-
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20505-0&rft.aulast=Huurdeman&rft.aufirst=Anton+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSnjGRDVIUL4C%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-
style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
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class="Z3988"></span></span>
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Telecommunication&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition
%2Fenglish%2Ftelecommunication%3Fview%3Duk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Marie Dilhac, <a
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-
style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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9&rft.aulast=Blechman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F
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%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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2273&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID
%3A9039614%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F1997imsd.conf..553E&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary
%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.39.8748%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1109%2FMWSYM.1997.602853&rft.isbn=9780986488511&rft.aulast=Emerson&am
p;rft.aufirst=D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid
%3D09Zsv97IH1MC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span> reprinted in Igor Grigorov, Ed., <i><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=09Zsv97IH1MC">Antentop</a></i>, Vol. 2, No.3, pp. 87–96.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-computerhistory-timeline-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a
href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-timeline_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span
class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/timeline/">"Timeline"</a>.
<i>The Silicon Engine</i>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer
History Museum">Computer History Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">.
Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=T
imeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Ftimeline
%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-computerhistory-1901-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a
href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-1901_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-
text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/semiconductor-rectifiers-
patented-as-cats-whisker-detectors/">"1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as
"Cat's Whisker" Detectors"</a>. <i>The Silicon Engine</i>. <a
href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer
History Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span
class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=1
901%3A+Semiconductor+Rectifiers+Patented+as+%22Cat%27s+Whisker
%22+Detectors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine
%2Fsemiconductor-rectifiers-patented-as-cats-whisker-detectors%2F&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, Jr., R.J. (2011).
Crystal Clear: The Struggle for Reliable Communications Technology in World War II,
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Théberge, P., Devine, K. &
Everrett, T. (2015). Living Stereo: Histories and Cultures of Multichannel Sound.
New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?
content=http://www.mztv.com/pioneers.html">The Pioneers</a> <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130514070220/http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?
content=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.mztv.com%2Fpioneers.html">Archived</a> 14 May 2013 at the
<a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, MZTV
Museum of Television, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text"
href="http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html">Philo
Farnsworth</a>, Neil Postman, <a href="/wiki/TIME_Magazine" class="mw-redirect"
title="TIME Magazine">TIME Magazine</a>, 29 March 1999</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHoddeson"
class="citation web cs1">Hoddeson, L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/events/vacuumt.html">"The Vacuum
Tube"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415063342/http://www.pbs.org/transistor/scie
nce/events/vacuumt.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2012<span
class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span>
2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Vacuum+Tube&rft.pub=PBS&rf
t.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.pbs.org
%2Ftransistor%2Fscience%2Fevents%2Fvacuumt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFMackseyWoodhouse1991" class="citation book cs1">Macksey, Kenneth;
Woodhouse, William (1991). "Electronics". <i>The Penguin Encyclopedia of Modern
Warfare: 1850 to the present day</i>. Viking. p. 110. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-82698-8"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-82698-8"><bdi>978-0-670-82698-8</bdi></a>.
<q>The electronics age may be said to have been ushered in with the invention of
the vacuum diode valve in 1902 by the Briton John Fleming (himself coining the word
'electronics'), the immediate application being in the field of
radio.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electronics&rft.btitle=The+Pengui
n+Encyclopedia+of+Modern+Warfare
%3A+1850+to+the+present+day&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1991&
amp;rft.isbn=978-0-670-82698-
8&rft.aulast=Macksey&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft.au=Woodhouse
%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFHuurdeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=SnjGRDVIUL4C&pg=PA363"><i>The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect"
title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. pp. 363–8. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471205050"
title="Special:BookSources/9780471205050"><bdi>9780471205050</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Worldwide+History+of+Telecommunicatio
ns&rft.pages=363-8&rft.pub=John+Wiley+
%26+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780471205050&rft.aulast=Huurdeman&
rft.aufirst=Anton+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid
%3DSnjGRDVIUL4C%26pg%3DPA363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Srivastava-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Srivastava_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-
Srivastava_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-
text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSrivastavaSingh2013"
class="citation book cs1">Srivastava, Viranjay M.; Singh, Ghanshyam (2013). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw
Radio-Frequency Switch</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media"
class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science
& Business Media</a>. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319011653"
title="Special:BookSources/9783319011653"><bdi>9783319011653</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MOSFET+Technologies+for+Double-Pole+Four-
Throw+Radio-Frequency+Switch&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Springer+Science+
%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9783319011653&rft.aulast=Sriv
astava&rft.aufirst=Viranjay+M.&rft.au=Singh%2C+Ghanshyam&rft_id=https
%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfkO9BAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFJakubowskiŁukasiak2010" class="citation journal cs1">Jakubowski, A.;
Łukasiak, L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-article-BATA-
0008-0020">"History of Semiconductors"</a>. <i>Journal of Telecommunications and
Information Technology</i>. <b>nr 1</b>: 3–9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Telecommunications+and+I
nformation+Technology&rft.atitle=History+of+Semiconductors&rft.volume=nr+1&
amp;rft.pages=3-
9&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Jakubowski&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=
%C5%81ukasiak%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fyadda.icm.edu.pl%2Fbaztech%2Felement
%2Fbwmeta1.element.baztech-article-BATA-0008-0020&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lambert-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-
Lambert_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lambert_37-
1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFLambertPooleWoodfordMoschovitis2005" class="citation book cs1">Lambert,
Laura; Poole, Hilary W.; Woodford, Chris; Moschovitis, Christos J. P. (2005). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qi-
ItIG6QLwC&pg=RA2-PA16"><i>The Internet: A Historical Encyclopedia</i></a>. <a
href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>.
p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851096596"
title="Special:BookSources/9781851096596"><bdi>9781851096596</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet
%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=ABC-
CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781851096596&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.au
first=Laura&rft.au=Poole%2C+Hilary+W.&rft.au=Woodford
%2C+Chris&rft.au=Moschovitis%2C+Christos+J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqi-ItIG6QLwC%26pg%3DRA2-PA16&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFGaudin2007" class="citation news cs1">Gaudin, Sharon (12 December 2007).
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.computerworld.com/article/2538123/the-transistor--the-most-
important-invention-of-the-20th-century-.html?page=2">"The transistor: The most
important invention of the 20th century?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computerworld"
title="Computerworld">Computerworld</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">.
Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=The+tr
ansistor%3A+The+most+important+invention+of+the+20th+century%3F&rft.date=2007-
12-12&rft.aulast=Gaudin&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2538123%2Fthe-transistor--the-most-important-
invention-of-the-20th-century-.html%3Fpage%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-computerhistory-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a
href="#cite_ref-computerhistory_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-
text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-
transistor-demonstrated/">"1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor
Demonstrated"</a>. <i>The Silicon Engine</i>. <a
href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer
History Museum</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=1
960+-+Metal+Oxide+Semiconductor+%28MOS%29+Transistor+Demonstrated&rft_id=https
%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fmetal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-
transistor-demonstrated%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lojek-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Lojek_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFLojek2007" class="citation book cs1">Lojek, Bo (2007). <i>History of
Semiconductor Engineering</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media"
class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science
& Business Media</a>. pp. 321–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540342588"
title="Special:BookSources/9783540342588"><bdi>9783540342588</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Semiconductor+Engineering&
rft.pages=321-3&rft.pub=Springer+Science+
%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9783540342588&rft.aulast=Loje
k&rft.aufirst=Bo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-41"><span class="mw-cite-
backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_41-0">^</a></b></span>
<span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-
transistor/">"Who Invented the Transistor?"</a>. <i><a
href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer
History Museum</a></i>. 4 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">.
Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.ati
tle=Who+Invented+the+Transistor%3F&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fatchm%2Fwho-invented-the-transistor%2F&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-triumph-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
triumph_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw">"Triumph of the MOS
Transistor"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. <a
href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer
History Museum</a>. 6 August 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved
<span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Triumph+of+t
he+MOS+Transistor&rft.date=2010-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.youtube.com
%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dq6fBEjf9WPw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Raymer-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Raymer_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFRaymer2009" class="citation book cs1">Raymer, Michael G. (2009). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=PLYChGDqa6EC&pg=PA365"><i>The Silicon Web: Physics for the Internet
Age</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>.
p. 365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439803127"
title="Special:BookSources/9781439803127"><bdi>9781439803127</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silicon+Web
%3A+Physics+for+the+Internet+Age&rft.pages=365&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.da
te=2009&rft.isbn=9781439803127&rft.aulast=Raymer&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.
&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPLYChGDqa6EC%26pg
%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-computerhistory2018-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a
href="#cite_ref-computerhistory2018_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-
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data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow"
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in-history/">"13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most
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%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.ati
tle=13+Sextillion+%26+Counting%3A+The+Long+
%26+Winding+Road+to+the+Most+Frequently+Manufactured+Human+Artifact+in+History&
rft.date=2018-04-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fatchm%2F13-
sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-
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%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Baker-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Baker_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
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1118038239</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CMOS
%3A+Circuit+Design%2C+Layout
%2C+and+Simulation&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=John+Wiley+
%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-
1118038239&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=R.+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkxYhNrOKuJQC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFFossumTrivedi2013" class="citation book cs1">Fossum, Jerry G.; Trivedi,
Vishal P. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107434493"
title="Special:BookSources/9781107434493"><bdi>9781107434493</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Ultra-Thin-
Body+MOSFETs+and+FinFETs&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&a
mp;rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781107434493&rft.aulast=Fossum&rft.aufirst=J
erry+G.&rft.au=Trivedi%2C+Vishal+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com
%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzZJfAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFOmuraMallikMatsuo2017" class="citation book cs1">Omura, Yasuhisa;
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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yOjFDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53"><i>MOS Devices
for Low-Voltage and Low-Energy Applications</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_
%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley &
Sons</a>. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119107354"
title="Special:BookSources/9781119107354"><bdi>9781119107354</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MOS+Devices+for+Low-Voltage+and+Low-
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%26+Sons&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781119107354&rft.aulast=Omura&rft.
aufirst=Yasuhisa&rft.au=Mallik%2C+Abhijit&rft.au=Matsuo
%2C+Naoto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyOjFDQAAQBAJ
%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Whiteley-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a
href="#cite_ref-Whiteley_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFWhiteleyMcLaughlin2002" class="citation book cs1">Whiteley, Carol;
McLaughlin, John Robert (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x9koAQAAIAAJ"><i>Technology, Entrepreneurs,
and Silicon Valley</i></a>. Institute for the History of Technology. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780964921719"
title="Special:BookSources/9780964921719"><bdi>9780964921719</bdi></a>. <q>These
active electronic components, or power semiconductor products, from Siliconix are
used to switch and convert power in a wide range of systems, from portable
information appliances to the communications infrastructure that enable the
Internet. The company's power MOSFETs — tiny solid-state switches, or metal oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistors — and power integrated circuits are widely
used in cell phones and notebook computers to manage battery power
efficiently</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology
%2C+Entrepreneurs
%2C+and+Silicon+Valley&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+History+of+Technology&rft.
date=2002&rft.isbn=9780964921719&rft.aulast=Whiteley&rft.aufirst=Carol&
amp;rft.au=McLaughlin%2C+John+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com
%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx9koAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Asif-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Asif_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
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id="CITEREFAsif2018" class="citation book cs1">Asif, Saad (2018). <a rel="nofollow"
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Technologies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>.
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(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429881343"
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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=5G+Mobile+Communications
%3A+Concepts+and+Technologies&rft.pages=128-
134&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780429881343&rft.aula
st=Asif&rft.aufirst=Saad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid
%3Dyg1mDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Colinge-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Colinge_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
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id="CITEREFColingeGreer2016" class="citation book cs1">Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer,
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href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University
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class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
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title="Special:BookSources/9781107052406"><bdi>9781107052406</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanowire+Transistors
%3A+Physics+of+Devices+and+Materials+in+One+Dimension&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=C
ambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781107052406&rft.aula
st=Colinge&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft.au=Greer
%2C+James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvjUCwAAQBAJ
%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cherry-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Cherry_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
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id="CITEREFCherry2004" class="citation journal cs1">Cherry, Steven (2004).
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<a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID
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%27s+law+of+bandwidth&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=58-
60&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1109%2FMSPEC.2004.1309810&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org
%2FCorpusID%3A27580722%23id-name
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<li id="cite_note-Jindal-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Jindal_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
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id="CITEREFJindal2009" class="citation journal cs1">Jindal, R. P. (2009). <a
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%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=2009+2nd+International+Workshop+on+
Electron+Devices+and+Semiconductor+Technology&rft.atitle=From+millibits+to+tera
bits+per+second+and+beyond+-+Over+60+years+of+innovation&rft.pages=1-
6&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID
%3A25112828%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1109%2FEDST.2009.5166093&rft.isbn=978-1-4244-3831-
0&rft.aulast=Jindal&rft.aufirst=R.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fevents.vtools.ieee.org%2Fm%2F195547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.kerryr.net/pioneers/stibitz.htm">George Stibitz</a>, Kerry
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
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8&rft.aulast=Hafner&rft.aufirst=Katie&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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<li id="cite_note-Golio-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-
Golio_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Golio_55-
1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Golio_55-
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%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMCj9jxSVQKIC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
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2-71&rft.date=1991-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi
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%3A46573735%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rappaport&rft.aufirst=T.
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class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation news
cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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reless+revolution&rft.date=1999-01-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fleaders%2F1999%2F01%2F21%2Fthe-wireless-
revolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Baliga-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-
Baliga_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baliga_58-
1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baliga_58-
2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baliga_58-
3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFBaliga2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga"
title="B. Jayant Baliga">Baliga, B. Jayant</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow"
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id=StJpDQAAQBAJ"><i>Silicon RF Power MOSFETS</i></a>. <a
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title="Special:BookSources/9789812561213"><bdi>9789812561213</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Silicon+RF+Power+MOSFETS&rft.pub=Worl
d+Scientific&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9789812561213&rft.aulast=Baliga&
;rft.aufirst=B.+Jayant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid
%3DStJpDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-britannica-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-britannica_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-
britannica_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-
text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2003" class="citation web
cs1">Harvey, Fiona (8 May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wireless-Revolution-The-879379">"The
Wireless Revolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-
redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a></i><span
class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span>
2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.ati
tle=The+Wireless+Revolution&rft.date=2003-05-
08&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FWireless-Revolution-The-879379&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLee2005"
class="citation book cs1">Lee, Jack (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7fuvu52cyNEC&pg=PA25"><i>Scalable
Continuous Media Streaming Systems: Architecture, Design, Analysis and
Implementation</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect"
title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 25. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470857649"
title="Special:BookSources/9780470857649"><bdi>9780470857649</bdi></a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scalable+Continuous+Media+Streaming+Syste
ms%3A+Architecture%2C+Design
%2C+Analysis+and+Implementation&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=John+Wiley+
%26+Sons&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780470857649&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.au
first=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7fuvu52cyNEC
%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Zhu-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Zhu_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFCe2010"
class="citation book cs1">Ce, Zhu (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cb4dWYVJ_8AC&pg=PA26"><i>Streaming
Media Architectures, Techniques, and Applications: Recent Advances: Recent
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class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Streaming+Media+Architectures
%2C+Techniques%2C+and+Applications%3A+Recent+Advances
%3A+Recent+Advances&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=IGI+Global&rft.date=2010&r
ft.isbn=9781616928339&rft.aulast=Ce&rft.aufirst=Zhu&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCb4dWYVJ_8AC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ahmed-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Ahmed_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFAhmed1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/N._Ahmed"
class="mw-redirect" title="N. Ahmed">Ahmed, Nasir</a> (January 1991). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/52879771/DCT-
History-How-I-Came-Up-with-the-Discrete-Cosine-Transform">"How I came up with the
discrete cosine transform"</a>. <i>Digital Signal Processing</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 4–
5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi
(identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F1051-2004%2891%2990086-Z">10.1016/1051-
2004(91)90086-Z</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Digital+Signal+Processing&rft.a
title=How+I+came+up+with+the+discrete+cosine+transform&rft.volume=1&rft.iss
ue=1&rft.pages=4-5&rft.date=1991-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F1051-
2004%2891%2990086-Z&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Nasir&rft_id=https%3A
%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F52879771%2FDCT-History-How-I-Came-Up-with-the-
Discrete-Cosine-Transform&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/France_T%C3%A9l
%C3%A9com" class="mw-redirect" title="France Télécom">France Télécom</a>,
Commission Supérieure Technique de l'Image et du Son, <i>Communiqué de presse</i>,
Paris, 29 October 2001.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text"
href="http://www.passeursdimages.fr/IMG/pdf/projections13.pdf">«Numérique : le
cinéma en mutation», <i>Projections</i>, <b>13</b>, CNC, Paris, September 2004, p.
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=JhLwPrW8pggC&printsec=frontcover&dq=olivier+bomsel+mines&hl=fr&s
a=X&ei=hKGhUqllpOzSBdulgcgL&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=olivier
%20bomsel%20mines&f=false">Olivier Bomsel, Gilles Le Blanc, <i>Dernier tango
argentique. Le cinéma face à la numérisation</i>, Ecole des Mines de Paris, 2002,
p. 12.</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/Veronica-45205-france-telecom-
DIGITAL-CINEMA-global-leaderin-professional-broadcastingand-Education-ppt-
powerpoint/">Bernard Pauchon, <i>France Telecom and digital cinema</i>, ShowEast,
2001, p. 10.</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="https://books.google.fr/books?
id=drqODwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Critical+Space+Infrastructures&h
l=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd2LGj9sLhAhXKxYUKHb_aCogQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=Cri
tical%20Space%20Infrastructures&f=false">Alexandru Georgescu (et al.),
<i>Critical Space Infrastructures. Risk, Resilience and Complexity</i>, Springer,
2019, p. 48.</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.01net.com/article/181540.html"><i>Première numérique pour le
cinéma français</i>, 01net, 2002.</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span
class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/332/6025/60">"The World’s Technological
Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information"</a>, Martin Hilbert and
Priscila López (2011), <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science
(journal)">Science</a>, 332(6025), 60–65; free access to the study through here:
martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://ideas.economist.com/video/giant-sifting-sound-0">"video
animation The Economist"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118072720/http://ideas.economist.com/video/g
iant-sifting-sound-0">Archived</a> 18 January 2012 at the <a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-plunkettresearch01-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span>
<span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.plunkettresearch.com/Telecommunications/TelecommunicationsStatisti
cs/tabid/96/Default.aspx">Worldwide Telecommunications Industry Revenues</a> <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100328045302/http://www.plunkettresearch.com/Te
lecommunications/TelecommunicationsStatistics/tabid/96/Default.aspx">Archived</a>
28 March 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Internet Engineering Task Force, June 2010.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-plunkettresearch02-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a
href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch02_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-
text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.plunkettresearch.com/telecommunications-market-research/industry-
and-business-data/statistics">Introduction to the Telecommunications Industry</a>,
Internet Engineering Task Force, June 2012.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-stallings-intro-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-stallings-intro_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-stallings-intro_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-stallings-intro_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span
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data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHaykin2001" class="citation book
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href="https://archive.org/details/communicationsy000simo"><i>Communication
Systems</i></a></span> (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. <a
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href="https://archive.org/details/communicationsy000simo/page/n21">1</a>–3. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-17869-9"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-17869-9"><bdi>978-0-471-17869-
9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+Systems&rft.pages=1-
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%26+Sons&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-471-17869-
9&rft.aulast=Haykin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org
%2Fdetails%2Fcommunicationsy000simo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFAmbardar1999" class="citation book cs1">Ambardar, Ashok (1999). <span
class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow"
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href="https://archive.org/details/analogdigitalsig00amba/page/1"><i>Analog and
Digital Signal Processing</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Brooks/Cole Publishing
Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/analogdigitalsig00amba/page/1">1–2</a>. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-95409-3"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-95409-3"><bdi>978-0-534-95409-
3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analog+and+Digital+Signal+Processing&
rft.pages=1-2&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brooks
%2FCole+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-534-95409-
3&rft.aulast=Ambardar&rft.aufirst=Ashok&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanalogdigitalsig00amba%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation news
cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.conwire.com/coax-
cable-rg-cable-blog">"Coax Cable FAQ Series: What is RG Cable? – Conwire"</a>.
<i>Conwire</i>. 12 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span
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2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conwire&rft.atitle=Coax+Cable+F
AQ+Series%3A+What+is+RG+Cable%3F+%E2%80%93+Conwire&rft.date=2016-01-
12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.conwire.com%2Fcoax-cable-rg-cable-
blog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haykin, pp. 344–403.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text"
href="http://www.bluetooth.org/foundry/adopters/document/Core_v2.0_EDR/en/1/Core_v2
.0_EDR.zip">Bluetooth Specification Version 2.0 + EDR</a> (p. 27), Bluetooth,
2004.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haykin, pp. 88–126.</span>
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href="#cite_ref-glossary_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atis.org/tg2k/">ATIS Telecom
Glossary 2000</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080302071329/http://www.atis.org/tg2k/">Archive
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<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
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href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-2466.1998.tb02767.x">10.1111/j.1460-
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2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=3-23&rft.date=1998-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi
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2466.1998.tb02767.x&rft.aulast=Lenert&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
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/3426">Archived</a> 24 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Victor and Irene Mbarika, <a
href="/wiki/IEEE_Spectrum" title="IEEE Spectrum">IEEE Spectrum</a>, May
2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.amta.org.au/default.asp?Page=142">Ten Years
of GSM in Australia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080720110058/http://www.amta.org.au/default.asp
?Page=142">Archived</a> 20 July 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Australia Telecommunications
Association, 2003.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.att.com/history/milestones.html">Milestones
in AT&T History</a>, AT&T Knowledge Ventures, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/S.Bhatti/D51-
notes/node21.html">Optical fibre waveguide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060524033058/http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/S.Bh
atti/D51-notes/node21.html">Archived</a> 24 May 2006 at the <a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Saleem
Bhatti, 1995.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/mels/cm1500/dwdm/dwdm_ovr.pdf
">Fundamentals of DWDM Technology</a>, CISCO Systems, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.lightreading.com/document.asp?
doc_id=31358">Report: DWDM No Match for Sonet</a>, Mary Jander, Light Reading,
2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFStallings2004" class="citation book cs1">Stallings, William (2004).
<span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/datacomputercomm00stal_1"><i>Data and Computer
Communications</i></a></span> (7th intl ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/datacomputercomm00stal_1/page/337">337–66</a>. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-183311-1"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-183311-1"><bdi>978-0-13-183311-
1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+and+Computer+Communications&rft.
pages=337-
66&rft.edition=7th+intl&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&
;rft.isbn=978-0-13-183311-
1&rft.aulast=Stallings&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdatacomputercomm00stal_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2002/0812edit.html">MPLS is the
future, but ATM hangs on</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070706034545/http://www.networkworld.com/column
ists/2002/0812edit.html">Archived</a> 6 July 2007 at the <a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, John Dix,
Network World, 2002</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLazar2011"
class="citation news cs1">Lazar, Irwin (22 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.telarus.com/industry/the-wan-road-ahead:-
ethernet-or-bust.html">"The WAN Road Ahead: Ethernet or Bust?"</a>. <i>Telecom
Industry Updates</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span
class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Telecom+Industry+Updates&rft.at
itle=The+WAN+Road+Ahead%3A+Ethernet+or+Bust%3F&rft.date=2011-02-
22&rft.aulast=Lazar&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fwww.telarus.com%2Findustry%2Fthe-wan-road-ahead%3A-ethernet-or-
bust.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm">How Radio
Works</a>, HowStuffWorks.com, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.digitaltv.com.au/">Digital Television in
Australia</a>, Digital Television News Australia, 2001.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFStallings2004" class="citation book cs1">Stallings, William (2004).
<span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/datacomputercomm00stal_1"><i>Data and Computer
Communications</i></a></span> (7th intl ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-183311-1"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-183311-1"><bdi>978-0-13-183311-
1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+and+Computer+Communications&rft.
edition=7th+intl&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9
78-0-13-183311-1&rft.aulast=Stallings&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https
%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdatacomputercomm00stal_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.dynamix.ca/doc/HDVhandbook1.pdf">HDV
Technology Handbook</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060623142640/http://www.dynamix.ca/doc/HDVhandb
ook1.pdf">Archived</a> 23 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sony"
title="Sony">Sony</a>, 2004.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.dvb.org/technology/standards_specifications/audio/">Audio</a>,
Digital Video Broadcasting Project, 2003.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.worlddab.org/cstatus.aspx">Status of DAB
(US)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060721060832/http://www.worlddab.org/cstatus.as
px">Archived</a> 21 July 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, World DAB Forum, March 2005.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFBrian_Stelter2009" class="citation news cs1">Brian Stelter (13 June
2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/14/business/media/14digital.html?
_r=2&hp">"Changeover to Digital TV Off to a Smooth Start"</a>. <i>New York
Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chang
eover+to+Digital+TV+Off+to+a+Smooth+Start&rft.date=2009-06-
13&rft.au=Brian+Stelter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.nytimes.com
%2F2009%2F06%2F14%2Fbusiness%2Fmedia%2F14digital.html%3F_r%3D2%26hp&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.worlddab.org/dabprod.aspx">DAB Products</a>
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060621082027/http://www.worlddab.org/dabprod.as
px">Archived</a> 21 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, World DAB Forum, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert E. Kahn and Vinton G.
Cerf, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.cnri.reston.va.us/what_is_internet.html">What Is The Internet (And
What Makes It Work)</a>, December 1999. (specifically see footnote xv)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFJeff_Tyson2007" class="citation web cs1">Jeff Tyson (2007). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm">"How Internet
Infrastructure Works"</a>. <i>Computer.HowStuffWorks.com</i>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer.HowStuffWorks.com&rft.
atitle=How+Internet+Infrastructure+Works&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Jeff+Tyson&am
p;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fcomputer.howstuffworks.com%2Finternet-
infrastructure.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm">World
Internet Users and Population Stats</a>, internetworldstats.com, 19 March
2007.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.oecd.org/document/39/0,2340,en_2649_34225_36459431_1_1_1_1,00.html
">OECD Broadband Statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-
operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development</a>, December 2005.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_HistoryoftheOSIReferenceModel.htm">History
of the OSI Reference Model</a>, The TCP/IP Guide v3.0, Charles M. Kozierok,
2005.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.microsoft.com/technet/itsolutions/network/ipv6/introipv6.mspx">In
troduction to IPv6</a>, Microsoft Corporation, February 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stallings, pp. 683–702.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Dierks and C. Allen, The TLS
Protocol Version 1.0, <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" rel="nofollow"
href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2246">RFC 2246</a>, 1999.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFMultimedia2011" class="citation web cs1">Multimedia, Crucible (7 May
2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.telecomsadvice.org.uk/infosheets/voip_voice_over_internet_protocol
_and_internet_telephony.htm">"VoIP, Voice over Internet Protocol and Internet
telephone calls"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=VoIP
%2C+Voice+over+Internet+Protocol+and+Internet+telephone+calls&rft.date=2011-05-
07&rft.aulast=Multimedia&rft.aufirst=Crucible&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fwww.telecomsadvice.org.uk%2Finfosheets
%2Fvoip_voice_over_internet_protocol_and_internet_telephony.htm&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunication" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, Michael (2000).
<i>Understanding the Network</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.informit.com/content/images/0735709777/samplechapter/0735709777.pd
f">The Networker's Guide to AppleTalk, IPX, and NetBIOS</a>), SAMS Publishing,
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7357-0977-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7357-
0977-7">0-7357-0977-7</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ralph Droms, <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.dhcp.org/">Resources for DHCP</a> <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070704061131/http://www.dhcp.org/">Archived</a>
4 July 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback
Machine</a>, November 2003.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stallings, pp. 500–26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stallings, pp. 514–16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="http://www.arcelect.com/fibercable.htm">Fiber Optic
Cable Tutorial</a>, Arc Electronics. Retrieved June 2007.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section:
Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Goggin" title="Gerard Goggin">Goggin, Gerard</a>,
<i>Global Mobile Media</i> (New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 176. <link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46918-0"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46918-0">978-0-415-46918-0</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development"
class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development">OECD</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=WpmzcqmgMbAC&dq=universal+service+and+rate+restructuring+in+telecommunicatio
ns&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=S2USGNAune&sig=Alh7pDRwI3Rk4iY
VYuMq9rZlIZc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPP1,
M1"><i>Universal Service and Rate Restructuring in Telecommunications</i></a>,
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Publishing, 1991.
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-64-13497-2" title="Special:BookSources/92-64-
13497-2">92-64-13497-2</a>.</li>
<li>Wheen, Andrew. <i>Dot-Dash to Dot.Com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved
from the Telegraph to the Internet</i> (Springer, 2011).</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunication&action=edit&section=35"
title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox"
style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-
logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-
Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-
logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-
height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw"
title="commons:Category:Telecommunications"><span
style="">Telecommunications</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itc-
conference.org/">International Teletraffic Congress</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itu.int">International
Telecommunication Union (ITU)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080302071329/http://www.atis.org/tg2k/">ATIS
Telecom Glossary</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fcc.gov/">Federal
Communications Commission</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.comsoc.org/">IEEE
Communications Society</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.itu.int/home/">International Telecommunication Union</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040413074912/http://www.ericsson.com/support/te
lecom/index.shtml">Ericsson's Understanding Telecommunications</a> at the <a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 
(archived 13 April 2004) (Ericsson removed the book from their site in September
2005)</li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications"
title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of
broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable
protection system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications
satellite">Communications satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer
network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding
format">audio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine
transform">DCT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding
format">video</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet
video</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online
video platform</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming
media">streaming</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in
communication">Drums</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical
telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system"
title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information
Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" title="Information
revolution">Information revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the
Internet">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile
phones">Mobile phone</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical
telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical
telegraphy">Optical telegraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid
mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications
satellite">Satellite communications</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor
device">device</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the
transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of
telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the
telephone">Telephone</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The
Telephone Cases</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of
television">Television</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital
television">digital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming
television">streaming</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a
href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cab
les" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of
videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled
language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless
revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9"
style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Telecom-
icon.svg" class="image"><img alt="Telecom-icon.svg"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/65px-
Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="65" height="65"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/98px-
Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/130px-Telecom-
icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"
/></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/N._Ahmed" class="mw-redirect" title="N. Ahmed">Nasir
Ahmed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin
Howard Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M.
Atalla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie
Baird</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander
Graham Bell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-
Lee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(telephone)" title="Francis Blake
(telephone)">Francis Blake (telephone)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish
Chandra Bose</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles
Bourseul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter
Houser Brattain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen
Dalal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo
Farnsworth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald
Fessenden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver
Heaviside</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna
Schneider Hoover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins
(physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene
Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet
pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder
Singh Kapany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo
Manzetti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo
Marconi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert
Metcalfe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi
Nishizawa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles
Grafton Page</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich
Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Puskas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tivadar
Puskas">Tivadar Puskas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp
Reis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Strowger" class="mw-redirect" title="Almon Strowger">Almon
Strowger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry
Sutton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles
Sumner Tainter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Augustus_Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas
Augustus Watson">Thomas Augustus Watson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles
Wheatstone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K.
Zworykin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br
/>media</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic
communication">Fiber-optic communication</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical
fiber</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical
communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular
communication">Molecular communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission
line</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data_transmission_circuit" title="Data transmission
circuit">data transmission circuit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication
circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br
/>and switching</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth
(computing)">Bandwidth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications
link">Links</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal
(telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit
switching">circuit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet
switching">packet</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone
exchange</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td
class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-
left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division
multiple access">Space-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division
multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division
multiplexing">Time-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division
multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular
momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple
access">Code-division</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocols" class="mw-redirect"
title="Communication protocols">Communication protocols</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer
network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" title="Data transmission">Data
transmission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and
forward</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications
equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of
network</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular
network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" title="Integrated Services
Digital Network">ISDN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation
network">NGN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched
telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Television
network">Television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless
network</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable
networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-
left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations
(by regions)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa"
title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_the_Americas"
title="Category:Telecommunications in the Americas">Americas</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America"
title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America"
title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica"
title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia"
title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe"
title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania"
title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li></ul>
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href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications"
title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li>
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href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of
telecommunication">Outline</a></li>
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puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a
href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication"
title="Portal:Telecommunication">Portal</a></li>
<li><img alt="Commons page"
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logo.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16"
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logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-
height="1376" /> <a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw"
title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul>
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<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communication_studies"
style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed
navbox-inner" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col"
class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-
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title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td
class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div id="*_History_*_Outline">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication_studies" title="History of
communication studies">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of
communication">Outline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div
style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Topics and<br />
terminology</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication
(science)">Biocommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated
communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of
communication">History of communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural
communication">Intercultural</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal
communication">Interpersonal</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal
communication">Intrapersonal communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models
of communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal
communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation
theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3"
style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a
href="/wiki/File:Encoding_communication.jpg" class="image" title="Encoding
communication"><img alt="Encoding communication"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg
/120px-Encoding_communication.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.
jpg/180px-Encoding_communication.jpg 1.5x,
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x-Encoding_communication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="345"
/></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication
design">Communication design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural
communication">Cross-cultural communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development
communication">Development communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse
analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental
communication">Environmental communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global
communication">Global communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_communication" title="International
communication">International communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-
border communication">Mediated cross-border communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational
communication">Organizational communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political
communication">Political communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk
communication">Risk communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical
communication">Technical communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop
communication">Closed-loop communication</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher
(professor)">Fisher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y
Gasset">Gasset</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence
Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_B._Lippman" title="Andrew B. Lippman">Lippman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders
Peirce">Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard
Jr.">Tankard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li><img alt="Category"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-
Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16"
height="14"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24
px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x,
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Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a
href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication
studies">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="Telecommunications_by_region" style="padding:3px"><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col"
class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div
id="Telecommunications_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em">Telecommunications by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-
list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;font-size:114%"><div
style="padding:0px">
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-
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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-
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id="Telecommunications_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em">Telecommunications in Africa</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-
left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in
Algeria">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Angola" title="Telecommunications in
Angola">Angola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Benin" title="Telecommunications in
Benin">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Botswana" title="Telecommunications in
Botswana">Botswana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Telecommunications in
Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burundi" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Burundi">Burundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon" title="Telecommunications in
Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cape_Verde" title="Telecommunications in
Cape Verde">Cape Verde (Cabo Verde)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic"
title="Telecommunications in the Central African Republic">Central African
Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chad" title="Telecommunications in
Chad">Chad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Comoros" title="Telecommunications in
the Comoros">Comoros</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo"
title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic
Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo"
title="Telecommunications in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the
Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Djibouti" title="Telecommunications in
Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in
Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Equatorial_Guinea"
title="Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eritrea" title="Telecommunications in
Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eswatini" title="Telecommunications in
Eswatini">Eswatini (Swaziland)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ethiopia" title="Telecommunications in
Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gabon" title="Telecommunications in
Gabon">Gabon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Gambia" title="Telecommunications in
the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ghana" title="Telecommunications in
Ghana">Ghana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in
Guinea">Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Telecommunications
in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Telecommunications in
Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kenya" title="Telecommunications in
Kenya">Kenya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lesotho" title="Telecommunications in
Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liberia" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Liberia">Liberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Libya">Libya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" title="Telecommunications in
Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malawi" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Malawi">Malawi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mali" title="Telecommunications in
Mali">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritania" title="Telecommunications in
Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritius" title="Telecommunications in
Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Morocco" title="Telecommunications in
Morocco">Morocco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mozambique" title="Telecommunications in
Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Namibia" title="Telecommunications in
Namibia">Namibia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niger" title="Telecommunications in
Niger">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in
Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in
Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe"
title="Telecommunications in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Senegal" title="Telecommunications in
Senegal">Senegal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Seychelles" title="Telecommunications in
Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Telecommunications in
Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Somalia">Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications in
South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in
South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in
Sudan">Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tanzania" title="Telecommunications in
Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Togo" title="Telecommunications in
Togo">Togo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tunisia" title="Telecommunications in
Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uganda" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Uganda">Uganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zambia" title="Telecommunications in
Zambia">Zambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zimbabwe" title="Telecommunications in
Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div
style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">States with
limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist
wraplinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic"
class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic
Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somaliland" title="Telecommunications in
Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div
style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies
and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist
wraplinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Canary_Islands" class="mw-
redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Canary Islands">Canary
Islands</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ceuta" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Ceuta">Ceuta</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Melilla" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Melilla">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-
size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madeira" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Madeira">Madeira</a> <span style="font-
size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mayotte" title="Telecommunications in
Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_R%C3%A9union"
title="Telecommunications in Réunion">Réunion</a> <span style="font-
size:85%;">(France)</span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ascension_Island" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span
style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Western_Sahara" title="Telecommunications
in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul>
</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Asia"
style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-
inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th
scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-
style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks
hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic"
title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template"
style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr
title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external
text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Asia_topic&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template"
style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div
id="Telecommunications_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em">Telecommunications in Asia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-
group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of
sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in
Armenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in
Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bahrain" title="Telecommunications in
Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bangladesh" title="Telecommunications in
Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bhutan" title="Telecommunications in
Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brunei" title="Telecommunications in
Brunei">Brunei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cambodia" title="Telecommunications in
Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in
China">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in
Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications in
East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in
Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)"
title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in
India">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Iran">Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in
Iraq">Iraq</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Israel" title="Telecommunications in
Israel">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Japan" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Japan">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jordan" title="Telecommunications in
Jordan">Jordan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in
Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Korea" title="Telecommunications in
North Korea">North Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Korea" title="Telecommunications in
South Korea">South Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kuwait" title="Telecommunications in
Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Telecommunications in
Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Laos" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Laos">Laos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" title="Telecommunications in
Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in
Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Maldives" title="Telecommunications in
the Maldives">Maldives</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mongolia" title="Telecommunications in
Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Myanmar" title="Telecommunications in
Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nepal" title="Telecommunications in
Nepal">Nepal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Oman" title="Telecommunications in
Oman">Oman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in
Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Philippines" title="Telecommunications
in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Qatar" title="Telecommunications in
Qatar">Qatar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in
Russia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Telecommunications in
Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Singapore" title="Telecommunications in
Singapore">Singapore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Telecommunications in
Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in
Syria">Syria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tajikistan" title="Telecommunications in
Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Thailand" title="Telecommunications in
Thailand">Thailand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in
Turkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkmenistan" title="Telecommunications in
Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates"
title="Telecommunications in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab
Emirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uzbekistan" title="Telecommunications in
Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in
Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Yemen" title="Telecommunications in
Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with
limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td
class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-
width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Artsakh&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Artsakh (page does not
exist)">Artsakh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_State_of_Palestine&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in the State of Palestine (page does not
exist)">Palestine</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South
Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in
Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a>
and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&
redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the British Indian Ocean
Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not
exist)">Christmas Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink
=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does
not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Macau" title="Telecommunications in
Macau">Macau</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-
weight:bold;"><div>
<ul><li><img alt="Wikipedia book"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16p
x-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Wikipedia book" width="16"
height="16"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/
23px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/31px-
Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a
href="/wiki/Book:Asia" title="Book:Asia">Book</a></li>
<li><img alt="Category"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-
Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16"
height="14"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24
px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-
Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a
href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-
puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Portal" width="16"
height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-
puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-
puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a
href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col"
class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-
mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic"
title="Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="View this template"
style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><abbr
title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external
text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Europe_topic&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template"
style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div
id="Telecommunications_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Europe">Telecommunications in Europe
</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Albania" title="Telecommunications in
Albania">Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Andorra" title="Telecommunications in
Andorra">Andorra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in
Armenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in
Austria">Austria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in
Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in
Belarus">Belarus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in
Belgium">Belgium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina"
title="Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and
Herzegovina</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria" title="Telecommunications in
Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Croatia" title="Telecommunications in
Croatia">Croatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in
Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Czech_Republic"
title="Telecommunications in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Denmark" title="Telecommunications in
Denmark">Denmark</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Estonia" title="Telecommunications in
Estonia">Estonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Finland" title="Telecommunications in
Finland">Finland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in
France">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)"
title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in
Germany">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greece" title="Telecommunications in
Greece">Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hungary" title="Telecommunications in
Hungary">Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iceland" title="Telecommunications in
Iceland">Iceland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland"
title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li>
<li class="mw-empty-elt"></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in
Italy">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in
Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Latvia" title="Telecommunications in
Latvia">Latvia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liechtenstein" title="Telecommunications
in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in
Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications in
Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malta" title="Telecommunications in
Malta">Malta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Moldova" title="Telecommunications in
Moldova">Moldova</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Monaco" title="Telecommunications in
Monaco">Monaco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montenegro" title="Telecommunications in
Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications
in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Macedonia" title="Telecommunications
in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in
Norway">Norway</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Poland" title="Telecommunications in
Poland">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Portugal" title="Telecommunications in
Portugal">Portugal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in
Russia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_San_Marino" title="Telecommunications in
San Marino">San Marino</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Serbia" title="Telecommunications in
Serbia">Serbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovakia" title="Telecommunications in
Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovenia" title="Telecommunications in
Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in
Spain">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sweden" title="Telecommunications in
Sweden">Sweden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications in
Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in
Turkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in
Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom"
title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States
with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Artsakh&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Artsakh (page does not
exist)">Artsakh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South
Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Transnistria" title="Telecommunications in
Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_
%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in
Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Faroe_Islands"
title="Telecommunications in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Isle_of_Man" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jersey" title="Telecommunications in
Jersey">Jersey</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other
entities</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_European_Union"
title="Telecommunications in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="Telecommunications_in_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col"
class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-
mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic"
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topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none
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id="Telecommunications_in_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em">Telecommunications in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda"
title="Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Bahamas" title="Telecommunications in
the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Barbados" title="Telecommunications in
Barbados">Barbados</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belize" title="Telecommunications in
Belize">Belize</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in
Canada">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Costa_Rica" title="Telecommunications in
Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cuba" title="Telecommunications in
Cuba">Cuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica" title="Telecommunications in
Dominica">Dominica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic"
title="Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_El_Salvador" title="Telecommunications in
El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Grenada" title="Telecommunications in
Grenada">Grenada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guatemala" title="Telecommunications in
Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Haiti" title="Telecommunications in
Haiti">Haiti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Honduras" title="Telecommunications in
Honduras">Honduras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jamaica" title="Telecommunications in
Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Mexico">Mexico</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in
Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Panama" title="Telecommunications in
Panama">Panama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis"
title="Telecommunications in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Telecommunications in
Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines"
title="Telecommunications in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago"
title="Telecommunications in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in the United States">United States</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div
style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies
and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Anguilla" title="Telecommunications in
Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Aruba" title="Telecommunications in
Aruba">Aruba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bermuda" title="Telecommunications in
Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands"
title="Telecommunications in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin
Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands"
title="Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Telecommunications in
Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greenland" title="Telecommunications in
Greenland">Greenland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guadeloupe" title="Telecommunications in
Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Martinique" title="Telecommunications in
Martinique">Martinique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montserrat" title="Telecommunications in
Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Telecommunications in
Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&re
dlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Collectivity of Saint Martin
(page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon"
title="Telecommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and
Miquelon</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Saba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Saba (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint
Eustatius</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint
Maarten</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands"
title="Telecommunications in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos
Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands"
title="Telecommunications in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin
Islands</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Oceania" style="padding:3px"><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col"
class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-
mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic"
title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template"
style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr
title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-
shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external
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shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div
id="Telecommunications_in_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em">Telecommunications in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications
in Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia"
title="Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States
of Micronesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Fiji" title="Telecommunications in
Fiji">Fiji</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kiribati" title="Telecommunications in
Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nauru" title="Telecommunications in
Nauru">Nauru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Zealand" title="Telecommunications in
New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Palau" title="Telecommunications in
Palau">Palau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in
Samoa">Samoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Telecommunications
in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tonga" title="Telecommunications in
Tonga">Tonga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tuvalu" title="Telecommunications in
Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vanuatu" title="Telecommunications in
Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cook_Islands"
title="Telecommunications in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niue" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_American_Samoa"
title="Telecommunications in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not
exist)">Christmas Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink
=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does
not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in Easter Island (page does not
exist)">Easter Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Polynesia"
title="Telecommunications in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Guam">Guam</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Telecommunications in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Caledonia" title="Telecommunications
in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in Norfolk Island (page does not
exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlin
k=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Northern Mariana Islands (page
does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tokelau" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Telecommunications_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Telecommunications in Wallis and Futuna (page does not
exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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labelledby="Telecommunications_in_South_America" style="padding:3px"><table
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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-
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href="/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America
topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none
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id="Telecommunications_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em">Telecommunications in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states"
title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Argentina">Argentina</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bolivia" title="Telecommunications in
Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brazil" title="Telecommunications in
Brazil">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chile" title="Telecommunications in
Chile">Chile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect"
title="Telecommunications in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ecuador" title="Telecommunications in
Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guyana" title="Telecommunications in
Guyana">Guyana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Paraguay" title="Telecommunications in
Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Peru" title="Telecommunications in
Peru">Peru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Suriname" title="Telecommunications in
Suriname">Suriname</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uruguay" title="Telecommunications in
Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Venezuela" title="Telecommunications in
Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div
style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a
href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a>
and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Falkland_Islands"
title="Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Guiana" title="Telecommunications
in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li>
<li><a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands"
class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in South Georgia and the South
Sandwich Islands"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South
Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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version</a></li></ul>
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wb-otherproject-commons"><a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications"
hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-
otherproject-wikiquote"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Telecommunication"
hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li></ul>
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<h3 id="p-lang-label">
<span>Languages</span>
</h3>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list"><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-af"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasie"
title="Telekommunikasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a
href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%86_
%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF" title=" – اتصال عن بعدArabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar"
class="interlanguage-link-target"><العربية/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-an"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3n"
title="Telecomunicación – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a
href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3n" title="Telecomunicación
– Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a
href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasiya" title="Telekommunikasiya –
Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a
href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF
%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="টেলিযোগাযোগ –
Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="https://zh-min-
nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-s%C3%ACn" title="Tiān-sìn – Chinese (Min Nan)"
lang="nan" hreflang="nan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a
href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8F
%D0%B7%D1%8C_(%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Сувязь (тэхніка)
– Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a
href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8F
%D0%B7%D1%8C_(%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Сувязь (тэхніка)
– Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a
href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE
%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Далекосъобщения –
Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a
href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacije" title="Telekomunikacije –
Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a
href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellgehenterezhio%C3%B9"
title="Pellgehenterezhioù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a
href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3" title="Telecomunicació –
Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a
href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikace" title="Telekomunikace – Czech"
lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a
href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikation" title="Telekommunikation –
Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a
href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikation" title="Telekommunikation –
German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a
href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikatsioon" title="Telekommunikatsioon
– Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a
href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE
%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Τηλεπικοινωνίες – Greek"
lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a
href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3n" title="Telecomunicación
– Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a
href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikado" title="Telekomunikado –
Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a
href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikazio" title="Telekomunikazio –
Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a
href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA"
title=" – مخابراتPersian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">
<فارسی/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a
href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9communications"
title="Télécommunications – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><a
href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicazion" title="Telecomunicazion –
Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a
href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teileachumars%C3%A1id" title="Teileachumarsáid
– Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a
href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cian-chonaltradh" title="Cian-chonaltradh –
Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a
href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3ns"
title="Telecomunicacións – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a
href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E4%BF%A1" title="電信 – Gan Chinese"
lang="gan" hreflang="gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC
%A0%84%EA%B8%B0_%ED%86%B5%EC%8B%A0" title="전기 통신 – Korean" lang="ko"
hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a
href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%BC
%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF
%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հեռահաղորդակցություն –
Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a
href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E
0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="दूरसंचार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi"
class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-hr"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacija"
title="Telekomunikacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a
href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomuniko" title="Telekomuniko – Ido"
lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy"><a
href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF
%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="টেলিযোগাযোগ –
Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া
মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a
href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasi" title="Telekomunikasi –
Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa
Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a
href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication –
Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a
href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjarskipti" title="Fjarskipti – Icelandic"
lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a
href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicazione" title="Telecomunicazione –
Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a
href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9E
%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title=" – טלקומוניקציהHebrew" lang="he"
hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target"><עברית/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a
href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E
0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D
%E0%B2%A5%E0%B3%86" title="ದೂರಸಂವಹನ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ka"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A
%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C
%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტელეკომუნიკაცია –
Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a
href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC
%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F"
title="Телекоммуникация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a
href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawasiliano_ya_simu" title="Mawasiliano ya simu
– Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a
href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekominikasyon" title="Telekominikasyon –
Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl
ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr"><a
href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9kominikasyon"
title="Télékominikasyon – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a
href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC
%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Телекоммуникация –
Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a
href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasion" title="Telekomunikasion –
Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a
href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA
%84%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA
%A1" title="ໂທລະຄົມມະນາຄົມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a
href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicatio" title="Telecommunicatio –
Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a
href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telesakari" title="Telesakari – Latvian"
lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a
href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikatioun" title="Telekommunikatioun –
Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a
href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacija" title="Telekomunikacija –
Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a
href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicatie" title="Telecommunicatie –
Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a
href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1vk%C3%B6zl%C3%A9s" title="Távközlés –
Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a
href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifandraisan-davitra" title="Fifandraisan-
davitra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a
href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF
%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF
%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="വിദൂരാശയവിനിമയം – Malayalam"
lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a
href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasi" title="Telekomunikasi – Malay"
lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a
href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunica%C3%A7on" title="Telecomunicaçon –
Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a
href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BD
%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA"
title="ဆက်သွယ်ရေးစနစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" class="interlanguage-link-
target">မြန်မာဘာသာ </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a
href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicatie" title="Telecommunicatie –
Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a
href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%9E
%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="दूरसञ्चार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne"
class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1" title="通
信 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語
</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a
href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasjon" title="Telekommunikasjon –
Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk
bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a
href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasjon" title="Telekommunikasjon –
Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk
nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a
href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicacions" title="Telecomunicacions –
Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a
href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE
%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Электрокыл – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-uz"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr_aloqa" title="Elektr
aloqa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a
href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B0_
%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਦੂਰ ਸੰਚਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa"
hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a
href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA"
title=" – مخابراتPashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" class="interlanguage-link-target">
<پښتو/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a
href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telikomiunikieshan" title="Telikomiunikieshan
– Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a
href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacja" title="Telekomunikacja –
Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a
href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunica%C3%A7%C3%B5es"
title="Telecomunicações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a
href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunica%C8%9Bie" title="Telecomunicație –
Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm"><a
href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorgia_da_la_telecommunicaziun"
title="Istorgia da la telecommunicaziun – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-rue"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB
%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97"
title="Телекомунікації – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a
href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE
%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8C" title="Электросвязь – Russian" lang="ru"
hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a
href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicatzione" title="Telecomunicatzione –
Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a
href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication –
Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a
href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacioni" title="Telekomunikacioni –
Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si badge-Q17437798
badge-goodarticle" title="good article badge"><a
href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BD
%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA"
title="විදුලි සංදේශනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" class="interlanguage-link-
target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a
href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication
– Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd"><a
href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BD%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A_%DA%AA%D9%85%D9%8A
%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%86" title=" – ٽيلي ڪميونيڪيشنSindhi"
lang="sd" hreflang="sd" class="interlanguage-link-target"><سنڌي/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a
href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunik%C3%A1cie" title="Telekomunikácie –
Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-sl"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacije"
title="Telekomunikacije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a
href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isgaarsiinta" title="Isgaarsiinta – Somali"
lang="so" hreflang="so" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a
href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%95%DB%8C
%D9%88%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title=" – دوورپەیوەندیCentral Kurdish" lang="ckb"
hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target"><کوردی/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a
href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC
%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Телекомуникације –
Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски /
srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a
href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacije" title="Telekomunikacije –
Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-su"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9komunikasi"
title="Télékomunikasi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a
href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televiestint%C3%A4" title="Televiestintä –
Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a
href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikation" title="Telekommunikation –
Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a
href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasyon" title="Telekomunikasyon –
Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a
href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE
%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81"
title="தொலைத்தொடர்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-
target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a
href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC
%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Телекоммуникация –
Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a
href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D
%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="దూరప్రసారం – Telugu" lang="te"
hreflang="te" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a
href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E
0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1" title="โทรคมนาคม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-tg"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE
%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Мухобирот – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-tr"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekom%C3%BCnikasyon"
title="Telekomünikasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk"><a
href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika_we_aragatna%C5%9Fyk_in
%C5%BEenerligi" title="Elektronika we aragatnaşyk inženerligi – Turkmen" lang="tk"
hreflang="tk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a
href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC
%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97" title="Телекомунікації –
Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a
href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C_
%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA" title=" – ٹیلی مواصالتUrdu" lang="ur"
hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><اردو/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te
%C5%82ecomunicasion" title="Tełecomunicasion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-vi"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%85n_th%C3%B4ng"
title="Viễn thông – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a
href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasyon" title="Telekomunikasyon –
Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a
href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E4%BF%A1" title="电信 – Wu Chinese"
lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a
href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9E
%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title=" – טעלעקאמוניקאציעYiddish"
lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><יִידיש/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a
href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cb%C3%A1nis%E1%BB%8D%CC%80r%E1%BB%8D%CC
%80-%E1%BB%8D%CC%80%E1%BB%8D%CC%81k%C3%A1n" title="Ìbánisọ̀rọ̀-ọ̀ọkán
́ – Yoruba"
lang="yo" hreflang="yo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="https://zh-
yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%A8%8A" title="電訊 – Cantonese" lang="yue"
hreflang="yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a
href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasyon" title="Telekomunikasyon –
Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a
href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E4%BF%A1" title="电信 – Chinese"
lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul>
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