CHAPTER SIX

SOILS, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES OF

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

Introduction
The past geological process and varied climatic events ensured Ethiopia to have varied soil and
biological diversity. The formation and spatial variability of soils in Ethiopia is largely related to
topographic and climatic factors, parent material (rocks) and land use. Different parts of
Ethiopian regions experiences. Likewise, the distribution of wildlife and natural vegetation in
Ethiopia and the Horn is controlled by many factors important among which are climate, soil
types, drainage, etc.

Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and Conservation

Introduction

Soil is a delicate but highly varied composition of mineral particles, organic matter and living
organisms in dynamic equilibrium. This variability reflects primarily the parent material from
which the soil was formed over very long periods of time and the environment in which the soil

has developed. It consists of weathered mineral materials (45%), organic matter (5%), air (20-
30%) and water (20-30%).

The formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent material, climate, topography, living
organism and time.

Weathering disintegrates the inorganic substances (rocks) of soils. It is the breakdown of rocks at
the Earth's surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological activity.
There are three types of weathering involving in soil formation. These are:
 A. Mechanical (physical) weathering

Physical disintegration causes decrease in size&shape without appreciably altering composition.

due to heating and cooling or expansion of ice break the rock. Abrasion (erosion by friction) due
to water containing sediment or wind carrying debris is another type of physical weathering.

B. Biological weathering

The weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals and microbes. Roots of
plant can exert pressure on rock. (i.e., growing roots). Microbial activity breaks down rock
minerals by altering the rock‟s chemical composition,
C. Chemical weathering

Chemical weathering involves the modification of the chemical and mineralogical composition
of the weathered material. The most common chemical weathering processes are hydrolysis,
oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation, and solution.

In most cases, the minerals in the parent materials are also found in the soils, which are formed
from the disintegration and decomposition of the rock. However, this is not true of alluvial soils,
which are transported from one place to the other by agents like running water.

Soils have two basic properties:

Physical properties
influenced by composition and proportion of major soil components. Properties such as texture,
structure, porosity etc. are categorized under physical soil properties. These properties affect air
and water movement in the soil, and thus the soil‟s ability to function.

Chemical Properties
Soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical conductivity, soil pH, etc. Soil chemical
properties affect soil biological activity and indirectly the nutrient dynamics.
 Major Soil Types in Ethiopia

derived from crystalline, volcanic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. soil divisions in the country
are based on the geologic structure. However, it should be born in mind that, there are soils
formed due to long waited deposition of sediments.

FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia at scale of 1:2,000,000. Out of the major
soils, 11 soil associations cover about 87.4 percent of the land area. The six major groups of
soils in Ethiopia are discussed under the following points:

A. Environmental condition i.e. parent material, climatic conditions, topography, the way
they were formed.
B. Characteristic i.e. significant chemical and physical properties.
C. Agricultural suitability in relation to texture, structure, topography, moisture-storage
capacity, etc.
D. Occurrence: general location of the soil types.

1. Nitosols and Acrisols

Nitosols develop on gently sloping ground. Their parent materials include trap series volcanics,
volcanic ash, and even metamorphic rocks. They are strongly weathered soils but far more
productive than most other tropical soils.

Due to the high rainfall, there is considerable soil leaching which makes the nitosols to be poor
in soluble minerals like potassium, calcium etc.; and rich in non-soluble minerals like iron and
aluminum. The reddish-brown color of these soils is because of high concentration of iron
(ferric) oxides due to leaching. But they are now widely found on cultivated areas and on
mountain grasslands. Nitosols are dominantly found in western highlands (Wellega),
southwestern highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora), Southern highlands, Central highlands, and Eastern
highlands.

Acrisols are one of the most inherently infertile soils of the tropics, becoming degraded
chemically and organically very quickly when utilized. Acrisols have very low resilience to
degradation and moderate sensitivity to yield decline. In Ethiopia, it has lost most of the base
nutrients and are characterized by low productive capacity. Acrisols are found along with
nitosols mostly in some pockets of southwestern highlands of Ethiopia
Vertisols

Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays when wet, and cracks
when dry. These soils are extremely difficult to manage (hence easily degraded), but has very
high natural chemical fertility. Vertisols mostly develop on volcanic plateau basalt, trachyte and
pyroclastic materials, sedimentary rocks, colluvial slopes and alluvial plains. The vertisols are
also soils of highlands and moderate climates. In Ethiopia, they are commonly found in parts of
Northwestern, Central and Southeastern highlands (especially in Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale and
central Hararghe).

2. Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol

These soils are mostly found in rugged topography and steep slopes. There is little evidence of
pedogenic processes (soil forming processes). As a result, they are young, shallow and coarse
textured and so have low water holding capacity. In addition, they are found in areas of low rainfall. So, most of
the areas covered by these soils have limited agricultural use. They are, in most cases, left under the natural
plant cover and used for grazing.

By and large, these soils are found in different parts of rugged and steep slopes of Central
Highlands, on the Rift Valley Escarpments and highlands in of western Hararghe. Regosol and
Lithosols are also found in the Danakil and eastern Ogaden.

3. Xerosols, Yermosols and Solanchaks

These are soils of desert or dry steppe soils majorly available in arid and semiarid areas. Though
the degree may vary, desert soils are characterized by high salt content and low organic content,
because of the scanty vegetation. Generally speaking, these soils have poor humus content and
nitrogen, but are rich in phosphorus and potash and can be very fertile if irrigated.

Xerosols are soils of the deserts, has low organic content. These soils are extremely subjected to
wind erosion and concentration of soluble salts. Yermosols are even drier and more problematic
than Xerosols. Solanchaks are saline soils which develop in areas of high evaporation and
capillary action. Badly managed irrigation schemes may turn soils into solonchaks.

In Ethiopia, Xerosols are found in Ogaden and northeastern escarpments, whereas the Yermosols
and Solonchaks cover the Ogaden and Afar plains. The Solonchaks are majorly located in salty
plains of Afar.
4. Fluvisols

Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial deposits. These soils are
associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and lacustine (lake) deposits.

These are soils formed due to deposition of eroded materials from highlands. The deposition
takes place in depressions, lower valleys and lowlands. Lower regions of rivers like Omo,
Awash, Abay and the plains of Akobo and Baro Rivers are home for fluvivsols. Lakes region
(main Ethiopian rift) is also characterized by fluvisols.

Fluvisols are highly variable, but much prized for intensive agriculture because:

 they develop on flat ground, deposition sites,

 they are associated with rivers and ground water, making them important for large-scale
irrigation and
 they are fertile and their fertility is always renewed as a result of deposition of new soil
materials.
5. Luvisols

Luvisols develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry seasons occur in alternation.
Where leaching is not very high, they are found in association with nitosols. Luvisols have good
chemical nutrients and they are among the best agricultural soils in the tropics. So, they are
intensively cultivated. However, when luvisols are found on steep slopes (stony) and on flat
areas (waterlogged) they are avoided and left for grazing. In Ethiopia, places with luvisols
include Lake Tana area, parts of Northern, Central and Eastern Highlands and Southern
lowlands.
 Soil Degradation

Soil degradation is defined as a change in any or all of soil status resulting in a diminished
capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services. It could also be the deterioration of the
physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. It is a critical and growing global problem. It is a
major concern for at least two reasons. First, soil degradation undermines the productive capacity
of an ecosystem. Second, it affects global climate through alterations in water and energy
balances and disruptions in cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements.

There are three major types of soil degradation. These are:

i. Physical Degradation: refers to the deterioration of the physical properties of soil. This
includes:
A. Compaction: densification of soil is caused by the elimination or reduction of structural
pores. Soils prone to compaction are susceptible to accelerated runoff and erosion.
B. Soil erosion: is a three-phase process consisting of the detachment of individual soil
particles, transportation and deposition. The continuous strike of soil surface by rain
droplets considerably weakness the soil and makes susceptible to erosion. When
sufficient amount of water accumulates, the soil will begin to move towards lower slope
until the erosive agent loses its energy. Erosion of topsoil by wind and water exceeds soil
formation at an alarming rate. Obviously for countries like Ethiopia where agriculture
plays the dominant role in the economy and livelihood of the people, the causes,
consequences and possible ways of minimizing soil erosion require serious consideration.
In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons per hectare of soils is eroded annually.

ii. Biological Degradation

Reduction in soil organic matter content, decline in biomass carbon, and decrease in activity and
diversity of soil fauna are ramifications of biological degradation. Because of prevailing high soil
and air temperatures, biological degradation of soil is more severe in the tropics than in the
temperate zone. It can also be caused by indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals and soil
pollutants.
iii. Chemical Degradation

Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical degradation. In addition, excessive leaching of

cat-ions in soils with low-activity clays causes a decline in soil pH and a reduction in base
saturation. Chemical degradation is also caused by the buildup of some toxic chemicals and an
elemental imbalance that is injurious to plant growth.

Causes of soil degradation

Soil degradation may result from natural and human-induced causes. Topographic and climatic
factors such as steep slopes, frequent floods and tornadoes, storms and high-velocity wind, high-
intensity rains and drought in dry regions are among the natural causes. Deforestation and
overexploitation of vegetation, overgrazing, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and lack of soil
conservation practices, and over extraction of ground water are some anthropogenic causes of
soil degradation.

Soil Erosion Control Measures

The aim of soil conservation is to reduce erosion to a level at which the maximum sustainable
level of agricultural production, grazing or recreational activity can be obtained from an area of
land without unacceptable environmental damage. Since erosion is a natural process, it cannot be
prevented. But it can be reduced to a maximum acceptable level or soil loss tolerance.

We have two major soil erosion control mechanisms. These are:

A. Biological Control measures

These types of soil erosion control mechanisms include vegetative strips, plantation, and
reforestation. Biological controls can prevent splash erosion, reduces the velocity of surface
runoff, increases surface roughness which reduces runoff and increases infiltration, and etc.

B. Physical control measures

Physical measures are used to control the movement of water and wind over the soil surface. The
major types of physical erosion control measures commonly applied in Ethiopia includes
terracing, check dams, gabion, trenches, contour ploughing, soil bunds etc.
 Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia

Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that develops with little or no human interference. It
can also be seen as any original plant cover grown in an area. Its distribution on the surface of
the earth is uneven majorly controlled by factors such as climate, soil types, drainage, etc.
However, to a large extent, temperature and precipitation affect the spatial distribution and the
original plant cover of a region. That is why, more than any other single element, the natural
vegetation of an area becomes a very good indicator of the climatic conditions.

Natural vegetations are vital for human beings in many ways. Plants can provide shelter, food,
source of fuel, pasture and grazing, raw material for industries, source of timber and non-timber
products. The other uses include moderating effect on local climate, as home of wild life,
medicinal values, minimizing soil erosion etc.

The characteristics of Ethiopia's natural vegetation are to a large extent determined by elevation
(and temperature) and rainfall. In Ethiopia, since temperature is mostly controlled by elevation,
the spatial distribution of natural vegetation in the country is strongly correlated to it. Lowlands
due to their low rainfall and high temperature have harsh environment and are characterized by
xeromorphic plants (plants which are adapted to drought and high temperatures). Highlands (up
to about 3000 m) are cooler than the lowlands and where there is adequate moisture a variety of
forests can be seen. Plants whose growth is limited by the low temperature characterize high
altitude areas (mostly above 3000 m). Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000 species of
higher plants of which 10% are endemic.

Major Natural Vegetation Types of Ethiopia

Taking altitude into consideration it is possible to broadly classify the vegetation belts of
Ethiopia into the following five groups.

1. Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region

2. Forest Region
3. Woodland Savannah Region
4. Steppe Region
5. Semi-desert Region
1. Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region
Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine and sub afro-alpine habitats in Africa. This
vegetation type, also known as high mountain vegetation is similar to the Alpine vegetation in
temperate regions. These ecosystems are found on mountains having an elevation ranging
between 3,200 and 4,620 meters above sea level. The Afro-alpine habitat covers nearly 1.3% of
the total landmass of Ethiopia.

The Afro-alpine region is found at very high altitudes (4,000 – 4,620 m). Like any other
landform in Ethiopian, the climate of Afro-alpine ecosystems is controlled by latitude and
altitude. The annul precipitation which ranges between 800 and 1,500 mm, is mostly in the form
of sleet or snow. Temperature records of 0oC and below are widely experienced in these
ecosystems. Soils in this ecosystem are mostly shallow and eroded. The Bale and Semein
mountains are typical examples of afro-alpine vegetations.

Compared to the Afro-alpine, the Sub-afro-alpine region is found at a lower elevation, roughly
between 3,300 and 4,000 meters. As a result, the plants in this region are adapted to somewhat
less extreme environment than the Afro-alpine.

Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region consists of tussock grasslands, scrub, scattered mosses and
lichens while the Sub-afro alpine region is dominated by woodland, often degraded to scrub
stages and also wet grasslands. Lobelia rhynchopetalum (giberra) and Erica arborea (Asta) are
some of the dominant species in the Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine regions respectively.

2. Forest Region
Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting predominantly of trees that shield earth and support
numerous life forms. Not all forests are similar in terms of species composition, structure and
physiognomy. In any geographical region, environmental factors such as climate, soil types,
topography and elevation determine the types of forests.

In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations, 450 to 3,500m in humid parts and 2,300 to
3,300 m in most arid parts. Moreover, forests are characterized by variation in mean annual
rainfall that range between 200 and 2,200mm. These wide variations in rainfall and altitude
result in two broad classification of forests: Highlands and Lowland forests. Highland forests
include Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso), Juniper procera (tid), Arundinaria Alpina(kerkha),
Podocarpus falcatus (zigba), Aningeria adolfi-friedericii (keraro) and Olea africana (Weyra)
forests; while Baphia are classified as lowland forests. Moreover, there are also Gallery
(Riverine) Forests. These are forests that stretch along the banks of the lower courses of rivers.
Riverine forests are classified as lowland forests and are found in some places such as the banks
of Awash, Wabishebelle, Ghenale etc. Dominant species include Ficus sur (sholla) and different
kinds of acacia trees.

3. Woodland Savannah Region

Like the forests, the woodland savannahs are also found in areas of wide altitudinal ranges (250
to 2,300 m). Although the mean annual rainfall ranges between 200 and 1,400 mm, the large part
of this region is found at a lower elevation and in a drier environment. The plants in the
woodland savannah are known for their xeromorphic characteristics like shading of leaves
during the dry season. Vegetation types with intermediate characteristics between savannahs and
woodlands are shrublands and bushlands. Woodland savannah region can be broadly classified
into three divisions:
 Juniper procera (tid) is dominant species for both the Junipers Forests and Junipers
Woodlands. The difference is in height: 3 - 45 meters tall in the forests and 10 -15
meters in the woodlands.
 Acacia woodlands are dominated by both trees and shrubs, which belong to the same
genus 'Acacia'. E.g. Acacia etbaica(grar),Acacia mellifera (Konter).
 Mixed deciduous woodlands: As the name implies, most of the trees in mixed
deciduous woodlands shed their leaves during the dry season.

Table 6.1: Woodland Savanna Region

Woodland savanna Altitude(m) MeanAnnual RF (mm) Growing Dominant species

type season(No. of

months)

Junipers woodland 1,350-2,200 500-900 4-8 Junipers procera

Acacia woodland 250-2,300 200-1,000 1-9 Acaci aetabica(Grar)
Mixed deciduous 300-1,300 800-1.400 5-12 Mixed trees
woodland
4. Steppe and Semi Desert Regions
These are regions in the arid and semiarid parts of the country where the temperature is very high
and the rainfall very low. Both are found at low elevations, the steppe at elevations of 100 to
1,400 m above sea level and the semi-deserts at 130 meters below sea level to 600 meters above
sea level.

The steppe gets a mean annual rainfall of 100 to 550 mm as compared to 50 to 300 mm for the
semi desert areas. Growing period lasts up to 2 months for the steppe and a maximum of one
month for the semi-deserts. Even though there is a variation in the degree of alkalinity and
salinity; soils in both regions are generally alkaline and saline.

In these regions xerophytic (i.e. drought-resisting plants) are the dominant vegetations.
Xerophytic plants such as short shrubs, scattered tufts of grass species and a variety of acacias
are some of the examples. Where there are moist soils, rich vegetation of acacia and palm trees
may be observed. Trees are normally restricted to fringes along watercourses.

Natural vegetation Degradation

Over the past century, a rapid growth of the already dense Ethiopian population has led to
overexploitation of the land. In areas with settled agriculture, new land has been cleared at the
expense of forests. Ethiopia's forest resources have been disappearing at an alarming rate. A
century ago, forests covered about 40 percent of the total land area. For the last few decades,
forests have been cleared for different reasons. Major causes for the gradual disappearance of the
natural vegetation in Ethiopia are:

 Clearing of forests for cultivation

 Timber exploitation practices
 Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel
 Extensions of coffee and tea production areas
 Overgrazing
 Expansion of settlements both rural and urban, and clearing for construction.

Natural Vegetation Conservation

Conservation of biodiversity is protection and management of biodiversity so as to maintain at

least its current status and derive sustainable benefits for the present and future generation. There
is an urgent need of conservation of the ever-degrading biodiversity. There are three main
approaches of biodiversity conservation:

 Protection: through designation and management of some form of protected area.

Protected areas include sanctuaries, national parks, and community conservation areas.
 Sustainable forest management: involving sustainable harvesting of forest products to
provide a source of financial income
 Restoration or rehabilitation: is the process of assisting the recovery of a forest
ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. This may involve the re-
establishment of the characteristics of a forest ecosystem, such as composition, structure,
and function, which were prevalent before its degradation.

Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia

Introduction

Ethiopia is one of the few countries in the world, which possess unique and characteristic fauna
with a high level of endemicity. Existence of wide range of ecosystems endowed Ethiopia with
great varieties of habitats contributing for the occurrence of high faunal diversity. However, data
on faunal resource of the country is as a whole is limited to mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians
and a few groups of arthropods.

Ethiopia has about 860 avian species (16 endemic species and two endemic genera), 279 species
of mammals (31 endemic species and six endemic genera), 201 species of reptiles (14 endemic
species), 23 species of amphibians (23 endemic species), and 150 freshwater fish (6 endemic
species).

A total of 279 mammalian species of which 31 are endemic are known to occur in Ethiopia
including those that require urgent conservation action i.e. Walia Ibex (Capra walie), Gelada
Baboon (Theropithecus gelada), Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), Ethiopian Wolf (Canis
simensis), Starck‟s Hare (Lepus starcki).

Generally speaking, the main wild life concentrations in the country occur in the southern and
western parts. The wild animals in Ethiopia can be classified into five major groups:

1. Common wild animals (those animals that are found in many parts of the country (e.g.
hyenas, jackals)
 2. Game (lowland) animal, (which include many herbivores like giraffes, wild asses, zebras
etc. and carnivores like lions, leopards, and cheetahs)
3. Tree animals or arboreals (which include monkeys, baboons)
4. A variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes
5. Rare animals (gelada baboon and Semien fox) scattered in highlands; walia- ibex in the
Semien Massifs, Nyala in the Arsi Bale massifs).

Wildlife Conservation

What are the challenges of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia?

Wildlife plays an important role in several ways. The importance of wildlife can be categorized
as ecological importance, economic importance, investigatory importance, conservation of
biological diversities etc. Wild animals can be used for:

 scientific and educational researches (valuable information for medical

purposes and environmental studies)
 physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)
 promotion of tourism (economic value)
 its potential for domestication
 maintaining ecological balance
To prevent the destruction of wildlife a total area of nearly 100,000 square kilometers of national
parks, sanctuaries, community conservation areas, botanical gardens, wildlife reserves etc. have
been established in different part of the country. Hence in Ethiopia there are:

 21 major national parks (see Table 6.2),

 2 major wildlife sanctuaries,
 3 wildlife reserves,
 6 community conservation areas,
 2 wildlife rescue centres,
 22 controlled hunting areas,
 2 botanical gardens, and 3 biosphere reserves
Table 6.2: National Parks of Ethiopia

S.no Name Region Year est. Area in sq.km

1 Kafeta Shiraro Tigray 1999 5000
2 Semien Mountains Amhara 1959 412
3 Alatish Amhara
4 Bahir Dar Blue Nile River Millennium Amhara 2008 4729
5 Borena Saynt Amhara 2008 4325
6 Yangudi-Rassa Afar 1969 4731
7 Awash Oromiya and Afar 1958 756
8 Dati Wolel Oromiya 2010 1031
9 Bale Mountains Oromiya 1962 2200
10 Yabello Oromiya 1978 1500
11 Abijata Shala Oromiya 1963 887
12 Arsi Mountains Oromiya 2012
13 Geralle Somali 1998 3558
14 Gambella Gambella 1966 4650
15 Nechsar SNNPR 1966 514
16 Omo SNNPR 1959 3566
17 Mago SNNPR 1974 1947
18 Maze SNNPR 1997 202
19 Gibe Sheleko SNNPR 2001 248
20 Loka Abaya SNNPR 2001 500
21 Chabra Churchura SNNPR 1997 1190
Source: Young, 2012

Some of the national parks are unique in their wild animals they have. E.g.
1. Abiyatta-Shalla lakes National Park is predominantly bird sanctuary. Important bird
species include the flamingos and pelicans.
2. Omo, Mago, and Gambela National Parks have hippopotamus and crocodiles in rivers
and lakes.
3. Semien and Bale Mountains National Parks have rare animals like Walia ibex, Semien
fox, gelada baboon and Nyala.
 Challenges of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia

Do you know that if you leave nature to its own system, it has notable system of taking care of
itself!

Conservation of Ethiopia‟s biodiversity and ecosystems is vital to ensure sustainable

development, to mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change and to prevent the collapse of
life-supporting ecosystem services. Protected areas were created to protect the major
biodiversity. However, it is a sad fact that these ecologically fundamental resources are usually
undervalued and are under threat from various dimensions. Here are some of the major
challenges that Ethiopian protected areas are facing;

 Limited awareness on the importance  Illegal wildlife trade

of wild life
 Excessive hunting
 Expansion of human
settlement in protected  Tourism and recreational pressure
areas.
 Mining and construction material
 Conflict over resource extraction
 Overgrazing (fodder and wood)  Forest fire