Orbital Mechanics

Lecture 4

THE TWO-BODY PROBLEM

•Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)

•Perifocal frame
•The Lagrange coefficients

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 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• For e > 1 orbit formula describes
the geometry of the hyperbola

• It consists of two symmetric curves

• The orbiting body occupies
one of them
• The other one is its empty mathematical image
• The denominator of Eqn. 2.96 goes to zero
when cos θ = −1/e, then the true anomaly
θ∞ = cos−1(−1/e) (2.97)
• The radial distance approaches infinity as the true anomaly approaches θ∞
• θ∞ is known as the true anomaly of the asymptote
• θ∞ lies between 90° and 180°
• From the trig identity sin2θ∞ + cos2θ∞ = 1
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 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• For −θ∞ < θ < θ∞ , the physical
trajectory is the occupied hyperbola I
shown on the left
• For θ∞ < θ < (360° − θ∞)
hyperbola II — the vacant orbit around
the empty focus Fʹ is traced out
• The vacant orbit is physically impossible,
because it would require a repulsive
gravitational force
• Periapsis P lies on the apse line on the
physical hyperbola I, whereas apoapsis A
lies on the apse line on the vacant orbit
• The point halfway between periapsis and apoapsis is the center C of the
hyperbola
• The asymptotes intersect at C, making an acute angle β with the apse line,
where β = 180° − θ∞
• cos β = −cos θ∞ ⟶ β = cos−1(1/e) (2.99) 3
 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• The angle δ between the asymptotes
is called the turn angle
• This is the angle through which the
velocity vector of the orbiting body is
rotated as it rounds the attracting body
at F and heads back towards infinity
• From the figure we see that
δ = 180° − 2β, so that:

or

Distance rp from the focus F to the periapsis

Radial coordinate ra of apoapsis is found by
setting θ = 180° in orbit equation 4
 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• Observe that ra is negative, since
e > 1 for the hyperbola
• That means the apoapsis lies to the
right of the focus F
• Distance 2a from periapsis P to
apoapsis A is

• Substituting equations for rp and ra yields:

• Therefore, orbit equation may be written alternatively for the hyperbola:

These formulas are analogous to
those obtained for the elliptical 5
orbits
 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• From

• The distance b from periapsis to an

asymptote, measured perpendicular
to the apse line, is the semiminor
axis of the hyperbola

• so that for the hyperbola

• The distance Δ between the asymptote

and a parallel line through the focus is 6
called the aiming radius ∆=𝑏
 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• We can express the polar form of
the equation of the hyperbola in
a Cartesian coordinate system whose
origin is in this case midway between
the two foci

Using Equations 2.104 and 2.105a in 2.108a

Substituting Equations 2.104 and 2.106

into 2.108b yields:

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 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)

That is
This is the familiar equation of a hyperbola
which is symmetric about the x and y axes, with
intercepts on the x-axis
• Specific energy for the hyperbolic trajectory from the energy equation (2.60)
and using Eqn (2.103):
and

• The specific energy of a hyperbolic orbit is clearly positive and independent

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of the eccentricity
 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• The conservation of energy for a hyperbolic trajectory:

• Let v∞ denote the speed at which a body on a hyperbolic path arrives at

infinity
hyperbolic excess
• According to Equation 2.111 speed
• In terms of v∞ we may write Eqn 2.111 as:
Substituting the expression for escape speed,
𝑣esc = 2𝜇/𝑟, we obtain for a hyperbolic trajectory

• This equation clearly shows that the hyperbolic excess speed v∞ represents
the excess kinetic energy over that which is required to simply escape from
the center of attraction
• The square of v∞ is denoted C3, and is the characteristic energy
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 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
• C3 is a measure of the energy required for an interplanetary mission and C3 is
also a measure of the maximum energy a launch vehicle can impart to a
spacecraft of a given mass
• Obviously, to match a launch vehicle with a mission,
C3)launch vehicle > C3)mission
• Note that the hyperbolic excess speed can also be obtained from Equations
2.49 and 2.98 since as r ⟶ ∞ then v = v∞ = vr and θ = θ∞

and

• For purposes of comparison, figure

shows a range of trajectories, from
a circle through hyperbolas, all having a
common focus and periapsis
• The parabola is the demarcation between the closed,
negative energy orbits (ellipses) and open, 10
positive energy orbits (hyperbolas)
 Tool Box
• Here is a “tool box” of the only equations necessary for solving two-
dimensional curvilinear orbital problems that do not involve time

All orbits: Ellipses (0 ≤ e < 1): Parabolas (e = 1):

Hyperbolas (e > 1):

Similarity of hyperbolic and elliptic orbits

with the assumption of a < 0:
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 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
Example:
At a given point of a spacecraft’s geocentric trajectory, the radius is 14,600 km,
the speed is 8.6 km/s, and the flight path angle is 50°. Show that the path is a
hyperbola and calculate the following: (a) Angular momentum, (b) Eccentricity,
(c) True anomaly, (d) Radius of perigee, (e) Semimajor axis, (f) C3, (g) Turn
angle, (h) Aiming radius
Solution:
Since both the radius and the speed are given, we can determine the type of
trajectory by comparing the speed to the escape speed (of a parabolic trajectory)
at the given radius:

The escape speed is less than the spacecraft’s speed of 8.6 km/s, which means
the path is a hyperbola.
(a) Let’s remember that everything depends on the primary orbital parameters,
angular momentum h and eccentricity e. These are among the list of five
unknowns for this problem: h, e, θ, vr and v⊥. 12
 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
Solution (cont’d):
From the “tool box” we have five equations involving these five quantities and
the given data:
From (e)
Substituting this and the given speed into (d)

The angular momentum, from (c),

(b) Substituting v⊥ into (f) we get the radial

velocity component,

Substituting h and vr into (b) yields an expression involving the eccentricity and
the true anomaly

Similarly, substituting h and r into (a) 13

we find:
 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
Solution (cont’d):
By squaring the expressions in (h) and (i) and then summing them, we obtain
the eccentricity,

(c) To find the true anomaly, substitute the value of e into (i),

We choose the smaller of the angles because (h) and (i) imply that both sinθ and
cosθ are positive, which means θ lies in the first quadrant (θ ≤ 90°).
Alternatively, we may note that the given flight path angle (50°) is positive, which
means the spacecraft is flying away from perigee, so that the true anomaly must
be less than 180°.
In any case, the true anomaly is given by

(d) The radius of perigee can now be found from the orbit equation (a)

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 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1)
Solution (cont’d):
(e) The semimajor axis of the hyperbola is found in Eqn 2.103,

(f) The hyperbolic excess velocity is found using Eqn 2.113,

From Eqn 2.114 it follows that:

(g) Turn angle (Eqn 2.100):

(h) According to Eqn 2.107, the aiming radius is:

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 Perifocal frame
• The perifocal frame is the “natural frame” for an orbit
• It is centered at the focus of the orbit
• Its 𝑥ҧ 𝑦ത plane is the plane of the orbit, and its 𝑥ҧ axis
is directed from the focus through periapsis
• The unit vector along the 𝑥ҧ axis (the apse line)
is denoted 𝐩 ෝ
• The 𝑦ത axis, with unit vector 𝐪 ෝ lies at 90°
true anomaly to the 𝑥ҧ axis
• The 𝑧ҧ axis is normal to the plane of the orbit in the
direction of the angular momentum vector h
• The 𝑧ҧ unit vector is 𝐰 ෝ
• In the perifocal frame, the position vector r is written

• and r, the magnitude of r, is given by the orbit equation,

r = (h2/μ)[1/(1 + ecosθ)]
• Thus, we may write
Equation 2.117 as: 16
 Perifocal frame
• The velocity is found by taking the time derivative of r

• From Equations 2.118 we obtain

• 𝑟ሶ is the radial component of velocity, vr

Therefore, according to Equation 2.49,

From Equations 2.46 and 2.48 we have:

Substituting Eqns 2.122 and 2.123 into 2.121 and simplifying the results yields

Hence, Equation 2.120 becomes

• Formulating the kinematics of orbital motion in the perifocal frame is a
prelude to the study of orbits in three dimensions 17
 Perifocal frame
Example:
An earth orbit has an eccentricity of 0.3, an angular momentum of 60,000 km2/s
and a true anomaly of 120°. What are the position vector r and velocity vector v
in the perifocal frame of reference?
Solution:
From Equation 2.119 we have:

Substituting the given data into Equation 2.125 yields:

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 Perifocal frame
Example:
An earth satellite has the following position and velocity vectors at a given
instant:

Calculate the specific angular momentum h, the true anomaly θ, and the
eccentricity e
Solution:
This problem is obviously the reverse of the situation presented in the previous
example. The angular momentum is:

Hence the magnitude of the angular momentum is:

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 Perifocal frame
Solution (contn’d):
The true anomaly is measured from the positive 𝑥ҧ axis. By definition of the dot
product, 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩
ෝ = 𝑟 cos 𝜃. Thus,

which means θ = 52.125° or θ = −52.125°

Since 𝐫𝑦ത > 0, 0° < θ < 180° 

Finally, the eccentricity may be found from the orbit formula,

r = (h2/μ)/(1 + ecosθ)

The trajectory is a hyperbola (e > 1) 20

 The Lagrange coefficients
• Here, we will establish what may seem intuitively obvious:
• If the position and velocity of an orbiting body are known at a given instant,
then the position and velocity at any later time are found in terms of the
initial values
• Position and velocity expressions in perifocal frame, Eqns 2.117 and 2.120,

• Attach a subscript “zero” to quantities evaluated at time t = t0

• Then the expressions for r and v evaluated at t = t0 are:

• The angular momentum h is constant; so let us calculate it using the initial

conditions

ෝ is the unit vector in the direction of h

• 𝐰
• Therefore, the coefficient of 𝐰ෝ on the right of above equation must be the
magnitude of the angular momentum. That is, 21
 The Lagrange coefficients
• Using above equations, we express the position and velocity in terms of the
initial position and velocity
• Skipping the derivation details (can be found in the textbook)

• Therefore,

• where f and g are given by:

• together with their time derivatives:

• The f and g functions are referred to as the Lagrange coefficients 22

 The Lagrange coefficients
• From these equations we see that the position and velocity vectors r and v
are indeed linear combinations of the initial position and velocity vectors
• The Lagrange coefficients and their time derivatives in these expressions are
themselves functions of time and the initial conditions
• The conservation of angular momentum h imposes a condition on f and g and
their time derivatives 𝑓ሶ and 𝑔,ሶ again skipping the derivation,
ሶ = 1 (Conservation of angular momentum)
𝑓 𝑔ሶ − 𝑓𝑔 (2.139)
• Thus, if any three of the functions f, g, 𝑓ሶ and 𝑔ሶ are known, the fourth may be
found from Equation 2.139
• Lagrange coefficients in terms of the change in true anomaly

(2.158) (a, b, c, d)
• Δθ represent the difference between 23
the current and initial true anomalies Δθ = θ – θ0
 The Lagrange coefficients
• r is given by

• Lagrange coefficients to determine the position and velocity from the initial
conditions does not require knowing the type of orbit we are dealing with
(ellipse, parabola, hyperbola), since the eccentricity does not appear in
equations
• However, the initial position and velocity give us that information
• From r0 and v0 we obtain the angular momentum ℎ = 𝐫0 × 𝐯0
• The initial radius r0 is just the magnitude of the vector r0
• The initial radial velocity vr0 is the projection of v0 onto the direction of r0

• These two equations can be solved for the eccentricity e and for the true
anomaly of the initial point θ0
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 The Lagrange coefficients
Algorithm: Given r0 and v0, find r and v after the true anomaly changes by Δθ
1. Compute the f and g functions and their derivatives by the following steps:
(a) Calculate the magnitude of r0 and v0:

(b) Calculate the radial component of v0 by projecting it onto the direction of r0:

(c) Calculate the magnitude of the constant angular momentum:

(d) Substitute r0, vr0, h and Δθ in Equation 2.152 to calculate r

(e) Substitute r, r0, h and Δθ into Equations 2.158 to find f, g, 𝑓ሶ and 𝑔ሶ

2. Use Equations 2.135 and 2.136 to calculate r and v

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 The Lagrange coefficients
Example:
An earth satellite moves in the xy plane of an inertial frame with origin at the
earth’s center. Relative to that frame, the position and velocity of the satellite at
time t0 are:

Use the Algorithm to compute the position and velocity vectors after the satellite
has traveled through a true anomaly of 120°.
Solution:
Step 1:
(a)

(b)

(c)
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 The Lagrange coefficients
Solution (contn’d):
(d)

(e)

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 The Lagrange coefficients
Solution (contn’d):

Step 2:

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 The Lagrange coefficients
Example:
Find the eccentricity of the orbit in the previous example as well as the true
anomaly at the initial time t0 and, hence, the location of perigee for this orbit.
Solution:
In previous example we found:
r0 = 10,861 km
vr0 = -5.2996 km/s
h = 75,366 km2/s
Since vr0 is negative, we know that the spacecraft is approaching perigee, which
means that:
180° < θ < 360°

The orbit formula and the radial velocity formula (Eqts 2.45 and 2.49), evaluated
at t0 are:

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 The Lagrange coefficients
Solution (contn’d):
Substituting the numerical values into these formulas yields:

From these we obtain two equations for the two unknowns e and θ0:

Squaring these two expressions and then summing them gives:

Recalling the trig identity sin2 θ0 + cos2 θ0 = 1, we get:

The eccentricity may be substituted back into either of the two expressions in
order to find the true anomaly θ0:

This means either θ0 = 71.56° (moving away from perigee) or θ0 = 288.44°

(moving towards perigee).
From vr0 < 0 we know the motion is towards perigee, so that: 30
 The Lagrange coefficients
Solution (contn’d):

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