ELEC2400 Signals & Systems

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations

Brett Ninnes
[email protected].

School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

The University of Newcastle

Slides by Juan I. Yuz ([email protected]) - July 24, 2003 – p.1/??

2. Signal Types and Operations

Outline
What is a signal?
Types of Signals
Operations on Signals
Concluding Summary

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.2/??

What is a signal?
It is the time evolution of a quantity, for example:

The price of a share in a publically listed company;

The level of water in a reservoir;
The speed of a car;
The temperature in a room;
The voltage driving the speaker in a mobile telephone;
many others . . .

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.3/??

 What is a signal?
Signal f (t) is usually defined on the real line R:
f (t)

f (t? )

0 t? t

Typically, the origin at time t = 0 is thought of as being now,

with f (t) for t > 0 being thought of as the future time
evolution of the signal, and f (t) for t < 0 being the past time
evolution.

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.4/??

Types of signals
There are many different kind of signals, with time
evolutions qualitatively and quantitatively very different.
It is useful to be able to classify signals considering
simplified but common signal types.

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.5/??

Types of signals
Constant signal

f (t) , A ∈ R, t ∈ (−∞, ∞).

A f (t)

0 t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.6/??

 Types of signals
(
Step signal 1 ;t ≥ 0
1(t) ,
0 ; t < 0.

1 1(t)

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.7/??

Types of signals
Ramp signal (
t ;t ≥ 0
r(t) ,
0 ; t < 0.

r(t)

t?

0 t? t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.8/??

Ramp signal

The ramp signal r(t) may be derived from another, since it

is the cumulative area under the step signal 1(t) up until
time t: Z t
r(t) = 1(σ) dσ.
−∞

t

r(t) = 1(σ) dσ

−∞


0 t σ

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.9/??

 Ramp signal

As a consequence, and using the fundamental principle

that differentiation is the inverse operation to integration, we
also have that:
d
r(t) = 1(t).
dt
That is, the time rate of change of the ramp signal is the
step signal.
Finally, r(t) and 1(t) are also related by the equation

r(t) = t · 1(t).

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.10/??

Types of signals
(Dirac) Delta Function or (Unit) Impulse signal
(
0 ; t 6= 0
δ(t) ,
Undefined ; t = 0

It is useful to imagine that δ(0) = +∞:

δ(t)

0 t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.11/??

Impulse signal

Dirac refers to the Quantum Physics pioneer Paul Dirac

who used this δ to represent electrons as units of charge
occupying an infinitesimal amount of space.
Strictly, δ(t) is not a function. It may be characterised as
a relationship for any continuous function f (t):
Z ∞
f (t) δ(t) dτ = f (0).
−∞

That is, δ(t) picks out the value of f (t) at t = 0. This means
that δ(t) is distribution rather than a function.

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.12/??

 Impulse signal

δ(t) can be approximated by the function K (t) defined as:

(
1/ ; |t| ≤ /2
δ(t) ≈ K (t) =
0 ; |t| > /2

δ(t)
1/
K (t)

−/2 /2 t
0

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.13/??

Impulse signal

Hence, we have that:

Z ∞ Z Z /2
∞
1
f (t) δ(t) dτ ≈ f (t)K (t) dt = f (t) dt.
−∞ −∞ −/2 

If  is made small, then f (t) ≈ f (0) for all t ∈ (−/2, /2) since
it is continuous. In this case:
Z /2 Z
1 f (0) /2 f (0)
f (t) dt ≈ dt = ·  = f (0).
−/2   −/2 

And, when  → 0:
Z /2
1
lim f (t) dt = f (0).
→0 −/2 
Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.14/??

Impulse signal

Considering
δ(t) = lim K (t)
→0

then
Z ∞ Z ∞
f (t)δ(t) dt = f (t) lim K (t) dt
−∞ −∞ →0
Z ∞
= lim f (t)K (t) dt = f (0).
→0 −∞

This is also why δ(t) is known as the unit impulse, since:

Z Z Z /2
∞ ∞
1
δ(t) dt = lim K (t) dt = lim dt = 1.
−∞ →0 −∞ →0 −/2 

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.15/??

 Impulse signal

Finally, notice that there is an integral relationship between

the unit step 1(t) and the Dirac delta δ(t):
Z t
1(t) = δ(σ) dσ
−∞

And, by differentiating both sides, there is also a differential

relationship:
d
1(t) = δ(t).
dt

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.16/??

Types of Signals
Periodic signal
It is a signal which repeats the same wave-shape
every T seconds and infinitely often, i.e.:

f (t) = f (t + T ), for all t.

For example:
T

f (t)

0 t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.17/??

Periodic signal

The signal
f (t) = sin ωt
is periodic with period T = 2π/ω, since:
2π


f (t + T ) = sin ω t + ω
= sin(ωt + 2π)

| {z2π} + sin
= sin ωt cos | {z2π} cos ωt = sin ωt = f (t).
1 0

Also, if f (t) = f (t + T ) and g(t) = g(t + T ) then for any

α, β ∈ R:

h(t) = αf (t) + βg(t) = αf (t + T ) + βg(t + T ) = h(t + T ).

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.18/??

 Types of Signals
Even signal: symmetric about the y axis.

f (t) = f (−t), for all t.

Odd signal: symmetric respect to the origin.

g(t) = −g(−t), for all t.

y

g(t)

0 f (t) t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.19/??

Types of Signals
Exponential signal
(
αt Aeαt ; t ≥ 0
f (t) = 1(t) · Ae =
0 ;t < 0

If α > 0 then eαt is exponentially increasing,

if α < 0 then eαt is exponentially decreasing, and
if α = 0 then eαt = 1 and it is the step signal 1(t).
Aeαt , α > 0

Aeαt , α = 0

Aeαt , α < 0

0 t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.20/??

Types of Signals
Exponential signals: complex representation for
signals with oscillating components.

 A eαt cos(ωt + φ) ; t ≥ 0
f (t) = 1(t)·Aeαt cos(ωt+φ) =
 0 ;t < 0

where:
the oscillation period is T = 2π/ω ,
the exponential envelope is A eαt , and
the co-sinusoidal shape has phase offset φ.

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.21/??

 Exponential signals (complex representation)

It is useful to note that:

Aeαt+j(ωt+φ) = A eαt · ej(ωt+φ)

= Aeαt [cos(ωt + φ) + j sin(ωt + φ)]

Then
n o
f (t) = Aeαt cos(ωt + φ) = Real Aeα+j(ωt+φ) .

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.22/??

Exponential signals (complex representation)

If α < 0, then f (t) = Aeαt cos(ωt + φ)

is a decreasing oscilation:
A
Aeαt
Aeαt cos(ωt + φ)

t
φ
ω

2π
ω

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.23/??

Exponential signals (complex representation)

If α > 0, then f (t) = Aeαt cos(ωt + φ)

is an increasing oscilation:
Aeαt

Aeαt cos(ωt + φ)

t
φ
ω

2π
ω

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.24/??

 Exponential signals (complex representation)

If α = 0, then:

f (t) = Aeαt cos(ωt + φ) = A cos(ωt + φ)

A cos(ωt + φ)

t
φ
ω

2π
ω

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.25/??

Exponential signals (complex representation)

For this pure sinuosidal signals, it is common to use a

phasor representation:
n o
f (t) = Real Aej(ωt+φ) = A cos(ωt + φ)

Imaginary

Aejφ
A

φ
0 Real
Complex Representation (Phasor)

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.26/??

Operations on Signals
More complicated signals can be derived (or
expressed) via various fundamental operations over
the basic signals previously defined.

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.27/??

 Operations on Signals
Magnitude Scaling: It is the multiplication by a
constant K ∈ R:
g(t) = Kf (t).

f (t)

g(t) = Kf (t), K > 1 t

g(t) = Kf (t), K < 1

g(t) = Kf (t), K < 0

t t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.28/??

Operations on Signals
Time Shifting (Translation):

g(t) = f (t − T ).

If T > 0, then g(t) = f (t − T ) is f (t) delayed by T

seconds:

f (t) g(t) = f (t − T )

0 t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.29/??

Time Shifting

Notice that, for Dirac delta signals:

(
0 ; t 6= T
g(t) = δ(t − T ) =
Undefined ; t = T.

We can think of δ(t − T ) as having all its mass concentrated

at t = T :
g(t)

δ(t − T )

0 T t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.30/??

 Time Shifting

And, for a continuous function f (t), we have that:

Z ∞
f (t)δ(t − T ) dt = f (T ).
−∞

This principle will turn out to be of great importance in later

developments.

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.31/??

Operations on Signals
Time Reversal (Flipping):

g(t) = f (−t)

This operation produces a new signal g(t) by reversing

the time direction:

f (t)
g(t) = f (−t)

0 t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.32/??

Time Reversal

In some situations time reversal operation is combined with

the time shifting operation (e.g., in the convolution).
For example, consider g(t) = f (T − t):

f (t)
g(t) = f (T − t)

0 t
T

Note that, if h(t) = f (−t) (flipping)

then h(t − T ) = f (−(t − T )) = f (T − t) = g(t) (shifting)

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.33/??

 Operations on Signals
Time Scaling. The signal is stretched or compressed
by a factor α ∈ R+ :
g(t) = f (αt)

f (t)

0 T t

g(t) = f (αt), α < 1 g(t) = f (αt), α > 1

0 T /α t 0 T /α t

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.34/??

Time Scaling

Note that:
If α < 0, there is a time reversal and scaling.
For the Dirac delta function δ(αt), using the change of
variable σ = αt which implies that dσ = αdt, we have
Z ∞ Z ∞  
σ 1 1
f (t)δ(αt) dt = f δ(σ) dσ = f (0)
−∞ −∞ α α α

so that
1
δ(αt) =
δ(t).
α
i.e., the time scaling decrease or increase the area
under the delta function.

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.35/??

Concluding Summary
We introduced some of the most fundamental ideas in the
field of Signals and Systems:

A signal is the time evolution of a quantity;

It can be represented as a mathematical function
f (t) : R → R;

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.36/??

 Concluding Summary
We introduced some of the most fundamental ideas in the
field of Signals and Systems:

There are some fundamental signal types,

1. Constant: f (t) = K ;
2. Unit step: f (t) = 1(t);
3. Unit ramp: f (t) = r(t) = t · 1(t);
4. Dirac Delta: f (t) = δ(t);
5. Periodic of period T : f (t) = f (t + T );
6. Even f (t) = f (−t) and odd f (t) = −f (−t);
7. Exponential: f (t) = Aeαt ;
8. Generalised Exponential: f (t) = Aeαt cos(ωt + φ).

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.37/??

Concluding Summary
We introduced some of the most fundamental ideas in the
field of Signals and Systems:

There are some fundamental signal operations,

1. Magnitude Scaling: g(t) = Kf (t);
2. Time shifting (translation): g(t) = f (t − T );
3. Time reversal (flipping): g(t) = f (−t);
4. Time scaling: g(t) = f (αt).

Chapter 2. Signal Types and Operations – p.38/??