Applied Electronics II

Chapter 3: Operational Amplifier

Part 1- Op Amp Basics

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
Addis Ababa University
Daniel D./Abel G.

April 14, 2016

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 Overview
1 Introduction
2 The Ideal Op Amp
The Op Amp Terminals
Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp
3 The Inverting Configuration
Closed-Loop Gain
Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain
Input and Output Resistances
An Important Application - The Weighted Summer
4 The Noninverting Configuration
The Closed-Loop Gain
Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain
Application - The Voltage Follower
5 Difference Amplifiers
A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier
The Instrumentation Amplifier
6 Integrators and Differentiators
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 Introduction

Introduction
The operational amplifier (Op amps) have been in use for a long
time, their initial applications being primarily in the areas of analog
computation and sophisticated instrumentation.
Early op amps were constructed from discrete components (vacuum
tubes and then transistors, and resistors).
The introduction of integrated circuit (IC) reduced the cost and
improved the performance.
One of the reasons for the popularity of the op amp is its versatility.
IC op amp has characteristics that closely approach the assumed ideal.

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 The Ideal Op Amp The Op Amp Terminals

The Op Amp Terminals

From a signal point of view the op amp has three terminals: two input
terminals (1 and 2) and one output terminal (3).
Most IC op amps require two dc power supplies, as shown in two
terminals, 4 and 5, are brought out of the op-amp package and connected
to a positive voltage VCC and a negative voltage −VEE , respectively.
Some times other terminals can include terminals for frequency
compensation and terminals for offset nulling.

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 The Ideal Op Amp Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

Op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage signals

applied at its two input terminals and multiply this by a number A.

v3 = A(v2 − v1 )

Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

Infinite input impedance
Zero output impedance
Zero common-mode gain or, equivalently, infinite common-mode
rejection
Infinite open-loop gain A
Infinite bandwidth
Question: But, is an amplifier with infinite gain of any use?

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 The Ideal Op Amp Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

An amplifiers input is composed of two components
differential input (vId ) - is difference between inputs at inverting and
non-inverting terminals

vId = v2 − v1

common-mode input (vIcm ) - is input present at both terminals

1
vIcm = (v2 + v1 )
2
The input signals v1 and v2

v1 = vIcm − vId /2 and v2 = vIcm + vId /2

Similarly, two components of gain exist

differential gain (A) - gain applied to differential input ONLY
common-mode gain (Acm ) - gain applied to common-mode input ONLY
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 The Ideal Op Amp Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

Figure: Input signals in terms of

Figure: Equivalent circuit of the ideal op differential and common-mode
amp. components.

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 The Inverting Configuration

The Inverting Configuration

Op amps are not used alone; rather, the op amp is connected to passive
components in a feedback circuit.
There are two such basic circuit configurations employing an op amp and
two resistors: the inverting configuration and the noninverting
configuration

Figure: The inverting closed-loop configuration.

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 The Inverting Configuration Closed-Loop Gain

Closed-Loop Gain
Assuming an ideal op amp. How to analyze closed-loop gain for inverting
configuration of an ideal op-amp?
Step 1 Begin at the output terminal
Step 2 If vo is finite , then the voltage between the op-amp input terminals
should be negligibly small and ideally zero.
vo
v2 − v1 = = 0 , because A is ∞
A

A virtual short circuit between v1 and v2 .

A virtual ground exist at v1 .
Step 3 Define current in to inverting input (i1 ).
vI − v1 vI − 0 vI
i1 = = =
R1 R1 R1
Step 4 Determine where this current flows?
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 The Inverting Configuration Closed-Loop Gain

Closed-Loop Gain
It cannot go into the op amp, since infinite input impedance draws zero
current. i1 will have to flow through R2 to the low-impedance terminal 3.
Step 5 Define vo in terms of current flowing across R2 .
vI R2 R2
vo = v1 − i1 R2 = 0 − R2 = − vI G =−
R1 R1 R1

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 The Inverting Configuration Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

How does the gain expression change if open loop gain (A) is not assumed
to be infinite?
One must employ analysis similar to the previous.
The voltage at v1 becomes
vo vo
v2 − v1 = v1 = −
A A
The current i1 becomes
vI − v1 vI + vAo
i1 = =
R1 R1
The output voltage vo becomes
R2
!
vo vI + vAo 1+ R1 R2
vo = v1 − i1 R2 = − − R2 vo 1+ = −v1
A R1 A R1

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 The Inverting Configuration Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

The Gain will be
vo −R /R
GA<∞ = =  2 1 
vi 1 + R2 /R1
1+
A

Figure: Analysis of the inverting configuration taking into account the finite
open-loop gain of the op amp.

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 The Inverting Configuration Input and Output Resistances

Input and Output Resistances

The Input Resistance is
vi vi vi
=Ri = = = R1
ii (vi − v1 )/R1 vi /R1
For a Voltage amplification Ri must be large. Then the gain would be
reduced, so such configuration suffers from low Ri . Consider the following
circuit and find the expression of the closed loop gain

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 The Inverting Configuration Input and Output Resistances

Input and Output Resistances

The closed loop gain

 
vo R2 R4 R4
=− 1+ +
vi R1 R2 R3

It can be seen a higher Ri can be achieved without compromising the

closed loop gain.
Since the output of the inverting configuration is taken at the terminals of
the ideal voltage source A(v2 − v1 ), it follows that the output resistance of
the closed-loop amplifier is zero.

Ro = 0

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 The Inverting Configuration An Important Application - The Weighted Summer

An Important Application - The Weighted Summer

Weighted Summer - is a closed-loop amplifier configuration which provides
an output voltage which is weighted sum of the inputs.

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 The Noninverting Configuration

The Noninverting Configuration

The input signal vI is applied directly to the positive input terminal of the
op amp while one terminal of R1 is connected to ground.
Then the polarity / phase of the output is same as input.

Figure: The noninverting configuration.

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 The Noninverting Configuration The Closed-Loop Gain

The Closed-Loop Gain

For an ideal case the closed-loop gain by using the previous methods.

vo R2
=1+
vi R1

Figure: The noninverting configuration.

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 The Noninverting Configuration Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

Assuming the op amp to be ideal except for having a finite open-loop gain
A. The closed-loop gain
vo 1 + R2 /R1
GA<∞ = =  
vi 1 + R2 /R1
1+
A
For
R2
A1+
R1
the closed-loop gain can be approximated by the ideal value.
The percentage error in G resulting from the finite op-amp gain A as
1 + R2 /R1
Percentage gain error = −
A + 1 + (R2 /R1 )
The input impedance Ri of this closed-loop amplifier is ideally infinite,
since no current flows into the positive input terminal of the op amp. The
output is taken at the terminals of the ideal voltage source thus the output
impedance Ro of the noninverting configuration is zero.
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 The Noninverting Configuration Application - The Voltage Follower

The Voltage Follower

The property of high input impedance is a very desirable feature of
the noninverting configuration.
It enables using this circuit as a buffer amplifier to connect a source
with a high impedance to a low-impedance load. Buffer amplifier is
not required to provide any voltage gain
This circuit is commonly referred to as a voltage follower, since the
output “follows” the input.

Figure: a) The unity-gain buffer or follower amplifier. (b) Its equivalent circuit
model.
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 Difference Amplifiers

Difference Amplifiers
A difference amplifier is one that responds to the difference between the
two signals applied at its input and ideally rejects signals that are common
to the two inputs.
Ideally, the amp will amplify only the differential signal (vId ) and
reject completely the common-mode input signal (vIcm ). However, a
practical circuit will behave as below
vo = Ad vId + Acm vIcm
The efficacy of a differential amplifier is measured by the degree of its
rejection of common-mode signals in preference to differential signals.

|Ad |
CMRR = 20 log
Acm
Question: The op amp is itself a difference amplifier; why not just use an
op amp?
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 Difference Amplifiers

Difference Amplifiers
A difference amplifier is one that responds to the difference between the
two signals applied at its input and ideally rejects signals that are common
to the two inputs.
Ideally, the amp will amplify only the differential signal (vId ) and
reject completely the common-mode input signal (vIcm ). However, a
practical circuit will behave as below
vo = Ad vId + Acm vIcm
The efficacy of a differential amplifier is measured by the degree of its
rejection of common-mode signals in preference to differential signals.

|Ad |
CMRR = 20 log
Acm
Question: The op amp is itself a difference amplifier; why not just use an
op amp? very high (ideally infinite) gain of the op amp
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 Difference Amplifiers A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

Analyzing the difference amplifier below using superposition.

 
R2 R4 R2
vo1 = − vI 1 vo2 = 1+ vI 2
R1 R3 + R4 R1
We have to make the two gain magnitudes equal in order to reject
common-mode signals.
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 Difference Amplifiers A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

 
R2 R4 R2
= 1+
R1 R3 + R4 R1
R2 /R1 R4 R4 /R3
= =
1 + R2 /R1 R3 + R4 1 + R4 /R3
The condition is obtained when
R2 R4
=
R1 R3
Assuming the condition is satisfied, the output voltage
R2
vo = (vI 2 − vI 1 )
R1
In addition to rejecting common-mode signals, a difference amplifier is
usually required to have a high input resistance. Assuming R4 = R2 and
R3 = R1 and applying a differential input.
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 Difference Amplifiers A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

vId = R1 iI + 0 + R1 iI
Thus
vId
RId = = 2R1
iI
Note that if the amplifier is required to have a large differential gain (R2 /R1 ),
then R1 of necessity will be relatively small and the input resistance will be
correspondingly low, a drawback of this circuit.
Another drawback of the circuit is that it is not easy to vary the differential gain
of the amplifier.
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 Difference Amplifiers The Instrumentation Amplifier

The Instrumentation Amplifier

The low-input-resistance problem can be solved by using voltage followers
to buffer the two input terminals. But why not get some voltage gain.
Solution: using a Noninverting Op Amp.

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 Difference Amplifiers The Instrumentation Amplifier

The Instrumentation Amplifier

The output vo  
R4 R2
vo = 1+ (vI 2 − vI 1 )
R3 R1
The Advantages are
very high input resistance
high differential gain
symmetric gain (assuming that A1 and A2 are matched)
The Disadvantage
Ad and Acm are equal in first stage - meaning that the common-mode
and differential inputs are amplified with equal gain
need for matching - if two op amps which comprise stage 1 are not
perfectly matched, one will see unintended effects
The Solution is to disconnect the two resistors (R1 ) connected to node X
from ground and connecting them together.
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 Difference Amplifiers The Instrumentation Amplifier

The Instrumentation Amplifier

For a differential input applied the gain would remain the same. For a common
mode input voltage vIcm an equal voltage appears at the negative input terminals
of A1 and A2 , causing the current through 2R1 to be zero. Thus vo1 and vo2 will
be equal to the input. Thus the first stage no longer amplifies vIcm .
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 Integrators and Differentiators The Inverting Integrator

The Inverting Integrator

By placing a capacitor in the feedback path and a resistor at the input, we obtain
the circuit of below. We shall now show that this circuit realizes the mathematical
operation of integration. Let the input be a time-varying function vI (t).

The transient description

Zt
1
vO (t) = − vI (t)dt − vO (t0 )
CR
0
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 Integrators and Differentiators The Inverting Integrator

The Inverting Integrator

The steady-state description

Vo (s) 1
=−
Vi (s) sCR

Thus the integrator transfer function has magnitude of 1/ωCR and phase
φ = +90◦
This configuration also known as a Miller integrator has a disadvantage.
At ω = 0, the magnitude of the integrator transfer function is infinite.
This indicates that at dc the op amp is operating with an open loop.
Solution: By placing a very large resistor in parallel with the capacitor,
negative feedback is employed to make dc gain “finite”.

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 Integrators and Differentiators The Inverting Integrator

The Inverting Integrator

The integrator transfer function becomes

Vo (s) RF /R
=−
Vi (s) 1 + sCRF
The lower the value we select for RF , the higher the corner frequency will be and
the more nonideal the integrator becomes. Thus selecting a value for RF presents
the designer with a trade-off between dc performance and signal performance.
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 Integrators and Differentiators The Op-Amp Differentiator

The Op-Amp Differentiator

Interchanging the location of the capacitor and the resistor of the integrator
circuit results in the circuit which performs the mathematical function of
differentiation.

The transient description

dvI (t)
vO (t) = −CR
dt
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 Integrators and Differentiators The Op-Amp Differentiator

The Op-Amp Differentiator

The steady-state description

Vo (s)
= −sCR
Vi (s)

Thus the integrator transfer function has magnitude of ωCR and phase
φ = −90◦
This configuration as a differentiator has a disadvantage.
Differentiator acts as noise amplifier, exhibiting large changes in
output from small (but fast) changes in input. As such, it is rarely
used in practice.
When the circuit is used, it is usually necessary to connect a small-valued
resistor in series with the capacitor. This modification, unfortunately, turns
the circuit into a nonideal differentiator.

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 DC Imperfections Offset Voltage

Offset Voltage
Now we consider some of the important nonideal properties of the op amp.
What happens If the two input terminals of the op amp are tied together and
connected to ground.
Ideally since vid = 0, we expect vO = 0
In practice a finite dc voltage exists at the output.

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 DC Imperfections Offset Voltage

Offset Voltage
The causes of VOS is unavoidable mismatches in the differential stage of
the op amp. It is impossible to perfectly match all transistors.
General-purpose op amps exhibit VOS in the range of 1 mV to 5 mV. Also,
the value of VOS depends on temperature.

Analysis to determine the effect of the op-amp VOS on their performance is

the same for both inverting and the noninverting amplifier configurations.
 
R2
VO = VOS 1 +
R1
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 DC Imperfections Offset Voltage

Offset Voltage
How to reduced Offset Voltage
offset nulling terminals A variable resistor (if properly set) may be used to reduce
the asymmetry present and, in turn, reduce offset.

capacitive coupling A series capacitor placed between the source and op amp may
be used to reduce offset, although it will also filter out dc signals.

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 DC Imperfections Input Bias and Offset Currents

Input Bias and Offset Currents

In order for the op amp to operate, its two input terminals have to be
supplied with dc currents, termed the input bias currents, IB .

IB1 + IB2
IB =
2
IOS = |IB1 − IB2 |

input offset currents, IOS - the difference between bias current at both
terminals.
The resulting output voltage

VO = IB1 R2 u IB R2

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 DC Imperfections Input Bias and Offset Currents

Input Bias and Offset Currents

To reduce the value of the output dc voltage due to the input bias currents,
logically it is ↓ R2 but higher R2 needed for gain.
The solution is introducing a resistance R3 in series with the noninverting input.

The output voltage when calculated

VO = −IB2 R3 + R2 (IB1 − IB2 R3 /R1 )
Assuming IB1 = IB2 = IB
VO = IB [R2 − R3 (1 + R2 /R1 )]
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 DC Imperfections Input Bias and Offset Currents

Input Bias and Offset Currents

Thus we can reduce VO to zero by selecting R3 such that
R2 R1 R2
R3 = =
1 + R2 /R1 R1 + R2
We conclude that to minimize the effect of the input bias currents, one
should place in the positive lead a resistance equal to the equivalent dc
resistance seen by the inverting terminal.

This is the case for op amps constructed using bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs). Those using MOSFETs in the first (input) stage do not draw an
appreciable input bias current; nevertheless, the input terminals should
have continuous dc paths to ground.
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 Frequency Response Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain

Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain

The differential open-loop gain A of an op amp is not infinite; rather, it is finite
and decreases with frequency.
It is high at dc, but falls off at a rather low frequency.
Internal compensation - is the presence of internal passive components
(caps) which cause op-amp to demonstrate STC low-pass response.
Frequency compensation - is the process of modifying the open-loop gain to
increase stability.

Figure: Open-loop gain of a general-purpose internally compensated op amp.

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 Frequency Response Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain

Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain

The gain of an internally compensated op-amp may be expressed as shown

below

A0
The transfer function in Laplace domain: A(s) =
1 + s/ωb
A0
The transfer function in Frequency domain: A(ω) =
1 + ω/ωb
A0 ωb
The transfer function for high frequnecy: A(ω) ≈
ω
A0 ωb ωt
Magnitude gain for high frequnecy: |A(ω)| ≈ =
ω ω
Unity gain occurs at ωt ωt = A0 ωb

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 Frequency Response Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

The effect of limited op-amp gain and bandwidth on the closed-loop
transfer functions of the inverting configurations.
Step 1 Define closed-loop gain of an inverting amplifier with finite
open-loop gain (A)
Vo −R2 /R1
=
Vi 1 + (1 + R2 /R1 )/A
Step 2 Insert frequency-dependent description of A
Vo −R2 /R1 −R2 /R1
= =    
Vi 1 + R2 /R1 1 + 1+R2 /R1
+ s 1+R2 /R1
1+   A0 ωb A0
A0
1 + s/ωb
Step 3 Assume A0  1 + R2 /R1
Vo −R2 /R1
=
Vi 1 + s(1+R
ωt
2 /R1 )

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 Frequency Response Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

By using the same methods the effect of limited op-amp gain and
bandwidth on the closed-loop transfer functions of the noninverting
configurations.

Vo 1 + R2 /R1
=
Vi 1 + s(1+R
ωt
2 /R1 )

3dB frequency - is the frequency at which the amplifier gain is attenuated

3dB from maximum (aka. dc value).
ωt
ω3dB =
1 + R2 /R1

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 Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps

Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps

The following are limitations on the performance of op-amp circuits when
large output signals are present.
1 Output Voltage Saturation
Op amps operate linearly over a limited range of output voltages. If
supply voltage +/- 15V is vO will saturate around +/- 13V.
2 Output Current Limits
Another limitation on the operation of op amps is that their output
current is limited to a specified maximum. If the circuit requires a larger
current, the op-amp output voltage will saturate at the level
corresponding to the maximum allowed output current.
3 Slew Rate
Slew Rate is the maximum rate of change possible at the output of a
real op amp.
dvo
SR = max
dt
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 Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps

Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

If slew rate is less than rate of change of input it becomes problematic.
Slewing occurs because the bandwidth of the op-amp is limited, so the
output at very high frequencies is attenuated.

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 Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps

Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

4 Full-Power Bandwidth
Op-amp slew-rate limiting can cause nonlinear distortion in sinusoidal
waveforms.
Assume a unity-gain follower with a sine-wave input
vI = Vi sin ωt
The rate of change
dvI
= ωVi cos ωt
dt
Now if ωVi exceeds the slew rate of the op amp, the output waveform
will be distorted in the manner shown.

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 Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps

Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

Full-power bandwidth (fM ) is the frequency at which an output sinusoid

with amplitude equal to the rated output voltage of the op amp begins to
show distortion due to slew-rate limiting.
SR
SR = ωM VoMax fM =
2πVoMax

Maximum output voltage (VoMax ) - is equal to (AvI ).

Output sinusoids of amplitudes smaller than VoMax will show slewrate
distortion at frequencies higher than fM
At a frequency ω higher than fM , the maximum amplitude of the
undistorted output sinusoid is
ω 
M
Vo = VoMax
ω

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