Adama Science and Technology University

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture

MSc. In Urban planning and design

Advanced Research Methodology &

Techniques(UPD 6103)
 Chapter Three: Research process
Steps in Research Process

1. Posing a Question or stating a Problem

(Conceptualization)
2. Reviewing the Literature
3. Developing a Research Design (Methodology)
4. Operationalizing
5. Collecting the Data
6. Analyzing and Interpreting the Data
7. Writing the Report
 Research process Cont’d...
2. Reviewing the Literature
Functions of literature review in research :
• to show gaps in the research
• to justify your own research
• to demonstrate your understanding of your field
• to generate new research hypotheses
• to place your own research in its context
• to summarize and evaluate past research
• to show similarities and differences (or consistencies and
inconsistencies) in previous research
• to give an overview of controversies in past research
 Research process Cont’d...
3. Developing a Research Design
(Methodology):
• A research design is the set of methods and
procedures used in collecting and analyzing
measure of the variables specified in the
problem research.
• It is the overall structure of a research project.
• For example if you are building a house, you need to
have a good idea about what kind of house you are
going to build; you can’t do anything without
knowing this.
– A research design is the same- you can’t proceed with the
research study without having a proper research design.
 Research process Cont’d...
• Just as for better, economical and attractive
construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or
what is commonly called the map of the house)
prepared by an architect, similarly we need a
design or a plan in advance of data collection
and analyses for our research project
• Research methods are the procedures that are
used to collect and analyze data.
 Research process Cont’d...
• Hence, the main difference between research
methods and research design is that:
– Research design is the overall structure of the
research study whereas research methods are the
various processes, procedures and tools used to
collect and analyzed data
Blueprint for sampling, instrumentation, data
collection, procedures and precursor to
analysis;
 Research process Cont’d...
4. Conceptualization versus Operationalization
• Conceptualization is the refinement and specification
of abstract concepts.
• Operationalization is the development of specific
research procedures (operations) that will result in
empirical observations representing such concepts in
the real world.
 Chapter Four: Methods of data
collection and analysis
3.1 sources of data
3.2 Data collection
3.3 Data processing and analysis
Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Data vs. Information vs. Intelligence
• Data – raw facts
• Information –
organized data
• Intelligence –
Interpreted
information
• Knowledge
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

3.1 Data Sources

Primary – data gathered from original sources.
Important ones are:
• (i) observation method,
• (ii) interview method,
• (iii) through questionnaires,
• (iv) through schedules, and
• (v) other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b)
distributor, audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer
panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through
projective techniques; (g) depth interviews
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Secondary data sources –
data collected by someone else and passed through the
statistical process.
• Published data (e.g various publications of foreign
governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organisations, Census data etc..)
• Unpublished data (e.g diaries, letters, unpublished work
available in office, scholars etc..
– Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data to
know how data were collected.
– Take a minute scrutiny because it is just possible that the
secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the
context of the problem which the researcher wants to study.
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Before using secondary data, you need to check:
✔ Reliability of data
✔ Suitability of data
✔ Adequacy of data
Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

Discussion on the research problem

Collect feedback from colleagues
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Sampling
• Sampling is the technique of assigning portion of a
population as representative of the entire population.
• The aim of sampling is to generalize the findings derived from
the sample to the larger population from which the sample
was selected. [N= population; n= Sample]
• Two types of sampling – Probability and non-probability
• Probability sample allows you to measure the margin of
sampling errors. Non-probability does not
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

Types of Samples
• Probability Sampling
• Random Sampling – Every item or subject has an equal chance of being
included
• Stratified Random Sampling – Insures that each category is proportionately
represented in the sample
• Systematic Sampling – Selecting a sample after a starting point is randomly
selected e.g. Testing every kth unit.
E.g N= total population =5000; n= sample= 200
Kth = N/n= 5000/200= 25th
You start you sample seelction by taking one random value for 1-25, then
continue you sample selection at the 25th interval until you get 200 sample
units.
• Cluster Sampling – Subdividing a population into clusters or groups. Useful
in a geographic survey (housing survey)
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

Non-Probability Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Incidental (Available) Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Judgment Sampling
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

• Sample Size depends on desired reliability. Usually, larger n means more

reliable/accurate estimates of population characteristics (e.g., income or
attitude).
Example
What sample size would you use to survey a community of 5000 people about
housing needs if you were willing to accept a 5% error.
n= __N___
1+N (Ε)2
n = Sample; N = Population; E = Error term

n= ___5000___ = 5000 = 370

1+5000(.05) 2 13.5
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Data Classification
Levels of Measurement:
Four types.
• Nominal Scale – Values are used to classify an object by
some specific trait or characteristic. e.g. Male – Female; yes
– no.

• Ordinal Scale – Values are rank ordered. e.g. good, better,

worse; cold, colder, coldest.

• Interval Scale – Values are rank ordered and also assigned

numeric values to reflect equal differences in the attribute
measure. e.g. temp. 99, 100, 1001.

• Ratio Scale – Numbers indicate actual amounts of the

property being measured.

Four level of measurement can be grouped into two : Non-

parametric (Nominal and ordinal ) and parametric ( Interval and
ratio)
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Sources of errors
• Respondent
• Situation
• Measurer
• Instrument
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
A characteristic which can have more than one value.
The characteristics may be: Dependent or independent
When changes in one variable depends upon the
change in one or more other variables, it is known as
dependent variable and the variable that causes the
changes in the dependent variable are known as the
independent variable.
Research hypothesis: when a prediction or a
hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting
scientific methods, it is known as research
hypothesis.
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

Hypothesis predicts statement which relates to a

dependent variable and an independent variable.
A research hypothesis must consist of at least one
dependent variable and one independent variables.
There are two hypothesis:
Alternative hypothesis (Ha)usually the one which a
research wish to prove whereas the null hypothesis
(Ho) is the one which the researcher wishes to
disprove
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

Statistics
• The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool
in designing research, analysing its data and drawing
conclusions therefrom.
• A large volume of raw data which must be suitably
reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be
used for further analysis.
• Statistics deals with the theory and method of analyzing
and interpreting data. The major types of statistics are:
Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain
indices from the raw data, whereas inferential statistics
concern with the process of generalisation.
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

Statistics
Inferential statistics are also known as sampling statistics
and are mainly concerned with two major type of
problems: (i) the estimation of population parameters, and
(ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses.
• Descriptive Statistics – summarizes data.
Data must be organized in such a manner that information
can be easily used by the decision-maker.
Central tendency and dispertion
• Inferential Statistics – Using data to draw conclusions
from a sample about research questions or hypotheses.
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
❖ Descriptive Statistics: the important statistical
measures that are used to summarise the
survey/research data are:
(1) measures of central tendency or statistical
averages (mean, median and mode)
(2) measures of dispersion (variance, and its
square root—the standard deviation, mean
deviation, range)
(3) measures of asymmetry (skewness);
(4) measures of relationship
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Measures of Central Tendency
(Summarizes observation by a single measure)

Mean – The arithmetic average of the scores.

Median – Midpoint of all scores. Half the scores
fall above the median and half below. Example:
5,7,8,9,12,13. What is the median?
Mode – the most frequently occurring value in a
data set. Example: 2,3,2,4,2,5 . What is the
mode?
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Measures of Dispersion or Variability
Range – The difference between the highest and lowest
scores.
Variance – Describes the extent to which scores differ
from each other. S2 = Sample Variance;
σ2 = Population Variance.
Standard Deviation – Square root of the variance
Coefficient of Variation – A measure that can be used for
summarizing the degree of randomness. It is the ratio
of the standard deviation over the mean.
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
❖ Inferential statistics are also known as sampling
statistics and are mainly concerned with two major
type of problems:
(i) the estimation of population parameters:
The estimate of a population parameter may be one single value
or it could be a range of values. In the former case it is referred
as point estimate, whereas in the latter case it is termed as
interval estimate.
(ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses ( Parametric
test and non- parametric tests).
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
Processing, analysis and interpretation of data
• The data, after collection, has to be processed and
analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for
the purpose at the time of developing research plan.
• Processing implies editing, coding, classification and
tabulation of collected data so that they are ready for
analysis
• Analysis refers to the computation of certain measures
along with searching for patterns of certain
relationship that exist among data group.
• Data analysis helps to answer the research questions
and to help determine the trends and relationship
among variables
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

• After data collection: researcher should do the

following:
– Process the data
– Prepare table and graphs
– Analyze and interpret findings
– Prepare for editing and presentation
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
1. Processing operation
a. Editing: examining the collected raw data to detect
errors and omissions and to correct these when possible
Editing is done to assure that data are accurate,
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered
and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and
tabulation.
Types of editing
i. Field editing : to catch technical omissions, check
legibility of handwriting, and clarify responses that
logically or conceptually inconsistent.
ii. Central editing: editing performed by a central office
staff; often done more rigorously that field editing
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
b. Coding: systematic way to condense extensive data
sets into smaller analyzable units through the creation of
categories and concepts derived from the data
It lets you make sense for the data you analyze
It facilitates the organization, retrieval and interpretation
of data and leads to conclusions on the basis of that
interpretation.
c. Data classification : is the process of organizing data
into categories for its most effective and efficient use.
Large volume of raw data must be reduced into
homogeneous group
Data having a common characteristics are placed in one
class and this way the entire data set divided into a
number of groups or classes
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

Classification can depend upon the nature of the

phenomenon involved:
i. Classification according to attributes: data
classified on the basis of common
characteristics which can either be descriptive (
such as literacy, sex, weight, income etc. )
ii. Classification according to class-interval: for
instance, person whose income are within 3000
birr to 5000 birr can form one group, those
whose income are within 5000 birr to 7000 can
form another group and so on
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

d. Tabulation
The process of placing classified data into tabular
form is known as tabulation
It is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying them in compact form.
Tabulation is useful due to the following reasons:
1. It conserves space
2. It facilitates the process of comparison
3. It facilitates summation of items
4. It provides a basin for statistical computation
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
2. Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from
the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study.
It needs fair and careful judgment
Often the same data can be interpreted in different ways.
it is helpful to involve others or take time to hear how different
people interpret the same information
3. Why interpretation: researcher can well understand the
abstract principle that works beneath his/her findings
It leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can
serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new
avenues of intellectual adventure.
Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation
why his/her findings are what they are and can make others to
understand the real significance of his/her research findings.
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

4. Techniques of interpretation
Interpretation involves the following steps:
i. Researcher must gives reasonable explanations
ii. Extraneous information
iii. Consultation will result in correct interpretation and thus will
enhance the utility of research result
iv. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only
after considering all relevant factors affecting the problems to
avoid false generalization.
5. Precautions in interpretations:
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct
interpretation :
i. Data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing
inferences; data reflects good homogeneity; proper analysis
has been done through statistical methods
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….
ii. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors
that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results
iii. Researcher must never loss sight of the fact that the risk
is not only to make sensitive observations of relevant
occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors
that initially hidden to the eyes
Broad generalization should be avoided as most researcher
is not amenable to it because the coverage may be
restricted to a particular time, a particular area and
particular conditions
 Methods of data collection and analysis Cont’d….

iv. Researcher must remember that ideally in the

course of research study, there should be constant
interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical
observation and theoretical conceptions.
It is exactly in this area of interaction between
theoretical orientation and empirical observation
that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.
Researcher must pay special attention to this aspect
while engaged in the task of interpretation.