ELECTRONICS LAB I EE321

INTRODUCTION

Voltage Gain: Capacitor Code: 3-digit code. The first two digits are the
significant digits. The third digit specifies the number of
vO vO = output voltage
Av = vI = input voltage
zeros to follow the result, giving the value in picofarads.
For example:
vI
Av ( dB ) = 20 log Av 103 = 10 & 000 = 10000 pF = 10 nF = .01 mF.

Power Gain: DIGITAL SIGNAL ANALYZER (DSA)

The sample rate must be at least two times the frequency.
PL vO iO PL = load power
Ap = = = Av Ai PI = input power
The sample rate is the number of samples taken per
PI v I iI second or frame size / total sample time .
The frame size is required by the software to be some power
Ap ( dB ) = 20 log Ap of two. This is the number of segments that the sample
Current Gain: is broken into.
iO = output current The total sample time must be some multiple of the period
iO
Ai = iI = input current (no fractions of a period).
iI frame size
total sample time =
Ai ( dB ) = 20 log Ai sample rate
Transistor Bias: difference in potential between base and
1
emitter. total sample time = × number of periods
Q-Point: (also quiescent point, dc bias point, operating point) frequency
is the center of the transfer characteristic (operating
voltage range) at which it is desirable to bias the frame size number of periods
transistor. =
The mean is the average value. sample rate frequency

% ERROR in measurement. Fourier Series: Any periodic function of period T can be

value of one division expressed as a sum of sinusoids. The Fourier Series is
× 100 = percent error only valid for functions that are truly periodic--that never
value of measuremen t end.
1 ∞
  2πm  
× 100 = percent error v(t ) = Ao + ∑  Am sin   + φm 
quantity counted m =1   T  
1 T
RMS error is the average error (in
εrms = rms error [eng. where Ao = ∫ v (t ) dt = the DC level or average value of
engineering units), also called the
units] T 0
N = number of samples the function. A0 is the DC level. Am is the amplitude of the
standard deviation.
m harmonic. φm is the phase of the m harmonic.
th th
mi = sample [eng. units]
2 N
1 m = mean value (avg.
ε rms =   ∑ (m − m )2 value) [eng. units] 1 T
2
 1 T 
2

∫ v (t ) sin(2mπt / T ) dt  +  ∫ v (t ) cos( 2mπt / T ) dt 

i
N  i −1 Am = 
T 0
 T 0 
1 T 
RESISTOR COLOR CODE  ∫0 v (t ) cos( 2mπt / T ) dt 
 T 
FIRST 2 BANDS THIRD BAND FOURTH BAND φ = arctan
COLOR VALUE COLOR MAGNITUDE COLOR TOLERANCE 1 T 
 ∫0 v (t ) sin(2mπt / T ) dt 
black 0 silver 0.XX Ω none ±20% T 
brown 1 gold X.X Ω silver ±10%
red 2 black XX Ω gold ±5%
orange 3 brown XX0 Ω
yellow 4 red X.X Ω
green 5 orange XX kΩ
blue 6 yellow XX0 kΩ
purple 7 green X.X MΩ
gray 8 blue XX MΩ
white 9

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 11/22/98

 THE OSCILLOSCOPE

MEASURING PHASE SHIFT: DETERMINING THE TIME CONSTANT τ :

φ = phase shift [degrees] Method 1: Where the voltage can be observed reaching the
Finding the phase
∆t = difference in time of the zero- steady state value:
shift on the scope: 1) Place cursor C2 where the voltage appears to have
crossings of two waveforms
∆t [seconds] reached the steady state. It remains here.
φ= × 360 degrees T = period [seconds] 2) Place cursor C1 at another point on the curve.
T 3) Record ∆V1 and ∆T1.
4) Move C1 to another position along the curve.
Finding phase shift by interpolation: 5) Record ∆V2 and ∆T2.
6) Solve for τ
∆T ∆V2 − ∆T1 − ∆T2
ts ts ts ts ts ln =
∆V1 τ
c22 C2 2
c12 C12 Method 2: This method can be used even when the steady
state voltage value is not visible:
0 1) Place cursor C2 on the curve near its midpoint relative
to the x-axis. It remains here.
C21 2) Choose a value for ∆T such that cursor C1 may be
c21
C11 placed this distance from C2 on either side.
c11
3) Using C1, determine values ∆V1 and ∆V2 found by
ti1 ti2 placing C1 ∆T from the left and ∆T from the right of C2.
4) ∆V1 and ∆V2 are interchangeable, affecting only the sign
∆ T' of the result. Use the formula to find τ :
∆V2 − ∆T
where:
ln =
ts = the sample period of the scope [seconds] ∆V1 τ
ti1 = the horizontal distance from cursor position C11 to
the zero crossing of the first wave [seconds]
ti2 = the horizontal distance from cursor position C21 to
the zero crossing of the second wave [seconds]
∆T' = the actual offset of the two waves [seconds]
∆T = the offset of the two waves as measured by the first-
selected cursor positions [seconds]
C11 = the first-selected position of Cursor 1
C21 = the first-selected position of Cursor 2
C12 = the second-selected position of Cursor 1
C22 = the second-selected position of Cursor 2
c11 = the vertical dimension of the first-selected position
of Cursor 1 [volts]
c21 = the vertical dimension of the first-selected position
of Cursor 2 [volts]
c12 = the vertical dimension of the second-selected
position of Cursor 1 [volts]
c22 = the vertical dimension of the second-selected
position of Cursor 2 [volts]

c11 c 21
ti 1 = ts ti 2 = ts
c11 + c 21 c 21 + c 2 2
dT ' = dT − ti1 + ti 2

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 11/22/98

 OP AMPS

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IDEAL OP AMP DIFFERENTIATING AMPLIFIER

• The difference between the voltages at the inputs (v2 - v1)
multiplied by the open-loop gain A yields the op amp Rf
output A(v2 - v1).
• The input impedance is infinite. Cs
• The input current is zero. +Vcc
Vs - Vo
• The output impedance is zero.
• The output current is whatever is required to maintain the +
dv S
output voltage. Vo = − R f Cs -Vcc
• The output is in phase with the signal at the positive input. dt
• Infinite common-mode rejection, the rejection of identical
signals at the + and - inputs. φ = +90°
• The open-loop gain A is equal for all frequencies.
• The open-loop gain A is infinite. DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
Rf
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Rf
Rs Vn +Vcc
Va -
Rs Vo
Vs +Vcc Ra
- Vo Vb Vp
+
-Vcc
Rf +
Vo = − Vs -Vcc Rb
Rs

INVERTING SUMMING AMPLIFIER Rb Vn − Va Vn − Vo

Vn = V p = Vb + =0
Ra Rf Ra + Rb Rs Rf
Va
INTEGRATING AMPLIFIER
Rb +Vcc
Vb Cf
- Vo
Rc
Vc + Rs
-Vcc Vs +Vcc
- Vo
 Rf Rf Rf  +
Vo = − Va + Vb + V  -Vcc
 Ra Rb Rc c 
1 t
NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER Vo = −
Rs C f ∫ V τ dτ + V ( t
to
s o o) φ = +90°
Rf
FOLLOWER OR UNITY GAIN AMPLIFIER
Rs +Vcc
- Vo +Vcc
Vg
Rg - Vo
+
-Vcc Vs +
Rs + R f -Vcc
Vo = Vg
Rs

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 11/22/98

 DIODES

FORWARD-BIASED DIODE
THERMAL VOLTAGE
VT = thermal voltage, ≈ 25 mV
i + v - k = Boltzmann's constant,
kT 1.38×10-23 joules/kelvin
VT = T = absolute temperature
q (kelvins), 273 + temp. in
anode cathode °C
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IDEAL DIODE q = magnitude of electronic
• If v is negative, the diode is reversed biased and acts as an charge, 1.60×10-19
open circuit. coulomb
• If a positive current is applied in the direction shown, the
diode is forward biased and acts like a closed switch RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
with v = 0. 2-DIODE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
CHARACTERISTICS OF A REAL DIODE IL
• If v is negative, the diode is reversed biased. If the
magnitude of v is small, the diode conducts little until +
the magnitude of v reaches the breakdown voltage at Vsm RL
which point the diode conducts.
C
• If a positive current is applied in the direction shown, the -
diode is forward biased. There is not a significant
vs ~ +
amount of conduction until the voltage reaches about
0.7V. For higher voltages, the diode conducts with a
Vsm
small voltage drop. -

ID = diode current
THE I:V RELATIONSHIP (EE338
version) IN THE FORWARD- IS = saturation current FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
BIAS REGION e = natural number
VD = voltage across diode +
I D = I S eVD / nVT n = 1 generally
IL
VT = thermal voltage, ≈ 25 mV vs ~ Vsm
ln I D / I S =VD / nVT -
C RL
ID = diode current
THE I:V RELATIONSHIP (version
from previous class) IN THE IS = saturation current
FORWARD-BIAS REGION e = natural number
VD = voltage across diode Formulas apply for small
Vripple = ripple voltage, peak to peak
I D = I S (e VD / nVT
− 1) n = 1 generally
ripple voltages:
Vsm = transformer voltage, peak
VT = thermal voltage, ≈ 25 mV Vsm
Vripple = f = frequency [Hz]
2 fRL C RL = load resistance [Ω]
C = capacitance [F]
V
VL = Vsm − ripple
2

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 11/22/98

 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS - DC ANALYSIS

heavily lightly collector

doped doped n IB = DC base current
Emitter Base Collector base p npn
BASE CURRENT:
IC = DC collector current
The relationships among the IE = DC emitter current
n p n n
emitter
emitter, base, and collector currents β = the beta value of the
are functions of β . The transistor
electron flow

emitter relationships apply to signal current

p
IE IB IC as well as DC current.
base n pnp
I C = βI B I E = (β + 1) I B
p
forward biased reverse biased collector
(Current flows in the
direction of the arrow)
α AND β : α is constant for a particular
transistor. It's value is less
I I than but close to 1, normally
Bias: the difference in DC potential between base and emitter. α= C β= C 0.98-0.9995. α is the gain of
IE IB a Common-Base amplifier.
B C
SMALL SIGNAL MODEL (NPN)
β α β is constant for a particular
ib α= β= transistor, typically in the
βib
Use for DC analysis.
Ideal
β +1 1− α range of 100 to 200 but may
For PNP, reverse the polarities of the be 50-2000. Since the value
diode and voltage supply; reverse the + of β may vary significantly
0.7V
direction of flow in the current among transistors of the same
supply.
E type, a β -tolerant circuit
design is desirable. β is the
Common-Emitter current gain.
Q-POINT: VCC
The Q-Point (also quiescent point, dc
bias point, or operating point) is the
center of the transfer characteristic
R2 RC
(operating voltage range) at which it is
desirable to bias the transistor. It is IC
adjusted by setting the DC voltage
level of the base terminal. IB
Rule of Thumb: To set the Q-Point,
let
1
VB = RC I C = VCC IE
3
and
IE
I1 = 10 I B = 10 R1 RE
β +1
where I1 is the current through the
base-to-ground resistor.

A transistor iC DC LOADLINE
amplifier is biased
so that the Q-Point 8
is located near the
center of the DC mA 6
Loadline. When Q-Point
an AC signal is 4
applied, the Q- 2
Point oscillates
along the loadline.
5 10 15 20 vCE
volts

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 11/22/98

 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

Junction Field Effect Transistor JFET

N channel P channel Depletion-type
D D
N MOSFET P
channel D channel D
G G
G B G B
S S
S S
Creating a Never
depletion region forward Drain Depletion-type MOSFET
by reverse biasing biased
the gate reduces
n MOSFET’s do
Gate
(pinches) current p p not have thermal Gate may be
positive or Drain
runaway.
between the drain
VGG n VDD
negative
n
and the source. Gate Substrate
Source p
n
Source
Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors
Enhancement-type MOSFET
N channel P channel
SETUP FOR PLOTTING CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
D D
G B G B
S S R2
G Gate D
D Drain
Thin silicon
dioxide layer
R1
B Substrate* Metal Drain
G
S Source n vs1 +- S
vs2 +-
Gate Substrate
p
*usually
connected n
internally to Source In Pspice, select Analysis / Setup / DC Sweep / Linear / Nested
the source / Voltage Source / Values. Set values for Vs1 such as 0,-
1,-2,-3,-4. Sweep Vs2 over a range of voltages. Plot drain
current versus drain-to-source voltage.
FET
2N3819

S G D

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 11/22/98

 GENERAL

GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have
a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis
represents the independent variable and the y-axis
represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph
is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often
this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding
data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the y-
axis.
PSPICE ABBREVIATIONS
AC voltage used for AC sweep simulation
DF (large value) from e^(-DF(T)/2)
TD Time Delay before start
TR Time to Rise
TRAN the source voltage for a transient analysis
TF Time to Fall
PW Pulse Width
PER Period
T1, T2, T3, etc. elapsed time from zero
V1 bottom voltage level (must be less than V2)
V2 top or next voltage level
VAMPL voltage amplitude
VOFF voltage offset
PARAMETERS IN PSPICE
Let’s say we are setting up parameters for a resistor RL.
We choose a parameter name RLpar. In the resistor RL
attributes dialog we enter VALUE={RLpar}. Add a new
part PARAM. In its attributes dialog set NAME1=RLpar.
Give it a default value like VALUE1=10k. Close the dialog
and drag the part PARAMETERS to one side to be sure
that there isn’t another one hidden under it.
Select Analysis, Settings, Parametric. Under Swept
Variable Type, select Global Parameter. Under Name,
put RLpar. Under Sweep Type, fill in as appropriate.

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 11/22/98