Applied Electronics II

Chapter 4: Wave shaping and Waveform Generators

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
Addis Ababa University
Daniel D./Abel G.

May 25, 2016

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 Overview
1 Introduction
2 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators
The Oscillator Feedback Loop
The Oscillation Criterion
Nonlinear Amplitude Control
3 Op AmpRC Oscillator Circuits
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
The Phase-Shift Oscillator
4 Multivibrators
Bistable Multivibrators
Application of the Bistable Circuit as a Comparator
Astable Multivibrator
Generation of Square Waveforms
Generation of Triangular Waveforms
Monostable Multivibrator
Generation of a Standardized Pulse
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 Introduction

Introduction

Standard waveforms for example, sinusoidal, square, triangular, or

pulse are required in computer, control systems, communication
systems, test and measurement systems.
A circuit that produces periodic wave forms at its output with out an
input is refereed as Oscillator.
Oscillator can be classified as

1 Linear Oscillators 2 Non-linear Oscillators

1 RC oscillators 1 Multivibrators
Wien Bridge bistable
Phase-Shift monostable
2 LC oscillators astable
Hartley
Colpitts
Crystal

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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators The Oscillator Feedback Loop

The Oscillator Feedback Loop

The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator consists of an amplifier and a
frequency-selective network connected in a positive-feedback loop.

Although no input signal will be present in an actual oscillator circuit,

we include an input signal here to help explain the principle of
operation.
The gain-with-feedback is given by
A(s)
Af (s) =
1 − A(s)β(s)
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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators The Oscillation Criterion

The loop gain of the circuit

L(s) = A(s)β(s)

The characteristic equation thus becomes

1 − L(s) = 0

If at a specific frequency f0 the loop gain Aβ is equal to unity

L(ω0 ) = A(ω0 )β(ω0 ) = 1

That is, at this frequency the circuit will provide sinusoidal oscillations
for zero input signal.
At f0 the phase of the loop gain should be zero and the magnitude of
the loop gain should be unity. This is known as the Barkhausen
criterion.

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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators Nonlinear Amplitude Control

Nonlinear Amplitude Control

The parameters of any physical system cannot be maintained
constant for any length of time.
As a result, even if Aβ = 1 and ω = ω0 is achieved then the
temperature changes and Aβ becomes slightly less than
unity(oscillation will cease) or slightly grater(oscillations will grow in
amplitude).
It is evident a mechanism is needed to force Aβ remain equal to unity
at the desired value of output amplitude.
A nonlinear circuit for gain control achieves the task and have the
following function.
First, to ensure that oscillations will start, designs the circuit such that
Aβ is slightly greater than unity.
When the amplitude reaches the desired level, the nonlinear network
comes into action and causes the loop gain to be reduced to exactly
unity.
If, for some reason, the loop gain is reduced below unity, the nonlinear
network comes into action and causes the loop gain to be increase to
exactly unity.
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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators Nonlinear Amplitude Control

The gain control can be implemented using a Limiter Circuit. The figure
below is a popular limiter circuit frequently employed for the control of
op-amp oscillators.

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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators Nonlinear Amplitude Control

To understand how the circuit operates.

Let’s consider first the case of a small (close to zero) input signal vI and a
small output voltage vO
vA is positive and vB is negative.
Both diodes D1 and D2 will be off.
All input current flows through the feed back resistor.

vO = −(Rf /R1 )vI

This is the linear portion of the limiter transfer characteristic in the

previous figure.
Let us use superposition to find the voltages at nodes A and B.
R3 R2
vA = V + vO
R2 + R3 R2 + R3
R4 R5
vB = −V + vO
R4 + R5 R4 + R5
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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators Nonlinear Amplitude Control

As vI goes positive
vO goes negative
vB will become more negative, thus keeping D2 off.
vA becomes less positive.
If we continue to increase vI further.
A negative value of vO will be reached at which vA becomes -0.7 V or
so and diode D1 conducts.
Using the constant voltage-drop model for D1 and denote the voltage drop
VD . The value of vO at which D1 conducts is the negative limiting level
L− .  
R3 R3
L− = −V − VD 1 +
R2 R2
vI can be found by dividing L− by the limiter gain −Rf /R1 .
If vI is increased beyond this value, more current is injected into D1 , and
vA remains at approximately −VD .
Thus R3 appears in effect in parallel with Rf which is (−(Rf k R3 )/R1 )
slope of the transfer function.
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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators Nonlinear Amplitude Control

The transfer characteristic for negative vI can be found in a manner

identical to the previous.
 
R4 R4
L+ = V + VD 1 +
R5 R5
The slope of the transfer characteristic in the positive limiting region is
−(Rf k R4 )/R1 .
Removing Rf altogether results in the transfer characteristic, which is that
of a comparator
That is, the circuit compares
vI with the comparator
reference value of 0 V : vI > 0
results in vo ≈ L− , and vI < 0
yields vo ≈ L+ .

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 Op AmpRC Oscillator Circuits The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

A Wien-bridge oscillator without the nonlinear gain-control network.

The Loop Gain.

 
R2 Zp
L(s) = A(s)β(s) = 1 +
R 1 Zp + Zs
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 Op AmpRC Oscillator Circuits The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Where
R 1 + sRC
Zp = Zs =
1 + sRC sC
Thus
1 + R2 /R1 1 + R2 /R1
L(s) = Zs
=
1 + Zp 3 + sCR + 1/sCR
1 + R2 /R1
L(ω) =
3 + (ωCR − 1/ωCR)
The phase of the loop gain will be zero at frequency
0 = ω0 CR − 1/ω0 CR
That is ω0 = 1/CR
To obtain sustained oscillations at this frequency, one should set the
magnitude of the loop gain to unity. This can be achieved by selecting
R2 /R1 = 2
To ensure that oscillations will start, one chooses R2 /R1 slightly greater
than 2
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 Op AmpRC Oscillator Circuits The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Figure: A Wien-bridge oscillator with a limiter used for amplitude control.

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 Op AmpRC Oscillator Circuits The Phase-Shift Oscillator

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

The basic structure of the phase-shift oscillator consists of a negative gain
amplifier (K) with a three-section (third-order) RC ladder network in the feedback.

Figure: A phase-shift oscillator.

The circuit will oscillate at the frequency for which the phase shift of the RC
network is π.
For oscillations to be sustained, the value of K = mag [1/(RCnetwork)] at
the oscillation frequency.
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 Op AmpRC Oscillator Circuits The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Figure: practical phase-shift oscillator with a limiter for amplitude stabilization.

Diodes D1 and D2 and resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 for amplitude
stabilization.
To start oscillations, Rf has to be made slightly greater than the minimum
required value
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 Multivibrators Bistable Multivibrators

Bistable Multivibrators
Bistable Multivibrators are circuits that has two stable state and move between
states when appropriately triggered.

Figure: A positive-feedback loop capable of bistable operation.

Assume that the electrical noise causes a small positive increment in the voltage
v+ .
The incremental signal will be amplified by A.
Much greater signal will appear at the output voltage vO .
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 Multivibrators Bistable Multivibrators

The voltage divider will feed a fraction of the output signal β back to
the positive-input terminal of the op amp.
If Aβ > 1, as is usually the case, the fed-back signal will be greater
than the original increment in v+ .
This regenerative process continues until op amp saturates at the
positive-saturation output level, L+ .
When this happens, v+ becomes L+ R1 /(R1 + R2 ).
This is one of the two stable states of the circuit.
Had we assumed the equally probable situation of a negative increment.
The op amp would saturate in the negative direction.
vO = L− and v+ = L− R1 /(R1 + R2 )
This is the other stable state.
Also note that the circuit cannot exist in the state for which v+ = 0 and
vO = 0 for any length of time. This is a state of unstable equilibrium(also
known as a metastable state).
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 Multivibrators Bistable Multivibrators

Transfer Characteristics of the Bistable Circuit

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 Multivibrators Bistable Multivibrators

To derive the transfer characteristics.

Assume vO is at L+ level.
v+ = βL+ .
vI is increased from 0 V. nothing happens until it reaches βL+ = VTH
When vI > βL+ then vO goes negative.
The regenerative process takes place until vO = L− and v+ = βL− .
Increasing vI further has no effect.
Next consider what happens as vI is decreased.
Since now v+ = βL− , the circuit remains in the negative-saturation
state until vI = βL− .
As vI < βL− goes below this value the regenerative action takes place
vO = L− and v+ = βL−

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 Multivibrators Bistable Multivibrators

Bistable Circuit as a Comparator

The comparator is used for detecting the level of an input signal relative to a
preset threshold value.

This is noninverting configuration.

by using superposition.
R2 R1
v+ = vI + vO
R2 + R 1 R2 + R 1
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 Multivibrators Bistable Multivibrators

Assuming the output voltage at vO = L+ .

To make a state change vO = L+ , v+ = 0, vI = VTL .
VTL = −L+ (R1 /R2 )
To change from negative state to positive.
VTH = −L− (R1 /R2 )
The difference between VTL . and VTH is the Hysteresis.
By using limiter circuits to make the output more precise.

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 Multivibrators Bistable Multivibrators

R should be chosen to yield the current required for the proper

operation of the zener diodes.
L+ = VZ1 + VD
L− = −(VZ2 + VD )
thus VTH = −L− (R1 /R2 ) = (VZ2 + VD )(R1 /R2 )
thus VTL = −L+ (R1 /R2 ) = −(VZ1 + VD )(R1 /R2 )
Assuming the zener diodes are identical The hysteresis will be
2(VZ + VD )(R1 /R2 )

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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

Generation of Square Waveforms

A square waveform can be generated by arranging for a bistable multivibrator to
switch states periodically. This can be done by connecting the bistable
multivibrator with an RC circuit in a feedback loop

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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

How the circuit operates

1 let the output of the bistable multivibrator be L+ .
2 The voltage at the positive input terminal will be v+ = βL+ .
3 The voltage across C,v− , will rise exponentially toward L+ with a
time constant τ = CR.
4 This will continue until v− = VTH = βL+ .
5 Any further the input seen by the op amp will be negative then
vO = L+ .
6 As a result, v+ = βL− .
7 The capacitor will then start discharging, and its voltage, v− , will
decrease exponentially toward L− .
8 This new state will prevail until v− reaches the negative threshold
VTL = βL− .
9 Then the bistable multivibrator switches to the positive-output state.

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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

Expression
A capacitor C that is charging or discharging through a resistance R
toward a final voltage V∞ has a voltage v (t)

v (t) = V∞ − (V∞ − V0+ )e −t/τ

where V0+ is the voltage at t = 0+ and τ = CR is the time constant.

The period T of the square wave can be found as follows.

During the charging interval T1 the voltage v− ,
v− = L+ − (L+ − βL− )e −t/τ
where τ = CR Substituting v− = βL+ at t = T1 gives
1 − β(L− /L+ )
T1 = τ ln
1−β
Similarly, during the discharge interval T2
1 − β(L+ /L− )
T2 = τ ln
1−β
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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

The period T = T1 + T2 where L+ = L−

1+β
T = 2τ ln
1−β

Square-wave generator can be made to have variable frequency by

switching different capacitors C and by continuously adjusting R.
Also, the waveform across C can be made almost triangular by using
a small value for the parameter β.
However, triangular waveforms of superior linearity can be easily
generated using the scheme discussed next.

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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

Generation of Triangular Waveforms

The exponential waveforms generated in the astable circuit can be changed to
triangular by replacing the low-pass RC circuit with an integrator.

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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

The integrator causes linear charging and discharging of the capacitor,

thus providing a triangular waveform.
How the circuit operates.
1 Let the output of the bistable circuit be at L+ .
2 A current equal L+ /R to will flow into the resistor R and through
capacitor C .
3 Causes the output of the integrator to linearly decrease with a slope
of −L+ /CR.
4 This will continue until the integrator output reaches the lower
threshold VTL of the bistable circuit.
5 The output becomes negative and equal to L− .
6 The current through R and C will reverse direction, and its value will
become equal to |L− |/R.
7 The integrator output will start to increase linearly with a positive
slope equal to |L− |/CR.
8 This will continue until the integrator output voltage reaches VTH .
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 Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator

The period T of the square and triangular waveforms

During the interval T1 .
VTH − VTL L+
=
T1 CR
from which we obtain
VTH − VTL
T1 = CR
L+
During the interval T2 .
VTH − VTL −L−
=
T2 CR
from which we obtain
VTH − VTL
T2 = CR
−L−
Thus to obtain symmetrical square waves we design the bistable circuit to have
L+ = −L− .

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 Multivibrators Monostable Multivibrator

Generation of a Standardized Pulse

In some applications the need arises for a pulse of known height and width
generated in response to a trigger signal. Such a standardized pulse can be
generated by the monostable multivibrator.

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 Multivibrators Monostable Multivibrator

The circuit is an augmented form of the astable circuit.

A clamping diode D1 is added across the capacitor C1 .
Trigger circuit composed of capacitor C2 , resistor R4 , and diode D2 is
connected to the noninverting input terminal of the op amp.
How the circuit operates.
1 In the stable state, which prevails in the absence of the triggering
signal, the output of the op amp is at L+ .
2 D1 is conducting through R3 and thus clamping the voltage vB to one
diode drop above ground.
3 R4  R1 , so that diode D2 will be conducting a very small current
and the voltage vc ≈ (R1 /(R1 + R2 ))L+ .
4 The stable state is maintained because βL+ is greater than VD1 .
5 Now consider the application of a negative-going step at the trigger
input.
6 D2 conducts heavily and pulls node C down.
7 If the trigger signal is of sufficient height to cause vC to go below vB ,
the op amp will see a net negative input voltage and its output will
switch to L− .
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 Multivibrators Monostable Multivibrator

8 This in turn will cause vC to go negative to βL− .

9 D2 will then cut off, thus isolating the circuit from any further
changes at the trigger input terminal.
10 The negative voltage at A causes D1 to cut off, and C1 begins to
discharge exponentially toward L− .
11 The monostable multivibrator is now in its quasi-stable state.
12 When vB goes below the voltage at node C , op-amp output switches
back to L+ and the voltage at node C goes back to βL+ .
13 Capacitor C1 then charges toward L+ until diode D1 turns on and the
circuit returns to its stable state.
The duration T of the output pulse is determined from the exponential
waveform of vB ,
vB = L− − (L− − VD1 )e −t/C1 R3
by substituting vB (T ) = βL− ,

βL− = L− − (L− − VD1 )e −T /C1 R3

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 Multivibrators Monostable Multivibrator

Rearranging  
VD1 − L−
T = C1 R3 ln
βL− − L−
For VD1  |L− |, this equation can be approximated by
 
1
T ≈ C1 R3 ln
1−β

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