HVDC Systems in Smart Grids

This paper reviews both classical thyristor-based phase-controlled converters and

modern IGBT-based voltage–source converters in HVDC systems illustrating their
applications around the world.
B y M i k e B a r n e s , S e n i o r M e m b e r I E E E , D i r k Va n H e r t e m , S e n i o r M e m b e r I E E E ,
S i m o n P. Te e u w se n , a n d M agn us C a l l av i k , Member IEEE

ABSTRACT  |  The use of direct current (dc) power networks, either example. Despite lurid initial claims about the dangers of
at high voltage or at medium voltage, is being increasingly seen ac, publicity stunts, and even the electrocution of the cir-
in modern smart grids. This is due to the flexible control possible cus elephant Topsy [1], ac initially “won” the contest [2].
with dc and its ability to transmit and distribute power under Tesla’s invention of the induction machine and advances
circumstances where alternating current (ac) networks are either in transformers meant that ac at the time had too many
unable to, or less economic. This paper provides an overview of advantages.
the evolution of high-voltage dc (HVDC) transmission from early • In the 19th century, only transformers allowed efficient
Thury systems, to modern ultrahigh-voltage dc and multiterminal conversion between voltages. This permitted generation
voltageÐsource converter systems. The operation of both and end use at low voltage, but transformation to high
currentÐsource and voltageÐsource systems is discussed, along voltage for efficient long-distance transmission. This
with modeling requirements. The paper provides a snapshot of the situation remained largely unchanged until mercury arc
state of the art of HVDC with copious references to enable in-depth rectifiers became sufficiently advanced in the 1950s.
reading. Key developments over the last 20 years are highlighted. • AC currents are easier to interrupt, since they fall to
Issues surrounding multiterminal operation and dc protection are zero twice per electrical cycle. A circuit breaker can
explained, along with drivers in economics and policy. This will therefore switch off at zero, or nearly zero, current
inform HVDC integration into smart grids. making them cheaper and more compact.
• DC machines require brushes; induction machines
KEYWORDS  |  High-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission; do not—an advantage in terms of robustness. Induc-
power conversion; power grids; power system control; power tion machines have gone on to become a, if not the,
transmission; smart grids dominant electrical load.

I.  I N T RODUC T ION A N D H IST ORY A. First Applications

Whether alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc) is Despite the initial advantages of ac, dc was still used in a
a better solution for electrical transmission was debated number of installations in the subsequent decades, particu-
since the first days of electrical power. The famous “war of larly when two unsychronized, or different frequency, ac
currents” in the 1880s and 1890s between Edison, propos- systems needed to be connected. In this case, the ac:dc:ac
ing dc, and Westinghouse, championing ac, was a prime high-voltage direct current (HVDC) link acted as a buffer to
connect the two. Between the 1880s and 1930s, a number of
Manuscript received January 4, 2017; revised February 8, 2017; accepted HVDC installations were employed. These used the Thury
February 15, 2017. Date of publication March 29, 2017; date of current version system, where voltage conversion was accomplished by
October 18, 2017. This work was support by the IEEE Working Groups 15.05.18 ªStudies
for Planning of HVDCº and 15.05.19 ªPractical Technologies for VSC HVDC Systems.º back-to-back motor-generator sets [3]. The Moutiers–Lyons
M. Barnes is with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of line was the most powerful such system: running from 1906
Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, U.K. (e-mail: [email protected]).
D. Van Hertem is with the Department of Electrical Engineering (ESAT), KU to 1936 in France, over at distance of 200 km at ​±​75 kV with
Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium and with Electrical Systems, EnergyVille, Genk a current of 150 A (or about 22 MW).
3600, Belgium (e-mail: [email protected]).
S. P. Teeuwsen is with Large Transmission Solutions, Siemens AG, HVDC & FACTS,
Erlangen 91058, Germany (e-mail: [email protected]).
M. Callavik is with Grid System, ABB Power Grids, 721 78 V�ster�s, Sweden
B. Line-Commutated HVDC History
(e-mail: [email protected]).
By the 1930s, the concept of rectification with a mercury
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2017.2672879 arc, demonstrated in 1902 by Peter Hewitt [4], had reached
0018-9219 © 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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 Barnes et al. : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

a level of development that allowed mercury arc rectifiers to II.  K E Y DR I V ER S FOR H V D C I N SM A RT

be used with moderate power ac–dc–ac conversion systems. GR IDS
Examples included: 110-kV two-phase ac–ac converters cou- At the time of writing HVDC has become widely used for trans-
pling the 50-Hz network to a 16 2/3-Hz electric railway network mission systems. These are multiple instances where HVDC
in 1932 (Siemens); BBC, a precursor company to ABB, connect- provides greater flexibility or functionality, can connect sys-
ing a 3-MW supply to the 110-kV German network at Pforzheim tems that ac cannot, or can transmit more power in a given
the same year [5]. Experience with the technology developed, space than ac can. HVDC is preferred over ac in several cases.
culminating in Siemens (with AEG) building a 60-MW, 115-km​ First, if two unsynchronized ac networks, or ac networks
±​200-kV transmission line (from 1942 to 1944). At the end of of differing frequency (as, for example, in Japan), need to be
World War Two, this was transferred to the Soviet Union, serv- connected, HVDC can act as a frequency and phase conversion
ing as the Moscow–Kashira 30-MW, 112-km HVDC system [5]. stage. Examples of this are the HVDC connections between
The development of the mercury arc rectifier’s capability the United Kingdom and Europe, where two systems operate
by Uno Lamm and his team at ASEA (now part of ABB) in at 50-Hz nominal frequency but are not synchronized.
the 1930s and 1940s led to the first “modern” commercial Second, for very long distances, HVDC may be more eco-
HVDC system, the 20-MW, 98-km, 100-kV system linking nomical. This is because HVDC lines are cheaper per kilometer
the island of Gotland and the Swedish mainland [6]. This than ac, and unlike ac, HVDC lines do not consume reactive
power, and therefore are not limited by length or the require-
led to the rapid development of the technology reaching
ment for periodic reactive power compensation. Moreover,
​±​250 kV and 600 MW in 1965 with the first New Zealand
the losses of a dc line are smaller than the losses of an ac line
Inter-Island link and ​±4​ 00-kV 1440 MW in the U.S. Pacific
due to high voltages and thus lower currents. HVDC stations
Intertie in 1970 [7]. are more expensive than ac stations, so the breakeven point
From the early 1970s onwards mercury arc rectifi- is typically 600–800 km for overhead lines or 50–100 km for
ers started to be replaced with thyristor valves, which had cables (which have higher reactive power exchange per kilo-
matured as a technology from their introduction in the 1950s. meter), depending on location, project power, and voltage [9].
As solid-state devices they did not suffer the material deposi- Examples of such HVDC connections are many long distance
tion problems that mercury arc devices did, which limited lines in China, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
mercury arc device voltage, and required considerable main- Third, two ac systems may need to be connected without
tenance [8]. Thyristors unlike mercury arc rectifiers also increasing ac fault level. The ability of the HVDC system to
do not suffer from operational problems like arc backs [9]. block ac power flow quickly (in ac timescales) means that
Thyristor projects have now reached 8000 MW ​±​800 kV power can be fed through the HVDC link into a system,
over a 2210-km distance (the Hami–Zhengzhou project com- but minimal extra fault current is added to the ac network.
missioned in 2014 [9]) with construction of the Changji– Consequently, ac switchgear need not be upgraded. Often this
Guquan 1100-kV link to push powers to 13 GW per line. HVDC connection is through back-to-back ac:dc:ac stations
Both mercury arc rectifiers and thyristors can delay on one site. This was one of the advantages of VSC HVDC for
turn-on of their valves but in effect require the assistance ABB’s Mackinac converter project in Michigan [12].
of the ac grid to commutate (switch) from one valve to Fourth, HVDC can transmit more power for a given transmis-
sion corridor size than ac. Where space is constrained, this may
another. Since they are line-commutated converters (LCCs)
mean that, in future, HVAC lines may be replaced by HVDC. This
this places minimum strength requirements on the ac grid
has been the case in Germany for the Ultranet project [13]. Other
to which they are connected. Their operation can be consid-
examples for this type of HVDC connection are dc links directly
ered to be a dc source, switched between ac phases by the into the downtown area of large cities like New York (Hudson
combined action of the ac grid and thyristor control, hence Project) and San Francisco (Transbay Cable). Additionally, long
also the name current source converters (CSC). high power HVDC underground or undersea cables are techni-
cally and economically feasible, which is not the case for ac cables
C. Voltage–Source HVDC History where the charging current dominates the behavior.
Last, VSC HVDC can provide a variety of power quality
The recent development of insulated gate bipolar tran-
support functions. Thus, reactive power support, ac voltage
sistors (IGBTs), and other self-commutating high-voltage control, and black-start functionality can be provided, again
high-current semiconductor switches, has led to the rise of a key factor in ABB’s Mackinac project in Michigan [12].
voltage–source converter (VSC) HVDC. These devices can Other functions include: firewalling one ac system so that
control both switch turn-on and turn-off allowing a dc volt- disturbances do not spread to an adjacent system; providing
age source (hence the name VSC) to be switched between frequency stabilizing functions and artificial fast frequency
phases. Since the first such installation in Hällsjon, Sweden, in response (also called artificial inertia, as implemented in the
1997, a 3-MW, ​±​10-kV system, power has risen to 2000 MW Caprivi Link project); providing power oscillation damping
(INELFE) [10] and a voltage of 500 kV (Skagerrak 4) [11]. (such as implemented in the Pacific DC Intertie, INELFE,

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 Barnes et al . : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

BritNed, ATCO, WATL) [14]; stabilizing the ac system The increase in demand in urban and industrial centers, as
(in New Zealand: fault recovery modulation, frequency keep- a result of demographics, lifestyle, and industrial changes, will
ing control, frequency stabilization control, spinning reserve require extra power. Since urban space is often constrained
sharing, constant frequency control, Wellington over-fre- and expensive, and utilities do not wish to uprate other utility
quency brake, automatic governor control) [15], [16]. infrastructure (VSC-HVDC) and its medium-voltage variant
Opportunity exists for integration of the highly flexible VSC (MVDC) may become a replacement solution for ac to increase
HVDC directly as part of the smart grid architecture, especially supplied power. They may also be used to connect ac bulk-supply
in unbundled markets with a high penetration of renewables, points, reinforcing the network, without increasing fault level.
where operators can value new ancillary services to manage vari- “Supergrids”—large meshed HVDC networks—have
ability in power flows. As current and voltage capabilities of VSCs been proposed and radial networks are starting to be con-
have increased significantly during recent years, additional func- structed; see Section III-F. These would potentially allow
tionality could be carefully coordinated for most power markets transcontinental (or even intercontinental) sharing of
to match the converter’s real power import and export capability. resources. For example, in Europe, offshore wind power
According to a recent industry report, the market is split from the United Kingdom could be shared with Norwegian
roughly equally between CSC and VSC technologies [17]. CSC hydropower and storage, Icelandic thermal energy gen-
HVDC is presently preferred for very large bulk power transfer. eration, and solar power from Spain (as well as from
The more compact VSC is used when space is at a premium or other countries and conventional generation). The differ-
additional services are required at the grid connection point. ent demand profiles in the continent’s countries could be
Renewables will form an increasing fraction of genera- smoothed out over time and energy traded optimizing gen-
tion, and transmitting such power to the point of use will be eration investment and utilization. A number of technical
a major driver in, for example, Germany (see also Section problems remain before this vision can be realized though
III-E). HVDC connections in Germany bring wind power and a common ICT framework would be needed to fully
to shore, and further connections (Fig. 1) transmit this off- integrate HVDC and other smart grid services.
shore wind from Northern Germany to industrial centers
in Southern Germany. Similarly, LCC HVDC connections III.   H V D C DE V ELOPM E N T OV ER T HE
such as the Three Gorges Project in China transmit hydro- L A ST 20 Y E A R S
power to the country’s growing mega-cities [18].
A. Ultrahigh-Voltage DC (UHVDC) Transmission
The principal development of LCC over the last two
decades has been in the increase of operational voltage and
power (Fig. 2).
Although previous projects have used ​±​600 kV (Itaipu1
and 2, each 3150 MW), most projects in previous decades
had limited themselves to ​±5​ 00 kV (e.g., Three-Gorges and
Gui-Guang in China or the East–South Interconnector in
India in the first decade of the 21st century). In 2010, a new
upper voltage level of ​±8 ​ 00 kV was set with the Siemens
Yunnan–Guangdong 1418-km, 5000-MW project and the
ABB Xianjiaba-Shanghai SGCC Project, China 1980-km,
6400-MW project (Fig. 3) [7].
The inauguration of the Hami–Zhengzhou HVDC line
raised this to 8000 MW at ​±​800 kV over 2210 km [9]. This step
in voltage was economical for the increased power requirement
(5000 MW or more) and distance covered (more than 1000–
2500 km) [19]. A substantial amount of research was required
both to reassess the internal and external electrical field design
of the system, as well as to provide typetesting at this new volt-
age, which required the extensive use of demonstrators [19].

B. Pioneering VSC-HVDC Stations

Following a technological review of the HVDC sector
in the 1990s by ABB [20], it was found that scope existed
Fig. 1. German planned NorthÐSouth Corridors Connections for a complementary VSC product to established CSC tech-
(reproduced with permission from Transnet BW [13]). nologies. An initial proof-of-concept installation at Hällsjőn

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 Barnes et al. : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

Fig. 2. Progression of voltage and power ratings for LCC and VSC
HVDC (data from [8] and company websites).
Fig. 4. Gotland HVDC Light Link converter station (reproduced with
permission from ABB).

in 1997 (3 MW, ​±​10-kV dc, 10 km) [21] was followed by the

The success of this first Troll system was underlined by
first commercial installation at Gotland in 1999 (50 MW,
a second system powering the Valhall platform in 2011 and
​±​80 kV, 70 km) [22], Fig. 4.
another set of drives on the Troll field being powered by a
ABB rapidly developed the technology and three years
further VSC HVDC project in 2015 [25].
later in 2002 installations that used ​±​150 kV were available,
namely Cross Sound (330 MW, 40 km) [23] in the United
States and Murraylink (220 MW, 180 km) in Australia [24], D. Transbay Cable—First MMC Systems
Fig. 5. Many of these early installations were influenced In 2010, Siemens installed its first VSC HVDC system
by the desire to minimize the environmental impact and in San Francisco, CA, USA. VSC HVDC had previously used
the need to manage and minimize potential power quality two- and three-level converter designs. The Trans-bay Cable
issues on the ac side. Low-profile stations, fed by cables, project (400 MW, ​±​200 kV, and 85 km long) [26], Fig. 7,
with self-commutating VSC, producing low amounts of low- was the first to use a modular multilevel converter of the
frequency harmonics were a clear advantage. type proposed by Marquardt [27]. In this, instead of an ac
waveform being synthesized by pulsewidth modulation, it
C. Troll—First Offshore VSC HVDC is formed by switching multiple modules to form a stair-
case output (see Section V-A). All manufacturers have since
VSC HVDC has a significantly smaller footprint than LCC, moved to some form of a modular converter.
and so it is ideally suited for use offshore. The controllability of
the converter also makes it highly suited to weaker grids. This
E. German Offshore Wind Farms
was utilized in the first offshore station in 2005, where a 70-km​
±​60-kV dc cable fed two 44-MW gas compressor drives on the Following on from the success of the Troll offshore
offshore Norwegian Troll gas mining platform (Fig. 4) [25]. platform, the utility TenneT and the German government
have pioneered the development offshore connection of

Fig. 3. XianjiabaÐShangahi SGCC Project, China, UHVDC Valve Hall Fig. 5. Cable laying for Murraylink (reproduced with permission
(reproduced with permission from ABB). from ABB).

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 Barnes et al . : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

Fig. 8. German HVDC connected offshore WF locations [28]

Fig. 6. Troll A HVDC platform (reproduced with permission from ABB). (reproduced with permission from Siemens).

wind farms (WFs) through VSC HVDC (Fig. 8) [29] . The and far between, though more recently they have attracted
German “Energiewende” provided a good and stable invest- considerable attention as VSC HVDC has developed.
ment climate for renewables and grid investments. At the The Hydro-Quebec System designed in the 1980s is often
time of writing, over 4 GW of VSC-HVDC transmission is cited as the original HVDC multiterminal system, based on
available to allow offshore renewable energy to be fed to initial studies for a five-terminal system [30]. The initial
mainland Germany. Initial projects experienced some delay point-to-point system was meant to be expanded to this in
to the complex offshore environment. Type testing and pro- two stages; in practice, a separate three-terminal link was
totyping on demonstrators is possible with onshore instal- constructed for phase two [31], in part due to the considera-
lations (this is not practical for large offshore installations tion that a different vendor might be used. In practice, this
connected to distributed energy sources such as offshore three-terminal link has predominantly spent its time operat-
wind) and some initial learning in such large industrial pro- ing as a unidirectional system, either transferring hydropower
jects is not uncommon. The delivery of five offshore HVDC from Radisson to Sandy Pond or Radisson to Nicolet stations.
connections in 2015 though has shown that this is now a In 1967, a 200-MW, monopolar LCC 200-kV dc link
well-understood solution. between Italy and Sardinia was established. In 1986–1987,
a 50-MW tap was added [30]. This is known as the Sardinia–
Corsica–Italy (SACOI) link. However, fast-reversing
F. Multiterminal VSC HVDC switches were required to allow rectifier/inverter operation
HVDC with LCC has largely been a point-to-point solu- of the Corsican station.
tion. Historically, multiterminal installations have been few The 2016 North-East Agra LCC HVDC link is a
​±8 ​ 00-kV, 6000-MW, four-terminal, three-converter
station [32]. This is designed to supply hydropower from the
Northeast India.
A collaborative, government-sponsored project to build a
back-to-back multiterminal VSC-HVDC station at the Shin-
Shinano substation in Tokyo was undertaken by Toshiba,
Hitachi, and Mitsubishi Electric in the 1990s. The 300-MW
back-to-back station used gate turnoff thyristors (GTOs) [33].
The first VSC HVDC multiterminal network sys-
tems are the Chinese Nan’ao Island (2013) and Zhoushan
(2014) VSC-HVDC systems (Fig. 9) [34]. Nan’ao Island is a
​±1​ 60-kV three-terminal (200, 150, and 50 MW) collabora-
tion between Rongxin Power Electronic, NR-Electric, and
XiDian [35]. Zhoushan is a five-terminal (400, 300, and
three times 100 MW) ​±2​ 00-kV system built by C-EPRI
Fig. 7. Transbay Cable HVDC station (copyright Hawkeye, Courtesy and NR Electric [34]. Both systems are radial networks; as
of Siemens, [28]). of yet no meshed HVDC grids have been constructed.

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 Barnes et al. : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

where ​E​is the line-to-line root-mean-square (RMS) ac volt-

age at the converter terminals [8]. The square wave pattern
of the output current is rich in low-order harmonics, hence
a 12-pulse configuration of two bridges (and sometimes a
higher number) is used (Fig. 10) to cancel fifth and sev-
enth harmonics in steady state. Further harmonic filters are
required. Since the phase shift between ac voltage and cur-
rent controls power flow, this results in reactive power con-
sumption. Local reactive power compensation is thus typi-
cally required. Tap changing transformers are typically used
with a slow outer control loop, to keep the turn-on advance
angle within a tolerance band that does not exceed limits
Fig. 9. Zhoushan five-terminal VSC HVDC network [34]. which would either consume too much reactive power or
cause problems with converter control.
From (1) it is evident that the converter is operating as a
I V.   MODER N L CC H V D C rectifier with ​α < ​90​​  °​​: positive dc voltage and current results
in power flow from the ac to the dc side. A turn-on delay angle
LCC HVDC, by virtue of its longevity, is well covered in a
above 90° will cause the dc output voltage to go negative and
number of textbooks, for example, [8] and [36]–[38]. This
the converter becomes an inverter: power flows from dc to
section provides a brief introduction.
ac. The terminals of the converter can be mechanically recon-
nected in the reverse direction to accommodate this (Fig. 11).
A. Hardware and Control
The arrangement in Fig. 10 is known as a monopolar
The fundamental building block of an LCC is the 12-pulse arrangement and requires an earth return, typically via a
thyristor bridge (Fig. 10) made up of two six-pulse bridges. cable or a line. More usually a second 12-pulse bridge of the
A large inductor on the dc side ensures that the dc side opposite polarity is used in a so-called bipole (Fig. 11). Both
appears as a source of nearly dc current. Mercury arc valves, sets of 12-pulse converters are then controlled to carry the
or now stacks of series connected thyristors, switch this dc same current, meaning the ground return path is not used
between phases, “unfolding it” into an ac waveform. during normal operation. Mixed LCC and VSC systems are
This consists of an ac fundamental current phase shifted also possible (Fig. 11).
with respect to the ac voltage fundamental at the output Precise choice of the control scheme is based on reactive
of the converter, by a “turn-on delay angle” α ​ ​ (Fig. 10). power consumption (and its availability) at the ac network
Commutation between phases causes an additional voltage at either end, and loss reduction/running cost. Typically, the
drop which is proportional to dc current. The constant of rectifier is assigned current control and the inverter is run
proportionality is modeled as a commutation resistance (​​R​C​​​) . on the so-called minimum extinction angle (​γ​) control to set
The dc output voltage of one six-pulse bridge is given by a dc voltage (where ​γ = π − α − u​, typically 18° at 60 Hz and
__
3 ​√ 2 ​  ​ 
​​V​dc​​  = ​ ____  E  cos  α − ​R​ ​​ ​I​ ​​​
π   C d (1)

Fig. 10. Simplified single-line diagram of three-phase LCC HVDC Fig. 11. Skaggerak HVDC system: lower half LCC bipole, upper half
12-pulse bridge (fundamental voltage and unfolded dc component hybrid LCC, and VSC HVDC system (reproduced with permission
of current shown at thyristor converter terminals). from ABB).

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 Barnes et al . : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

15° at 50 Hz [37] and ​u​ is the angle required to commutate since both converter stations are colocated, a single joint
current from one phase to another). In practice, control controller may be used.
design of the converter is complex [37] with a number of The reactive power consumption requirements of LCC,
factors to consider its harmonic performance, and type of control mean LCC is
The first step of the control scheme is to trigger the best suited to operation with strong ac networks. The flex-
valves. This was initially done on a per phase basis [indi- ibility of smart grids might be used to overcome some of the
vidual phase control (IPC)]. This has advantages, including obstacles to wider spread adoption of LCC. However, smart
simplicity of control, but can produce noncharacteristic grid operation needs to incorporate LCC limits and that of
harmonics as control between phases is not balanced. More any ancillary equipment (such as filters).
recently, a controlled oscillator has been used to produce a
waveform locked to a composite of all three phases (a so-
called phase-locked loop (PLL), of which many types exist B. Modeling Methods
[39]) in the so-called equidistant pulse control (EPC). For smart grids employing dc components, multiple
The firing angles of the inverter and rectifier are then design studies are required prior to construction. For ac
varied to give a stable operating point based on local sta- system studies, the dominant low-frequency dynamics are
tion control variables (i.e., telecommunication between in a time frame determined by synchronous generator rotor
stations is used to enhance operation, but it is not criti- inertias [37]. Thus, detailed models of the converters are
cal for normal stable operation). The schemes use (1) in a not needed in these studies and a Thevenin- or Norton-
variety of forms, a theoretical example of which is shown equivalent circuit may be used with phasor (and load-flow)
in Fig. 12. Each line segment utilizes a different control studies. However, the inherent “firewall” that a dc system
to manipulate (1) or its equivalent for the inverter. In seg- provides means that it presents a problem for conventional
ment AB, the dc voltage is limited; in BC, α ​ ​is held constant modeling. The behavior of the dc circuit is not inherently
and hence changing dc causes dc voltage to change; and in driven by the physics-based behavior of the ac system (its
CD’, the current is held constant. D’F represents a voltage- angles and voltage magnitudes) but by the control of the con-
dependent current limit (VDCL) to manage behavior at verter. Thus, solutions of the ac circuit and dc circuit typi-
low voltages (of the bang–bang type). The inverter char- cally have to be split in many simulation packages solvers,
acteristics CZ again represents an inverter version of (1). complicating and potentially slowing the solution. Where
The slope of this is modified in the region CX to ensure a multiple ac systems exist, multiple solutions are required.
stable operating point. The remaining part of the charac- Harmonic analysis forms a major piece of any design.
teristic is a ramp-type VDCL to ensure stable operation of Appropriate filters must be selected and tuned for the ac and
the converter down to low voltages [37]. dc sides. Factors include the amount of current to be filtered,
The difference in current between XW and YD’ is reactive power requirements, the filter response characteris-
referred to as the current margin. Either converter can tics, the peak voltages under transients, fault recovery, and
adjust its current order by up to this amount, and the system the size of the filter (much of the extra size of LCC compared
will remain stable with the above control scheme. For larger to VSC is the reactive compensation and filtering require-
changes, and to ensure coordinated startup and shutdown, ment) [37]. The interaction between filters and the station,
telecommunications are typically used. and filters and the ac network need careful consideration
It is worth noting at this point that back-to-back schemes and are undertaken by simulation of the detailed system or
have much lower nominal operating voltages, since the by in effect undertaking a harmonic load-flow, modeling all
distance at which dc is transmitted is minimal. Also elements as Thévenin or Norton circuits for each harmonic
frequency of interest. Obtaining real data, particularly of the
ac network, can be challenging, and typically a “worst case”
locus of network impedances is considered.
DC side harmonics must also be considered since they
can couple to metallic telephone lines [giving rise to a tel-
ephone interference factor (TIF) limit]. They can even cou-
ple to metallic structures near overhead lines through stray
capacitances, leading to “touch voltages,” unless careful
design is undertaken [37].
For detailed studies, time-stepping models are required.
A Cigré benchmark model exists [38], [40] of a 12-pulse
monopole with standard filters, line models, and control.
In addition, finite element modeling is required for
Fig. 12. LCC HVDC typically bridge control diagram: rectifier both earthing structures of the HVDC system and the elec-
characteristic±solid line, inverter±dotted line, operating point is at Y. tric field surrounding the structures themselves (Fig. 13).

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 Barnes et al. : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

switchgear, and the converter, all from a current, fault cur-

rent, and insulation coordination perspective. Much of this
has been enabled by modern computer simulation and study
tools, particularly for insulation coordination. The impact of
computers is also felt within control, where digital control is
now standard and hot-swap redundancy is typically enabled.

V.  VOLTAGE– SOU RC E CON V ERT ER

HVDC
VSCs HVDC emerged from the advent of suitably powerful
self-commutating semiconductor switches in the late 1990s.
Since then they have undergone rapid development in terms
of power and voltage, a factor enabled by their ability to use
much of the hardware (transformers, dc cables, switchgear)
used previously for LCC HVDC.
Fig. 13. Finite element analysis model of an experimental moving
coil actuator in an HVDC breaker system (four series coils carrying A. VSC HVDC Hardware
current; lighter colors show higher flux density).
VSC HVDC synthesizes an ac voltage at its terminals from
the dc voltage supplied to it. Initially this used pulsewidth
Particularly for the latest generation of UHVDC systems, modulation (PWM): a two-level converter switches rap-
the extremely high voltage means that the design of system idly between the voltages at the upper and lower dc supply
components to avoid local breakdown discharge resulting (Fig. 14). The output is the local time average of this, which
from inadvertently high fields requires extensive study. can be varied sinusoidally. Only higher order switching har-
monics need to be filtered, leaving a sinusoidal fundamental
voltage at the point of connection, and drastically reducing
C. Technical Challenges the ac filter compared with LCC HVDC.
A problem for LCC HVDC is operation with weak net- Losses at this point were still relatively high (Table 1),
works [those with a short-circuit ratio (SCR), i.e., ratio of compared with LCC converter losses of less than 1% per
ac rated power to dc link power, of less than 3]. The weak converter. In order to reduce this, ABB moved to a three-
ac system may not be able to provide sufficient reactive level technology (Fig. 14 and Table I), using the neutral
power to the HVDC station and will be vulnerable to voltage point clamped (NPC) topology. Subsequent improvement
disturbances caused by the HVDC system current (such as of two-level converter design and the use of optimum PWM
voltage instability, small-signal control instability, harmonic (careful switching selection to reduce harmonics and third
responses, overvoltages) which may lead to commutation harmonic injection to boost dc voltage utilization) allowed a
failure in the HVDC scheme [38]. AC series capacitors have further reduction in switching frequency and losses.
been proposed to help LCC HVDC operate with weak ac In two- and three-level designs, each “switch” or valve is
systems (the so-called capacitor-commutated converters) made of many series connected IGBTs, which requires care-
and have been used in two back-to-back projects (Garabi in ful control to ensure voltage sharing. In 2010, Siemens pro-
Brazil–Argentina, 2002, 2000 MW ​±​70 kV and Rapid City, posed a modular multilevel converter (MMC) design based
2003, 200 MW, ± ​ ​13 kV). on the work of Marquardt [27], and other manufacturers also
Technical developments in recent years for the con-
verter have been the replacement of electrically triggered
thyristors by those using laser light to trigger conduction
[light-triggered thyristors (LTTs)]. This gives advantages in
terms of circuit isolation for the multiple thyristors used in
series in each valve. Current rating of converters is still con-
strained by that of individual devices: while putting devices
in series is readily possible, though overvoltage and voltage
grading components are needed, getting semiconductor
devices to reliably share current is problematic.
The main development in LCC HVDC has been the
gradual increase in voltage in order to raise power levels.
This required considerable research and development Fig. 14. VSC HVDC converter operating principles (reproduced with
across all elements of the system: transformers, lines/cables, permission from Siemens).

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Table 1  Development of VSC HVDC Technology [41], [42]

Fig. 15. One arm of a VSC HVDC converter showing a limited

number of submodules.

now offer similar multilevel products. In the MMC HVDC, B. Multilevel Converters With Full-Bridge Modules
IGBTs are connected in submodules which insert or bypass a Previously, all installed MMC HVDC systems employed
capacitor. The inserted capacitors in the upper valve (or arm) modules with half-bridges. Moreover, almost all of them are
subtract from the upper dc rail voltage (+Vdc/2; Fig. 15) to realized as symmetric monopoles with sea or land cable.
(ideally) produce a voltage at the output (point Va). The Station losses in the order of about 1% can be achieved with
inserted capacitors in the lower arm add to the lower dc rail that configuration. A half-bridge module has two switching
to also produce Va. Since the total capacitor voltage inserted modes during operation: bypass and application of a unidi-
must balance the dc link voltage, at each switching instant rectional voltage across its terminals (Fig. 16).
one or more upper and lower submodule(s) are switched Therefore, a converter arm equipped with half-bridge
and a staircase waveform is produced (Fig. 14). modules can apply only one voltage polarity. In case of line-
To balance transient voltages and limit potential fault to-line faults on the dc side, it is necessary to block the con-
currents, arm inductors are also inserted. In case of a fault, verter and open the ac breaker to interrupt the fault current
a fast protection thyristor can bypass the IGBTs and diodes, which is fed by the connected ac grid. The tripping of the ac
and a mechanical bypass switch then shorts out the submod- breakers is required because the half-bridge configuration
ule. For a dc side fault, an ac breaker then disconnects the turns into an uncontrolled short-circuited rectifier in case
converter (Fig. 15). More advanced topologies such as the of a line-to-line fault on the dc side. This behavior is accept-
alternate arm converter and the full bridge submodule con- able in all schemes with pure cable connections between
verter have also been proposed, since they offer fault block- the converter stations because cable faults are extremely
ing capability [43].
Since each phase output voltage is controlled by means
of “subtracting” voltage from the dc rail voltages, instead of
switching between the rail voltages, transient voltage differ-
ences can occur between the three phases which are only
partly suppressed by the arm inductors. These “circulating
currents” can be controlled by a supplementary controller,
additional hardware filtering, and other methods [44].
Most installed VSC HVDC stations use a “symmetrical
monopole” arrangement where a single converter feeds two
overhead lines or cables, rated at ​±V
​ dc/2, Fig. 16. This mini-
mizes the insulation requirement with respect to ground
and also means that the transformer does not need to be
Fig. 16. Typical VSC HVDC converter station layout (ac filter may
designed to have an appreciable dc offset. Other designs with be omitted for MMC, and offshore the tap charger is typically
a dc offset have been implemented (e.g., Skagerrak 4 [11]); omitted on the transformer to reduce space and maintenance
see Fig. 11. requirements).

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 Barnes et al. : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

rare and have to be thoroughly investigated. The cables then

have to be repaired before reenergization of the system, and
thus fast power recovery is not possible.
In contrast to the half-bridge module, a full-bridge module
has three switching modes. In addition to the bypass mode, it
has the ability to apply both voltage polarities across its termi-
nals (Fig. 17). As a consequence, a converter arm equipped
with full-bridge modules can provide both voltage polari-
ties and thus the complete converter can provide both volt-
age polarities. In case of a dc line-to-line fault, the converter
does not turn into an uncontrolled rectifier. Instead, the fault
current can be suppressed either by blocking the converter
or by controlling dc to a desired value. This feature becomes
especially important for transmission systems with overhead
lines where the probability of dc line faults is much higher
due lightning strikes along the overhead line or bad weather
conditions. It is desirable to clear a dc fault and to recover
the power flow within a few hundreds of milliseconds. This is
common practice in LCC schemes. Converters with full-bridge
modules can do this in a similar way and additionally have Fig. 18. DQ control structure of VSC HVDC [47].
the capability to provide reactive current to the connected ac
grid during the deionization of the fault. Afterwards, the dc
voltage is smoothly ramped up and the power flow is reestab- ac voltages and currents to a two-phase (d and q) dc repre-
lished [45]. If necessary, the converter can be operated with sentation “locked” to the ac network voltage. This is then
a lower dc voltage to reduce the probability of flashovers in used to control real and reactive power either in a feedfor-
case of critical environmental conditions, such as heavy rain. ward structure [Fig. 18(a)] or using a power feedback loop
One last advantage of full-bridge MMC is that with special [Fig. 18(b)]. In practice, except when very fast control is
modulation algorithms and a modulation index significantly needed, power control based only on Fig. 18(a) has draw-
above one, higher dc currents can be achieved compared to backs. As with other feedforward only schemes it is substan-
converters with half-bridge modules [46]. tially more affected by voltage disturbance than feedback
schemes (and except for very strong ac systems, any change
in converter power produces a change in ac voltage [47]).
C. VSC HVDC Control
Given the potential flexibility of VSC HVDC, it has the
The VSC HVDC system typically controls the current of potential to offer significant network support services in a
each phase using the voltage at the converter terminals. Since smart grid. This would require coordination between VSC
the semiconductor switches are self-commutated, provid- HVDC and smart grid controls of similar bandwidth, and
ing a sufficient dc voltage exists, this can continue to operate this in turn requires greater integration and modeling.
down to very low ac voltage levels. However, the IGBTs have
in essence no overload capability; the output is limited to rated
D. VSC HVDC Modeling
current, so fast acting control and current protection is needed.
In most publications, a dq control structure of the con- Modeling of VSC-HVDC has been the focus of a recent
verter current is used. A PLL is used to converter three-phase Cigré Working Group [48]. The hierarchy proposed
(Fig.  19) is a useful delineator for modeling: the IGBT
switching level is only required if detailed investigation at
the level of submodule voltage and current waveforms are
required. Lower level controls (circulating current and
capacitor voltage controls for example) are only required if
the internal dynamics of the converter are required. If tran-
sient performance of the converter is required, then upper
level controls need to be defined (PLL performance and
transient voltage and power control). Only dispatch and sta-
tion controls need to be defined for load flows.
This then links into the level of modeling fidelity pro-
Fig. 17. Half-bridge and full-bridge modules with switching modes posed (Table II). For valve group switching, a type 2 or 3
(reproduced with permission from Siemens). model is required. For lower level controls, at least a type 4

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Table 2  Simulation Fidelity for VSC HVDC [48]

E. Recent Developments in VSC HVDC

Most recent developments for VSC HVDC have focused
on increasing power levels and also on tackling new appli-
cations for which VSC HVDC is particularly better suited
than LCC HVDC: offshore WF connection and formation of
multiterminal systems.
Fig. 19. VSC HVDC control and modeling hierarchy [48].
Offshore engineering of the converter requires ensuring
that environmental controls are suited to operation offshore
and engineering the solution for low maintenance and the
model is used, in which each submodule is converted to an limited space available in the offshore platform (Fig. 20).
equivalent circuit and these are manipulated algebraically to This is because the dominant cost is that of the platform
speed numerical solution. Level 4 is the level used in some rather than the converter, and operation and maintenance
real-time hardware-in-the-loop simulators. Upper level costs are strongly influenced by the cost of transporting
controls can typically be sufficiently modeled with a level 5 crews and parts to site.
control, where ac and dc sides of the converter are modeled Multiterminal solutions are better served by VSC HVDC
by controlled voltage or current sources, and power balance since a converter station can transition from rectifier to
is typically used to link the two. Phasor domain models are inverter mode by varying the direction of current. For LCC
sufficient for slower systems studies. Most economical of all this would require a reversal of voltage and a (mechani-
in terms of runtime are pure load flow models. cal) reconnection of the converter station to the dc grid.
As with LCC, a variety of other studies are needed, Solutions such as Nan’ao [35], Zhoushan [34], and the
though in format these are common with LCC; see
Section IV-B.
In practice, average value models (level 5) are used in
most transient system simulations, with simplified rep-
resentation of the connection transformers (neglecting
saturation), and dc cables (lumped parameter pi-section
models). However, where hardware and software limits of
the converter control are required, the detailed equivalent
model (level 4) of the converter gives accurate and fast per-
formance for most applications [49]. If fast transients (<10
ms) need to be accurately represented, a more detailed cable
model such as the frequency dependent phase model [50]
may be appropriate, or an equivalent circuit model that
more accurately represents the frequency range of study
than the cascaded, lumped equivalent pi-circuit models
[51]. For transient studies, transformer saturation can play a Fig. 20. Offshore VSC HVDC valve hall [28] (reproduced with
role and may need to be included [52]. permission from Siemens).

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 Barnes et al. : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

Fig. 21. Seven-terminal example VSC HVDC test system with

onshore converters (OSC) and WF converters (WFCs) offshore [53].

German Ultranet [13] systems are initial examples of the Fig. 22. Basic voltage characteristics for MTDC control [54]: (a)
technology needed. slack bus; (b) voltage margin; (c) voltage droop; and (d) voltage
droop with deadband.

V I.  MU LT I T ER M I NA L OPER AT ION

Since VSC HVDC is well suited to multiterminal operation, disturbance and keep dc voltage at a maximum to minimize
suitable control schemes need to be developed. losses. A deadband may be introduced into voltage droop to
In a multiterminal grid, each converter will be some dis- help achieve this in some converters [Fig. 22(d)] [55]. An
tance from the others, typically 100 km or more (Fig. 21); important point to note is the impact of electrical quantity
otherwise, ac would have been used. A central telecom- measurement accuracy. 0.1% dc voltage accuracy in meas-
munication system is not fast enough to control all sta- urement at high voltage is considered very accurate [56].
tions from a central point for primary or current control Particularly for shallow dc droop lines, realistic errors in dc
(Section  VI-B), given the very fast time constants of this. voltage measurement can lead to substantial power excur-
Local control needs to be used. For onshore converters, at sions unless appropriate actions are taken [56].
present, some form of droop control is typically used, i.e.,
real power is adjusted in response to dc voltage, and reac-
B. Multiterminal Control Hierarchy
tive power is adjusted in response to ac voltage variation.
Offshore the VSC HVDC converter typically sets the ac The segmentation of control levels proposed in [48]
voltage and frequency and absorbs the real power generated (Fig. 19) maps well to the levels proposed in [57] for control
by the WF. hierarchy: in an ac system, an innermost governor exciter
control is acted upon by primary frequency droop control
A. Droop Control Algorithms with typically a proportional controller type behavior. A
slower secondary power control (PI) in turn acts on this, and
Typical droop characteristics for dc voltage are shown tertiary (optimal power flow, OPF, dispatch control) affects
in Fig. 22. AC voltage against reactive power characteristics the secondary control. In HVDC, the corresponding control
may be similarly drawn. Power or current limits indicate levels are: an inner current loop, primary dc voltage droop
the maximum that each converter can import and export. control, a secondary power (often PI) loop, and again tertiary
The flatter the “droop,” the less the converter allows the OPF dispatch control. Significantly though, the primary and
dc voltage to vary. A converter in dc voltage control mode inner loop controls in HVDC, particularly VSC HVDC, are
(or “dc slack bus” mode) can be considered the special case order(s) of magnitude faster than for ac, and this needs to be
of a “flat” droop [Fig. 22(a)]. The steeper the droop line reflected in the simulation tools and studies used and in any
[Fig. 22(c)], the less aggressively the converter responds to eventual coordination with other smart grid systems.
a change in dc voltage to try and stabilize the dc voltage.
A constant power control can be thought of as the spe-
cial case of a vertical droop line [54]. Droop control can be V II.  H V D C PRO T EC T ION
used to share dc voltage control simultaneously between Currently, much work is being undertaken to develop ade-
converters. Alternatively margin control [Fig. 22(b)] may be quate protection of dc grids. The transients after a dc short
selected to determine a range of voltage values over which circuit are one order of magnitude faster than those at the
a converter undertakes voltage regulation. The overall goal ac side. Furthermore, dc itself is harder to interrupt as there
is to minimize the risk of interaction after a large power are no zero crossings.

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A.  DC Fault Clearing Strategies clear that both systems might employ different approaches
At the time of writing, VSC HVDC systems are still pro- to protecting the grid. Furthermore, the protection system
tected by breakers on the ac side. The size of such systems should retain its efficiency in case of asymmetric operation
is consequently limited in power so that their complete of a bipolar grid [58].
or temporary outage can be tolerated by the connected ac
system(s). As large links grow, for example, as dc grids arise, V III.   H V D C PRO T EC T ION EQU I PM E N T
this may not be the case. Smart grids could have a key role DC breakers exist for lower voltage applications. However,
to play here in making ac systems more robust to such tem- the dc breaking problem is challenging since simultaneous
porary outages. In theory, dc breakers could be used on each large currents and voltages must be dealt with, without the
line (Fig. 21). However, this would be prohibitively expen- periodic current zero and voltage present in ac.
sive at present, due to the cost associated with currently pro-
posed dc breakers. A. DC Breakers and LCC
Different philosophies have been approached to manage
the fault clearing process in dc grids [58]. One alternative [59] LCC HVDC has the advantage of a large dc side reac-
would be to use a dc breaker to segment the dc grid into two tance (except in back-to-back stations, which tend to be at
sections, the loss of any one of which could be tolerated. much lower voltages) which limits rate of rise of fault cur-
Another option which has been proposed is to clear the dc rent. Such HVDC breakers which are used in LCC HVDC
through the use of fault-tolerant converters. Such convert- are for reconnecting a pole, and such systems (such as the
ers allow containment of the dc short circuit by actively con- metallic return transfer breaker) do not need to break full
trolling (reducing) the dc voltage. The short circuit could be voltage and current simultaneously [38]. The principle chal-
cleared using much simpler dc switches or disconnectors, lenge is thus for VSC HVDC, which is also the presently pre-
after which the dc voltage can be restored quickly. ferred technology for future multiterminal grids.
Investigation of a fully rated dc breaker for LCC HVDC
B. Fault Detection in DC Grids was undertaken on the Pacific Intertie in the 1980s. The
400-kV, 2-kA device used the negative impedance character-
As the transients in dc systems are much faster, the fault istics of the electric arc to set up a resonant circuit with passive
detection and clearing process needs to be fast enough to components, providing a current zero to allow mechanical
identify faults and take appropriate actions depending on circuit breakers to extinguish the fault current [60].
whether the fault lies within its protection zone. In recent
years, many different fault detection strategies have been
developed. These strategies distinguish themselves in the
B. DC Breakers and Multiterminal VSC HVDC
use of voltage, current, or combined measurements (such The use of mechanical breakers is, however, too slow
as derivative or wavelet methods). They also differ in terms for VSC HVDC. While fault-blocking converters, such as
of signal processing requirements, the need for communi- those with full bridge submodules, could help, they would
cation within the substation or between terminals, and the still require that the entire dc network be de-energized. This
dependence on knowledge of cable, line, and substation may not be permissible for large dc grids.
parameters. These different detection algorithms also differ The dc breaker must be fast. Even with a large current
in the types of fault (including backup) that can be detected limiting reactor, the rate of rise of current in such a situation
and the time it takes to do the analysis. At this moment, is such that at present dc breakers would need to operate
while there are several academic proposals which can iden- in around 2–5 ms [61], [62] based on a peak current that
tify the fault sufficiently quickly, there is still the need to dc breakers could handle 10–20 kA. In order to obtain such
develop an industrial solution. fast operation, solid state switches would need to be used. A
purely solid-state breaker (with all semiconductor switches
C. Grounding Topology in the main path) would require many series devices to pro-
vide enough overvoltage capability, which would result in
Historically, HVDC systems were built either as an unacceptable conduction losses.
asymmetrical monopole or a bipolar configuration, with a
solid grounding point. These systems are characterized by
high short circuit currents, without high-voltage transients. C. The Hybrid DC Breaker Concept
With the development of VSC HVDC, the symmetrical A solution is the proactive hybrid circuit breaker concept
monopole configuration became the new standard. Such a developed by ABB (Fig. 23). Current normally flows through
system is grounded using a high impedance ground, which a large current limiting reactor, an ultrafast disconnector
significantly reduces the dc short circuit current in case of (UFD), mechanical switch, and a load commutation switch
a pole to ground fault, but causes doubling of the voltage on (LCS). The LCS is made of a relatively few semiconductor
the healthy pole. For future dc grids, the decision on which devices in series and parallel. If a fault onset is suspected, the
system will be developed is not clear. Nevertheless, it is parallel branch made up of a stack of semiconductor devices

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 Barnes et al. : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

advantageous when transferring high power over long dis-

tances, connection of systems using cables, and the connec-
tion of asynchronous networks. Different drivers have created
new opportunities for HVDC. In industrialized countries, a
liberalization of the energy system increases international
trade and a change toward alternative energy sources requires
fundamental upgrades of the already ageing power system.
Fig. 23. ABB proactive hybrid circuit breaker [61] (reproduced with
Furthermore, a strong drive for more cable connections (also
permission from ABB). on land) arose, since such systems experience much less oppo-
sition and shorter lead times. The need for additional trans-
mission is driven by the general policy objectives of having a
(the main breaker) can be closed, and the LCS opened. more reliably, sustainable, and cost-effective energy supply.
Current now transfers to the main breaker. The UFD can The European Network of Transmission System Operators
then open under zero current conditions. The main breaker for Electricity (ENTSO-E) has announced in 2014 that over
can quickly extinguish fault current, or transfer current back 50 000 km of new transmission assets are needed in Europe
to the normal conduction path if the breaker is not required by 2030, of which 25% would be realized using HVDC [65].
to trip. This and other circuit breaker concepts are presently In developing nations, high growth rates resulted in high
under investigation by manufacturers and academia for HV increases in electric power consumption and generation.
and MV applications [63]. The modular nature of MMC These new investments require substantial upgrades in the
HVDC and the mature nature of semiconductor technol- transmission infrastructure. This has led to new record break-
ogy for LCC HVDC mean that wide bandgap semiconduc- ing installations in terms of voltage, power, and transmission
tors have limited potential for immediate impact on HVDC line length for dc systems in China and India.
converter technology. However improving the voltage
and current withstand capability of devices in dc breakers B. Framework for HVDC
could be highly beneficial and here wide bandgap devices The development of HVDC systems needs to be eco-
could have an important role to play. nomically viable, as with any other transmission invest-
ment, and a positive outcome of the cost benefit analysis is
D. Peculiarities of HVDC Breakers required from the investor point of view. The development
A key factor of HVDC circuit breakers is the impact of the of such systems is, therefore, strongly linked to the manner
dc limiting reactor. This is a large component which must in which the remuneration of such systems is organized
withstand full dc fault current. The addition of this to a mul- (particularly for links between different countries). This
remuneration either comes from tariffs (regulated), comes
titerminal dc network will also change the effective cable or
from market revenues (merchant) for selling capacity,
line impedance and may negatively impact on stability [53].
transmitting power, or from offering ancillary services, or
Additionally the traveling wave caused by the dc fault will be
from a mix. The regulatory framework in place has a strong
reflected by the fault limiting inductor and this will cause a
influence on the risks associated with such investments:
transient increase of the voltage at the dc breaker [62], [64].
appropriate ratings, connection points, timing, possibili-
This traveling wave effect may cause an initial faster rate of
ties to interlink with existing projects, etc. At the current
rise of current for a fault some distance away from the breaker
stage, a patchwork of different regulations exist, often
(a nonterminal fault) than for a terminal fault. After several
focused on the local, national level. This patchwork com-
milliseconds, current eventually rises to a higher level in a ter-
plicates the development of a cost-optimal transmission
minal, than a nonterminal, fault as a result of the lower series
system. Here opportunities exist for coordination between
impedance between the fault and the converter, but for those
smart grids and HVDC.
initial few milliseconds, a nonterminal fault can give higher
fault currents. Since the dc breaker must act within the first
few milliseconds, this means a nonterminal fault can be the C. Grid Codes
worst case fault condition for such breakers. HVDC connections are currently predominantly built
by a single vendor. Such systems will, in the future, espe-
I X .   ECONOM ICS A N D P OL IC Y cially when dc grids are concerned, consist of different com-
ponents from different manufacturers and with different
A. Drivers for HVDC properties. These systems also should allow the connection
HVDC has received much attention in recent years, not of new components to the system. In order to ensure a neu-
only because of its technical merits, but because of the advan- tral, multivendor system which operates reliably, a number
tages from an economic point of view. HVDC offers specific of technical requirements need to be agreed on. This agree-
advantages over ac systems. DC systems are specifically ment or requirement is described in grid codes. Factors

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 Barnes et al . : HVDC Systems in Smar t Grids

which need to be set in such a grid code are described in In addition to controller integration with HVDC, smart
[66]. These include the steady state operating ranges of the grid battery energy storage might be used to help provide
dc grid, allowed transient overvoltages and undervoltages, frequency support services, support the network during
the voltage-power balancing requirements, the connection temporary outages, or could be closely coordinated with
requirements of new components, data exchange require- energy trading in HVDC merchant links. This requires
ments, among many others. Considerable work is presently further research particularly for a system where high
being undertaken to develop a consensus on such grid code levels of renewables potentially reduce ac system inertia
requirements. and resilience.
The start of the rise of HVDC grids can be seen both
in the developments in the German network (Fig. 1) and
X .   T H E F U T U R E OF H V D C I N SM A RT
in China. Recent proposals for the Zhangbei four-terminal
GR IDS
​±5​ 00-kV VSC HVDC network [67] show the rapid strides
Many of the drivers for the use of LCC and VSC HVDC being taken. This was echoed in June 2016 when China
links can be seen throughout smart grids: the need to inte- Southern Power Grid Co (CSG) shut off the ac links between
grate low-carbon energy, the integration of new loads, and Yunnan and its remaining network, making Yunnan its own
constraints on new transmission corridors. HVDC will synchronous power zone, connected to the remaining CSG
be part of the suite of smart grid solutions: particularly system by HVDC [68]. Even though some schemes, such as
for the connection of offshore renewables to onshore ac the Desertec project, integrating Europe to North Africa,
networks, to provide links between two unsynchronized have lost some momentum in parallel with political devel-
ac networks, and strengthen ac networks through embed- opments, an integrated HVDC multiterminal network over-
ded back-to-back or point-to-point links. Similar prob- lay as part of a smart grid system may be appearing sooner
lems will need to be faced through all voltage levels in the than expected.
smart grid: power electronic interfaces replacing conven-
tional synchronous generation so that frequency support
and rate of change of frequency must be managed; fault X I.  CONC LUSION
current and protection systems of legacy plant must be HVDC technology is a well-proven and economic solution
accommodated; means to introduce new systems which to a number of problems in power network transmission.
offer significant advantages should be enabled; harmonic Many years of successful operational experience are now
level and filtering need to be considered. Clearly careful held with both LCC and VSC HVDC. Both ­technologies
coordination between smart grid implementation at the are still developing rapidly, and higher power solu-
distribution level and HVDC developments at the trans- tions are being developed by a number of manufacturers.
mission level needs to be undertaken. Point-to-point solutions are well understood. Future inno-
The great flexibility of VSC HVDC control will mean vative solutions will arise to further develop markets for
that it will continue to hold a strong market share of the HVDC grids, including common grid codes and HVDC dc
HVDC market. Opportunities exist to coordinate VSC protection.  
and smart grid control with an appropriate common ICT
framework, allowing common functionality to potentially Acknowledgement
be coordinated seamlessly, and smart grids to benefit from The authors would like to thank Dr. D. Vilchis-Rodriguez at
the use of well-established and proven HVDC controllers. the University of Manchester for Fig. 13.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mike Barnes (Senior Member, IEEE) received the Simon P. Teeuwsen received the Dipl.-Ing. degree
B.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of in electrical power engineering and the Ph.D.
Warwick, Coventry, U.K., in 1993 and 1998, respec- degree from the University of Duisburg-Essen,
tively. Duisburg, Germany, in 2001 and 2005, respectively.
He became a Lecturer at the University of Since 2005, he has been working for Sie-
Manchester Institute of Science and Technol- mens, Erlangen, Germany, as an expert for net-
ogy (UMIST, now merged with The University of work studies in the field of high-voltage dc power
Manchester), Manchester, U.K., in 1997, where he transmission.
is currently a Professor. His research covers the Dr. Teeuwsen was awarded the Basil Papadias
field of power electronics systems. Award from the IEEE PowerTech 2005 Conference in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Magnus Callavik (Member, IEEE) received the

Dirk Van Hertem (Senior Member, IEEE) received
M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the Royal Institute
the M.Eng. degree from KHK, Geel, Belgium, in
of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, in 1994 and
2001 and the M.Sc. and PhD. degrees in electri-
1998, respectively. He received an Executive MBA
cal engineering from the KU Leuven, Leuven,
from Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm,
Belgium, in 2003 and 2009, respectively.
Sweden, in 2009 and has been a certified Project
Since 2011, he has been an Associate Pro-
Management Professional (PMP) since 2008.
fessor in the ELECTA group, KU Leuven and he
He joined ABB, V�ster�s, Sweden, in 1999
coordinates the R&D activities in the field of
where he is currently the Vice President and
electrical systems at the research institute Ener-
Technology Manager for the Business Unit Grid System, which covers the
gyVille, Genk, Belgium. His special fields of interest are power system
areas of high-voltage dc (HVDC), offshore wind connections, high-voltage
operation and control.
cables, and power semiconductor at the Power Grids Division.

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