Adjectives

 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Adjectives

from English Grammar Today

Adjectives are one of the four major word classes, along with nouns, verbs and adverbs. Examples of adjectives
are: big, small, blue, old, rich and nice. They give us more information about people, animals or things represented
by nouns and pronouns:
That’s a big house.
Look at the grey horse.
Some dogs have long tails.
She is tall.

See also:
 Nouns
 Pronouns

Meanings of adjectives
Adjectives give us more information. They modify or describe features and qualities of people, animals and things.
Here are some of the common meanings.

examples meaning

I am fond of ice cream.

Cairo is different from Alexandria.
His car is similar to mine. Relations between people and things. These adjectives usually require a
word or phrase (complement) to complete their meaning.
Other examples:
keen (on), near (to), aware (of)

He’s generous.
She’s a kind woman.
The waiter was very polite.
Descriptions of people and things in terms of their actions.
Other examples:
talkative, cruel, cooperative, helpful,
useful

That’s an old house.
The Olympic stadium is big.

Other examples: Features that will last a long time or will not change (permanent).
tall, old, good, rough, true, ugly, red,
heavy

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 examples meaning

Anyone hungry? Lunch is nearly ready.

It’s so cold in Nick’s house.

Other examples: States and conditions that can change.

absent, ill, dry, full, lonely, wet, hot,
thirsty, angry

I saw a great French film last night.

I don’t like modern paintings.
I live in a detached house.
Classifying people and things into types.
Other examples:
organic (vegetables), impressionist
(painter), wild (salmon)

See also:
 Adjective phrases

Oppositeness
Most common adjectives are members of a pair of opposites (antonyms):

beautiful – dead – rough –

happy – sad
ugly alive smooth

heavy –
big – small dry – wet tall – short
light

cold – hot good – bad

Gradable and ungradable

Many pairs of opposites are gradable, i.e. they have different degrees of the same feature:
Small:
This suitcase is extremely small.
This suitcase is very small.
This suitcase is quite small.

Hot:
It was reasonably hot in Italy this summer.
It was quite hot in Italy this summer.
It was pretty hot in Italy this summer.
It was very hot in Italy this summer.

2
It was extremely hot in Italy this summer.

One type of adjective is not gradable. These are the adjectives that we use to classify people and things into types:
Warning:
These vegetables are organic.
Not: These vegetables are very organic.
I like salmon especially when it is wild.
Not: I like salmon especially when it is quite wild.

Adjectives: forms
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Adjectives: forms

from English Grammar Today

Unlike in many other languages, adjectives in English do not change (agree) with the noun that they modify:
All new foreign students are welcome to join the clubs and societies.
Not: All new foreigns students …
Every room was painted in different colours.
Not: … in differents colours.

Identifying adjectives
There is no general rule for making adjectives. We know they are adjectives usually by what they do (their function)
in a sentence. However, some word endings (suffixes) are typical of adjectives.

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 suffix examples

-able, -ible comfortable, readable, incredible, invisible

-al, -ial comical, normal, musical, industrial, presidential

-ful beautiful, harmful, peaceful, wonderful

-ic classic, economic, heroic, romantic

-ical aeronautical, alphabetical, political

-ish British, childish, Irish, foolish

-ive, -ative active, alternative, creative, talkative

-less endless, motionless, priceless, timeless

-eous, -ious, spontaneous, hideous, ambitious, anxious, dangerous,

-ous famous

-y angry, busy, wealthy, windy

Warning:

Adjectives ending in -ic and -ical often have different meanings:

The economic policy of this government has failed.
A diesel car is usually more economical than a petrol one.
See also:
 Adjectives
 Classic or classical?
 Economic or economical?
 Historic or historical?

Forming adjectives from other words

Suffixes

Some adjectives are made from nouns and verbs by adding suffixes.

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 noun adjective

hero heroic

wind windy

child childish

beaut beautifu
y l

verb adjective

read readable

talk talkative

use useful

like likeable

I hate windy days.
San Francisco is a very hilly place.
Some words ending in -ly can be both adjectives and adverbs. These
include daily, early, monthly, weekly, nightly, yearly:
Adjective: She gets a weekly payment from her parents. (She gets money every week.)
Adverb: I pay my rent weekly. (I pay my rent every week.)
Some words ending in -ly are only adjectives and not adverbs. These
include: costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely, lonely, lovely, oily, orderly, scholarly, silly, smelly, timely, ugly, w
oolly.
We enjoyed the trip to America but it was a costly holiday.
Oily fish is very healthy because it contains omega 3.
See also:
 Word formation
 Adverbs
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Prefixes

Prefixes such as un-, in-, im-, il- and ir- change the meaning of adjectives. Adding these prefixes makes the meaning
negative:

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 un- in- ir-

responsible –
fair – unfair active – inactive
irresponsible

appropriate –
happy – unhappy regular – irregular
inappropriate

sure – unsure complete – incomplete reducible – irreducible

im- il-

balance – imbalance legal – illegal

polite – impolite legible – illegible

possible –
logical – illogical
impossible

See also:
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Adjectives: comparative and superlative

Many one-syllable adjectives have endings to show the comparative and superlative.

base
comparative superlative
form

fine finer finest

young younger youngest

small smaller smallest

Some two-syllable adjectives which end in an unstressed syllable also have these endings.

base
comparative superlative
form

easy easier easiest

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 base
comparative superlative
form

funny funnier funniest

gentle gentler gentlest

However, we do not use these endings with two-syllable adjectives ending in a stressed syllable nor with longer
adjectives with more than two syllables. The comparatives and superlatives of these adjectives are formed
using more and most.

base form comparative superlative

complete more complete Not: completer most complete Not: completest

interestin more interesting most interesting

g Not: interestinger Not: interestingest

See also:
 Comparative and superlative adjectives

Adjectives: with -ing and -ed (interesting, interested)

We use the -ing and -ed forms of regular and irregular verbs as adjectives:

-ing forms

verb example

My brother is five and he’s

annoy
so annoying.

amaz The Grand Canyon is

e an amazing place.

boil Be careful! That’s boiling water!

excite This film is not very exciting, is it?

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-ed forms

verb example

bore Why do teenagers always look bored?

James Bond movies are always action-

pack
packed.

smok
Not everyone likes smoked salmon.
e

make My dress is hand-made. I really like it.

teach My Master’s degree was a taught course.

excite I feel excited about my new job.

Adjectives with -ing and -ed endings have different meanings.

-ing adjectives -ed adjectives
-ing adjectives describe the effect -ed adjectives describe how a person feels

The meeting was very boring. I felt bored at the meeting.

That was an exciting game. We were really excited about the game.
It was shocking to see what the storm had done to the We were shocked to see what the storm had done to the
house. house.

Warning:

Commonly confused pairs of adjectives ending in -ing and

-ed are: interesting, interested; boring, bored; exciting, excited; embarrassing, embarrassed.

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Adjectives: order
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Adjectives: order

from English Grammar Today

Order of adjectives
When more than one adjective comes before a noun, the adjectives are normally in a particular order. Adjectives
which describe opinions or attitudes (e.g. amazing) usually come first, before more neutral, factual ones (e.g. red):
She was wearing an amazing red coat.
Not: … red amazing coat
If we don’t want to emphasise any one of the adjectives, the most usual sequence of adjectives is:

orde
relating to examples
r

1 opinion unusual, lovely, beautiful

2 size big, small, tall

3 physical quality thin, rough, untidy

4 shape round, square, rectangular

5 age young, old, youthful

6 colour blue, red, pink

7 origin Dutch, Japanese, Turkish

8 material metal, wood, plastic

9
orde
relating to examples
r

general-purpose, four-sided, U-
9 type
shaped

10 purpose cleaning, hammering, cooking

It was made of a 1strange, 6green, 8metallic material.

It’s a 2long, 4narrow, 8plastic brush.
Panettone is a 4round, 7Italian, 9bread-like Christmas cake.
Here are some invented examples of longer adjective phrases. A noun phrase which included all these types would
be extremely rare.
She was a 1beautiful, 2tall, 3thin, 5young, 6black-haired, 7Scottish woman.
What an 1amazing, 2little, 5old, 7Chinese cup and saucer!

Adjectives joined by and

When more than one adjective occurs after a verb such as be (a linking verb), the second last adjective is
normally connected to the last adjective by and:
Home was always a warm, welcoming place. Now it is sad, dark and cold.
And is less common when more than one adjective comes before the noun (e.g. a warm, welcoming place).
However, we can use and when there are two or more adjectives of the same type, or when the adjectives refer to
different parts of the same thing:
It was a blue and green cotton shirt.

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Adjective phrases
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Adjective phrases

from English Grammar Today

An adjective phrase always has an adjective acting as the head. The adjective phrase may also contain words or
phrases before or after the head (modifiers and complements):
Adjective (head):
That’s a lovely cake.
These flowers are wonderful.

Adjective preceded by a modifier (underlined):

That soup is pretty cold.
Many of the exercises are fairly difficult.

Adjective + a modifier after it:

The food was tasty enough.
The car is economical for its size.

Adjective + a word or phrase which is required to complete its meaning (a complement):

She was aware of the danger of travelling alone.
Some people weren’t willing to pay extra to book a seat on the plane.

Adjective preceded by a modifier + a word or phrase which is required to complete its meaning (a complement):
We’re not very keen on having an activity holiday.
Are you really interested in rock and roll?

Some adjective phrases have more complex structures.

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Comparative and superlative adjectives
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Comparative and superlative adjectives

Comparative adjectives compare one person or thing with another and enable us to say whether a person or thing has
more or less of a particular quality:
This car is more expensive than my last one.
Superlative adjectives describe one person or thing as having more of a quality than all other people or things in a
group:
Joe used to be the slowest runner in the class.
Click on a topic to learn more about comparative and superlative adjectives.
Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)Comparison: clauses (bigger than we had
imagined)Comparison: comparisons of equality (as tall as his father)As  …  as

Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)

 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Comparative and superlative adjectives > Comparison:

adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)

from English Grammar Today

Comparative and superlative adjectives

Comparative adjectives

Comparative adjectives compare one person or thing with another and enable us to say whether a person or thing has
more or less of a particular quality:
Josh is taller than his sister.
I’m more interested in music than sport.
Big cars that use a lot of petrol are less popular now than twenty years ago.

Superlative adjectives

Superlative adjectives describe one person or thing as having more of a quality than all other people or things in a
group:
The ‘Silver Arrow’ will be the fastest train in the world when it is built.
The most frightening film I’ve ever seen was Alfred Hitchcock’s ‘Psycho’.
What is the least expensive way of travelling in Japan?

Comparative or superlative?

A comparative compares a person or thing with another person or thing. A superlative compares a person or thing
with the whole group of which that person or thing is a member:
Joe’s older than Mike. (comparing one person with another)
Sheila is the youngest girl in the family. (comparing one person with the whole group she belongs to)
When there are just two members in a group, traditionally, we use the comparative. However, in informal situations
people often use the superlative:
Who is younger, Rowan or Tony? (traditional usage)

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 Jan and Barbara are both tall, but Jan’s the tallest. (more informal)

Comparative and superlative adjectives: form

One-syllable adjectives (big, cold, hot, long, nice, old, tall)

To form the comparative, we use the -er suffix with adjectives of one syllable:
It’s colder today than yesterday.
It was a longer holiday than the one we had last year.
Sasha is older than Mark.
To form the superlative, we use the -est suffix with adjectives of one syllable. We normally use the before a
superlative adjective:
I think that’s the biggest apple I’ve ever seen!
At one time, the Empire State building in New York was the tallest building in the world.
They have three boys. Richard is the oldest and Simon is the youngest.

Spelling of comparatives and superlatives with one-syllable adjectives

type of adjective comparative superlative

most adjectives add -er: cheaper, richer, smaller, younger add -est: cheapest, richest, smallest, youngest

adjectives ending in
add -r: finer, nicer, rarer add -st: finest, nicest, rarest
-e

adjectives with one

double the final consonant and add double the final consonant and add
vowel + one
-er: bigger, hotter, thinner -est: biggest, hottest, thinnest
consonant:

Note the pronunciation of these comparatives and superlatives:

1. long /lɒŋ/ longer /lɒŋgə(r)/ longest /lɒŋgəst/
2. strong /strɒŋ/ stronger /strɒŋgə(r)/ strongest /strɒŋgəst/
3. young /jʌŋ/ younger /jʌŋgə(r)/ youngest /jʌŋgəst/

One-syllable adjectives which are irregular

Some one-syllable adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms:

1. bad, worse, worst far, farther/further, farthest/furthest
2. good, better, best old, older/elder, oldest/eldest
The morning flight is better than the afternoon one.
His elder sister works for the government.
Olivia is Denise’s best friend.
I think that was the worst film I’ve ever seen!
Pluto is the furthest planet from the sun in our solar system.

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 Warning:

We do not use more or most together with an -er or -est ending:

They emigrate because they are looking for a better life.
Not: … a more better life
The beach at Marmaris is one of the biggest in Turkey.
Not: … the most biggest …
Comparison: clauses (bigger than we had imagined)
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Comparative and superlative adjectives > Comparison:

clauses (bigger than we had imagined)

from English Grammar Today

The second part of a comparison (underlined) is often a clause:

The price was higher than we had expected.
That restaurant is not as good as it used to be.
It was the best nature documentary I’ve ever seen.

Than-clauses

We can use than to introduce a clause after a comparative adjective, adverb or noun phrase. The clause (underlined)
is usually a reduced clause (a clause with ellipsis) or one with a substitute verb do:
The house was bigger than we had imagined. (… bigger than we had imagined it was)
The journey took longer than expected. (… longer than people expected it to take)
He finished the second part more quickly than he did the first part. (… more quickly than he finished the first part.)
He always spent more money than George did. (… more money than George spent.)
Warning:

We use than, not that or as, to introduce a clause after a comparative adjective or adverb:

We finished the job quicker than we had expected.
Not: … quicker that we had expected. or … quicker as we had expected.
See also:
 Ellipsis
 Substitution

That-clauses

We can use a that-clause after a superlative:

Until 2005, the film had made the most money that any British film had ever made.
In informal situations, we can omit that:
It was the biggest fire (that) anyone had ever seen.
It was the least expensive restaurant (that) we ate at, but the food was excellent.

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 Comparison: comparisons of equality (as tall as his father)
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Comparative and superlative adjectives > Comparison:

comparisons of equality (as tall as his father)

from English Grammar Today

As … as …

If two things are equal in some way, we can use a comparison with as … as …. The comparisons may involve
adjectives (adj) or adverbs (adv) after the first as, and noun phrases (np) or clauses after the second as:
He’s grown so much. He’s as tall as his father now. (adj + noun phrase)
The team is still as good as it was five years ago. (adj + clause)
The second game didn’t go as well as the first one. (adv + noun phrase)
The company is not performing as successfully as it did when Arthur Carling was the President. (adv + clause)
When the second part of the comparison is a clause, the clause is often a reduced clause (a clause with ellipsis) or
one with a substitute verb do or a modal verb:
If the sales figures are as bad as predicted, the company will probably go bankrupt. (…as bad as economists have
predicted…)
I worked as hard as I had ever done in my life for my final exam. (…as hard as I had ever worked in my life …)
We tried as hard as we could.
See also:
 Ellipsis
 Substitution

Noun phrases

If we use as … as … with a noun phrase, we must use much or little + uncountable noun or many or few + plural
noun:
She had as much work as she needed and did not want to take on any more.
There are as many students in Class 2A as there are in 2B.
He spent as little money as he could.

Negative forms

We can form the negative of as … as … with not as … as …, or with not so … as … The form not as … as … is
more common:
He didn’t run as fast as he did in the European Championship.
He didn’t pay as much tax this year as last year because he earned less.
She’s not so shy as she used to be. (less common)
I don’t read so many novels now as I used to. (less common)

As … as
 

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 Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adjectives > Comparative and superlative adjectives > As … as

from English Grammar Today

We use as + adjective/adverb + as to make comparisons when the things we are comparing are equal in some way:
The world’s biggest bull is as big as a small elephant.
The weather this summer is as bad as last year. It hasn’t stopped raining for weeks.
You have to unwrap it as carefully as you can. It’s quite fragile.

See also:
 Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)

Not as … as
We use not as … as to make comparisons between things which aren’t equal:
It’s not as heavy as I thought it would be, actually.
Rory hasn’t grown as tall as Tommy yet.
She’s not singing as loudly as she can.
They didn’t play as well as they usually do.

We can modify not as … as by using not quite as or not nearly as:

The second race was not quite as easy as the first one. (The second race was easy but the first one was easier.)
These new shoes are not nearly as comfortable as my old ones. (My old shoes are a lot more comfortable than these
new shoes.)

We can also use not so … as. Not so … as is less common than not as … as:
The cycling was good but not so hard as the cross country skiing we did.

As … as + possibility
We often use expressions of possibility or ability after as … as:
Can you come as soon as possible?
Go to as many places as you can.
We got here as fast as we could.

As much as, as many as

When we want to make comparisons referring to quantity, we use as much as with uncountable nouns and as many
as with plural nouns:
Greg makes as much money as Mick but not as much as Neil.
They try to give them as much freedom as they can.
There weren’t as many people there as I expected.

We can use as much as and as many as before a number to refer to a large number of something:
Scientists have discovered a planet which weighs as much as 2,500 times the weight of Earth.
There were as many as 50 people crowded into the tiny room.

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Adverbs
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs

from English Grammar Today

Adverbs: uses
Adverbs are one of the four major word classes, along with nouns, verbs and adjectives. We use adverbs to add
more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a clause or a whole sentence and, less commonly, about
a noun phrase.
Can you move it carefully? It’s fragile.
Quickly! We’re late.
She swims really well.
Don’t go so fast.
You have to turn it clockwise.
Come over here.
Actually, I don’t know her.
I haven’t seen them recently.
The bathroom’s upstairs on the left.

Adverbs: meanings and functions

Adverbs have many different meanings and functions. They are especially important for indicating the time, manner,
place, degree and frequency of something.

I never get up early at the weekends.

time

Walk across the road carefully!

manner

When we got there, the tickets had sold

place

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 out.

It’s rather cold, isn’t it?

degree

frequenc I’m always losing my keys.

y

Adverb phrases
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverb phrases

from English Grammar Today

Adverb phrases: forms

An adverb phrase consists of one or more words. The adverb is the head of the phrase and can appear alone or it can
be modified by other words. Adverbs are one of the four major word classes, along with nouns, verbs and adjectives.
In the examples the adverb phrases are in bold. The other words that modify the adverb are underlined:
We usually go on holiday in August.
Time goes very quickly.
The day passed quickly enough.
This works really well for its size.
Luckily for us, the cost was not so high.
We kept the new money quite separately from what we’d already collected.
In general, these patterns are similar to adjective phrases.
See also:
 Adjective phrases

Adverb phrases: types and meanings

An adverb phrase can consist of one adverb or an adverb plus other words before it (premodification) or after it
(postmodification). Adverb phrases have many different meanings.
In the examples the adverb phrases are in bold. The other words that modify the adverb are underlined.

example type used to give information about

We walked very carefully across the floor. manner how something happens

Here is where I was born. place where something happens

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 example type used to give information about

That’s it. Right there.

Dad got home very late. time when something happens

This pill will take away the pain temporarily. duration how long something happens

They almost never invite people to their house these days. frequency how often something happens

A:

Want some sugar in your coffee?

focusing something specific
B:

Only half a spoon, please.

how much or to what degree

That dog behaves incredibly stupidly! degree
something happens

The train will probably be late. certainty or how certain or necessary

It doesn’t necessarily mean that. necessity something is

the speaker’s opinion of

Unfortunately for me, I can’t speak Italian. evaluative
something

the speaker’s perspective or

Personally, I don’t see why the party has to start so early. viewpoint
reaction

It rained very heavily this summer. Therefore, many of the relationships between clauses
linking
vegetables were very small. and sentences

See also:
 Adverbs: types

Adverb phrases: functions

Adverb phrases + verbs

We use adverb phrases most commonly to modify verbs. In the examples the adverb phrases are in bold. The verbs
that they modify are underlined:
Children grow up really quickly.
I exercise very regularly and I eat quite healthily.

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Adverb phrases + be

We use adverb phrases with be. This is especially typical of adverbs of place:

I’m upstairs. I’ll only be a minute.
A:

Have you seen my gloves?

B:

They’re right there, on the table.

Adverb phrases + adjectives/adverbs

We use adverb phrases (adv) to modify adjectives and other adverbs:

I found it [ADV]extremely [adjective]difficult to talk to her.
He drives [ADV]really [ADV]carefully.

Adverb phrases + other phrases

We use adverb phrases (adv) to modify noun phrases (np) and prepositional phrases:
That’s [ADV]quite [NP]a tree. (it’s a tree that is special in some way, e.g. it’s very big)
There was [ADV]hardly [pronoun]anyone at the concert.
We climbed [ADV]right [prepositional phrase]over the top of the hill and down again.

Adverb phrases + determiners

We use adverb phrases to modify determiners, especially words like all, some, half, many (quantifiers):
Only half of my friends could come to my party.
Very few people have heard of my city. It’s very small.

Adverbs and adverb phrases: position

 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs and adverb phrases: position

from English Grammar Today

We can put adverbs and adverb phrases at the front, in the middle or at the end of a clause.
The front position of the clause is the first item in the clause:
Suddenly I felt afraid.
Yesterday detectives arrested a man and a woman in connection with the murder.

The end position of the clause is the last item in the clause:

20
 Why do you always have to eat so fast?

The mid position is between the subject and the main verb:
Apples always taste best when you pick them straight off the tree.

Where there is more than one verb, mid position means after the first auxiliary verb or after a modal verb:
The government has occasionally been forced to change its mind. (after the first auxiliary verb)
You can definitely never predict what will happen. (after a modal verb)
We mightn’t ever have met. (after the modal verb and before the auxiliary verb)

In questions, mid position is between the subject and the main verb:
Do you ever think about living there?

Adverbs usually come after the main verb be, except in emphatic clauses:
She’s always late for everything.

When be is emphasised, the adverb comes before the verb:

Why should I have gone to see Madonna? I never was a fan of hers. (emphatic)

See also:
 Adverb phrases
 Be as a main verb

Types of adverbs and their positions

Different types of adverbs go in different places.

type position example

They usually go in end position.

She ate quickly.
manner They sometimes go in mid position if the adverb is
She quickly ate her dinner and ran out.
not the most important part of the clause or if the
object is very long.

Can you come over here?

They usually go in end position. We’ll be at that table there.
place They sometimes go in front position, especially in Here she sat.
writing.
Outside, there was a small pond.

They usually go in end position. I’m flying to Edinburgh tomorrow.

time They sometimes go in front position especially if we Today, I’m going to clean the house.
want to emphasise the adverb.

I’m not staying long.

duration They usually go in end position.

21
type position example

We often have friends to stay.

They usually go in mid position. I usually get up late on weekends.
They sometimes go in front position. I could never swim fast.
frequency They can also go in end position. Sometimes she wore a woollen hat.
Always, ever and never do not usually go in front We don’t see them very often.
position.
Not: Never I could swim fast.

I really like those pink flowers.

Really, very, quite usually go in mid position. We go to Ireland a lot.
degree
A lot and a bit usually go in end position. I’d just like to change things a bit.

He simply walked out without saying a

focusing They usually go in mid position. word.

It’ll probably rain.
Some go in mid position: probably, possibly,
certainly. Maybe Nick will know the answer.
certainty or
obligation Others go in front position: maybe, perhaps or in end Can I get you a drink, or something to
positions after a comma. eat, perhaps?

They usually go outside the clause, often at the Personally, I’d rather not go out.
beginning.
viewpoint This must, frankly, be the craziest idea
They can sometimes go in mid position, especially in anyone has ever had.
formal writing.

Unfortunately, I forgot my swimming

They usually go outside the clause, often at the costume so I had to sit on the side and
beginning. watch.
evaluative
They can sometimes go in mid position. We have stupidly forgotten the tickets.
In informal speaking they can go in end position. They missed the bus, apparently.

Manner, place and time

Adverbs of manner, place and time usually come in end position:
He played brilliantly.

If the verb has an object, the adverb comes after the object:
We [verb]made [object]a decision [adverb]quickly then left.

When there is more than one of the three types of adverb together, they usually go in the order: manner, place, time:
You start off [manner]slowly [time]in the beginning.

22
Not: You start off in the beginning slowly.
James played [manner] [place]brilliantly in the match on [time]Saturday. (preferred to James played brilliantly on
Saturday in the match.)

Warning:
We don’t put adverbs between the verb and the object:
She [verb]plays [object]the piano [adverb]really well. I’ve heard her.
Not: She plays really well the piano.
I don’t watch the TV very often.

Evaluative and viewpoint

Adverbs indicating the attitude and point of view of the speaker or writer usually go at the beginning. These adverbs
are called sentence adverbs because they refer to the whole sentence or utterance:
Actually, I think the meeting is on Wednesday, not Thursday.
Obviously, we can’t tell you the result but we can give you an indication.

Position with here and there
Warning:
If the subject is a pronoun (it/he/she/you etc.), it comes directly after the adverbs here and there. If the subject is a
noun, it comes directly after the verb:
Here she is.
Not: Here is she.
There it goes.
Not: There goes it.
Here comes the bus.
Not: Here the bus comes.

23
 Adverbs and adverb phrases: typical errors
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs and adverb phrases: typical errors

from English Grammar Today

 Many errors with adverbs are spelling errors:

It happened quite accidentally.
Not: … quite accidentaly.
Actually, I’ve been very busy.
Not: Actualy …
It’s not something that can be done easily.
Not: … that can be done easly.
They were happily married for 20 years.
Not: They were happyly married …
The building was completely destroyed.
Not: … completly destroyed.
I felt extremely unhappy about it all.
Not: I felt extremly unhappy …

[end of a formal letter/email]

Yours sincerely, Mark Johnson
Not: Yours sincerly …
I am truly sorry for what happened.
Not: I am truely sorry …

See also:
 Adverbs: forms
 Adverbs and adverb phrases indicating frequency don’t usually go after the verb phrase. They usually go in
mid position:
He usually goes to the park after school.
Not: He goes usually to the park after school.
Our next door neighbours sometimes come here for dinner. We hardly ever go to theirs.
Not: We go hardly ever to theirs.
At the end of the day, do you often come home from work feeling tired?
Not: … do you come often home from work …

24
 Adverbs and adverb phrases indicating time usually go in end position:
I’ll post the CDs to you tomorrow.
Not: I’ll post tomorrow the CDs to you.
I received your email about the meeting late.
Not: I received late your email about the meeting.

 We don’t often put always, usually, never, etc. at the beginning of a sentence or clause:
She was always comparing herself to other people.
Not: Always she was comparing herself to other people.

Adverbs: forms
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs: forms

25
 from English Grammar Today

Adverbs ending in -ly

Adverbs have a strong connection with adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs are usually based on the same word.
Adverbs often have the form of an adjective + -ly.
Compare

adjective adverb

He was calm when I told him. He behaved calmly.

That was a beautiful presentation, Your work is beautifully presented,

Carla. Carla.

Adverbs ending in -ly are usually adverbs of manner (slowly) and degree (completely, fairly).
Adverbs formed from adjectives ending in -l have double l:
beautiful → beautifully, careful → carefully, hopeful → hopefully, historical → historically
Magda looked hopefully at her mother.
Historically, there was never any conflict between the two communities.

Adverbs formed from adjectives ending in -y change the y to i:

easy → easily, busy → busily, lucky → luckily, angry → angrily
Luckily, I had a backup copy of the data on a disk.
I’ve never seen him react so angrily.

Adverbs ending in a consonant +e keep the e:

definite → definitely, fortunate → fortunately, extreme → extremely, absolute → absolutely
I am extremely grateful to you.
We were absolutely exhausted at the end of it all.

Adverbs ending in -ward(s) or -wise

There is a small group of adverbs which end in -ward(s) or -wise. The -ward(s) words can end in either -ward or
-wards (inward, inwards).
1. -wards: inwards, eastwards, upwards, downwards
2. -wise: clockwise, lengthwise, likewise
The doctor asked her to move her head upwards but she couldn’t.
Turn the handle clockwise to start it.
He’s the one that they all love. Whatever he does, they do likewise. (They do the same thing.)

Adverbs with the same form as adjectives

Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives. The most common are: fast (not fastly), left, hard, outside, right,
straight, late, well, and time words such as daily, weekly, monthly, yearly.
Compare

26
adjective adverb

This coconut is really hard. You’ll need a hammer to break it

You have to bang the door hard to shut it.
up.

She drives a fast car. They can swim quite fast now actually.

When I went outside, the light came on

An outside light would be a really good idea for our house.
automatically.

I get a monthly pay cheque. My company pays me monthly.

Warning:
Don’t confuse adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives modify nouns or are used after verbs such as be, become, seem,
look, smell, taste.
She walks very elegantly. (adverb of manner, describing how she walks)
He wore an elegant suit and a silk tie. (adjective describing the suit)
She looks very elegant in that long skirt. (adjective after look)

Adjectives ending in -ly

Some adjectives end in -ly, e.g. lively, lonely, ugly. We don’t form adverbs from these adjectives because they are
not easy to pronounce. We usually reword what we want to say instead.
Don’t act in a silly way.
Not: Don’t act sillily.
She said it in a friendly way.
Not: She said it friendlily.

Adverbs not related to adjectives

Some adverbs (e.g. just, quite, so, soon, too, very) are not directly related to adjectives:
This is just what I am looking for. (just = exactly)
These cups are not quite the same. (not quite = not exactly)
Why is this road so narrow?
I look forward to seeing you soon.
That’s too expensive.
That’s a very strange story.

Gradable adverbs
Most adverbs, like most adjectives, are gradable (they can express different degrees of qualities, properties, states,
conditions and relations). We can modify adverbs using other types of adverbs and comparative forms to make
longer adverb phrases.
Compare

27
He plays the piano amazingly.
He plays the piano really amazingly. really is a degree adverb

She played golf skilfully this time.

more is a degree adverb
She played golf more skilfully this
time. more skilfully is a comparative form

Adverbs: functions
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs: functions

from English Grammar Today

Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, nouns, other adverbs and whole phrases or sentences:

example function

Sit quietly! modifying a verb (sit)

Claire was rather quiet. modifying an adjective (quiet)

That week seemed to go

by incredibly slowly. modifying another adverb (slowly)

28
example function

It takes quite a lot of courage to jump from

a plane. modifying a noun phrase (a lot of courage)

I’m going for a run later so I don’t want to

eat anything now. modifying the whole clause (I’m going for a run)

modifying the whole sentence (I don’t like the plans).

Personally, I don’t like the plans.
It gives the speaker’s attitude. We often use commas with the adverb
when it modifies the whole sentence.

Adverbs: types
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs: types

from English Grammar Today

Time, place and manner adverbs (early, there, slowly)

Time adverbs

Time adverbs tell us about when something happens.

alread tomorro
lately still
y w

early now soon yesterday

finally recentl toda yet

29
 y y

Have you seen Laurie today?

I’d prefer to leave early.
I went to the cinema on my own recently.
There’s been an increase in house burglary lately.
See also:
 Adverb phrases
 Already, still or yet?

Place adverbs

Place adverbs tell us about where something happens or where something is.

There was somebody standing nearby.
Is that your scarf there?
You go upstairs and do your homework. I’ll come up in a minute.

Manner adverbs

Manner adverbs tell us about the way something happens or is done.

accuratel beautifull expertl professionall

y y y y

greedil
anxiously carefully quickly
y

badly cautiously loudly quietly

Manner adverbs are often formed from adjectives by adding -ly:

She spoke very loudly. We could all hear what she was saying.
We waited anxiously by the phone.
We walked up the stairs very quietly because Mum and Dad were asleep.
Some common manner adverbs have the same form as adjectives and they have similar meanings (e.g. fast, right,
wrong, straight, tight).

adjective adverb

I was never a fast swimmer Driving fast is dangerous

All of your answers

People always spell my name wrong.
were wrong.

30
adjective adverb

That builder never does

Is that the right time?
anything right!

My hair is straight. Let’s go straight to the airport.

Degree adverbs (slightly) and focusing adverbs (generally)

Degree and focusing adverbs are the most common types of modifiers of adjectives and other adverbs. Degree
adverbs express degrees of qualities, properties, states, conditions and relations. Focusing adverbs point to
something.

Degree adverbs

somewha
absolutely enough perfectly
t

a (little)
entirely pretty terribly
bit

extremel
a lot quite too
y

almost fairly rather totally

remarkabl
awfully highly utterly
y

completely lots slightly very

Mary will be staying a bit longer. (a bit longer = for a little more time)
It all happened pretty quickly.
She was quite surprised they came, actually.
It was £3.52 if you want to be totally accurate.

Focusing adverbs

especiall mainl particularl

just
y y y

generally largel only simply

31
 y

I just wanted to ask you what you thought.

I wouldn’t particularly like to move to a modern house.
See also:
 Adverbs

Evaluative adverbs (surprisingly) and viewpoint adverbs (personally)

We put some adverbs outside the clause. They modify the whole sentence or utterance. Evaluative and viewpoint
adverbs are good examples of this:
The electric car, surprisingly, does not really offer any advantages over petrol cars. (evaluative)
Personally, I think the show was great. (viewpoint)

Linking adverbs (then, however)

Linking adverbs show a relationship between two clauses or sentences (e.g. a sequence in time, cause and effect,
contrast between two things):
I left my house in the morning [sequence]then I went to pick up Leanne at her house.
[cause]We talked until the early hours and [effect]consequently I overslept the next morning. (the result of the late
night is that I was late the next morning)
The sun will be shining in France. [contrast]However, heavy rain is expected in Spain.
Warning:

We can use then and consequently to join clauses or sentences. We usually use but not however to connect two

clauses in the same sentence:
There was no room for them but they got on the train.
There was no room for them. However, they got on the train.

32
Comparison: adverbs (worse, more easily)
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Comparison: adverbs (worse, more easily)

from English Grammar Today

Adverbs: comparative and superlative forms

Adverbs do not normally change in form, but a few have comparative and superlative forms. These are usually short
adverbs and so they normally have comparative and superlative forms with -er and -est.
Some of the most common comparative and superlative adverbs are:

soon sooner soonest fast faster fastest

hard harder hardest near nearer nearest

early earlier far farther/further

earliest farthest/furthest

late later latest

Teachers always say that students must work harder.

33
The kids were playing in the garden, seeing who could jump highest.

Warning:
We don’t use more or most together with an -er or -est ending:
Children learn things faster than adults.
Not: … more faster than adults.
Who ran slowest in the race?
Not: Who ran most slowest

Adverbs with more and most
Adverbs with two or more syllables form the comparative and superlative with more and most:
We need to treat the environment more carefully.
It was the most beautifully designed chair.

Comparative adverbs: using than

When we mention the second person or thing in the comparison, we use than. We do not use that or as. If the second
person mentioned takes the form of a personal pronoun, we normally use the object form of the pronoun (me, you,
him, her, us, them):
I can’t keep up with him – he runs much faster than me.
Not: faster that me or faster as me

In more formal situations, instead of than + object pronoun, we can use than + subject pronoun + be, do or a modal
verb:
My wife drives more carefully than I do.
She can read music much more quickly than I can.

Well and badly
The adverb well has the same comparative and superlative forms as the adjective good (better, best). The
adverb badly has the comparative and superlative forms worse, worst:
[talking about playing tennis]
I played better yesterday but I need to improve my serve.
A lot of people behaved badly at the party, but she behaved worst of all.

34
Degree adverbs
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs

Degree adverbs are used to show the intensity or degree of something. They can be used before adjectives, verbs, or
other adverbs.
He’s very tall. (before an adjective)
I ate quite quickly.(before another adverb)
I could scarcely hear her. (before a verb)

Fairly
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Fairly

from English Grammar Today

We use fairly as an adverb meaning ‘in a way which is right and just’:

She took her employer to court because she claimed that she hadn’t been treated fairly.
United Nations observers made sure that the election was conducted fairly.

We also use fairly as an adverb of degree before adjectives and adverbs to mean ‘quite, but less than very’:
He’s fairly tall. (He’s quite tall, but not very tall.)
My mother says that her family was fairly poor when she was growing up.
He visits us fairly regularly these days.

Warning:
Don’t confuse the adjective fair with the adverb fairly:
I think it will be very, very difficult for the unions to negotiate with these companies in a fair way.
Not: … in a fairly way.
I believe everyone should be treated fairly.
Not: … treated fair.

35
Intensifiers (very, at all)
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Intensifiers (very, at all)

from English Grammar Today

Intensifiers are adverbs or adverbial phrases that strengthen the meaning of other expressions and show emphasis.
Words that we commonly use as intensifiers include absolutely, completely, extremely, highly, rather, really, so,
too, totally, utterly, very and at all:
She was so upset. I felt extremely sorry for her.
She has a very strict teacher.
Don’t work too hard. Sometimes you’ll get more done by relaxing a bit.
I don’t think she understood the topic and her essay was rather a mess.
She’s really offended her sister.

At all is a very common intensifier with negative expressions:

Are there no suitable DVDs at all?
I’m afraid I’m not at all interested.

We also use on earth and ever as intensifiers with wh-words:

What on earth is he doing? (suggests disapproval)
Why did I ever invite them to stay with us? (suggests that there were problems)

Largely
 

36
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Largely

from English Grammar Today

Largely means ‘almost completely’:

The downturn in the economy in the 1970s was largely due to oil prices.

Warning:
We don’t use largely to mean ‘enormously’, ‘greatly’ or ‘significantly’:
Traffic flows in the city centre have been greatly improved by the opening of the new ring road.
Not: … have been largely improved …

We don’t use largely to mean ‘widely’ or ‘by many people’:

This issue has been widely debated in recent years.
Not: … has been largely debated …

Much, a lot, lots, a good deal: adverbs

 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Much, a lot, lots, a good deal: adverbs

from English Grammar Today

37
 We use much, a lot, lots and a good deal as adverbs to refer to frequency, quantity and degree.

Much
We use much in questions and negative clauses to talk about degrees of something. We put it in end position:
I don’t like the sea much.
Warning:

We don’t use much in affirmative clauses:

I hadn’t seen my mother for a month. I’d missed her a lot.
Not: … I’d missed her much.
In informal styles, we often use much in questions and negative clauses to mean ‘very often’:
Do you see Peter much?
I haven’t played tennis much this year.
In formal styles, we use much as an intensifier meaning ‘really’ with verbs that express likes and dislikes:
He much enjoyed his week in the 5-star hotel.
Thank you for your help. It was much appreciated.

Very much

We often use very much as an intensifier in affirmative and negative clauses and questions:
[in a formal letter]
Please find attached my report. I very much welcome your comments.
Is she very much like her father?
Warning:

With the verb like we don’t put very much between the verb and its object:
I like comedy films very much.
Not: I like very much comedy films.

Too much, so much

We often use too much to mean an excessive amount, ‘more than enough’:

He talks too much.
You worry too much.
We can also use so much to mean ‘to a large degree’ or ‘a large amount’ or ‘a lot’:
She’s changed so much. I hardly recognised her.
I’ve eaten so much.
See also:
 Too
 So

A lot, a good deal and a great deal

38
We can use a lot, a good deal and a great deal as adverbs of frequency, quantity or degree:
A:

Have you ever been to Brosh?

B:

Actually we go there a lot.

I’m really hungry now. I didn’t have a lot for breakfast.
A good deal and a great deal are more formal than a lot.
Compare

A: A:

How’s your mum? How’s your mum?

B: B:

She’s feeling a good deal better, She’s feeling a lot better, thanks.

thanks.

She always worries a great deal. She always worries a lot.

Pretty
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Pretty

from English Grammar Today

We can use pretty as an adverb, before an adjective or another adverb, meaning ‘quite, but not extremely’. It is
informal:
I’m pretty sure we’ve met before. Were you at Clare Harding’s wedding?
You need to get there pretty early to get a good seat.

Pretty well as a modifier means ‘almost’:

That’s pretty well all we need to do this morning, so why don’t we break for lunch?

Warning:
We don’t use pretty in more formal situations. We use quite or fairly:
[in a job application letter]
At present I am employed at a branch of the National Bank in a fairly large city.

39
Not: … in a pretty large city.

Pretty does not mean the same as very:

It was very kind of you to lend us your car when we stayed with you.
Not: It was pretty kind of you …

We don’t use pretty in negative sentences:

The restaurant wasn’t very good, really. I don’t think we’ll go there again. (or The restaurant wasn’t so good …)
Not: … wasn’t pretty good …

Quite
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Quite

from English Grammar Today

Quite is a degree adverb. It has two meanings depending on the word that follows it: ‘a little, moderately but not
very’ and ‘very, totally or completely’:
He had been quite good at drawing when he was at school. (OK, moderately good but not outstanding)
They were quite excited about moving to a new place. (a little excited)
Her life is quite different since she moved. (completely different)
I remembered the house quite clearly now that I was walking towards it. (completely clearly)

Quite + gradable adjectives and adverbs

When we use quite with a gradable adjective or adverb, it usually means ‘a little, moderately but not very’. It has a
similar meaning to ‘rather’ or ‘fairly’:
That shirt makes you look quite smart. (+ adjective)
She comes to visit you quite often, doesn’t she? (+ frequency adverb)
He walked quite fast until they were out of sight. (+ adverb)

Quite + non-gradable adjectives and adverbs

40
 When we use quite with a non-gradable adjective or adverb (an extreme adjective or adverb has a maximum and/or
minimum, for example right – wrong), it usually means ‘very’, ‘totally’ or ‘completely’:
The scenery was quite incredible.
Helen had said the food was awful here. She was quite right.
Steve Jobs, the chairman of Pixar, is quite obviously fond of computers.
Spoken English:

In speaking we give this use of quite as much stress as the adjective or adverb.

Quite + nouns
We can use quite + a/an before a noun to give it more emphasis or importance:
There was quite a crowd at the party.
It makes quite a difference when the wind isn’t blowing.
When we use quite + a/an + adjective + noun it means the same as ‘a little or a lot but not completely’:
It’s quite a big company. Around 200 staff.
It’s quite a good book. (It’s rather good but not excellent.)

Quite a bit, quite a few, quite a lot

We often use quite with a bit, a few and a lot to refer to large amounts and quantities:
You should ask Mez for some advice. He knows quite a bit about gardening.
A:

We bought quite a lot of new furniture, didn’t we?

B:

Yeah, quite a bit.
There were quite a few of us at the meeting.
We also use quite a bit and quite a lot to mean ‘often’:
Do you come here quite a bit?
I used to go sailing quite a lot.
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

Quite + a lot/a bit + comparatives

We often use quite a lot and quite a bit with a comparative adjective or adverb to mean ‘much’:

We went to Italy when I was quite a bit younger.
The new truck is quite a lot heavier than the old model.

Quite + verbs
Spoken English:

41
In informal speaking, we often use quite with like, enjoy, understand and agree to talk about our opinions or
preferences. Depending on the context, it can mean ‘a bit’, ‘a lot’ or ‘totally’. We usually put it in the normal mid
position for adverbs (between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or
after be as a main verb):
I quite like tennis but I can never play proper games because I can’t serve. (I like tennis a bit.)
I quite enjoy sitting here and watching people go by. (I like it a lot.)
I quite agree. You’re absolutely right. (I agree completely.)
I can quite understand that the news would have upset her. (I totally understand.)

Not quite meaning ‘not completely’

We often use not quite to mean ‘not completely’. We can use it with adjectives, adverbs, nouns, non-finite clauses,
prepositional phrases and wh-clauses:
The door was not quite closed. (+ adjective)
The news was not quite as bad as I had expected. (+ comparative phrase)
It’s not quite  half past nine. (+ time phrase)
She hesitated, not quite knowing what to do. (+ non-finite clause)
That’s not quite what I meant. (+ wh-clause)
We can also use not quite as a short response:
A:

Are you ready?

B:

No, not quite.
We can use not quite with verbs:
I’m slightly concerned and don’t quite understand why he didn’t come.
I haven’t quite got the money to get my laptop yet.

42
 Rather
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Rather

from English Grammar Today

We use rather as a degree adverb (rather cold, rather nice). We also use it to express alternatives and preferences
(green rather than blue, coffee rather than tea, slowly rather than quickly).

Rather as a degree adverb

We use rather to give emphasis to an adjective or adverb. It has a similar meaning to quite when quite is used with
gradable words. It is more formal than quite. We often use it to express something unexpected or surprising:
A:

You’re not just wasting your time here, are you?

B:

No, I’m rather busy, in fact.

They walked rather slowly.
I’m afraid I behaved rather badly.
See also:
 Quite

Rather with adjective + noun

With a/an we usually use rather a/an + adjective + noun, but we can also use a rather + adjective + noun. With
other determiners (some, those) we use determiner + rather + adjective + noun:
We had to wait rather a long time. (or, less common, We had to wait a rather long time.)
He helped her out of rather an uncomfortable situation. (or He helped her out of a rather uncomfortable situation.)
I had some rather bad news today.
Not: I had rather some bad news today.

Rather a + noun

Rather a with a noun is more common in formal language than in informal language, particularly in writing:
It was rather a surprise to find them in the house before me.

Rather a lot

We often use rather with a lot to refer to large amounts and quantities:

It cost me rather a lot of money.

43
 You’ve given me rather a lot.
We also use rather a lot to mean ‘often’:
They went there rather a lot.
You’ll be seeing rather a lot of me over the next few weeks.

Rather + verb

We can use rather to emphasise verbs. We use it most commonly with verbs such as enjoy, hope, like:
I was rather hoping you’d forgotten about that.
He rather liked the idea of a well-paid job in Japan.

Rather: comparison

We use rather with more and less + an adjective or adverb in formal writing to make a comparison with something:

Quite probably you simply didn’t realise that peas and beans and sweet-corn are such valuable vegetables, and you
will now continue to eat them rather more frequently because you like them anyway.
Now that she saw Rupert again, he was rather less interesting and a little older than she had remembered him.

Rather like

We use rather with like to refer to similarities. We use rather like to mean ‘quite similar to’:

They were small animals, rather like rats.
I was in the middle. I felt rather like a referee at a football match trying to be fair and keep the sides apart.
See also:
 Quite
 Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)

Rather than: alternatives and preferences

We use rather than to give more importance to one thing when two alternatives or preferences are being compared:
He wanted to be an actor rather than a comedian.
Can we come over on Saturday rather than Friday?
Rather than usually occurs between two things which are being compared. However, we can also use it at the
beginning of a sentence. When we use rather than with a verb, we use the base form or (less commonly) the -
ing form of a verb:
Rather than pay the taxi fare, he walked home. (or Rather than paying the taxi fare, he walked home.)
Not: Rather than to pay …
See also:
 Would rather

Or rather
We use or rather to correct ourselves:
He commanded and I obeyed, or rather, I pretended to.
Thanks to his efforts, or rather the efforts of his employees, they made a decent profit.

44
Really
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Really

from English Grammar Today

We use the adverb really when we want to emphasise something:

That pasta was really delicious. Thank you.
I really like those photographs. Can we see them on the computer?
Emigrating to Canada was a really big decision for the whole family.

We also use really to question whether what someone says is true:

They don’t look pleased to me. Are they really pleased?
Is that really her sister? They don’t look at all alike.

We can use really to make a negative utterance less direct:

I’m not really angry, but I wanted them to think about their behaviour.
A:
What do you think she should say to him?

45
B:
I don’t know, really.

We can use really as a short response when we show interest or surprise:

A:
They’re going on a cycling holiday to France.
B:
Really?
A:
Yes, and they’re going to the Alps!

Scarcely
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Scarcely

from English Grammar Today

Scarcely means ‘almost not at all’. It is quite formal. It usually comes in the normal mid position for adverbs
(between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
We scarcely had time to think and had to act immediately.
These days there is scarcely a week without a major political scandal. (after be)
I could scarcely believe that she had once killed someone. (after modal could = I could almost not believe it at all)

We can also use scarcely when something happens immediately after something else:

Lena had scarcely got through the door when the phone rang. It was Mrs Bate. (Lena entered the house; the phone
rang immediately.)

If we use scarcely in front position, we invert the subject and the verb. This usage is quite formal:
Scarcely had the demonstration started when trouble broke out and the police moved in to arrest people.

In all of the examples above, we can use hardly instead of scarcely. Scarcely is more formal and less common
than hardly.

46
Very
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Degree adverbs > Very

from English Grammar Today

Very before adverbs and adjectives

We use very before adverbs and adjectives to add emphasis. It means ‘to a great degree’:
He drives very fast.
The letter came very quickly.
It’s very cold in here.
We need a very high ladder to get onto the roof.

When not to use very

Not before -ed forms in passive voice

We use very much or well, not very, before -ed forms in passive voice verb phrases with verbs such as enjoy, hate,
know, like, love:
She is very much liked at school.
Not: She is very liked …
He is well-known in his village as a trouble-maker.
Not: He is very known …
The concert was very much enjoyed by everyone.
Not: The concert was very enjoyed …

Not before comparatives

We use very much not very to add emphasis to comparative adverbs and adjectives:

Omah is very much better than Ian at basketball.
Not: Omah is very better than Ian …

47
 London is very much bigger than Naples.
Not: London is very bigger than Naples.

Not before some superlatives

We can use very before superlative adjectives that end in -est (including best and worst), but we don’t use it before
superlatives which use the most, we usually use by far:
Kristin is the very oldest child in the class.
This is the very lowest price I can offer.
I think watching television is by far the most harmful activity for a child.
Not: … is the very most harmful activity for a child.

Not before ungradable adjectives

Some adjectives are absolute, such as dead, unique. We do not usually use very before these ungradable adjectives:
The king was dead.
Not: The king was very dead.
He is married.
Not: He is very married.
Adjectives which describe an extreme quality can be modified by absolutely, completely, really and totally but not
normally with very. Some common examples are:

horrifie
amazing excellent
d

exceptiona
awful huge
l

brilliant fantastic perfect

delighte
furious stunning
d

essential horrible terrible

Her dress was absolutely stunning.

Not: Her dress was very stunning.
That singer is really awful.
Not: That singer is very awful.
It is a really fantastic film.
Not: It is a very fantastic film.
See also:
 Adjectives

48
Not very

We can use not very to soften a negative comment:

Ray is usually not very punctual. (more direct: Ray is always late.)
This pasta isn’t very nice, is it? (more direct: This pasta is not nice.)
About
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > About

from English Grammar Today

About is a preposition or an adverb.

About as a preposition
The most common meaning of about as a preposition is ‘on the subject of’ or ‘connected with’:
Do you know anything about cricket?
I’m very worried about my brother. He’s not well.

About is not as specific as on.

Compare
He wrote a book about the Spanish Civil War. about is more general and slightly more informal.

He wrote a book on Barcelona during the on focuses on more specific and detailed information and is
Spanish Civil War. slightly more formal.

Warning:
There are some words we use with about:
complain, concern, excited, happy and worry:
He never complains about the pain.
Everybody was very concerned about the accident.
I’m very excited about coming to France and I can’t wait to see you.
I’m very happy about my trip.
Please don’t worry about me.

Warning:
There are some words we don’t use with about:
aware, consider, description, discuss, experience and mention:
She’s not aware of the rules of the road.
Have you considered changing your career?
Can you give us a description of the bag?
Let’s discuss the new schedule.
They have no experience of looking after children.
She didn’t mention where the keys were.

49
 See also:
 On,  onto

About as an adverb
We use about as an adverb when we talk about time, number and quantity. About makes the time, number or
quantity less specific and more approximate:

specific approximate

Dinner is at six. Dinner is about six.

We moved house three years We moved house about three years

ago. ago.

About can also be used (though less commonly) as an adverb with a meaning of ‘around’:
I was thinking of all the pollution that’s floating about in the air.

See also:
 Around or round?
 Vague expressions
 Suggestions

Be about to
We use the modal expression be about to as an adjective in the modal expression be about to to refer to something
that will happen very soon in the future:
He was about to phone the police.

Ago
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Ago

from English Grammar Today

50
The adverb ago refers to a period of time that is completed and goes from a point in the past up to now. Ago follows
expressions of time:
It happened a long time ago.
They arrived in Athens six weeks ago.
Not: They arrived in Athens ago six weeks.

Warning:
We normally use ago with the past simple. We don’t use it with the present perfect:
I received his letter four days ago.
Not: I have received his letter four days ago.

If we refer to a point in time before a specific time in the past, we use before or earlier or previously, often with the
past perfect:
We had got their invitation four days before.
They met on the same island where they had met ten years previously.

If we refer to how long something lasted, we use for (not ago):

When I was at school, I studied Russian for five years. (my studies lasted for five years)

Already
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Already

from English Grammar Today

Already is an adverb.

Already: meaning
We use already to emphasise that something was completed before something else happened. It is often used with
the present perfect or past perfect:

51
The plane had already landed when the pilot announced that there would be a delay in getting to the gate.
Already is also used to show surprise about things that have happened or will have happened earlier than we
expected.
Compare

It’s twelve o’clock. I am not surprised that it’s twelve o’clock.

It’s twelve
I’m surprised. I thought it was earlier.
o’clock already.

We use it in affirmative sentences and questions but not usually in negatives:

There are already about ten people here. (that’s more than were expected at this time)
Not: There aren’t already any people here.
A:

Are you back already? (A is surprised that B has returned so soon.)

B:

Yeah.

Already: position
Mid position

We usually put already in the normal mid position for adverbs (between the subject and the main verb, or after the
modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
We already knew that he was coming to visit.
His family had already heard the news.
Joe’s already here, so we can begin.
Warning:

We don’t use already between a verb and a direct object:

I’ve already made the coffee.
Not: I’ve made already the coffee.

End position

We can use already at the end of a sentence for greater emphasis or to show greater surprise. This is especially
common in informal speaking:
Gosh, he’s finished painting the kitchen already! (end position is more emphatic)
Have you booked a flight already?

Front position

Less often, we put already in front position (before the subject). This is usually more formal:
Already more than fifty thousand tickets have been sold for Saturday’s cup final match.

52
 We don’t often put already in front position in informal speaking.

Already: typical errors

 We don’t use the past simple with already for something which was completed before something else
happened. Instead, we use the past perfect.
Their wedding in Rome was cancelled but we had already booked our flights and hotel, so we decided to go.
Not: … but we already booked our flights and hotel …
You may hear American English speakers using already with the past simple.
 We don’t use already between the verb and its object.
I’ve already [verb]drunk [object]three coffees today!
Not: I’ve drunk already three coffees

Always
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Always

from English Grammar Today

Always is an adverb.

Always: meaning
Always can mean ‘on every occasion’, ‘forever’ or ‘very frequently’. In these meanings we use it with simple tense
forms:
She always brings me flowers when she comes to visit.
I will always love you.
Kenneth has always been called Kenny by his family.

Always with continuous verb forms

We can use always with continuous verb forms to refer to regular events or states, especially ones which are
problematic or which we do not like or want:
She’s always complaining about her job. Why doesn’t she get a new one?

53
 Teenagers were always causing trouble at the shopping centre, stealing things, breaking windows, that sort of
thing.
The kids are always asking for sweets, but they’re not good for them.

Always: position
We most commonly use always in mid position, between the subject and main verb, after the modal verb or first
auxiliary verb, or after main verb be:
He always wears a hat. (between subject and main verb)
I’ve always wanted an open-top sports car. (after first auxiliary verb)
I envy you. You’ll always be happy! (after the modal verb)
She’s always late for class. (after main verb be)
We don’t use always at the beginning of a statement or question:
She always cooks wonderful meals.
Not: Always she cooks wonderful meals.
Do you always go camping for your summer holidays?
Not: Always do you go camping …
See also:
 Adverbs

Commands

Always often comes first in a command (imperative):

Always keep your PIN number in a safe place and do not give it to anyone else.
Always arrive early for a job interview.
See also:
 Commands and instructions
 Clauses

Always with can and could
We often use always with can and could to talk about possible solutions to problems:
If the hotels are all full, you can always stay with us.
If I needed it, I could always borrow money from my father.

As always
We use as always to talk about one event which is seen as typical:
As always, she made us feel very welcome in her home.
[at the end of an email, thanking someone for a visit]
It was nice, as always, to see you last week.

Always, for good or for ever?

54
When we talk about things which will be permanent, we normally use for good, or, more formally, for
ever (sometimes written as forever). We do not normally say for always:
She just wants to work in Australia for a year. She doesn’t want to move there for good.
I will remember this moment for ever. (more formal)

Always or all the time?

All the time also means ‘very often’ or ‘continually’ and is commonly used to refer to things that people do not like
or do not want to happen. We don’t use all the time in mid position:
My guitar tutor criticises me all the time. She thinks I’m lazy.
Not: My guitar tutor all the time criticises me.
We have this kind of problem all the time.
We don’t use all the time before a command (imperative):
Always take extra care when driving near a school.
Not: All the time take extra care …

55
 Early
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Early

from English Grammar Today

Early is an adverb or an adjective.

Early means ‘near the beginning of a period of time or event’. The comparative and superlative forms
are earlier and earliest. We most commonly use early as an adverb:
We’ll have to get up early to catch the flight. (early in the morning)
The meeting’s now taking place in March, two months earlier.
Early can also be used as an adjective:
[talking about a famous composer]
His early music was written mainly for children.
His earliest memories were of life in Brazil.
Early as an adverb can also mean ‘before the time that was expected’:
You’re early. We haven’t had breakfast yet.
Typical error

 We don’t use early to mean ‘a short time after now’ or ‘a short time after then’. We use soon:
Let’s meet soon.
Not: Let’s meet early.
They had only been in Greece for a week but they soon learned to speak a few words of the local language.
Not: … but they early learned to speak a few words …

56
 Ever
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Ever

from English Grammar Today

Ever is an adverb.

Ever: at any time

Questions

We use ever in questions:
Has he ever scored a goal before? (at any time in his life)
Do you ever dream about winning the lottery?
Have you ever heard of The Ivy restaurant?

Negatives

We can use not … ever in negatives, but never is more common than not ever:

Laurie doesn’t ever call me at weekends. or Laurie never calls me …
We haven’t ever had a problem with noise in the neighbourhood before or We’ve never had a problem with noise
…
We use ever in negative statements with words like no one, nobody and hardly:
No one ever told me what had happened.
I have hardly ever eaten Vietnamese food.

Ever after if
We can use ever immediately after if or in mid position (between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal
verb or first auxiliary verb, or after main verb be):
If ever you move house, I’d advise you to get a good removal company.
If you ever go to Edinburgh, make sure to visit the Art Gallery.
If I had ever wanted to stay in Manchester, they would have made me very welcome, I’m sure.

Ever so and ever such

We use ever before so and such to add emphasis:
I feel ever so cold.
He was ever such a kind man.
See also:
 So
 Such

Ever since
We use ever before since to emphasise that something has been true from the beginning of a specific period of time:

57
Ever since we met, we have been such great friends.
Mrs Leech doesn’t go for walks on her own ever since she fell.

As … as ever
We can use ever with the comparative form as … as …. This shows a permanent characteristic of someone or
something:
A:

How is work?
B:

Don’t ask! It’s as busy as ever.

They’ve built a new road around the city but traffic is as bad as ever.

Ever meaning ‘always’
In more formal situations, we can use ever with adjectives to mean ‘always’:
The company cannot sustain ever-decreasing profits.
Jones was ever available to help the family.

Hardly ever, rarely, scarcely, seldom
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Hardly ever, rarely, scarcely, seldom

from English Grammar Today

Frequency adverbs meaning ‘not very often’

Hardly ever, rarely, scarcely and seldom are frequency adverbs. We can use them to refer to things that almost
never happen, or do not happen very often. They have a negative meaning. We use them
without not. Rarely, scarcely and seldom are more common in writing than in speaking:
He hardly ever smiles.
[a trout is a type of fish]
Providing fresh trout for dinner was rarely a problem.

58
 She scarcely saw her grandchildren.
Griffin, the physics teacher, seldom shouted.

Hardly and scarcely meaning ‘almost not at all’

Hardly and scarcely can mean ‘almost not at all’ or ‘only just’. Hardly is much more common than scarcely,
and scarcely is more formal:
Jen was so tired. She could scarcely keep her eyes open.
I hardly know them. I’ve only met them once.

Word order

We usually put these adverbs in mid position, between the subject and main verb, after the modal verb or first
auxiliary verb, or after main verb be. In more formal styles, we put them in front position and invert the subject and
verb. If there is no auxiliary or modal verb, we use do/does/did.
Compare

neutral formal

She hardly ever went on holiday. Hardly ever did she go on holiday.

I had seldom seen so many people out on the streets. Seldom had I seen so many people out on the streets.

Things are rarely as bad as you think they’re going to Rarely are things as bad as you think they’re going to
be. be.

See also:
 Often
 Sometimes or sometime?
 Never or not … ever?
In more formal styles, to refer to something happening immediately after something else, we use scarcely/hardly …
when. We move hardly and scarcely to front position and invert the subject and verb:
Scarcely [V]had [S]I got myself comfortable and closed my eyes when I heard the sound of the alarm.

59
 Next
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Next

from English Grammar Today

Next is an adjective, an adverb or a pronoun.

Next means the first thing or person immediately after the present thing or person:
The next person she met was an old lady who had lived in the village all her life. (adjective)
There was a loud bang, and I can’t remember what happened next. (adverb)
Each week is just like the next: work, work, work. (pronoun)
Warning:

Next does not mean nearest:

Can you tell me where the nearest supermarket is please?
Not: Can you tell me where the next supermarket is please?
See also:
 Nearest or next?

Next as an adjective
Next or the next?

When we talk about days of the week, weeks, months, years, seasons or public holidays in the future in relation to
now, we use next without the and without a preposition:
I have an appointment with the dentist next Wednesday morning.
Not: … the next Wednesday morning.
Are you working next week?

60
Not: Are you working on next week?
Next year will be our fortieth wedding anniversary.
We’re going to plant some new flowers next spring.
To refer to the future, we can use the next few hours, the next two days, the next six months, etc.:
I’ll finish the work in the next few days. You can pay me then.
We’ll be home for the next three weeks, then we’re going away to France for two weeks.
When we talk about times in the past or future not related to now, we normally use the. However, in informal
situations, we can omit the when we talk about the past:
The next day we travelled to the ancient city of Qom.
We’re going to spend the first night in Oslo, then the next day we’ll fly to Narvik.
Two policemen grabbed me. Next minute, I was arrested and thrown into a van.

The next time

We can use the next time to refer to the past or to the future. In informal situations, we can omit the:
We’ve been to Australia a few times. The first time we went it was work, then the next time we went it was a mix of
work and holiday.
The next time you’re in Ireland, you must come and visit us.
I saw him about five years ago and he was unemployed. Next time I saw him he was driving a bus. (informal)

Next as an adverb
[a group of children are waiting to ride a pony]
Adult:

Who wants to go next?
Child:

Me! Me!
He said he was upset about the drama club, but I can’t remember what he said next.

Next as a linking adjunct

We can use next as a linking adjunct to refer to something which follows immediately after something before. We
often use this when giving instructions:
To convert your old cassette tapes to CDs, first you will need a cable to connect your cassette player to your
computer. Next, you will need some sort of software to convert your music to a digital format such as MP3.

Next as a pronoun
We can use next as a pronoun with or without the:
Ollie’s coming to stay the week after next. (the week after next week)
I don’t know how I’m going to manage from one day to the next.

Next to
We can use next to for people or things that are very near or beside each other:

61
 Can I sit next to you at the restaurant? There’s something I want to tell you.
We can also use next to when we are comparing things:
Next to English, my best language is Spanish. (English is my best language, then Spanish.)

Next: typical error

 When we say next week, next summer, next August, etc., we don’t use a preposition:
I’m going away next Wednesday.
Not: I’m going away on next Wednesday.

No longer, not any longer

 

62
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > No longer, not any longer

from English Grammar Today

We use no longer or not any longer to talk about the end of an action or state. No longer is more formal:
One day I could stand it no longer.
I couldn’t stand it any longer. I walked out and didn’t go back.

No longer often comes in the normal mid position for adverbs (between the subject and main verb, or after the
modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb), especially in more formal styles:
She no longer wears the dull colours of her former life and now dresses in bright, fashionable clothes.

In very formal styles, we can use no longer in front position, with the subject and verb inverted:
No longer does he dream of becoming famous. He knows his life will be very ordinary.

No longer or not any longer are the opposite of still.

Compare
She no longer works here.
She doesn’t work here any She isn’t working here now.
longer.

She still works here. She is working here now.

We use Not any longer as a response on its own. However, we don’t use No longer as a response on its own:
A:
Are you still living in London?
B:
Not any longer.
Not: No longer. or No, not still.

No more, not any more

 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > No more, not any more

from English Grammar Today

No more and not any more are determiners and adverbs.

No more, not any more as determiners

We use no more and not any more as determiners to talk about an absence of something that was once there. No
more is more formal than not any more:

63
 I will ask no more questions. (formal)
I won’t ask any more questions. (informal)
There’s no more cake. They’ve eaten it all. (or There isn’t any more cake.)

No more, not any more as adverbs

We use no more and not any more as adverbs to talk about something stopping or ending. No more is more formal
than not any more:
The army has arrived. We should fear no more. (formal)
I wouldn’t worry any more if I was you. Everything will be okay. (informal)

No more … than, Not any more … than

We use no more … than or not any more … than to talk about comparative quantities and degrees. No more than is
more formal than not any more than:
It does not tell you much. There is no more detail than in the instructions. (formal)
Flying there isn’t any more expensive than getting the train. (informal)
See also:
 Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)

Writing: any more or anymore?

In British English we usually write the adverb any more as two words though we sometimes see it as one word,
especially in American English. We never write it as one word as a determiner:
I’m not cold any more. (or I’m not cold anymore.)
I can’t print any more copies. The printer isn’t working.
Not: I can’t print anymore copies.

Now
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Now

from English Grammar Today

Now as an adverb of time

We use now most commonly as an adverb of time. It means ‘at the present time’, ‘at this moment’ or ‘very soon’.
We usually put now with this meaning in end position:
My father worked here and my brothers work here now.
I don’t want anything to eat now. I’ll have something later.
Can we go now?

In more formal styles, we can use now in mid position (between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal
verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
She used to work as a city economist; she now works as an adviser to the oil industry.

64
Laura Tranter is a young theatre director who is now in the middle of rehearsals for ‘Romeo and Juliet’.

We can premodify now. We use just now to talk about something that has happened recently and right now to talk
about something that is either happening or is about to happen immediately:
I thought I saw her car here just now, going towards Dersingham’s house. (very recently)
‘I need to talk to you for a minute.’ She shook her head. ‘I’m sorry, but I’m pretty busy right now.’
I’ll phone her right now. (immediately)

Spoken English:
We use now in speaking, to signal what is going to happen next. We often find this in a classroom or meeting when
the speaker is giving instructions or information or looking ahead to the next point of discussion. This meaning
of now is common in mid position or front position:
We’re now going to look at the exercise on page 10.
I’d now like to introduce the next speaker.
Now I think we should discuss the sales figures.
When now is in mid position, we often use it to express change as the result of something:
The business has become bigger and bigger. We now have offices in Japan, America and Belgium as well as the
UK.
It is now clear that dinosaurs were supreme for 130 million years, and that mammals co-existed with them.

Now as a discourse marker

We use now in speaking to signal something new, particularly when giving instructions or introducing a new idea or
topic. We often use it with other similar markers such as right or OK:
Now, before we start the actual meeting proper, I’ve invited Carol to come along and tell you about our recycling
project.

[teacher in class]
Right. Now, I don’t want anyone to call out the answers. Okay? Listen.

Now for emphasis
We sometimes use now to make a command or order stronger. We use it before or after imperative clauses:
Now stop crying. It’s going to be OK.
Don’t lose them now. They’re my favourite gloves.

Now (that)
We can use now that as a conjunction to refer to something and its result(s):
Now that she had his attention, she couldn’t think of anything to say.

In informal speaking we can leave out that:

Now (that) the weather’s nice, the children play outside all day.

65
Often
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Often

from English Grammar Today

Often is an adverb meaning ‘many times on different occasions’. Like many other short adverbs, we use it in front
position, in mid position (between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or
after be as a main verb) or in end position:
I often see Christine when I’m in town. She must do her shopping in the same places as me.
A:
I love that Indian restaurant on Mill Street.
B:
D’you go there often?
A:
Not very often, I mean, maybe once a month or so.

Front position is the least common position, and sounds more formal:
We used to see him on the beach. Often he would go for a swim, then he would come and talk to us.

We can emphasise often with very or quite:
I very often meet him as he’s coming out of work.
Maggie is old now and she quite often forgets things.

We use how often to ask about the frequency of something:

A:
How often do you go swimming?
B:
About three or four times a week, usually.

66
Once
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Once

from English Grammar Today

Once is an adverb or conjunction.

Once as an adverb
We use once as an adverb to mean ‘one single time’:
I’ve only met Jane’s husband once. (one time)

We say once a + singular time expression and once every + plural time expression to talk about how often
something happens:
They go for dinner together once a month. (one time per month)
Not: They go for dinner once the month.
I see him once every two or three weeks.

We also use once to mean ‘at a time in the past but not now’. In this meaning, we often use it in mid position
(between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
My father once worked on an oilrig. (He no longer works there.)
The Millers once owned a dairy farm. (They no longer own a dairy farm.)
She was once a schoolteacher but she hated it.

The phrase once upon a time is used at the start of children’s stories. We sometimes use it to mean ‘long ago’:
Once upon a time there was a little girl called Little Red Riding Hood …
You used to go to nightclubs once upon a time!

Once as a conjunction
We use once as a conjunction meaning ‘as soon as’ or ‘after’:
Once I’ve picked Megan up, I’ll call you.
My boss is a nice man once you get to know him.

We don’t use shall or will in the clause with once:

Once I pass all my exams, I’ll be fully qualified.
Not: Once I will pass …

Soon

67
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Soon

from English Grammar Today

Soon means ‘a short time after now’ and ‘a short time after a point in the past’. Like many other short adverbs, we
can use it in front position, mid position or end position, though we don’t use it in end position when referring to the
past:
The summer is coming. Soon the tourists will arrive. (front position)
She soon realised her mistake and apologised to us all. (mid position)
I was sorry to hear you are not well. I hope you get better soon. (end position, future reference)
A:

Bye bye.
B:

Bye. See you soon. (end position, future reference)

The ticket office opened at 8 am, and all the tickets were soon sold out. (or The ticket office opened at 8 am,
and soon all the tickets were sold out.)
Not: … were sold out soon.
We can use very or quite before soon:
The construction is planned to start very (or quite) soon – next month in fact.
Soon or early?

Soon does not mean the same as early.

Compare

We’ll have to
We’ll have to leave after a short time from now.
leave soon.

We’ll have to We’ll have to leave before the usual or planned time, e.g. early in the morning, so that we
leave early. do not arrive late.

Soon or quickly?

Warning:

Soon does not mean the same as quickly:

I hope to see you soon to tell you more about it.
Not: I hope to see you quickly …

Soon after

Warning:

We can use soon before after or afterwards:

68
Sharon arrived first, and Mena arrived soon after (or soon afterwards).

As soon as …

As soon as … is a common phrase. We can follow it by the adjective possible, or by a clause:

The bridge must be repaired as soon as possible. It’s dangerous.
Come and see us as soon as you can.
Fill in the form and return it as soon as you receive it.

Still
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Still

from English Grammar Today

Still is an adverb and an adjective.

Still as an adverb
We use still as an adverb to emphasise that something is continuing:
They have been together for 40 years and they are still very much in love.

69
 We’re still waiting for our new couch to be delivered.

We usually put still in the normal mid position for adverbs (between the subject and the main verb, or after the
modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
She still goes to French classes every week. (between subject and main verb)
He’s still studying. (after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb)
I’m still hungry. (after main verb be)

Spoken English:
In informal speaking, you will often hear still used in end position. Many speakers of English may consider this
usage too informal:
I can’t find my bag still. Has anyone seen it?
Have you got their address still?
The opposite of still is no longer, not any longer or not any more:
A:
Are you still teaching in Birmingham?
B:
No, I’m not working there any more (or any longer). (or No, I’m no longer working there.)
Not: I’m not still working …

We sometimes use still to show that the continuing situation is not desired or is surprising, especially when still is
stressed and in a negative clause. Note the position of still before the auxiliary or modal verb when we use it in a
negative clause:
She bought a car two months ago and she still hasn’t taken any driving lessons. (still is stressed)
I still can’t find Kay’s phone number. (still is stressed) (I’ve been looking for it for a long time. I wish I could find
it.)

We can also use still stressed in this way for something that is true in spite of other things:
We offered £350,000 for the flat but they still wanted more.
We were near the front of the queue but we still didn’t get tickets for the concert.

We can use still in front position to mean ‘on the other hand’ or ‘nevertheless’:
I don’t really like weddings. Still, I’ll have to go or they’ll be offended.
… there was not one air-conditioned room on the tour and there were not enough minibuses for all the
passengers. Still, I did manage to get into one minibus but it broke down on the way to the hotel.

See also:
 Already
 Already, still or yet?
 Any more or anymore?
 Long
 Yet

Still as an adjective
We use still as an adjective to say that something is not moving:

70
 Keep your head still.
It was a still, calm evening.

Still: typical errors
 We don’t use still after the main verb:
Teachers still have an important role in the classroom.
Not: Teachers have still an important role …

 We don’t use still before the first auxiliary or modal verb in an affirmative clause:

The price of petrol is still going up.
Not: … still is going up.
I can still run 5 km without difficulty.
Not: I still can run …

Then
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Then

from English Grammar Today

Then as an adverb has a number of different meanings.

Then meaning ‘at that time’

We can use then to mean ‘at that time’, referring either to the past or the future. In this case, it is usually at the end
of the clause:
A:

When I was a child, I lived in Austria for a while.

B:

What age were you then?

This time next week, I’ll be on a plane to Kiev. Where will you be then?

Then meaning ‘next’

We can use then to mean ‘next’:

He opened the door, then the lights came on and everybody shouted, ‘Happy Birthday’.
Heat some olive oil in a pan, then add some chopped garlic and some salt.

71
 Then meaning ‘in addition’

Spoken English:

Especially in speaking, we can use then to mean ‘in addition’:

Hiring a car is an extra expense on holiday and then there’s the cost of insurance.
Here’s our bedroom and then we have two more bedrooms down here.

Then meaning ‘in that case’

We use then with if to talk about cause and effect:

If we buy Jason a present, then we’ll have to buy one for Isaac too.
If you are interested in food, then you will love this book.
Spoken English:

In informal speaking, we often use then at the end of the clause meaning ‘in that case’:
You don’t want anything to eat? Okay. So I’ll just get you a coffee then.
Usually
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Usually

from English Grammar Today

The adverb usually refers to what typically or normally happens. We use it mostly in mid position, between the
subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb:
Children usually enjoy visits to the zoo.
Not: Children enjoy usually visits …
I usually get up around eight o’clock.
You can usually buy tickets for rock concerts on the Internet.
Are you usually in your office on Thursdays?
Warning:

Usually does not mean the same as used to or be used to. Usually refers to what typically or normally happens. Used
to refers to things which were true in the past but not now. Be used to means ‘be accustomed to’ or ‘be familiar
with’:
We usually watch the news on TV before we go to bed.
Not: We used to watch the news … or We’re used to watching the news … or We use to watch the news …
We can also use the verb tend to talk about what usually happens:
We tend to watch the news on TV before we go to bed.
We say as usual, not as usually, to talk about something which happens in the normal or typical way:
We shall meet again as usual at 5 pm next Tuesday.
Not: We shall meet again as usually at …
Typical errors

 Take care to spell usually with ll.

72
 Don’t confuse usually and used to. Usually refers to what normally happens; used to refers to things which
were true in the past but are no longer true:
I usually play football on Wednesday evenings, so Thursday would be better for me to go out for a meal.
Not: I used to play football …

Eventually
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Eventually

from English Grammar Today

We use the adverb eventually to mean ‘in the end’, especially when something has involved a long time, or a lot of
effort or problems:
I looked everywhere for my keys, and eventually found them inside one of my shoes! (I found them after a long time
and a lot of effort.)

Warning:
Eventually does not mean ‘perhaps/possibly’ or ‘if possible’.
I asked the receptionist to change my room and give me a bigger one, and, if possible, away from the traffic noise.
Not: … and, eventually, away from the traffic noise.

We use finally or lastly, not eventually, to refer to the last item in a list or the last point in a discussion:
Finally, I think that the best way of facing and dealing with situations like these, is, as I have mentioned, to be
diplomatic, nice, patient, sensible and to show respect.
Not: Eventually, I think that the …

Adverbs as discourse markers (anyway, finally)

 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs as discourse markers (anyway, finally)

from English Grammar Today

Discourse markers organise longer pieces of conversation or text. They can mark the openings or closings of
conversations, changes in topics, and other functions connected with organising a conversation or text. Most
discourse markers belong to the class of adverbs.
Anyway, I’ve got to go and pick up the children. (signals that the conversation is finishing)
Finally, we need to consider the broader economic issues. (signals the last item in a list of points or arguments)
Right, now, sorry to keep you waiting. (signals something new)
So you want to go to Spain, do you? (focuses on a topic)

Adverbs as short responses (definitely, certainly)

 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Adverbs as short responses (definitely, certainly)

73
from English Grammar Today

Attitude and viewpoint

Spoken English:

We often use some adverbs in speaking as short responses to show attitude or viewpoint:

A:

You know DVDs? Can you record onto them?

B:

Absolutely.
A:

Dr Kahn is very nice. He’s very interested in his patients.

B:

Oh, do you think so?

A:

Definitely.
A:

There might be a film on at 2 pm that we could watch.

B:

Yeah, probably.
A:

Mandy isn’t going because she just doesn’t like Rick.

B:

Exactly.
A:

Maybe she bought two of the same sweaters in case something happened to one.
B:

Yeah, possibly.
A:

It should be called ‘English Test’ not ‘Test of English’.

B:

Precisely.
Spoken English:

We often use not really in this way to soften a no-answer:

74
A:

Do you not like chocolate?

B:

No, not really.

Replies to requests

We use certainly and of course typically as a reply to a request for a service or favour:

A:

Can I have the bill please?

B:

Certainly.
[in a clothes shop]
A:

Is it OK if I try these on?

B:

Of course.

Intensifying adverbs

We often use adverbs that make the meaning stronger (very, extremely, really) as a short response:
A:

He’s an intelligent dog, isn’t he?

B:

Yes, very/extremely/highly.

Using adjectives and adverbs

 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs

Some words, such as only, long and alike, can be used as adjectives or adverbs depending on their context and the
words which follow them.
Some adjectives follow specific patterns, such as afraid + of + noun, or the same + as + noun.
Some adverbs, such as too, can change their meaning depending on their position in a sentence:
The water was too cold to swim in.
I’d like to go too.

75
Afraid
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Afraid

from English Grammar Today

Afraid meaning ‘feeling fear’

Afraid as an adjective means ‘feeling fear’. We use it with of + noun, of + -ing form, a to-infinitive or a that-clause:
Are you afraid of the dark? (of + noun)
She seemed afraid of walking home alone. (of + -ing form)
If you don’t understand, don’t be afraid to ask. (to-infinitive)
They looked afraid that we might get lost in the city centre. (that-clause)
Warning:

We only use afraid after a verb such as be, seem, become, not before a noun (predicatively):
Her mother is very ill and afraid.
Not: Her afraid mother

Alike
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Alike

from English Grammar Today

Alike as an adjective
Alike as an adjective means ‘the same’ or ‘similar’:
They are not sisters but their clothes are alike, aren’t they?
All the shops are alike, and it’s hard to find something different.

Warning:
As an adjective, alike is only used after a verb such as be, seem, look, but not before a noun (predicatively):
The two women, who looked alike, sat silently in the corner.
Not: The two alike women sat silently…

Hard
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Hard

76
from English Grammar Today

Hard is both an adjective and an adverb. When it is an adverb, it means ‘needing or using a lot of physical or mental
effort’. It goes after the main verb:
I studied hard for my exams but didn’t do very well.
We have worked hard all day.

The comparative and superlative forms are harder and hardest:

He didn’t get into the team this year. He’ll just have to try harder next time.
Not: He’ll just have to try more hard next time.
Right, children, who has worked hardest today?

Warning:
Don’t confuse hard with hardly. Hardly usually means ‘only just’ or ‘almost not’:
Every day I ran a lot and worked hard so that I would be prepared for the game.
Not: Every day I ran a lot and worked hardly.

Long
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Long

from English Grammar Today

Long is an adjective or an adverb.

We can use long to talk about time, distance or length.
Time

We use long as an adverb in questions and negative clauses to talk about duration:

A:

How long has Valerie been staying with you?

B:

She arrived in January, so she’s been here for four months.

Marco didn’t stay long at the party.
Don’t be long.
Warning:

We don’t use long on its own in affirmative clauses. We often use (for) a long time:
We waited for a long time in the rain for the bus.
Not: … waited long …
They took a long time getting here.

77
 Not: They took long …
We can use long in affirmative clauses with too, enough and so:
A month is too long to wait for an appointment.
We’ve waited long enough for a reply. I think we need to phone them.
You took so long. What were you doing?
When we talk about actual amounts of time, we can use phrases with time + long, or phrases like all day long, all
month long:
The lecture was three hours long.
We worked all day long.
We can also use a long time ago, long ago or long before to refer to a time many years in the past:
This castle was built a long time ago. (or … was built long ago.)
Long before you were born, there was a factory here. It was closed in the 1960s.
We use long as an adjective:
You’re home already. That can’t have been a very long film.

Distance

We can use the phrase a long way to talk about distance:

My house is a long way from the station. You’ll have to take a taxi.
It’s a long way to the nearest petrol station.
In negative statements and questions we usually use far:
My house is not far from the station.
Is it far to the beach?

Length

We use long to talk about the length of something:

It was three metres long and four metres wide.
How long is the boat?
This is such a long queue. It’s going to take at least an hour.

As long as

The phrase as long as is used as a conjunction. It means ‘on condition that’:
As long as the weather is okay, we’re going to paint the house tomorrow.
Jenny said she’d come to the party as long as we don’t stay too late.
See also:
 Conditionals
 Conjunctions

No longer and not any longer

We can use the phrases no longer and not … any longer to refer to something that used to exist or happen but does
not exist or happen now:

78
 There are no longer any family bakeries in our town.
A:

Are you still working at the garden centre?

B:

No, not any longer.

See also:
 Any more or anymore?

Typical error

 We can’t use long on its own in affirmative sentences:

A:

Will it take long?
B:

No, it won’t take long. (or Yes, it’ll take a long time.)

Not: Yes, it’ll take long.

Only
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Only

from English Grammar Today

Only is an adjective or adverb.

Only as an adjective
We use only as an adjective to mean that there is just one or very few of something, or that there are no others:
He was the only person in the room.
Being healthy is the only thing that is important to me.

Only as an adverb
We use only as an adverb to mean that something is limited to some people, things, an amount or an activity:
This phone is only available in Japan.
Only a few hundred houses survived the hurricane without any damage.

Only can mean ‘simply’:

He’s only joking.

Spoken English:

79
In speaking, only can be used with just for emphasis. It can mean ‘very recently’ or ‘almost not’:
She’d only just moved into her new house last July. (very recently)
The building had survived the earthquake of two years before, but only just. (It almost didn’t survive the
earthquake.)

Only: position
As an adjective, we use only in front of a noun or one, or before another adjective or a number:
Is that your only copy of the book?
He was the only one who could read in the village.
Not: He was the only who could read …
That was the only large t-shirt left in that colour.
There were only four United fans in the room.

We can use only as an adverb in different positions, depending on its focus. If the subject is the focus, we put only in
front position:
Only Jason knows where the key is kept.
Only a very small bed will fit in this room.

If the focus is on another part of the sentence, we usually put only in the normal mid position for adverbs (between
the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
I only go home once a month. (between subject and main verb)
She had only  arrived at midnight the night before. (after the first auxiliary verb)
She’s only sixteen. (after be as a main verb)

If the focus is a whole clause, we can put only in front position:

My arm hurts but only when I try to raise it.

Same, similar, identical

 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Same, similar, identical

from English Grammar Today

Same means that two or more things are exactly like one another. We can use same as an adjective before a noun or
as a pronoun. When we use same to compare people or things, we must use it with the:
I noticed that Richard and I were both wearing the same jacket.
Not: … were both wearing same jacket.
These two colours are not the same. This one is slightly lighter than that one.
Not: … are not same.
The same as

Warning:

80
The same is followed by as. It is not followed by that or than:
Does ‘start’ mean the same as ‘begin’ in English?
Not: … the same that … or … the same than …
My new car is the same model as my old one.
Not: … the same model that … or … the same model than …

The same + noun + clause

When we use the same with a noun, we can follow it by a clause with that, and less commonly with who or which.
We can often leave out that, who or which:
She’s the same person (that) I spoke to when I phoned their office.
How was the course? Was it the same teacher (who) you had last time?
We can emphasise same with very:
This is the very same hotel we stayed at when we were here twenty years ago!

Do the same

We can use do the same instead of repeating a clause:

She bought her ticket for the folk festival online, and we did the same. (We also bought our tickets online.)

Similar and identical

We use similar if two or more things are not entirely the same, or identical if two or more things are exactly the
same. We use the patterns similar to and identical to, a similar + noun or a similar + one and an identical + noun
or an identical + one. We don’t say a same:
This colour is similar to that one.
Frank had a problem connecting his printer. We had a similar problem, so it must be the software.
Not: … a same problem …
She first showed us a beautiful 16th-century vase. Then she showed us an identical one, but the second one was a
copy.
Not: … a same one …
Questions 1 and 2 were identical.

Likely and unlikely
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Likely and unlikely

from English Grammar Today

Likely and unlikely are adjectives. We use them to say that something will probably happen or not happen in the
future. We can use them before a noun, or with the verbs be, seem and appear:
What is the most likely outcome of the referendum?
It seems unlikely that inflation will fall below 3% this year.

81
 We can follow likely or unlikely by a verb in the to-infinitive form:
The economy is likely to recover slowly after the long recession.
Are you likely to want this cardboard box or shall I throw it out?
The weather seems unlikely to change over the next few days.
Instead of unlikely, we can say not likely:
Zoe’s not likely to arrive before eight o’clock. She doesn’t finish work till seven.
We can also follow likely and unlikely by a that-clause with will. This pattern is less common than likely/unlikely +
to-infinitive:
It is likely that there will be a general election next year. or There is likely to be a general election next year.
It seems unlikely that space travel for ordinary people will become common in the near future.
We can use adverbs such as very, quite, highly and extremely before likely and unlikely to make their meaning
stronger:
The government is very likely to propose changes to the income tax system soon.
I think it’s highly unlikely that she’ll get into university with the test scores she has.
We can compare how probable different things are using likely and unlikely with as … as, more, (the) most,
less and (the) least:
Steve is as likely to get the job as Dora. They’re both very well qualified.
People are more likely to take climate change seriously if they can understand the economic consequences for their
own lives.
Kevin is (the) least likely to want to get married of all his friends.
In American English, and more and more in British English, likely is used as a mid-position adverb (like probably in
British English), most commonly between will and a main verb:
The new regulations will likely result in many people losing their jobs.
Typical error

 It is likely to does not mean the same as it is easy to:

It’s easy to forget to save your work on the computer.
Not: It’s likely to forget …
It’s easy to confuse mushrooms you can eat with poisonous ones.
Not: It’s likely to confuse …

As well (as)
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > As well (as)

from English Grammar Today

As well (as) meaning ‘in addition’

82
As well is an adverb which means ‘also’, ‘too’ or ‘in addition’. We usually use as well at the end of a clause:
We look forward very much to seeing you again and to meeting your wife as well.

As well as is a multi-word preposition which means ‘in addition to’:

She has invited Jill as well as Kate.
When they go to Austria, they like walking as well as skiing.

Might as well and may as well

We use might as well and may as well informally to mean that something is worth doing only because other things
are not happening. Might as well is more common:
I might as well paint the bedroom myself; no one else is going to do it.
We may as well go out tonight because there’s not much on TV.

As well
We use as well and the phrase just as well when we say that something is probably a good thing:
It’s as well to have a good camera with you when you visit the bird park. (as well here means ‘it’s a good idea’)
It’s just as well we didn’t go to the lecture, because it was cancelled.

Even
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Even

from English Grammar Today

Even is an adverb.
We use even to refer to something surprising, unexpected, unusual or extreme:
He didn’t even have enough money to pay the rent.
You love me, even after the terrible things I’ve done?
I’d never been abroad before, so it was a wonderful gift. I didn’t have to pay for anything. When we got to the
airport at Stansted, she’d even arranged for the captain to escort me on to the plane. It was a treat I will always
remember.

Even: position

83
 When even refers to a whole clause or sentence, we usually put it in the normal mid position for adverbs, between
the subject and the main verb, after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb:
You can take an online course now and you even do the test online.
I haven’t even started making dinner.
It’s a really useful book if you’re interested in cameras. There’s even a chapter on buying second-hand ones.

We can put even or not even before the part of the clause or sentence we want to focus on:
Even a five-year-old can see that these figures don’t add up.
They came in cars, in lorries, and even an aeroplane.

[talking about a local swimming pool]

It’s not usually too busy. Not even at weekends.

We sometimes put even at the end of a clause or sentence in informal speaking.

Compare
I can’t remember him at all. I’ve even forgotten what he looks
like. typical position

I can’t remember him at all. I’ve forgotten what he looks

like even. more informal, used in speaking

See also:
 Adverbs and adverb phrases: position

Even and comparatives
We often use even with comparative adjectives and adverbs to add more emphasis:
It is six years since U2 played in Belfast in 1987 on their world-conquering Joshua Tree tour. Since then they have
become even bigger and richer, and their concerts even more popular.

[talking about a footballer]

Frank played well last season and this season he has played even better.

Even and also
Even and also are both adverbs.
We use even to add emphasis or more information to a surprising or unexpected thing:
Human beings, we are told, will live for 150, even 200 years, by the end of the century.

We use also to add a new piece of information, without the suggestion that it is surprising:
She was a very beautiful girl. She was also very bright and excelled at everything she did.
Not: She was even very bright …

Compare
He gave her a cake with 26 candles on. He even sang ‘Happy The fact that he sang ‘Happy Birthday’ was
Birthday’. unexpected.

84
 He gave her a cake with 26 candles on. He also sang ‘Happy He did two things: he gave her a cake and he
Birthday’. sang.

See also:
 Even
 Also, as well or too?
 As well (as)

Even though and even if
We can use even with though and if.
Even though means the same as although, ‘in spite of the fact that’. We use it to say that something may not be what
we expect. Even though gives more emphasis than although:
[talking about a football team]
I think they’re fantastic, even though they haven’t won any games this season.

We use even before if to refer to a possible unexpected or extreme event:

I’m still going to go swimming in the sea even if it rains. (I don’t expect rain but it is possible.)
I’ve got to get home even if it means flying the plane myself. (I’ve got to get home and I’ll do anything to get there.)

See also:
 Although or though?
 If

Even so
We use even so to make a contrast, to mean ‘despite something’. It has a similar meaning
to however or nevertheless.
It is most common in front position in the clause but we can also use it in end position. It often occurs after but:
Their holiday went well but, even so, they longed to be home again with the children.

[parent to child, getting into a car]

You do need your seatbelt on. Put it on please. I know it’s not very far, but even so. If we have an accident you’ll
need it.
I know you don’t like her, but you should say hello to her even so.

85
 Hardly
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Hardly

from English Grammar Today

Hardly is an adverb.
Hardly has a negative meaning. It normally means ‘almost not at all’ or ‘only just’. We can use it in mid position, or
before an adjective or a noun:
He wore a big hat that covered his head and you could hardly see his face. (you could only see a small part of his
face)
It’s hardly surprising that Leeds, England’s third largest city, is now fast becoming a very popular UK holiday
destination.
At first hardly a person in the audience moved, although some umbrellas were opened. But then the rain came
down more heavily.
Hardly any, hardly ever

We often use hardly before any, anyone, anybody, anything and ever in negative clauses, but not before no, none, no

one, nobody, nothing or never:
At first, hardly anyone came. (almost no one came)
Not: At first hardly no one came.
There was hardly anything to eat.
She lives in Scotland so we hardly ever see her now, but I like to keep in touch.

Hardly at all

We sometimes use at all after the verb, adjective or noun which follows hardly to give greater emphasis:
I hardly slept at all last night.

Hardly and very little, very few

Hardly + any(thing) has a similar meaning to very little or very few:

I hardly ate anything yesterday. (= I ate very little yesterday.)
She hardly buys any new clothes at all. (= She buys very few new clothes.)
See also:
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few

Word order

We usually put hardly in mid position, between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first
auxiliary verb, or after main verb be:
My piano lesson is on Monday, and I’ve hardly played it this week.
I can hardly wait.
There were hardly any tourists.

86
When hardly is modifying either the main verb or the following noun, we can put it directly before the verb or
before the noun phrase:
She hardly had any sleep. or She had hardly any sleep.
In more formal styles, to refer to something happening immediately after something else, we use hardly … when.
We move hardly to front position and invert the subject and verb:
Hardly [V]had [S]I arrived there when I was called back to the head office 100 miles away. (I arrived there and
then I was immediately called back.)
Warning:

Hardly is not the adverb form of the adjective hard. The adverb form of hard is also hard.

Hopefully
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Hopefully

from English Grammar Today

The adverb hopefully means ‘wanting the answer to be yes’:

Their father said they were not allowed to have a puppy until they were older but we saw them
sitting hopefully outside the pet shop.
‘Could you lend me £20?’ he asked hopefully.

We commonly use hopefully in front position to say what we wish for or would like to happen. It is also sometimes
used as a response to questions:
Hopefully, the economic problems in the country will not get any worse.
A:
Will they win the match tonight?
B:
Hopefully.

Surely
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Surely

from English Grammar Today

87
We use the adverb surely to express a degree of certainty. It does not express as much certainty
as definitely or certainly. When we use surely, we are hoping that our listener will agree with us:
Lisa will surely find a solution to the problem. (I want you to agree with me that Lisa will find a solution.)
Surely this is against the law. (I want you to agree with me that it is against the law.)

Compare

It’s surely quicker if you have a computer. It’s certainly quicker if you have a computer.

I think that it is quicker if you have a computer and I want you to I am certain that it is quicker if you have a
agree. computer.

We can use surely, especially in negative question forms, to show surprise:

Surely you’re not going to take two weeks off work? (I am surprised that you’re going to take two weeks off.)
Surely she’s not interested in a job like that? (I am surprised that she is interested in a job like that.)

Too
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Too

from English Grammar Today

Too is an adverb.

Too meaning ‘more than enough’

We use too meaning ‘more than enough’ in different positions.

Too before adjectives and adverbs

We use too immediately before adjectives and adverbs:

This coffee is too sweet.
Not: This coffee is too much sweet.
I can’t sleep. It’s too hot.
It happened too quickly, so I just didn’t see it.
Not: It happened too much quickly.
The car was travelling too fast and went out of control.

88
 Too before adjective/adverb + to-infinitive

The water was too cold to swim in.

Two hours is too long to wait.

Too much, too many, too few and too little

When we want to talk about quantities which are more or less than enough, we use too much, too many, too
few and too little before a noun:
There’s too much salt in this soup. (too much + uncountable noun)
There were too many dogs on the beach. (too many + countable noun)
I don’t like this book because there are too few pictures in it. (too few + countable noun; more formal than I don’t
like this book because there aren’t enough pictures in it.)
The trip was cancelled because there was too little interest in it. (too little + uncountable noun)
See also:
 Much, many, a lot of, lots of: quantifiers

Much too and far too

We can use much and far with too for emphasis. Far too is stronger than much too:

Too and very

We use very to add emphasis to an adjective or an adverb, but it does not mean the same as too.
Compare

She
Very makes careful stronger.
is very careful.

She is too careful. Too careful means ‘more careful than is necessary’.

Very much and too much

We often use very much to emphasise verbs such as like, dislike, hope, doubt. We do not use too much in this way
with these verbs:
I like it very much because I got it from my husband.
Not: I like it too much …
I doubt very much that Ronan will be able to come to the party.
Not: I doubt too much that …

Too bad

Spoken English:

In speaking, we can use too bad or that’s too bad as a response token to express that we are sorry to hear about
something. This is particularly common in American English:
A:

89
 The weather forecast says it’s going to rain again on Wednesday.
B:

Too bad. We were planning to go for a picnic.

A:

How’s your mother?

B:

She’s okay but she’s feeling lonely because she lives on her own now.
A:

That’s too bad. Does she have many friends living nearby?

Too meaning ‘also’
We can use too to mean ‘also’. It is more common than also in informal situations. We normally use it at the end of
the clause:
[in a restaurant, A is the waiter]
A:

Have you decided?

B:

I think I’ll have the soup.

C:

I’ll have that too.

Catherine decided to join us for dinner, and her husband came along too. (or, more formal, … and her husband
also came along.)
In short answers in informal situations, we normally say me too, not I too:
A:

I love that colour.

B:

Me too.
In more formal situations, we can use too immediately after the subject:
You too could have a week in the sun. Visit www.holidaysforyou.com.
See also:
 Also, as well or too?

Typical error

 We don’t use too to emphasise adjectives and adverbs. We use very:

She was very beautiful. (very emphasises beautiful)
Not: She was too beautiful.

90
Ultimately
 
Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Using adjectives and adverbs > Ultimately

from English Grammar Today

Ultimately is an adverb. We use it to mean ‘finally, after a series of things have happened’:
Ultimately, I’d like to go to university, but before that I want to get some work experience and travel a bit.
We came to the conclusion ultimately that political demonstrations were a waste of time.

Warning:
Ultimately does not mean ‘recently’:
Recently, the price of shares in the company has dropped.
Not: Ultimately, the price of shares in the company has dropped.

Above or over?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Above or over?

from English Grammar Today

When we use above as a preposition, it means ‘higher than’. Its meaning is close to that of the preposition over. In
the following sentences, over can be used instead of above:
The waves came up above her head and she started screaming. (or … came up over her head …)
She is a nervous flier. But once the plane got above the clouds, she started to relax. (or … got over the clouds …)
We use above, but not over, to refer to things that are at an upper or higher level:
[a ‘chalet’ is a small wooden building usually found in mountainous areas]
Do they live in that chalet above the village?
Not: Do they live in that chalet over the village?

91
 We usually use above, but not over, when there is no contact between the things referred to. Over or on top of have a
more general meaning, and can be used when one thing touches or covers another:
They made her comfortable and put a blanket over her.
Not: They made her comfortable and put a blanket above her.
We normally use over not above with numbers:
I get over sixty emails a day.
Not: I get above sixty emails a day.
If you weigh over 100 kilograms, then you may need to start a diet.
Not: If you weigh above 100 kilograms
Warning:

When we talk about temperatures in relation to zero or (the) average, we use above not over:

It was three degrees above zero.
Not: It was three degrees over zero.
When we refer to temperatures in other contexts, we can normally use above or over:
The temperature is already above 30 degrees. (or … over 30 degrees.)
Typical errors

 We don’t use over to mean ‘higher level’.

Most of the race is 500 metres above sea level.
Not: Most of the race is 500 metres over sea level.
 We don’t use above when one thing touches or covers another.
Pour some cream over the tart and serve it warm.
Not: Pour some cream above the tart
 We don’t use above with numbers.
Over 100 people complained about the programme.
Not: Above 100 people complained

92
Across, over or through?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Across, over or through?

from English Grammar Today

Across
We use across as a preposition (prep) and an adverb (adv). Across means on the other side of something, or from
one side to the other of something which has sides or limits such as a city, road or river:
We took a boat [PREP]across the river.
[PREP]Across the room, she could see some old friends. She got up and went to join them.
My neighbour came [ADV]across to see me this morning to complain about our cat.
The road was so busy that we found it difficult to get [ADV]across.
We also use across when something touches or stretches from one side to another:
The Ponte Vecchio is a beautiful old bridge across the river Arno in Florence.
She divided the page by drawing a red line across it. Then she cut it in two.
Especially in American English, across from is used to refer to people or objects being ‘opposite’ or ‘on the other
side’:
The pharmacy is across from the Town Hall.
Helen’s office is just across from mine.
We use across to emphasise that something is happening at the same time in many places, e.g. within an
organisation, a city or a country:
She’s opened coffee shops across the city and they’re very successful.
Across the country, people are coming out to vote for a new president.
We also use across to refer to the width or diagonal measurement of something:
The size of a television screen is measured from the higher corner of one side to the lower corner of the other side,
that is, from one corner across to the opposite corner.
Across comes after measurements when we talk about diameter or width:
The building is 157 metres long, 92 metres across and the façade is 68 metres wide.

Over
We use over as a preposition and an adverb to refer to something at a higher position than something else,
sometimes involving movement from one side to another:

93
 From the castle tower, you can see [PREP]over the whole city.
We toasted marshmallows [PREP]over the fire.
We drove high up [PREP]over the mountains on a narrow dangerous road.
Suddenly a plane flew [ADV]over and dropped hundreds of leaflets.
Come over often means to come to the speaker’s home:
You must come [ADV]over and have dinner with us some time.
Especially when we use them as adverbs, over can mean the same as across:
We walked over to the shop. (or We walked across to the shop – the shop is on the other side of the road)
I was going across to say hello when I realised that I couldn’t remember his name. (or I was going over to say
… meaning ‘to the other side of the street or room’)

Across or through?
Movement

When we talk about movement from one side to another but ‘in something’, such as long grass or a forest, we
use through instead of across:
I love walking through the forest. (through stresses being in the forest as I walk)
Not: I love walking across the forest.
When my dog runs through long grass, it’s difficult to find him. (through stresses that the dog is in the grass)
Not: When my dog runs across long grass …

Time

When referring to a period of time from start to finish, American English speakers often use through where British
English speakers say from … to/till …:
The office is open Monday through Friday, 9 am–5 pm. (preferred British form: from Monday to Friday)
Warning:

We use over, not through, to refer to periods of time from start to finish when a number is specified (of days, weeks,
etc.):
Over the last few days, I have been thinking a lot about quitting my job.

Across, over and through: typical errors

 When moving from one side to another while surrounded by something, we use through not across:
We cycled through a number of small villages.
Not: We cycled across a number of small villages.
 When we talk about something extending or moving from one side to another, we use across not on:
The papers were spread across the table.
Not: The papers were spread on the table.
 We don’t use through when we’re talking about periods of time from start to finish and we mention a
specific number of days, weeks, etc:
We haven’t seen each other much over the last four years.
Not: We haven’t seen each other much through the last four years.

94
Advice or advise?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Advice or advise?

from English Grammar Today

Advice /ədˈvɑɪs/ is a noun and means a suggestion about what someone should do. It is uncountable:
Let me give you some advice: stay away from Margaret.
Not: Let me give you an advice
She gave him a lot of advice, but I don’t think he listened.
Not: …a lot of advices …

If we want to use advice in a countable way, then we use the phrase a piece of advice:
I have two pieces of advice for you about the holiday.

We use the verb advise /ədˈvɑɪz/ to mean ‘to give someone advice’:

I strongly advise you to lose weight.
They finally did what we advised.

Affect or effect?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Affect or effect?

from English Grammar Today

Affect is a verb meaning ‘influence or cause someone or something to change’:

The cold weather has really affected her health.
New technologies continue to affect how we live.

Effect is a noun that means ‘the result of an influence’:

The pollution in the city had a bad effect on me.
Most people these days understand the serious effects of smoking.

All or every?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > All or every?

from English Grammar Today

All and every are determiners.

95
 We use both all and every to refer to the total number of something. All refers to a complete group. Every refers to
each member of a complete group:
The questionnaire was sent to all employees.
The questionnaire was sent to every employee.

We can use every to focus on each individual member.

Compare
All passengers must turn off their mobile phones. refers to the whole group

Every passenger must turn off their mobile phone.

focuses on each individual
(We use their instead of his or her to refer back to a singular noun (passenger) member of the whole group
because we are referring to both male and female passengers.)

We can use all, but not every, on its own without a noun. We use everyone/everybody/everything instead:

The meeting is at Oriel Hall. It begins at 8 pm and all are welcome.
Not: … every is welcome
Everyone is welcome to join the village social club.

See also:
 Every

All and every + nouns
The meaning of all and every is very similar but we use them in different ways. We use all with plural and
uncountable nouns and every with singular nouns:
All donations will be sent to the earthquake relief fund.
All equipment must be returned by the end of June. (uncountable)
Every donation is appreciated.

We can use all and all of before determiners, but we don’t use every before determiners:

I invited all (of) my friends.
Not: … every my friends

All (of) the

We can use all and all of before articles (the, a/an), demonstratives (this, that) and possessives (our, his) but we
can’t use every before them:
[talking about a library]
It has got all (of) the books that have ever been published.
Not: It has got every the book or It has got the every book
She’s gone to all (of) their concerts this year. She hasn’t missed one.
Not: … every their concerts

See also:
 All of

96
 All  without  of

All day, every day

We use all day, all week, all month to mean ‘one entire day/week/month’:
We spent all day at the beach yesterday.

Every day (week/month) focuses on each individual day (week/month):

We spent every day at the beach in the holidays.
Not: We spent all days at the beach
Fuel prices are rising every week.
Not: Fuel prices are rising all weeks.

All or every: typical errors

 We don’t use every before determiners:
He sold all (of) his books.
Not: … every his books.

 We don’t use every with uncountable nouns:

All (the) information can be saved in the computer memory.
Not: Every information can be saved …

 We don’t use every with plural nouns:

We should organise a trip for all students.
Not: … for every students

 We don’t use every on its own without a noun; we use everyone, everybody or everything instead:

He suggested cancelling the trip and everyone agreed.
Not: … every agreed

See also:
 Every
 Everyone,  everybody,  everything,  everywhere

All or whole?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > All or whole?

from English Grammar Today

All and whole are determiners.
We use them before nouns and with other determiners to refer to a total number or complete set of things in a group.

97
Compare
All the cast had food poisoning. They were forced to cancel the show. all + determiner + noun

The whole cast had food poisoning. They were forced to cancel the
show. determiner + whole + noun

All my family lives abroad. or My whole family lives abroad.

We often use all and the whole with of the:

She complains all of the time. or She complains the whole of the time.

We use a/an with whole but not with all:

I spent a whole day looking for that book and eventually found it in a little old bookshop on the edge of town.
Not: … all a day …

All or whole for single entities

We use the whole or the whole of to refer to complete single things and events that are countable and defined:
The whole performance was disappointing from start to finish. (or The whole of the performance was
disappointing …)

When we can split up a thing into parts, we can use either whole or all with the same meaning:
You don’t have to pay the whole (of the) bill at once.
You don’t have to pay all (of) the bill at once.
She ate the whole orange.
She ate all of the orange.

We often use the whole of with periods of time to emphasise duration:

We spent the whole (of the) summer at the beach.

All the with uncountable nouns

We use all the and not the whole with uncountable nouns:
She was given all the advice she needed.
Not: She was given the whole advice …
All the equipment is supplied.

All and whole with plural nouns

We usually use all the and all of the with plural nouns:
It’s funny when all the actors come in dressed up in their costumes.
She opens all the cupboard doors and doesn’t close them after her.
You have to try all of the activities.

When we use whole with plural nouns, it means ‘complete’ or ‘entire’.

Compare

98
 Whole families normally shared one room in the nineteenth
century. entire families

All families normally shared one bedroom in the nineteenth

century. each and every family

All and whole: typical errors

 We don’t use all before a and an:
She ate a whole bar of chocolate in one go.
Not: She ate all a bar …

 We can’t omit the before whole with a singular noun:

We travelled throughout the whole country.
Not: … throughout whole country.

Allow, permit or let?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Allow, permit or let?

from English Grammar Today

Allow, permit and let are verbs that all have a similar meaning: ‘give permission or make it possible for somebody to
do or have something’.
Permit is more formal than allow. Allow is more formal than let:
The University has established a Museums Committee to permit more formal discussion of common problems
amongst its museums.
The plan for Heathrow will allow airport operator BAA to build a third, shorter runway.
Will you let me pay for the meal?
Let me show you how to open it. It’s a bit tricky.

Permit/allow someone + to do something

We use a direct object + to-infinitive after permit and allow:
[from a newspaper report about a rugby player]
He has not decided yet whether his leg injury will permit him to play this weekend.
I would not allow a child to have a TV or a computer in their room.

99
Let someone + do something
We use an infinitive without to after let:
[child to parent]
Why don’t you let me go? All my friends are going.
We don’t let employees use the office telephone for personal calls.

Passive with permit and allow
We often use the passive with permit and allow. Permit is often used for official public notices:
Photography is permitted for non-commercial use only.

[talking about a diet]

You’re allowed to eat as much fruit as you like.
We’re not allowed to put posters on the walls.

Warning:
We don’t usually use the passive with let:
The children were allowed to do whatever they wanted.
Not: The children were let do …

Almost or nearly?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Almost or nearly?

from English Grammar Today

We use almost and nearly to refer to the progress of things, especially if we are measuring and counting things. In
these examples, almost and nearly can both be used:
[someone has been running five miles on a running machine in a gym]
Don’t give up! You’re almost there.
It’s time for bed. It’s nearly 10 o’clock.
Their CD has sold almost 90,000 copies in the last week.
Nearly all my friends were in the photograph.

We also use almost and nearly with extreme adjectives such as perfect, impossible or frozen:

That guy is almost impossible.
The chicken is still nearly frozen. I thought you’d taken it out of the freezer.

100
We use almost (but not nearly) to soften statements:
I almost wish I hadn’t offered to pay his fine.

We use almost before any and before negative words such as no, none, never, nobody, nothing. We don’t

use nearly in this way:
[describing computer software which traces the history of towns]
Using this special software, you can find the history of almost any building.
They’ve almost no confidence that they can use the new phone properly.
She almost never raises her voice.
Not: She nearly never raises her voice.

Alone, lonely, or lonesome?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Alone, lonely, or lonesome?

from English Grammar Today

Alone or lonely?
Alone is an adjective and an adverb meaning that no other person is with you. When we use alone as an adjective, it
never comes before the noun (predicative adjective):
She was alone when she heard the sad news. (adjective)
It’s impossible to discuss as a committee. The chairman alone will decide. (adverb)
Did they travel alone or did they take the children with them? (adverb)
Do you live alone? (adverb)

Lonely means that no other person is with you and that you are sad and unhappy as a result. We may choose to be
alone but generally we do not choose to be lonely:
Without her friends, it was a long and lonely journey.
She says she feels very lonely and depressed living in that big house.

We don’t use lonely as an adverb:

I prefer going to lunch alone.
Not: I prefer going to lunch lonely.

Lonesome
In American English, lonesome means the same as lonely:
If they’re away from home, they get lonesome. (If they’re away from home, they get lonely).

101
Along or alongside?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Along or alongside?

from English Grammar Today

Along and alongside are prepositions or adverbs.

Along
As a preposition, along means ‘in a line next to something long and thin’, e.g. a road, a path:
There were lots of shops along the main street.
I saw three different boats along the bank of the river.

We use along as an adverb with verbs of motion meaning ‘together with’:

Why don’t you come along with us to the party?
They said they’d bring the bikes along and we can ride to the swimming pool.

Alongside
As a preposition, alongside means ‘close beside’, ‘next to’ or ‘together with’:
The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind. (near)
Put your bike alongside mine. (next to)
I find it difficult to cope with this illness alongside all my other problems. (together with)

We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning ‘along the side of’ or ‘next to’ something:
I parked my car in the drive and William parked his alongside.

Already, still or yet?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Already, still or yet?

from English Grammar Today

Already or yet?
We use already to refer to something which has happened or may have happened before the moment of
speaking. Already can sometimes suggest surprise on the part of the speaker, that something is unexpected:
Is it seven o’clock already? (The speaker didn’t expect it to be so late.)

We use yet most commonly in questions and negatives, to talk about things which are expected but which have not
happened:
Is it seven o’clock yet? (The speaker thinks that probably it’s almost seven o’clock.)

102
A:
Where will you be staying?
B:
I haven’t decided yet, but somewhere in the city centre.

Already refers to things which have happened or which people think may have happened. Yet refers to things which
have not happened or which people think may not have happened.

Already, yet or still?
We use still not yet or already to refer to the continuation of a situation:
I still meet my friends from my schooldays now and then. (I continue to meet my friends)
Not: I already meet my friends or I yet meet my friends

Compare

A:

Is your sister still at university? I know she was at university. Does that continue to be true?
B:
Yes. She’s got one more year to do.

A:
Is your sister at university yet?
B: I expect that she will go to university. Is she there now?
No. She’s only 17. She’ll go next year.

A:
Is your sister already at university? She’s only 17!
B: I’m surprised if your sister is at university. I did not expect
it to happen until later.
Yes. She started this year. She’s so clever they let her
enter a year early.

Negatives with already, still, yet
Negatives with yet mean that something has not happened up to now:
I haven’t spoken to Henry about the car yet.

Negatives with still suggest that the situation should have changed, but it has not:
I still haven’t found my passport. I know it’s here somewhere. (I’ve been looking for it for a long time. I should
have found it by now)

Warning:
We usually put yet after the main verb, whereas we usually put still after the subject.

103
Compare
I haven’t finished yet. I still haven’t finished.

You know, it’s dark now and she hasn’t You know, it’s dark now and she still hasn’t
arrived yet. arrived.

Negatives with already are far less common than negatives with yet and still. They usually refer to things which
should have happened before they did happen:
If you’ve already registered, the price is 50 pounds. If you haven’t already registered, it’s 75 pounds for late
registration.
I was surprised that they hadn’t already told me the news.

Also, as well or too?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Also, as well or too?

from English Grammar Today

Also, as well and too are adverbs and mean ‘in addition’.

Also
Also is commonly used in writing, but is less common in speaking. Also occupies different positions in a sentence.
We use also in front position to emphasise what follows or to add a new point or topic:
It’s very humid. Also, you can easily get sunburnt.

[on the telephone]

OK, I’ll phone you next week and we can discuss it then. Also, we need to decide who will be going to Singapore.

We use also in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and main verb, or after the modal verb or
first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb. In this position, the meaning of also usually connects back to the
whole clause that comes before:
She works very hard but she also goes to the gym every week.
I’ve been working in the garden this week, and I’ve also been reading a lot.

In end position, also normally connects two phrases. We use as well and too instead of also, in end position,
especially in speech:
She contacted him in the office but he didn’t answer the phone. His mobile phone was silent also. (or His mobile
phone was silent too. or … was silent as well.)

104
 As well
Spoken English:
As well is much more common in speaking than in writing, and is more common in speaking than also.
As well almost always comes in end position:
[In a restaurant. Customer (A) is ordering from a waiter (B)]
A:
I’ll have steak please.
B:
Yes.
A:
And I’ll have the mixed vegetables as well.
See also:
 As well (as)

Too
We usually put too in end position:
Gill’s having chicken. I’ll probably have chicken too.
She looks really tired and she must be really hungry too.

Too can occur immediately after the subject, if it refers directly to the subject. It does not normally occur after a
modal or auxiliary verb. We sometimes write commas before and after too:
I too thought she looked unwell.
We, too, have been very pleased to receive the prize on her behalf.
Not: We have too been very pleased …

Too is especially common in responses to fixed expressions such as giving good wishes, and in responses consisting
of a single object pronoun:
A:
Enjoy the play.
B:
Thanks. You enjoy your evening too. (preferred to You enjoy your evening as well. or You also enjoy your evening.)
A:
I need to go to the gym.
B:
Yeah, me too. (preferred to Yeah, me also. or Yeah, me as well.)

In imperative clauses, as well and too are normally preferred to also:

[customer in a post office, buying books of first and second class stamps]
Give me a book of ten first and a book of ten second as well then please. (preferred to … and a book of ten
second also then please.)

Linking negatives

105
 We use either not also, as well or too to connect two negative ideas:
Bill’s not here. I don’t think Dave is either, is he?
Not: I don’t think Dave is also/as well/too.
A:
That’s not in paperback yet. It’s not been in any book clubs either, has it?
B:
No.
Not: It’s not been in any book clubs also/as well/too, has it?

Also, as well and too: typical error

 We don’t use as well at the beginning of a clause. As well usually comes at the end of a clause:
I just ignored it. I think everybody else did as well.
Not: As well I think everybody else did.

Alternate(ly), alternative(ly)
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Alternate(ly), alternative(ly)

from English Grammar Today

Alternate(ly)
The adjective alternate and the adverb alternately mean ‘first one thing, then another thing and then the first thing
again’. When we refer to time, we can also use the phrase every other day, every other week, etc.
The trouble is you can only park in the hospital on alternate days. (or … in the hospital every other day.)
Not: on alternative days
She was alternately pleased and angry.

See also:
 Every

Alternative(ly)
Alternative(ly) means ‘something that is different and unusual and offers a possible choice’:
We can’t use that room for meetings. They’ll have to find us an alternative room.
Not: …an alternate room …

106
 Alternatively, we could just stay in.
Not: Alternately, we could …

Although or though?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Although or though?

from English Grammar Today

Although and though meaning ‘in spite of’

Although and though both mean ‘in spite of something’. They are subordinating conjunctions. This means that the
clause which they introduce is a subordinate clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete:
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the trip to the final although [subordinate clause]we lost the match!
[subordinate clause]Though it was rainy, [main clause]we put on our jackets and went for a walk.
Spoken English:

Though is more common than although in general and it is much more common than although in speaking. For
emphasis, we often use even with though (but not with although).
Warning:

When the though/although clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma at the end of the clause.
When the main clause comes first, we don’t need to use a comma:
Even though I earn a lot of money every month, I never seem to have any to spare!
I still feel hungry even though I had a big lunch.
See also:
 Even if

Although and though with -ing clauses

In formal situations, we can use although and though to introduce an -ing clause:

[a teacher talking about a student]
Peter, although working harder this term, still needs to put more work into mathematics.
[a doctor talking about a patient]
The patient, though getting stronger, is still not well enough to come off his medication.

Although and though with reduced clauses

In formal speaking or writing, we can use although, though and even though to introduce a clause without a verb (a
reduced clause):
Raymond, although very interested, didn’t show any emotion when she invited him to go for a walk.
[referring to a car]
Though more expensive, the new model is safer and more efficient.

107
Although and though meaning ‘but’
When the although/though clause comes after a main clause, it can also mean ‘but it is also true that …’:
Karen is coming to stay next week although I’m not sure what day she is coming.
We didn’t make any profit though nobody knows why.

Though meaning ‘however’
Spoken English:

Especially in speaking, we can use though (but not although or even though) with a meaning similar

to however or nevertheless. In these cases, we usually put it at the end of a clause:
A:

You have six hours in the airport between flights!

B:

I don’t mind, though. I have lots of work to do. I’ll just bring my laptop with me.
A:

It’s expensive.
B:

It’s nice, though.
A:

Yeah, I think I’ll buy it.

As though
As though has a meaning very similar to as if. As if is much more common than as though:
You look as though/as if you have seen a ghost!
He looks as though/as if he hasn’t slept.

Altogether or all together?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Altogether or all together?

from English Grammar Today

Altogether
Altogether means ‘completely’ or ‘in total’:

108
In 1997 the sales tax was lowered to 4%, then in 2001 it was abolished altogether.
The book was €13.50 and the magazine was €5.25, so it was €18.75 altogether.

All together
All together means ‘with each other’, and is similar to together:
Put your clothes all together in one pile and I’ll wash them for you.
Not: Put your clothes altogether in one pile …

[a group of five people are waiting at the entrance to a restaurant]

Waiter:
Are you all together?
Customer:
Yes. Can you do a table for five?

Amount of, number of or quantity of?

 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Amount of, number of or quantity of?

from English Grammar Today

Amount of or number of?

We use amount of with uncountable nouns. Number of is used with countable nouns:
We use a huge amount of paper in the office every day.
The amount of time it took to finish the job was very frustrating.
A great number of students volunteer each year for environmental projects.
Not: A great amount of students volunteer …
I have a number of things I want to talk to you about.

A quantity of or quantities of?

Quantity is more formal than amount or number. A quantity of or quantities of can be followed by a countable noun
or an uncountable noun. They are most commonly used with an adjective such as huge, big, large, small:
The soldiers discovered a large quantity of weapons hidden under the floor of a disused building. (countable)
You only need a very small quantity of cement to mix with the sand. (uncountable)
Large quantities of illegal drugs had been discovered. (countable)
Aid workers have delivered huge quantities of food to the refugee camps. (uncountable)

109
 Any more or anymore?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Any more or anymore?

from English Grammar Today

Any more as a determiner

We use any more as a determiner to describe ‘an indefinite quantity of something’. Any more is similar to some
more. Some more is more common in affirmative statements; any more is more common in questions, in clauses
with if and in sentences with negative words such as hardly, never, scarcely:
Would you like any more tea?
If you find any more books, please let us know.
She doesn’t want any more contact with him.
There are hardly any more people here than last month.
Yes, I’d like some more information about trains to Berlin, please.
Not: Yes, I’d like any more information about …

See also:
 Any
 Some
 Some  and  any

Any more as an adverb

Any more is also an adverb and has the meaning of ‘no longer’ or ‘in the past but not now.’ In this meaning, we use
it in end position:
We don’t go to Cornwall on holiday any more. (We used to go in the past but not now.)
The cost of electricity is not cheap any more.

Especially in American English, any more, as an adverb, can be written as one word, anymore:

He doesn’t cycle anymore.

Anyone, anybody or anything?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Anyone, anybody or anything?

from English Grammar Today

Anyone, anybody and anything are indefinite pronouns. We use anyone, anybody and anything to refer to both an

open, unlimited set of things or people and specific things or people. We use them with a singular verb:

110
 Has anyone got a dictionary?
Anybody is welcome to join. There aren’t any rules.
Can I do anything to help?
I don’t know anybody who speaks Portuguese.

We often use the plural pronoun they to refer back to (singular) anyone when we do not know if the person is male
or female:
If anyone would like further information about the dogs, they should call Canine Rescue on 0502 75257. (The
same as If anyone would like further information about the dogs, he or she should call Canine Rescue on 0502
75257.)

Anything, anyone, anybody don’t have a negative meaning on their own:

We stayed in Sevilla for the rest of our holidays. No one wanted to come back, but we had to.
Not: Anyone wanted to come back.

See also:
 Any

Anyone and anybody
Anyone and anybody have no difference in meaning. Anybody is a little less formal than anyone. Anyone is used
more in writing than anybody:
I didn’t know anybody at the party.

[talking about the New Zealand rugby team, the All Blacks]
It is hard to find anyone who thinks that the All Blacks will face a stronger team.

Apart from or except for?

 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Apart from or except for?

from English Grammar Today

Apart from and except for are multi-word prepositions. Apart from can mean either ‘including’ or ‘excluding’:
Apart from Germany, they also visited Italy and Austria. (including Germany, in addition to Germany)
I like all vegetables apart from tomatoes. (excluding tomatoes)
Apart from Friday, I’ll be in London. (excluding Friday)

Except for or except only mean ‘not including’ or ‘excluding’:

I like all vegetables except for tomatoes. (excluding tomatoes)
Except for Jim, who is unwell, they are all ready to leave for America tomorrow.
She enjoys all sports except swimming.

111
Arise or rise?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Arise or rise?

from English Grammar Today

Arise means ‘happen’ or ‘occur’. We use it with abstract nouns (e.g. problem). The three forms
of arise are arise, arose, arisen. It is used in formal contexts:
An opportunity arose and he decided to take the job in Brussels.
A problem has arisen with my passport.

Rise means ‘go up’. The three forms of rise are rise, rose, risen:

The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Food prices have risen a lot in the last few months.

Around or round?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Around or round?

from English Grammar Today

Around and round are prepositions or adverbs. We use around and round when we refer to movements in circles or

from one place to another. Around and round can both be used. Around is more common in American
English. Round is a little more common in speaking:
The earth goes round the sun. (movement in circles)
We spent a very pleasant day walking round the town. (movement from one place to another)
Now they are retired, they are planning a trip around the world.

We also commonly use around and round in phrasal verbs:

Can you pass these application forms around to all the people present?
We spent the whole day moving round some furniture in the bedroom.

Around and round also mean ‘in different places’ and ‘here and there’:

People were panicking and running round and shouting.
A:
Where’s Jill?
B:
I know she’s around somewhere in the office.

112
Around can also mean ‘approximately’:
A:
How old do you think the castle is?
B:
I’d say around 500 years.

Arouse or rouse?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Arouse or rouse?

from English Grammar Today

Rouse and arouse are both used in formal contexts. Arouse means ‘make someone have a particular feeling’:
Both lecturers aroused a lot of interest in the subject of geology.

Rouse means ‘wake someone up’ or ‘make someone active’:

The goal roused the supporters and they began to really get behind the team. (get behind means ‘support’)

We also use rouse as a reflexive verb:

She finally roused herself at lunchtime and got out of bed.

As or like?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > As or like?

from English Grammar Today

As and like are prepositions or conjunctions. The prepositions as and like have different meanings. As + noun means

‘in the role of’, like + noun means ‘similar to’ or ‘in the same way as’.
Compare

113
As your father, I’ll help you as much as I
can. The speaker is the listener’s father.

Like your father, I’ll help you as much as I The speaker is not the father but wishes to act in a similar way to the
can. father.

We use like (but not as) to compare two things:

She’s got a headache like me.
Not: She’s got a headache as me.
Like the other students, he finds it a bit difficult to get to lectures early in the morning.
Not: As the other students, he finds it …

When we compare appearance or behaviour, we use like, not as:

That house looks like a castle.
Not: That house looks as a castle.

As is commonly used to talk about jobs:

He worked for a long time as a teacher in Africa.
Not: … like a teacher in Africa.

The conjunctions as and like have the same meaning when used in comparisons. Like is a little more informal.
Nobody understands him as I do.
Nobody understands him like I do.

As, because or since?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > As, because or since?

from English Grammar Today

As, because and since are conjunctions. As, because and since all introduce subordinate clauses. They connect the

result of something with its reason.

result reason

He decided to go to the conference in Barcelona, as he was in Spain anyway.

Are you angry with me because I opened the letter?

114
 result reason

Bilardo coaches his team by telephone,

since half of them play in Italy, France or
(Bilardo was the coach of the Argentinian football Spain.
team)

Because
Because is more common than as and since, both in writing and speaking. When we use because, we are focusing
on the reason:
She spoke quietly because she didn’t want Catherine to hear.
We’ll come over on Sunday because David’s got to work on Saturday.
We often put the because-clause at the beginning of a sentence, especially when we want to give extra focus to the
reason. We use a comma after the because-clause:
Because breathing is something we do automatically, we rarely think about it.
We can use a because-clause on its own without the main clause in speaking or informal writing:
A:

Would you like to go to school there?

B:

Yes.
A:

Why?
B:

Because my best friend goes there. (I would like to go to school there because my best friend goes there.)
Warning:

We don’t use a because-clause on its own in formal writing:

In 1998, the government introduced a new import tax because people were importing cars from abroad.
Not: … a new import tax. Because people were importing cars from abroad.

Cos

We often shorten because to cos /kəz/ or /kɒz/ in informal speaking and writing:

I’m laughing cos I’m so happy.
See also:
 Because,  because of  and  cos,  cos of

As and since
We often use as and since when we want to focus more on the result than the reason. As and since are more formal
than because. We usually put a comma before since after the main clause:

115
[result]I hope they’ve decided to come as [reason]I wanted to hear about their India trip.
[result]They’re rather expensive, since [reason]they’re quite hard to find.
We often use as and since clauses at the beginning of the sentence. We use a comma after the as- or since- clause:
Since everything can be done from home with computers and telephones, there’s no need to dress up for work any
more.
As everyone already knows each other, there’s no need for introductions. We’ll get straight into the business of the
meeting.
We use because, not as or since, in questions where the speaker proposes a reason:
Are you feeling unwell because you ate too much?
Not: Are you feeling unwell since you ate too much? or … as you ate too much?

As, when or while?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > As, when or while?

from English Grammar Today

As, when and while are conjunctions. In some uses as, when and while can mean the same, but they can also have
slightly different meanings. We use them to introduce subordinate clauses.
We can use as, when and while to mean ‘during the time that’, to connect two events happening at the same time:
Another coach-load of people arrived as we were leaving.

We often use them with the past continuous to refer to background events:
When the men were out working in the field, I helped with milking the cows, feeding the calves and the pigs.
While he was working, he often listened to music.

We can put clauses with as, when and while before or after the main clause. When they come before the main
clause, we use a comma:
As she was leaving the court, a crowd of photographers gathered around her. (before the main clause, followed by
a comma)
Steven was very unhappy when things weren’t going well for him.
Lucy came into the room while he was waiting.

As
We can use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as, we can use a simple or continuous form
of the verb. The continous form emphasises an action that interrupts or occurs during the progress of another action:
As she walked to the door, she thanked them for a lovely dinner.
As they were signing the contract, they noticed that a page was missing.

When

116
 We can use when to introduce a single completed event that takes place in the middle of a longer activity or event. In
these cases, we usually use a continuous verb in the main clause to describe the background event:
He was walking back to his flat when he heard an explosion.

Depending on the context, when can mean ‘after’ or ‘at the same time’.

Compare
When you open the file, check the second
page. when meaning ‘after’

I eat ice cream when I am on holiday. when meaning ‘at the same time’

See also:
 Conditionals
We often use just with when or as to express things happening at exactly the same time:
The phone always rings just when I’m closing the front door.
She was a brilliant gymnast, but she had a terrible accident in 1999, just as her career was taking off.

While and as
We can use while or as to talk about two longer events or activities happening at the same time. We can use either
simple or continuous verb forms:
We spent long evenings talking in my sitting-room while he played the music he had chosen and explained his
ideas.
We were lying on the beach sunbathing as they were playing volleyball.

See also:
 As
 While

When and while without a subject
We can use when and while without a verb, or without a subject + auxiliary verb be:
Go past the village signpost and you get to a church. When there, take the next turning right. (formal)
He read his book while waiting for the bus. (while he was waiting)

Warning:
We can’t use as in this way:
We ate our sandwiches as we walked around the park.
Not: … as walking around the park.

Been or gone?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Been or gone?

117
from English Grammar Today

We often use been to, instead of gone to, when we refer to completed visits to a place:
Have you ever been to Budapest?
Not: Have you ever gone to Budapest?

If the visit is not complete, we use gone.

Compare
Joan’s just gone to the shop. She’ll be back in about ten minutes. Joan has not yet returned from the shop.

Joan’s just been to the shop. She bought some cakes. Would you like
one? Joan has returned from the shop.

Begin or start?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Begin or start?

from English Grammar Today

We can use the verbs begin and start to mean the same thing but begin is more formal than start. Begin is an
irregular verb. Its past simple form is began and its -ed form is begun:
When did you begin learning English?
The meeting didn’t start until 9 pm.

We use start, but not begin, to talk about machines:

Press this button to start the printer.
Not: …to begin the printer.
The lawnmower won’t start. (this means that it doesn’t work)
Not: The lawnmower won’t begin.

Start, but not begin, is used to talk about creating a new business:

She started a new restaurant and it’s been going really well.
Not: She began a new restaurant …

Beside or besides?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Beside or besides?

118
from English Grammar Today

Beside
Beside is a preposition. It means ‘at the side of’ or ‘next to’. It is rather formal:
He would like to take a photograph of us. Would you come and sit beside me?
There was a small table beside the bed, on which there was a book.

Besides
Besides is a preposition or a linking adverb. It means ‘in addition to’ or ‘also’:
What other types of music do you like besides classical?

As a linking adverb, we usually put a comma before and after besides in writing:

I don’t think going for a walk is a good idea. It’s quite cold, and, besides, it’s getting late and we don’t want to be
out in the dark.

Between or among?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Between or among?

from English Grammar Today

Between and among are prepositions.

Between, among: meaning and use

We use between to refer to two things which are clearly separated. We use among to talk about things which are not
clearly separated because they are part of a group or crowd or mass of objects:
Our holiday house is between the mountains and the sea. (the mountains are on one side and the sea is on the other)
The ancient fountain was hidden among the trees. (surrounded by trees)

Between and prepositional phrases

Between is most often used to introduce a prepositional phrase which contains two singular or plural noun phrases:
There was a cyclist [prepositional phrase]between the car and the lorry.
I didn’t see any difference [prepositional phrase]between the real bags and the imitation bags.

We can also use between + pronoun when referring to two people or things:

I gave Yolanda and Lynn some money and told them to share it between them.

We can also use between, but not among, to connect times or numbers:

They lived in New York between 1998 and 2004.
Not: They lived in New York among 1998 and 2004.
What were you doing between 5.30 pm and 7.00 pm?

119
Nouns and verbs followed by between
The most common nouns often followed by between are: connection, difference, distinction, link, relationship:
Is there a connection between his arrival and her disappearance?
There’s a strong link between clean drinking water and reduced infant mortality.

The most common verbs often followed by between are: choose, differentiate, distinguish, divide:

[talking about judging a competition]
I didn’t want to have to choose between the singers.
Her money was divided between her son and her daughter.

Among meaning ‘surrounding, part of or included in’

We use among to suggest a sense of being a part of or surrounded by or included in something else. It is typically
followed by a plural noun phrase:
She wanted to be among friends.
Among his books, we found some rare first editions.

Among others and among other things

In the phrases among others and among other things, among means ‘as well as’:
Her parents, among others, were worried about her travelling alone.
Among other things, I still have to pack.

Born or borne?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Born or borne?

from English Grammar Today

Born
We use born in the phrase be born to indicate that a child has entered the world:
They say that in China a new baby is born every five minutes.

Warning:
We use was/were born when we talk about when or where someone started their life:
I was born in 1988.
Not: I am born in 1988. or I born in 1988.

Bear, bore, borne

120
Bear means to tolerate something, usually something that you dislike. It is most commonly used in the
expression can’t bear. The past form is bore and the -ed form is borne:
I can’t bear so much football on television.
She has borne all her problems with great courage.

The verb bear is sometimes used to describe the act of giving birth. It is most commonly used in the past tense and
in rather formal situations. Have is more common when talking about giving birth:
She bore twelve children in twenty-two years. (or, more commonly, She had twelve children …)

Bring, take and fetch
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Bring, take and fetch

from English Grammar Today

Bring
Bring means moving something or someone. The movement is either from where the listener is to where the speaker
is, or from the speaker to the listener.
Bring is an irregular verb. Its past tense and -ed form are both brought.
In both of the following examples, the speakers are seeing things from A’s viewpoint – things will move to the place
where A is:
A:
Are you going to the bedroom?
B:
Yes.
A:
Can you bring me my grey sweater? It’s on the bed.
B:
Yeah. (B will return with the sweater to the place where A is.)
Not: Can you take me my grey sweater?
A:
Are you coming to our place on Friday night?
B:
Yes. Do you want me to bring my guitar? (B will carry the guitar to the place where A will be.)

Bring can also mean moving with something or someone from another place to the speaker’s or listener’s location:
[on the telephone]
A:
Did Laura bring you anything for your birthday?
B:

121
 Yes. She brought me some flowers and a CD. (Laura is C, another person, in a different place from A or B. She
moved with something to where B, the listener, was.)

Take
Take means movement with something or someone from where the speaker or listener is to a different place:
[university assistant at a central faculty office, speaking to a student]
You have to fill in this form and then take it to the English Department to get it stamped. (the assistant and the
student are at the central faculty office – the English Department is a different place)
Not: … and then bring it to the English Department
A:
I can take you to the station tomorrow. What time’s your train? (Neither A nor B is at the station; it is a different
place.)
B:
Thanks. It’s eight-thirty.

Bring or take?
Compare
She visits her father every morning and she always takes him the day’s seen from the viewpoint of the doer
newspaper. – she

She visits her father every morning and she always brings him the day’s seen from the viewpoint of the receiver
newspaper. – him

Fetch
Fetch means to go to another place to get something or someone and return with the thing or the person. We use it
for people and things that are not here but that we need or are due to be here. We can usually use get instead
of fetch:
If you’re going to the garage, can you fetch that green bag with the paintbrushes in it? Or Can you get that green
bag …
Right. It’s five o’clock. I’d better go and fetch my mother from the station.

See also:
 Come or go?

Bring, take and fetch: typical errors

 We don’t use take when something is seen from the receiver’s viewpoint:
A:
Are you and Josh coming to our party?
B:
Yeah. Sheila invited us.
A:

122
 Good. Can you bring some CDs? We’re a bit short of music.
Not: Can you take some CDs?

 Brought is the past tense of bring. Bought is the past tense of buy:

Angela was in Morocco and she brought us back a beautiful wooden tray.
Not: and she bought us back …

Can, could or may?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Can, could or may?

from English Grammar Today

Possibility
When we talk about possibility, we use can, could and may, but they are different in meaning.
Compare
It can be dangerous to cycle in the This expresses what the speaker believes is a general truth or known fact,
city. or a strong possibility.

It could/may be dangerous to cycle This does not express a general truth. The speaker is only expressing a
in the city. weak possibility.

It’s dangerous to cycle in the city. This expresses a real fact using the present simple. The speaker is certain
and no modality is used.

See also:
 Could
 May

Permission
We use can, could and may to ask for permission. We use can and may, but not could, to give permission. May is
less common:
Compare

asking for permission formal/polite? giving permission formal/polite?

Can I ask you a

Yes, you can.
question? informal informal
Yes, you may.
Yes, you could.
Could I use your phone?
more formal/polite formal/polite

123
 asking for permission formal/polite? giving permission formal/polite?

May I use your phone? even more

formal/polite

See also:
 Might

Requests
When we make requests, we can use can or could (but not may). Could is more polite than can:
Can you call back later? I’m busy now.
Could you call back later? I’m busy now.

Teachers and parents often use can and could in requests:

Can you open you books at page 34, please.
Can you please refrain from chewing gum.
Could you just sit down and listen!

See also:
 Requests
 Politeness

Can, could or may: typical errors

 Could in the present only expresses weak possibility. Can expresses strong possibility:
I can travel in July because my exams will definitely be finished at the beginning of that month. (strong possibility)
I could travel in July because my exams will probably be finished at the beginning of that month. (weak possibility)

 We don’t normally use could to talk about general truths which refer to the present time. We
use can instead:
Not everyone can afford to buy organic food.
Not: Not everyone could afford …

 We use could, not can, to express future possibility. Can expresses that we are certain of something:

Working in London next summer could be a great experience. (The speaker thinks this is possible, in particular
circumstances)
Not: … can be a great experience.

Classic or classical?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Classic or classical?

124
from English Grammar Today

Classic: adjective
Classic means ‘high quality’. In particular, we use it to mean something that is valued because it has a traditional
style:
She was wearing a classic dark blue skirt.
It’s a classic motorbike from the 1940s.

Classic also means a perfect or most typical example of something:

The show is a classic example of TV made for children.

Classic: noun
We can use a classic and the classics to refer to the greatest and most famous works of literature from the past:
Tolstoy’s ‘War and Peace’ is a classic.
I never read modern novels. I always prefer the classics, such as Dickens and Jane Austen.

Classics without an article means the academic subject which includes the study of Ancient Greek and Latin:
My sister is studying Classics at Manchester University right now.

Classical: adjective
We use classical to refer to the culture of the past and to art forms which belong to a long formal tradition:
Mozart is probably the best-known classical composer.
She’s only eight years old and she has learned to dance both classical and modern ballet.

Come or go?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Come or go?

from English Grammar Today

We use come to describe movement between the speaker and listener, and movement from another place to the place
where the speaker or listener is. We usually use go to talk about movement from where the speaker or listener is to
another place.
When we talk about another person (someone who is neither the speaker nor the listener), we can use
either come or go, depending on whether the speaker sees things from the receiver’s viewpoint (come) or the doer’s
viewpoint (go).

[doer]Yolanda came to [receiver]her We use come when we see things from the receiver’s viewpoint

mother for help. (in this case the mother).

[doer]Melissa went to [receiver]her mother for We use go when we see things from the doer’s viewpoint (in this
help. case Melissa).

125
 See also:
 Go

Come in, go in

Come in and go in both mean ‘enter’:

[dentist’s assistant to a patient who is waiting]
Will you come in now, please.
[at a beach on a cold day]
It’s so cold! I don’t want to go in the water.

Consider or regard?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Consider or regard?

from English Grammar Today

Consider and regard can both mean ‘believe’ or ‘realise’ or ‘understand’. When they mean ‘believe’ or ‘realise’ or
‘understand’, we don’t often use the continuous forms.

Consider

Consider takes several different patterns.

Consider + that-clause

When you consider that she was very scared, her story is even more remarkable.

Consider + object + to be

They consider him to be the best chef in the country.

Consider + object + to have

The ministry of trade considered the company to have the best vision for exports.
Warning:

We don’t use as with consider:
We consider this to be a very serious issue.
Not: We consider this as a very serious issue.

Regard

We often use regard in the phrase ‘regard as’: regard (+ object) + as + noun phrase or adjective phrase:
The United Nations regard human rights as their main priority.

126
 Alexander Graham Bell is regarded as the inventor of the telephone.
Do you regard their behaviour as good or bad?

Typical error

 We don’t usually use the continuous forms of consider and regard:

When you consider that he was too young, you have to blame his parents.
Not: When you are considering that he was too young …
The government regards the economy as a main priority.
Not: The government is regarding the economy …

Consist, comprise or compose?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Consist, comprise or compose?

from English Grammar Today

Consist, comprise and compose are all verbs used to describe what something is ‘made of’. We don’t use them in
continuous forms.

Consist

Their diet only consisted of fruit and seeds.

The whole group consists of students.
We only use the active form of consist of:
Their flat consists of two bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom.
Not: Their flat is consisted of two bedrooms…

Comprise

Comprise is more formal than consist:

The USA comprises 50 states.
We can also use it in the passive voice in the form ‘be comprised of’:
The course is comprised of ten lectures and five seminars on the theory of economics and banking.
Comprise, but not compose, can be used with the parts that make up something as the subject:
Oil and coal comprise 70% of the nation’s exports.
Compose of is even more formal than consist of and comprise. Compose of is only used in the passive voice:
Muscle is composed of different types of protein.

Typical errors

 We don’t use consist, comprise and compose in a continuous form:

127
The whole group consists of students.
Not: The whole group is consisting of students.

Content or contents?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Content or contents?

from English Grammar Today

Content and contents are nouns.

Content (uncountable)

Content as a singular noun is uncountable. It means the ideas that are contained in a piece of writing or a film or a
speech:
This film has adult content; it is not suitable for children.
His speech was very flowery, but it lacked content and was quite superficial.
Content can also mean the amount of a particular substance contained in something:
These hamburgers have a high fat content; they’re not good for you.

Contents (plural)

The contents of a book is the list of chapters or articles or parts that are in the book, with the number of the page
they begin on:
If you look at the contents, you’ll see there’s a chapter on Japanese folk music.

Different from, different to or different than?

 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Different from, different to or different than?

from English Grammar Today

The adjective different means ‘not the same’. When we compare two or more items, it is usually followed by from.
We also use different to, especially in speaking:
Adam is so different from/to his brother.
This house is very different from/to your last one.

In American English it is also common to say different than:

This tea tastes very different than the one I usually drink. (or … very different from/to the one I usually drink)

In British English, people often say different than before a clause, but many speakers consider this to be incorrect:

128
His accent is different now than before he went to Australia. (or … different now from before he went to
Australia.)

Do or make?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Do or make?

from English Grammar Today

When we use do and make with noun phrases, do focuses on the process of acting or performing

something, make emphasises more the product or outcome of an action:
When I was [action]doing the calculations, I [outcome]made two mistakes.
I [action]did some work for her last summer; I [outcome]made a pond in her garden.

Examples of nouns used with do and make

Nouns which combine with do

activity damage favour job task

busines gardenin
drawing laundry test
s g

cleanin one’s
duty harm washing (up)
g best

homewor
cooking exam(ination) painting work
k

course exercise ironing shopping

I do the shopping on Fridays usually.

Could you do a job for me next week?
Who does the cooking in your house?

Nouns which combine with make

apology coffee excuse love offer remark

assumptio friend phone

comment lunch sound
n s call

129
 complain
bed guess mess plan soup
t

mistak
breakfast dinner law profit speech
e

statemen
cake effort list money progress
t

change error loss noise promise tea

They made me an interesting offer of a job in Warsaw.

Not many building firms will make a profit this year.
I have to make a phone call.

Down, downwards or downward?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Down, downwards or downward?

from English Grammar Today

Down
We use down mostly as a preposition or adverb. It means ‘in or moving to a low or lower position or level’:
We ran down the hill like two little children.
Jamie, put that vase down! You’ll break it!

We can also use down to mean ‘towards the south’, ‘generally in the south’, or ‘towards the place where a river
meets the sea’:
When you were living in Spain, did you ever go down to Granada?
We went on a cruise down the Nile for seven days. It was fantastic.

In informal situations, we can use down to talk about a quick trip to a destination which we consider to be less
central than where we are. In this meaning, we can use it with or without to. Without to is less formal:
I’m just going down (to) the shop. Do you want anything?
Are you going down (to) the golf club tonight?

Down can also mean ‘along’. We can use it with from:

Mila’s office is just down the corridor, second door on the left.
They live just down the street from our house.

130
A good dictionary will tell you more meanings of down, especially when it is used as part of a phrasal verb.

Downwards, downward
Downwards is an adverb. It means ‘movement towards a lower position’:
The garden slopes gently downwards in the direction of the river.
Could you point the reading lamp downwards? It’s shining in my eyes.

In American English, downward (with no final -s) is used as an adverb:

Since the nineteen seventies, our country has really taken some steps downward.

In British English, downward (with no final -s) is normally only used as an adjective:

The statistics for violent crimes have shown a downward trend in the last two years. (The numbers have gone
down.)

During or for?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > During or for?

from English Grammar Today

We use during to say when something happens, if it happens in or over a period of time. We use for to talk about the
length of time something lasts.
Compare
They went to Florida during the
winter. They went at one point in the winter.

They went to Florida for the winter. They went from the beginning to the end of the winter.

She phoned me during the week to tell me that she was getting married. (referring to a point in the week)
We were in the cinema for three and a half hours.
Not: … during three and a half hours.
Our flight to New York was delayed for seven hours.
Not: … during seven hours.
We went to Italy for a week.
Not: … during a week.

We can also use for to refer to public holidays and seasons:

He always goes to his mother’s house for New Year.
Not: … during New Year.

Each or every?

131
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Each or every?

from English Grammar Today

We use each to refer to individual things in a group or a list of two or more things. It is often similar in meaning
to every, but we use every to refer to a group or list of three or more things.
Compare

Each one takes turns cooking dinner in the Each stresses individual members of a group.
evenings.
Each refers to two or more people who share the work.

Everyone takes turns cooking dinner in the Every stresses all the members of the complete group.
evenings.
Every refers to three or more people.

We use adverbs such as almost, practically and nearly with every, but not with each:

Almost every car in the car park was new.
Not: Almost each car …
Practically every house now has at least two televisions.
Not: Practically each house …

We can use each of + pronoun or each of + determiner + noun, but with every we must use every one + pronoun
or every one + determiner + noun:
Each of us has a bicycle.
Every one of us has a bicycle.
Not: Every of us …
Each of the children received a special gift.
Every one of the children received a special gift.
Not: Every of the children …

East or eastern; north or northern?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > East or eastern; north or northern?

from English Grammar Today

North, south, east, west

We usually use north, south, east, west, not northern, southern, eastern and western, to refer to specific places or to

direction of movement. We can use north, south, east and west as adjectives or adverbs and occasionally as nouns:
More and more people are buying second homes on the south coast of Ireland. (adjective)
After Bangkok, we drove north for about six hours without stopping. (adverb)
Strong Atlantic winds are forecast in the west of Portugal. (noun)
We normally use capital letters in place names with north, south, east and west:

132
The conference is taking place in North Dakota.
[from an advertisement in a travel magazine]
Bargain flights to South America from London Gatwick from £350.

Northern, southern, eastern and western: larger areas

We commonly use northern, southern, eastern and western (without capital letters) to refer to larger areas or

territory. We can only use them as adjectives:
The northern parts of India have suffered severe flooding.
Houses are more expensive in most western parts of the country.
Some names of specific places have capital letters for northern, southern, eastern and western:
We are holidaying in Northern Ireland next year. (name of a region)
Perth is the capital of Western Australia. (name of a state)
San Diego is my favourite place in southern California. (a part or region of a state but not the name of a state)

Economic or economical?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Economic or economical?

from English Grammar Today

Economic and economical are adjectives.
We use economic to mean ‘related to trade, industry or money’:
The economic forecast for next year is not good.
The President spoke mostly about economic policy.

We use economical to mean ‘not using a lot of money’:

Hybrid cars are very economical. (They do not cost a lot of money to run.)
Solar energy for your home is expensive in the short term but it is more economical in the long term.

Efficient or effective?

133
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Efficient or effective?

from English Grammar Today

Efficient and effective are adjectives.
We use efficient to describe something or someone that works in a quick and organised way:
The new online banking system offers a convenient and efficient way to check your account.

[extract from a reference for someone applying for a job]

I have always known James to be highly competent and efficient in all aspects of his job.

We use effective to describe something that gives you the results you want:
Taking this tablet is a very effective cure for travel sickness.
In this light, the camera is more effective if you use the flash.

Elder, eldest or older, oldest?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Elder, eldest or older, oldest?

from English Grammar Today

Elder and eldest mean the same as older and oldest. We only use the adjectives elder and eldest before a noun (as
attributive adjectives), and usually when talking about relationships within a family:
Let me introduce Siga. She’s my elder sister.
Not: … She’s my sister. She’s elder.
It’s Catherine’s eightieth birthday on Thursday and she is now the eldest member of the family.

We also use elder and eldest as nouns:

Jack is the eldest of four brothers.

Older and oldest are used in similar ways:

My older sister is coming to stay with us at the weekend.
Matt is the oldest of our children and Simon is the youngest.

Older and oldest can be used to refer to the age of things more generally:

The town hall is by far the oldest building in the whole region.
Not: The town hall is by far the eldest building …

We can use older and oldest after a linking verb (as predicative adjectives):

I think her grandfather must be older than her grandmother.
Not: I think her grandfather must be elder than …

134
End or finish?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > End or finish?

from English Grammar Today

We use the verbs end and finish in similar ways, to mean ‘come to a stop’:

I think that his contract ends this month.
What time does the film finish?

We use finish to say that we complete something that we are doing. It emphasises that the process stops within a
specific period of time. End would not normally be used in these examples:
He finished his meal in just three minutes.
If we had the right tools, we could finish the job by Friday this week.
Her brother finished last in the race.

We use end to say that stopping something is significant, and has a clear conclusion or shape. Finish wouldn’t
normally be used in these examples:
The course of the river ended in a delightful harbour with small sailing boats everywhere.
Many historians agree that the medieval period in Europe ended in the mid-sixteenth century.
Verbs that end in -ed are usually in the past tense.

Finish can be followed by the -ing form, but not by a to-infinitive:

They’ve finished playing those computer games.
Not: They’ve finished to play …
I haven’t finished drying my hair yet.
Not: I haven’t finished to dry …

End cannot be followed by either a to-infinitive or the -ing form:

Call me when you’ve finished writing the report.
Not: Call me when you’ve ended writing …

Especially or specially?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Especially or specially?

from English Grammar Today

135
Especially and specially are adverbs.
Especially means ‘particularly’ or ‘above all’:
She loves flowers, especially roses.
I am especially grateful to all my family and friends who supported me.
Not: Especially I am …

We use specially to talk about the specific purpose of something:

This kitchen was specially designed to make it easy for a disabled person to use.
He has his shirts made specially for him by a tailor in London.

Especially can also be used to mean ‘for a particular purpose’:

I bought these (e)specially for you.

Except or except for?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Except or except for?

from English Grammar Today

We often use except and except for as prepositions to mean ‘not including’ or ‘excluding’. They are followed by a
noun or noun phrase or a wh-clause. Both except and except for are correct after a noun:
I like all fruit except (for) oranges. (excluding oranges)
Except for Louisa, who’s away in Berlin this weekend, we’ll all be at the party.
She likes going to most sports events, except cricket matches.

Except can also be used as a conjunction. We don’t use except for in this way:

The brothers are very alike, except (that) Mark is slightly taller than Kevin.

Except and except for are used in similar ways to apart and apart from.

Expect, hope or wait?

136
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Expect, hope or wait?

from English Grammar Today

Expect
We use expect to say that we believe that something will happen. We use expect in the following main patterns:

She’s expecting a second baby.

expect + object:

We expect to move into our new flat next week.

expect + to-infinitive:

We expected that the guest house would have much better

expect + that-clause: rooms.

expect + object + to- The company expects her to be early.

infinitive:

Expect also means ‘think’ or ‘suppose’. When expect has this meaning, we do not commonly use it in the continuous
form:
A:
Will he have bought the necklace by now?
B:
I expect so.
Not: I’m expecting so.
I expect that he’ll be wearing that bright blue shirt.
Not: I am expecting …

When we expect that something will not happen or is not true, expect is most commonly used in a negative form:
I don’t expect she will pass the exam. (preferred to I expect she won’t pass …)

Hope
We use hope when we do not know whether something will happen or not but we want it to happen. We use hope in
the following patterns:

hope + to- I think you were hoping to see your family next week.

infinitive:

I hope that your sister recovers quickly from the

hope + that clause: operation.

[parents discussing the birth of their next child]

hope + for:
We’ve already got two boys so we’re hoping for a girl.

137
 We use hope to express good intentions and wishes for the future:
I hope we can see each other soon.
Not: I wish we can see each other soon.
I hope you enjoy your stay in Greece.
Not: I wish you enjoy your stay in Greece.

See also:
 Wish

Wait
We use wait when we refer to letting time pass because we are expecting that something is going to happen. We
use wait in the following main patterns:

Just wait here with the bags and I’ll go and get a taxi.

wait (imperative):

Don’t worry. I’ll wait for you.

wait + for:

When the band arrived at the concert hall, a large crowd of screaming fans were waiting to
wait + to-
greet them.
infinitive:

wait + for + object + to-infinitive:

They’re waiting for him to make up his mind and won’t do anything until he does.

Expect, hope or wait: typical errors

 We don’t use wait or wait for to say that we believe that something will happen. We use expect:
People usually expect holidays to revive their spirits and renew their souls and they often succeed in achieving that
target.
Not: People usually wait for holidays to …

 We don’t use expect to refer to time passing when we are talking about something that we hope is going to
happen:
I look forward very much to hearing from you soon, and I wait anxiously for a positive answer.
Not: … and I expect anxiously a positive answer.

See also:
 Hope
 Look forward to
 Suppose,  supposing  and  what if

138
Experience or experiment?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Experience or experiment?

from English Grammar Today

We use experience as a verb when something happens to us, or we feel it. It is rather formal:
I experienced a feeling of deep sadness as I entered the refugee camp.
Customers have experienced problems in finding parking places at the mall.

Warning:
We don’t use live instead of experience:
How children behave when they grow up depends on what they experience during early childhood.
Not: … what they live during early childhood.

Experiment as a verb means ‘try something in order to discover what it is like or to find out more about it’:
Scientists have experimented with liquids and gels in which plants can grow artificially.
I wish the government would stop experimenting with new teaching methods for our kids every couple of years.

Warning:
We don’t use experiment when we are talking about feelings or things which happen:
She suddenly experienced a sensation of homesickness.
Not: … experimented a sensation …
The company’s Asia branch experienced a sharp drop in profits in 2007.
Not: … experimented a sharp drop…

Fall or fall down?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Fall or fall down?

from English Grammar Today

We can use fall as a noun or a verb. It means ‘suddenly go down onto the ground or towards the ground
unintentionally or accidentally’. It can also mean ‘come down from a higher position’. As a verb, it is irregular. Its
past form is fell and its -ed form is fallen. Fall does not need an object:
Mrs McGrath had a terrible fall yesterday. She’s in hospital now. (noun)
Four trees fell in the storm. (verb)
Oil prices have fallen recently.

Fall down is a phrasal verb. We use it when something falls to the ground from its normal position:
The picture keeps falling down. (from the wall to the ground)
He slipped and fell down.

139
Warning:
We use fall, not fall down, when trees drop their leaves during the autumn:
As autumn came and the leaves fell from the trees, she began to feel sad.
Not: … the leaves fell down …
We can’t use fall down to mean ‘come down from a higher position’:
House prices have fallen a lot this year.
Not: House prices have fallen down a lot …

Far or a long way?

 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Far or a long way?

from English Grammar Today

Far and a long way both describe something at a great distance:

I can’t see very far without my glasses on.
San Francisco is a long way from New York.

Far is used mostly in negatives and questions:

There’s a Thai restaurant not far from here.
How far is your house from the station?

A long way is used mostly in affirmative statements but we also use it in questions and negatives:
A:
How long did it take you to get here today?
B:
I left home at half past ten this morning.
A:
Six hours. That’s a long time, isn’t it?
B:
Yeah. It’s a long way.
Not: It’s far.
A:
We have to go to Cathy’s place first to pick her up.
B:
Is it a long way from here?
A:

140
No, it’s not far.

Far is used in affirmative statements with words such as so, too, enough and as. These expressions can refer to time
as well as distance:
So far, we have sent four letters to the Council about the litter on the street. (time until now)
Six months is too far ahead. The restaurant only takes bookings for up to two months in advance.
Where we live is far enough away from the city. I don’t want to move any further away.
From here, you can see as far as the ocean.

Far is also used in comparatives to mean ‘much’:

The roads here are far better than in our country.
Food costs far more in the UK.

We can use by far before a superlative adjective to add emphasis:

With more than seven million people, London is by far the biggest city in England – the second city, Birmingham,
has just over one million.

We use the phrase has come a long way to mean ‘has improved or developed’:
Our team has come such a long way. We lost our first game 5-0!

We can use the phrase to be a long way off (+ noun or -ing form) to refer to a long time:
The holidays are a long way off.
We’re a long way off retiring yet, Marlene.

Farther, farthest or further, furthest?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Farther, farthest or further, furthest?

from English Grammar Today

Comparative forms
Farther and further are comparative adverbs or adjectives. They are the irregular comparative forms of far. We use
them to talk about distance. There is no difference in meaning between them. Further is more common:
We can’t go any further; the road’s blocked.
After this, I felt a little refreshed but as I came over the hill, my legs rebelled. I could walk no further.
How much farther are we going?

Farther, and, much less commonly, further can be used as adjectives to refer to distance away from the speaker:
He could see a small boat on the farther shore.
At the further end of the village stood an old ruined house.

141
We often repeat farther or further to emphasise the distance:
‘I am just a little ship,’ Aunt Emily said, ‘drifting farther and farther out to sea.’

We often use along with farther and further:
Ben Gunn had told me his boat was hidden near the white rock, and I found that rock farther along the beach.

We often use a little, a bit or a lot before further and farther:

[in an aerobics exercise class]
Now push and stretch that arm just a little further and count to ten.

Superlative forms
Farthest and furthest are superlative adjectives or adverbs. They are the irregular superlative forms of far. We use
them to talk about distance. There is no difference in meaning between them. Furthest is more common
than farthest:
The furthest galaxies are about three thousand million light years away.
Go on, boys! Let’s see who can run furthest.
Viv took a corner seat farthest away from the door.

Further (but not farther)
There are some occasions when we can use further but not farther.
We use further before a noun to mean ‘extra’, ‘additional’ or ‘a higher level’:
For further information, please ring 095-6710090.
A further door led off to the right, with a tiled passage taking her to the bathroom, and another large square room
at the end, which was probably the dining-room.
She’s gone to a college of further education. (a place to study practical subjects from age 17)

We also use further to mean ‘more’:

I do not propose to discuss it any further.
Before you look at your programme, let me explain a little further.

The expression further to is often used in formal letters and emails when someone writes as a follow-up to a
previous letter or email:
Further to my email of 22nd January, I’m now writing to ask if you have considered our offer and whether you wish
to proceed with the contract.

Fast, quick or quickly?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Fast, quick or quickly?

from English Grammar Today

142
 Fast and quick mean moving with great speed. Fast is both an adjective and an adverb. Quick is an adjective and the
adverb form is quickly.
Compare
It was a fast train.
We need to have a quick chat before the Fast and quick are adjectives.
meeting.

You walk very fast!

Not: … very fastly. Fast and quickly are adverbs.
We should do it as quickly as possible.

We usually use quick to refer to something happening in a short time, or a shorter than expected time:
We stopped for a quick snack.
Not: … a fast snack.
I just need a quick answer.
Not: … a fast answer.

Fast refers to things that happen or go at high speed, e.g. a train, a person running:
She loves fast cars.
Not: She loves quick cars.

Note the common expression fast food to refer to food such as hamburgers, which are cooked and served in a very
short time in restaurants:
You shouldn’t eat so much fast food. It’s not good for you.

See also:
 Comparative and superlative adjectives

Fell or felt?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Fell or felt?

from English Grammar Today

Fell is the past simple of the verb fall:

The snow fell all day in big white flakes.
He slipped and fell, hurting his leg quite badly.
She fell in love with him as soon as they met.
Not: She felt in love …

Felt is the past simple of the verb feel:

I felt really sad that they had lost all their money.

143
They felt his forehead and it was very, very hot.

Female or feminine; male or masculine?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Female or feminine; male or masculine?

from English Grammar Today

We use female and male to refer to the sex of humans and animals:

Female lions hunt for food more than male lions.
In some industries such as the clothing industry, only females are employed.

We use feminine and masculine when we refer to the qualities that we consider to be typical of women or men:

The bedroom was furnished in a very feminine style.
She had a very masculine voice.

We also use masculine and feminine to talk about features of languages:

‘He’ is the masculine form of the third person singular; ‘she’ is the feminine form.
Finally, at last, lastly or in the end?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Finally, at last, lastly or in the end?

from English Grammar Today

Finally, at last, lastly and in the end all have a meaning of ‘after a period of time’. However, we use them in
different ways.
Finally

We use finally to refer to something that happened after a long time and usually after some difficulties. In this
meaning, finally most commonly occurs in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and the main
verb, after the modal verb or the first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb:
There were no taxis and we finally got home at 2 pm.
She’s had over twenty interviews but Jasmine has finally got a job as a journalist.

At last

We use at last when we have been impatient as a result of long delays. Like finally, at last occurs in the normal mid
position for adverbs as well as in front and end position:
At last I’ve discovered how to print envelopes on my printer!
She has at last given me the book she promised me.

144
They’re here at last!! We’ve been waiting half an hour.

Lastly

We use lastly to refer to something that comes at the end of a long list:

We need eggs, milk, sugar, bread and, lastly, we mustn’t forget yoghurt for Dad.
I’ve thanked my parents but lastly I must thank all my friends for their help.

In the end

We use in the end to refer to a conclusion after a long process, after a lot of changes or after a lot of discussion:
We were going to ski in Austria, then the South of France and in the end we decided to go to Italy.
And then, in the end, after months of discussion they offered to buy our house.

First, firstly or at first?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > First, firstly or at first?

from English Grammar Today

First and firstly

First can be an adjective or an adverb and refers to the person or thing that comes before all others in order, time,
amount, quality or importance:
What’s the name of the first person who walked on the moon? (adjective)
Beth always arrives first at meetings. (adverb)
We often use first, especially in writing, to show the order of the points we want to make. When we are making lists,
we can use first or firstly. Firstly is more formal than first:
Dear Mr Yates
First(ly) I would like to thank you for your kind offer of a job …
Not: At first I would like to thank you …
First(ly) the sodium chloride is dissolved in the water and heated gently. Second(ly) a dye is added to the solution.
Not: At first, the sodium chloride …

At first

At first means ‘at the beginning’ or ‘in the beginning’ and we use it when we make contrasts:
At first when I went to England to study English, I was homesick, but in the end I cried when it was time to leave.
He called for help. No one heard him at first, but eventually two young girls came to help him.

145
Fit or suit?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Fit or suit?

from English Grammar Today

If something fits you or fits into a place, it is the right size or shape for you or for that place:
[trying on shoes in a shoe shop]
These fit perfectly. And I like the colour. I think I’ll buy them.
I’ve put on weight and my trousers don’t fit me anymore!
Will this table fit into the space between the bookshelf and the wall?

If something suits someone or something, it is right for that person or thing or situation, or it makes that person or
thing look more attractive.
Wednesday at ten o’clock for the meeting suits me perfectly.
That sofa suits the room really well – the colours match the walls.
Black doesn’t suit me; I look better in lighter colours.

Warning:
We don’t use fit when we mean that something is right for a person or thing or situation:
This restaurant suits people who like simple food.
Not: This restaurant fits people …

Following or the following?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Following or the following?

from English Grammar Today

We use following without the + noun phrase to mean ‘after’, ‘in response to’ or ‘as a result of’:
Following the bad election results of May 8th, the Prime Minister has appointed three new ministers.
Following a general strike in 1933, he fled the country and went to South America.

We use the following with a noun. It means ‘the next’:

They only stayed at the hotel one night and left early the following morning.
We went out on the boat. The sea was really rough and the following hour was the worst in my short life.

We also use the following without another noun to introduce things or people which we then list:

146
I’m afraid I can’t eat any of the following: tomatoes, cucumber, onions and cabbage.
The following have helped me with this book of photographs: David Jones, Gill Farmer, Martin Weekes and
Anthony Gray.

For or since?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > For or since?

from English Grammar Today

We use for with a period of time in the past, present or future.

We use since with a point in time in the past.
Compare
He lived in Oxford for 3 years and then he moved. (completed
past)
They’ve lived in Oxford for a couple of months. (began in the For refers to periods of time, e.g. 3 years, 4 hours,
past and continues into the present) ages, a long time, months, years.
We’re going to stay in Oxford for three days and then we’re
going to London for a day. (future plans)

They’ve lived in Oxford since 2004. Since refers to a previous point in time.

Warning:
We don’t use since with periods of time:
She’s been on the phone for hours.
Not: She’s been on the phone since hours.

Forget or leave?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Forget or leave?

from English Grammar Today

We sometimes use forget when we don’t remember to bring something with us:

I’ll have to go back; I’ve forgotten my car keys.

We use leave with this same meaning, but only if we mention the place where we left something:
Mia, you’re always leaving your car keys on your desk.
Not: … forgetting your car keys on your desk. or … you’re always leaving your car keys.
I left my homework at home.
Not: I forgot my homework at home.

147
We use leave when the action is deliberate:
We decided to leave the dog at home.

Full or filled?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Full or filled?

from English Grammar Today

Full is an adjective, and means ‘containing a lot’:

The theatre is completely full this evening.
The room was full of books.

Fill is a verb, and means ‘make or become full’. The -ed form is filled:

Can you fill this bottle with water for me?
She has filled my life with happiness.

We use the -ed form + with as an adjective especially in metaphorical contexts to refer to strong emotions:
She looked at him, filled with horror.
Not: She looked at him, full of horror.

Fun or funny?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Fun or funny?

from English Grammar Today

Fun

Fun is an uncountable noun meaning ‘pleasure and enjoyment’:

We had such fun together.
It was fun to go to the beach with Rita’s family.
I hope you have fun!
Spoken English:

148
 In informal speaking, we also use fun as an adjective:
We did a lot of fun activities in groups and individually to learn, have a fun time, and to get to know each other
better.

Funny

Funny is an adjective and it means ‘amusing’ or ‘causing laughter’:

[an author is being interviewed about the main character in her book]
A:

How would you describe Lorna?

B:

Well. I think she’s very self-confident and assertive. I think she’s genuinely funny.
I think Jerry Springer is so funny. I just laugh so much when I watch his show.
Funny can also mean ‘strange’, ‘surprising’, ‘unexpected’ or ‘difficult to explain or understand’:
A funny thing happened to me the other day. I was parking my car and a man came and knocked on my window
… (A strange/surprising/unexpected thing happened …)
Wasn’t it funny the way Don just got up and left without saying goodbye to anyone? (Wasn’t it strange …)

Typical error

 We don’t use funny to mean ‘enjoyable’:

The week I stayed in your country was really fun and I found the city where you live very interesting and beautiful.
Not: … in your country was really funny …

Get or go?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Get or go?

from English Grammar Today

Get and go have similar meanings, when talking about travel or motion. When we use get, we emphasise arrival:
We’ll phone you as soon as we get to Rome.
Not: We’ll phone you as soon as we go to Rome.
The thing is, he missed the bus and got to school late and missed part of the match.
Not: … and went to school late and …

We use get on and get off not go on and go off for buses, trains, planes:

When I got on the plane, there was someone sitting in my seat.
Not: When I went on the plane …

149
Liam will be waiting for me when I get off the train.
Not: … when I go off the train.

Warning:
Get up means ‘leave your bed in the morning’; go up means ‘go to a higher place or position’:
What time do we have to get up tomorrow?
Not: What time do we have to go up tomorrow?

Get and go are both used to mean ‘become’, but they combine with different adjectives. We often use get with
words like dark, light and late; we use go with colours and words with negative associations such as mad, bald, bad:
It’s getting dark now so be careful.
Not: … going dark …
He’s only 30 and he’s going bald.
Not: … and he’s getting bald.
We left the milk in the sun too long and it’s gone bad.
Not: … and it’s got bad.

However, with some adjectives such as old, sick, tired and ill, we use get:

He got very tired walking to the match in such a large crowd.
Not: He went very tired walking …

Grateful or thankful?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Grateful or thankful?

from English Grammar Today

We use grateful to talk about how we feel when someone is kind to us or does us a favour:
[a message on a thank-you card]
Thank you so much for helping us move house. We are so grateful.
Love
Mark and Rose

[at the end of a formal letter]

I would be very grateful if you could send me more information about your company for my school project.
Not: I would be thankful …

We usually use thankful when we are relieved that something unpleasant or dangerous didn’t happen:
A:
I heard you were in an accident. Are you okay?
B:

150
I’m fine. There was some damage to the car. I’m just thankful that no one was injured.

Hear or listen (to)?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Hear or listen (to)?

from English Grammar Today

‘Hearing’ is an event; it is something which happens to us as a natural process. ‘Listening’ is an action; it is

something we do consciously.
Compare

hearing is an event. listening is an action.

Suddenly I heard a noise. Someone was in the I listened very carefully to what she said and wrote it all
garden. down.
Did you hear the thunder last night? Do you listen to the radio in bed?
[on the phone] George! Listen to me! I have something important to tell
you.
The line is very bad. I can’t hear you.

Sometimes we can use either hear or listen to, depending on whether we want to emphasise the event or the action:
Did you hear that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis on the event)
Did you listen to that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis on the action)
I love hearing/listening to the sound of falling rain.

We don’t normally use hear in the continuous form. We often use hear with can:

[on an internet phone call]
I can hear you really clearly.
Not: I’m hearing you really clearly.

Warning:
We use to after listen before an object:
Every morning I listen to my Mozart CD while I’m having breakfast. It prepares me mentally for the day.

Not: Every morning I listen my Mozart CD …

We use listen without to if we do not mention the object, or if it is a discourse marker:

Meena, listen! I don’t want you staying out late!
Listen, I was wondering if you could help me. (discourse marker beginning a new topic or phase of a conversation)
The music was beautiful. We just sat there and listened.

151
High or tall?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > High or tall?

from English Grammar Today

We use high for mountains and for things which are a long way above the ground:
There are some high mountains in the north of the country.
The light switch is too high for a child to use.

Warning:
We don’t use high when we talk about people. We use tall:
Sally is very tall and slim – she could get a job as a model!
Not: Sally is very high and slim …
Tall people often get backache.
We use tall to describe things which are high and thin in their shape (e.g. buildings, trees):
The tall trees by the river give welcome shade on hot days.
You know that very tall, white building just where the motorway begins – that’s where I work.

Historic or historical?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Historic or historical?

from English Grammar Today

Historic means ‘important or likely to be important in history’:

I feel that this is a historic moment for our country.
When the Berlin wall came down, it was a historic occasion.

Historical means ‘related to the study of things from the past’:

I love reading historical novels.
Archaeologists found a large number of historical objects when they excavated the field.

House or home?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > House or home?

from English Grammar Today

152
We use the noun house to refer to a building:
They’re building six new houses at the end of our road.

When we refer to being at someone’s house, we can leave out the word house and use at + possessive or at + the
definite article + possessive:
We stayed overnight at Mike’s. (at Mike’s house)
We’re going to be at the Jacksons’ this evening. Want to come with us? (at the Jacksons’ house)

We use home in a more personal and emotional way to refer to where someone lives. The noun home does not
usually refer to the building. We often use home with the preposition at:
It’s not very big but it’s my home.
Why don’t you phone her now? I think she’s at home.

When we talk about the building we live in, we use house not home:

Our dog stays in the house with us.
Not: Our dog stays in the home with us.

Warning:
We usually don’t use an article or other determiner with home unless we are talking about homes in general:
A lot of energy can be saved in the home by making small changes such as turning off lights. (energy can be saved
in all homes)

We use home as an adverb with verbs of movement such as get, go, come, arrive, travel, drive. We don’t use to:
I’m going home now. I’m really tired.
Not: I’m going to home now.
Would you like me to drive you home?
Not: Would you like me to drive you to home?

Home can be used as a countable noun to refer to the place where people or animals live and are cared for by people
who are not their relatives or owners:
There’s a home for the elderly at the end of our street.
We got our dog, Scotty, from the local dogs’ home.

How is …? or What is … like?

 

Grammar > Easily confused words > How is …? or What is … like?

from English Grammar Today

How is …?

We use How is …? to ask about someone’s general health or about the condition or state of something, or how
people experience something:

153
A:

How’s your mother these days? (How is her general health?)

B:

Oh, she’s fine, thanks.

[talking about an old house]
A:

How are the walls in the kitchen? (What is the condition/state of the walls?)

B:

Well, they need redecorating really.

A:

How’s your new car?

B:

Wonderful. It’s so much easier to drive than the old one.

What is … like?

We use What is … like? to ask for a description of someone or something (e.g. their appearance, their character,
their behaviour):
A:

What’s her new house like?

B:

It’s a modern one, quite big, with a nice garden.

A:

What’s your new teacher like?

B:

He’s nice. He’s very good-looking! But he’s quite strict.

Warning:

We don’t use How is … like? to ask for a description of something:

A:

Have you ever had Korean kimchi?

B:

No. What’s it like?
A:

Well, it’s sort of spicy fermented vegetables, cabbage and things.

Not: How is it like?

154
 If or when?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > If or when?

from English Grammar Today

We use if to introduce a possible or unreal situation or condition. We use when to refer to the time of a future
situation or condition that we are certain of:
You can only go in if you’ve got your ticket.
When I’m older, I’d love to be a dancer.
Compare

If Giles comes back to the office, can you tell The speaker does not know whether Giles is coming back to the
him I’ve gone home. office. It is possible, but not definite.

When Giles comes back to the office, can you

The speaker is certain that Giles is coming back to the office.
tell him I’ve gone home.

To talk about situations and conditions that are repeated or predictable, we can use either if or when + present verb
form:
You can drive if you’re 17.
If you don’t add enough wood, the fire goes out.
When we go camping, we usually take two tents.
She gets out of breath easily when she’s jogging.

Typical error

 We don’t use when to introduce possible or unreal situations:

Unfortunately, if you arrive too late, you are not allowed to take the exam because they don’t accept late
enrolment.
Not: … when you arrive too late …

If or whether?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > If or whether?

155
 from English Grammar Today

If and whether: indirect questions

We can use if or whether to report indirect yes-no questions and questions with or. If is more common than whether:
Call the bakeries around town and find out if any of them sell raspberry pies.
I rang Peter from the station and asked if I could drop in to see him before going back or if he’d meet me.

We often prefer whether in more formal contexts:

The teachers will be asked whether they would recommend the book to their classes.

[from a business meeting]

John read a letter that he’d written and the board discussed whether it should be mailed.

We prefer whether with or when there is more than one alternative in the indirect question:

After the election, we asked whether the parties should change their leaders, their policies, or both.

To express an alternative, we can use or not with if and whether. With whether we can use or not immediately

after whether or in end position. With if we use or not in end position only:
I called Bill to find out whether or not he really did go to Afghanistan.
I called Bill to find out whether he really did go to Afghanistan or not.
I called Bill to find out if he really did go to Afghanistan or not.

We use whether and not if before a to-infinitive, often when we’re referring to future plans or decisions:
I was wondering whether to go for a swim.
Some financial decisions, such as planning a pension, need to be taken as early as possible. Others, such
as whether to move house, can probably only be made much later.

Whether not if
We use whether and not if after prepositions:
Later I argued with the doctor about whether I had hit my head, since I couldn’t remember feeling it.
Not: Later I argued with the doctor about if I had hit my head …
The police seemed mainly interested in whether there were any locks on the windows.
Not: The police seemed mainly interested in if there were any locks …

I doubt if, I don’t know whether

We use if or whether to introduce clauses after verbs of doubting:
I don’t know if I can drive. My foot really hurts.
I didn’t prune the rose bush this year so I doubt if we’re going to have many flowers. (‘prune’ means cut back)
We’ll have plenty of photographs to show you but I’m not sure whether we’ll be able to learn very much from them.

See also:
 If
 If: reporting questions

156
 If, whether: typical errors
 We use whether, not if, before to-infinitives:
I don’t know whether to buy the blue one or the red one.
Not: I don’t know if to buy the blue one …

 We use whether, not if, directly before or not:

Can you tell me whether or not you’re interested in the job.
Not: Can you tell me if or not you’re interested …

 We use whether, not if, after prepositions:

[talking about a trip to Australia for a year]
We’re not interested in whether we get great jobs and that kind of thing, we just want to have a good time.
Not: We’re not interested in if we get great jobs and that kind of thing …

Ill or sick?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Ill or sick?

from English Grammar Today

Ill and sick are both adjectives that mean ‘not in good health’. We use both ill and sick after a verb such as be,
become, feel, look or seem:
I was ill for a time last year, but I’m fine now.
Nancy looks ill. I wonder what’s wrong with her.
I felt sick and had to go home at lunchtime.

We can use sick before a noun but we don’t normally use ill before a noun:

She’s been looking after a sick child this week, so she’s not at work.
Not: … an ill child …

Note that to be sick means ‘to vomit’ in British English. In American English it means more generally ‘to be
unwell’.

Imply or infer?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Imply or infer?

157
 from English Grammar Today

We imply something by what we say. We infer something from what somebody else says. The main difference
between these two words is that a speaker can imply, but a listener can only infer.
When someone implies something, they put the suggestion into the message:
Are you implying that the team cheated?
When someone infers something, they take the suggestion out of the message. In order to underline this
difference, infer is used with the preposition from:
Then I think we must infer from what they said that they believe we should reapply for the job.
Typical error

 We don’t use infer to refer to what someone has said:

Are you implying that I cheated?
Not: Are you inferring that I cheated?

It’s or its?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > It’s or its?

from English Grammar Today

It’s is the contracted form of it is or it has:

Can you hear that noise? Where do you think it’s (it is) coming from?
It’s (it is) nearly the end of the month. It’s (it has) gone really quickly.

Its is a possessive determiner (like my, your, his) which we use when referring to things or animals:
Every house in the street has got its own garage.

[talking about a famous American journalist]

He joined the New York Tribune (1868), becoming its editor-in-chief and eventually its principal owner (1872–
1905).

We don’t use its as a possessive pronoun.

Compare

Possessive pronoun mine used alone.

A:

Whose is this
ball?
B:

158
Mine.

A:
Whose is this
ball?
B: Possessive determiner its is not used alone. We repeat the noun which is being referred to.
The dog’s.

Not: Its.

Late or lately?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Late or lately?

from English Grammar Today

Late is both an adverb and an adjective; it means the opposite of early. Lately is also an adverb; it means ‘recently’.

Late meaning ‘not on time’

Late as an adverb means ‘not on time’:
Well, I couldn’t find my classroom, so I got to the classroom a bit late and then I had to sing a song in front of the
other students!
Not: I got to the classroom a bit lately …
The programme started late.
Not: The programme started lately.

Late as an adjective means ‘after the usual time’:

We had a late breakfast.

Compare
We got the train
home late. describes when the activity happened

I got the late train home. describes the train

Lately meaning ‘recently’
We use lately for states or for repeated events, mostly with the present perfect:
She says she’s been feeling tired lately. I think she’s working too much.
He’s been studying hard lately. He’s got exams at the end of the month.

159
Warning:
We don’t use lately for single events that happened recently:
I had a strange experience recently.
Not: I had a strange experience lately.

Warning:
We don’t use lately as an adjective:
We usually have a late lunch.
Not: … a lately lunch.

Lay or lie?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Lay or lie?

from English Grammar Today

The verb lay means ‘to put something down carefully in a flat position’. It must have an object. It is a regular verb,
but note the spelling of the past simple and -ed form: laid not layed:
Shall I lay the tray on the bed?
A wonderful wooden floor has been laid in the dining room.
Not: … floor has been layed …
Lie is a verb which means ‘to be in or put yourself into a flat position’. It is an irregular verb and it doesn’t take an
object. The -ing form is lying and the past simple is lay. The -ed form, lain, is very formal and is rarely used:
I love to lie on a beach and read.
She lay on the bed and gazed at the ceiling, daydreaming.
The dog was lying by the gate waiting for me to come home.
Lie can also mean ‘say something which is not true’. In this case, it is a regular verb:
I lied to my teacher about my homework.
Compare

lay (put something
base form lie (be horizontal) lie (say something that is not true)
down)

past
laid lay lied
simple

-ed form laid lain lied

160
 Typical errors

 We don’t use lay to talk about being in a flat position. Lay must have an object:

My mother hates when the cat lies on our beds.
Not: … when the cat lays on our beds …
 The past form of lie is lay:
I lay on the grass and watched a plane fly overhead.
Not: I lied on the grass …

Lend or borrow?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Lend or borrow?

from English Grammar Today

Lend means ‘give something to someone for a short time, expecting that you will get it back’. The past simple and
the -ed form are lent:
I never lend my CDs to anyone.
I lent Gary £30. (I expect that Gary will return this to me)
Borrow is a regular verb meaning ‘get something from someone, intending to give it back after a short time’:
Could I borrow your pen for a minute, please?
Laura used to borrow money from me all the time.
Typical error

 When you give something, you lend it; when you get or receive something, you borrow it:
Can I borrow your dictionary?
Not: Can I lend your dictionary?

Less or fewer?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Less or fewer?

from English Grammar Today

We use the quantifiers less and fewer to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. Less and fewer are comparative
words.
Less is the comparative form of little. Fewer is the comparative form of few.

Less and fewer with a noun

161
 We usually use less with uncountable nouns. We use fewer with plural nouns:
I do less work at weekends than I used to.
Better cycle routes would mean fewer cars and fewer accidents.

Warning:
You will often hear less used with plural countable nouns in informal spoken situations, but traditionally it is not
considered to be correct:
We’ve got less pizzas than we need. There’s ten people and only eight pizzas. (traditionally correct usage: fewer
pizzas)

Less and fewer with of
When we use fewer or less before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or pronouns
(him, them), we need to use of. We use less of with singular nouns and fewer of with plural nouns:
It was funny to begin with, but as time went on, it became less of a joke.
In ten years’ time, more and more people will be demanding information twenty-four hours a day, from all parts of
the world. Fewer of them will be getting that information from newspapers which arrive hours after the news has
occurred.

Less and fewer without a noun
We can leave out the noun when it is obvious:
Every year in Britain about 5,000 people die on the roads. Fewer are killed at work. (fewer people)

See also:
 More  or  less
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Least,  the least,  at least

Look at, see or watch?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Look at, see or watch?

from English Grammar Today

Look at
When we look at something, we direct our eyes in its direction and pay attention to it:
[the speaker is sitting at her computer]
Come and look at this photo Carina sent me.
Look at the rabbit!

Warning:

162
 When look has an object, it is followed by at:
Look at the rain. It’s so heavy.
Not: Look the rain.

See
See means noticing something using our eyes. The past simple form is saw and the -ed form is seen:
I saw Trevor at the shopping centre yesterday.
Has anyone seen my glasses?

See also:
 See

Watch as a verb
Watch is similar to look at, but it usually means that we look at something for a period of time, especially something
that is changing or moving:
We watch television every evening.
I like to sit at the window to watch what’s happening in the garden.

Warning:
We use see, not watch, when we talk about being at sports matches or public performances, such as films, theatre
and dramas. However, we watch the television:
We saw a wonderful new film last night. You’ll have to go and see it while it’s in the cinema.
Not: We watched… You’ll have to go and watch …

Compare
I watched ‘Phantom of the Opera’ last night on
DVD. I was at home.

I saw ‘Phantom of the Opera’ last night. I was at a theatre or cinema.

When we look at something for a long time, we use watch, not see.

Compare
We watched  whales jumping out of Watch focuses on the process of seeing: we spent time looking at the
the water. whales.

We saw whales jumping out of the See focuses more on the finished event. It doesn’t suggest that we spent
water. much time looking at the whales.

Look at, see or watch: typical errors

 When there is an object, we use at after look:
If you go for a walk by the river, you can look at the beautiful scenery.
Not: … you can look the beautiful scenery.

163
 We don’t use watch to talk about things that we see without trying:
If you go to the forest, you might see some deer.
Not: … you might watch some deer.

 We don’t use watch when referring to a film in the cinema:

A:
We’re going to the cinema tonight.
B:
What are you going to see? (Not: What are you going to watch?)
A:
I’m not sure. I really want to see the new Rocky movie but Nancy said she’s not interested in that.
Not: I really want to watch the new Rocky movie …

 We use watch, not see, when we refer to something on the television:

At night, I like to watch the television.
Not: …I like to see the television.

Low or short?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Low or short?

from English Grammar Today

We use low for things which are not high, or which are close to the ground or to the bottom of something:
We have a sofa, two armchairs and a low table.
The wall is too low; we need to make it higher so the dog can’t get out.

Warning:
We use short, not low, to describe people’s height:
Joseph is quite short but his brothers are both really tall.
Not: Joseph is quite low …

Man, mankind or people?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Man, mankind or people?

from English Grammar Today

164
 Man and mankind

Traditionally, we use man to refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in contrast with other animals.
However, many people consider this to be sexist, so it is better to use a different expression, such as human beings:
Human beings first emerged in Africa, some two million years ago. (preferred to Man first emerged …)
Mankind can also refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in the sense of social or conscious beings.
Although people generally consider it less sexist than man, it is usually better to use a different expression, such
as human beings (with a plural verb) or humankind (with a singular verb):
Human beings have always dreamt of happiness and of a perfect world. or Humankind has always dreamt of
happiness … (preferred to Mankind has always dreamt …)
See also:
 Sexist language

People

People can refer to all human beings, or to a group of persons in a particular situation. It is a plural noun and it takes
a plural verb:
People will always need food, so the food industry will never disappear. (all human beings)
It’s difficult to sell an old computer. People don’t want second-hand ones. (those typical persons interested in
buying computers)
People started coming into the hall at five-thirty, almost an hour before the start of the meeting. (those persons who
were attending the meeting)
Warning:

We don’t use the with man, mankind, humankind or people when they are used with a general meaning to refer to all
human beings:
People / Human beings will always defend their territory against an attack from outside.
Not: The people/The human beings …

Maybe or may be?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Maybe or may be?

from English Grammar Today

We use maybe and may be to talk about possibility. They are often confused because we use them both when we
think that something is possible but we are not certain.

Maybe as an adverb
Maybe /ˈmeɪbi/ is an adverb and it means the same as perhaps. It is written as one word:
Maybe no one will come to the party.

165
Not: May be no one will come to the party.
Spoken English:

In speaking, we sometimes use maybe at the end of what we say when we are making a suggestion which we are not
very certain about:
A:

There’s something wrong with my PC. I can’t load my photos.

B:

It could be a virus, maybe.
Spoken English:

In speaking, we can use maybe as a response when we agree that something is possible:

A:

Ronnie and Linda are going to leave New Zealand in January.

B:

Why? I thought they were very happy there.

A:

I’m not sure. Perhaps they feel a bit lonely.

B:

Maybe.
We can also use maybe to express uncertainty in response to a suggestion:
A:

Would you like to have chicken curry for dinner?

B:

Maybe.
A:

You don’t sound very enthusiastic.

B:

I just can’t think about dinner right now. I’ve just had breakfast.

May be
In the phrase may be /meɪ bi:/ may is a modal verb and be is a main or auxiliary verb. Here may and be are two
separate words, whereas maybe is one word:
There may be a train at 10.00am.
Not: There maybe a train at 10.00am.
He may be waiting for us.
See also:

166
 May

Typical error

 We use may as a modal verb in the phrase may be. They are two separate words. We use maybe as an
adverb:
This may be the last match that he plays for Barcelona.
Not: This maybe the last match that he plays for Barcelona.

Maybe or perhaps?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Maybe or perhaps?

from English Grammar Today

Maybe and perhaps are adverbs that mean the same thing. We use them when we think something is possible, but
we are not certain. We use maybe mostly in front or end position whereas perhaps is used in front, mid and end
position:
A:
Have you seen my glasses? I can’t find them anywhere.
B:
Maybe you left them at work.
A:
Do you think these shoes are too high?
B:
They are perhaps. (it’s possible but I’m not certain)
As you perhaps remember, I worked as an interpreter for three years in the European Parliament.
Not: As you maybe remember …

Perhaps is slightly more formal than maybe:

He was, perhaps, a little too smartly dressed for a holidaymaker.
Maybe I’ll finish work early tomorrow and go shopping with you.

Nearest or next?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Nearest or next?

from English Grammar Today

167
Nearest is the superlative form of near. It means ‘the closest in distance or time’:
We need to buy some food. Where’s the nearest supermarket? (There may be several supermarkets: which one is the
shortest distance from here?)
Not: Where’s the next supermarket?
Feeling very sick, she took a taxi to the nearest hospital.

Next means ‘the first person or thing after the present one or after the one just mentioned’:
We had the addresses of three restaurants. The first one we went to was closed. The next one was open but full.
Luckily, the last one had a table free.
A:
When is your yoga lesson?
B:
Next Wednesday at five.

Never or not … ever?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Never or not … ever?

from English Grammar Today

We can use not … ever instead of never, but never is much more common:

She has never been a friend of ours. (or, less common, She hasn’t ever been a friend of ours.)
Never forget where you came from, your family, your childhood friends. (or, less common, Don’t ever forget where
you came from …)
A:
Why don’t you go to college and get a degree?
B:
I haven’t really ever thought about it. I’m too old now anyway. (or, more common, I’ve never really thought about
it.)

Warning:
We don’t use not … ever at the beginning of a statement (in front position):
Never had they seen so many strangers in their village all at the same time.
Not: Not ever had they seen so many strangers …

Nice or sympathetic?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Nice or sympathetic?

from English Grammar Today

168
Nice is an adjective meaning ‘pleasant’, ‘enjoyable’ or ‘satisfactory’:
Have a nice trip!
We had a really nice meal. Thank you.

When we use it to talk about someone, it means ‘kind’, ‘friendly’ or ‘polite’:

It was really nice of you to call me.
Tanya’s new boyfriend is so nice.

Sympathetic is an adjective used to describe a person who shows that they understand and care about someone’s
suffering or problems, especially by what they say:
My colleagues were so sympathetic when I was ill.
As a teacher, you have to be sympathetic to the problems of your students.

Warning:
We don’t use sympathetic to mean ‘nice’:
Our new teacher is really nice.
Not: Our new teacher is really sympathetic.
His small house was nice and warm.
Not: His small house was sympathetic and warm.

No doubt or without doubt?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > No doubt or without doubt?

from English Grammar Today

We can use no doubt when we think that what we are saying is likely to happen, or when we think it is true. It is
similar to ‘I suppose’ or ‘I imagine’:
A:
No doubt you’ll want breakfast before you leave tomorrow.
B:
Yes, if that’s okay.
A:
No problem.

We can use there is no doubt that … when we are very certain about our opinion. We use it in formal situations:
He’s never won Wimbledon, but there’s no doubt that he is a great tennis player.
Not: He’s never won a Wimbledon title but no doubt he’s a great tennis player.

Without doubt is even more formal. We use it when we are absolutely certain about our opinion:
Paul McCartney is without doubt one of the greatest composers of popular music of all time.
Not: Paul McCartney is no doubt one of the greatest …

169
No or not?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > No or not?

from English Grammar Today

No and not are the two most common words we use to indicate negation. We use no before a noun phrase:
There’s no address on the envelope.
[parent to child]
No biscuits before dinner!
No decisions have been made.
We use not with any other phrase or clause:
It’s not often that you stop and think about the way you breathe.
Not suitable for children under 15.
Not surprisingly, it was a tense match but eventually the more experienced Australians won.
A:

Do you go cycling all year round?

B:

Not in the winter.

Not: No in the winter.
No or not any?

There is very little difference in meaning between There is/are no + noun and There isn’t/aren’t any + noun:
There’s no reason to be afraid of her. (or There isn’t any reason to be afraid of her.)
There are no eggs in the fridge. (or There aren’t any eggs in the fridge.)
No + noun often makes the negative stronger. In speaking, we often stress no.
Compare

He paid no attention to what I was He didn’t pay any attention to what I was

saying. (stronger) saying.

I’ve decided that I have no alternative. (stronger) I’ve decided that I don’t have any alternative.

No or Not a/an?

When a noun has an ungradable meaning (it is either something or it is not) we cannot use no + noun:
A potato is not a fruit.
Not: A potato is no fruit.
When a noun has a gradable meaning, no + noun means the same as not a/an + noun:
[a football manager talking about signing a new player]

170
It’s no secret that we are interested. (= It’s not a secret. A secret is gradable. Something can be more of a secret
than something else.)

Responding to a question

We often use no to respond to a yes-no question, or to agree with a negative statement. We don’t use not on its own
in this way:
A:

Do you need anything from the shops?

B:

No. I went earlier, thanks.

A:

He’s not going to get any better.

B:

No. You’re right.
Not: Not. You’re right.

No problem, no good, not worth

We use no and not in some common fixed expressions:

A:

When you see Alan, can you give him this letter?

B:

Yes sure, no problem.
She had no idea what time they were arriving.
It’s no good standing around watching. Do something!
You’ve got no chance of getting a ticket now. They’re all sold out.
It’s not worth taking a taxi. We can walk.

Nowadays, these days or today?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Nowadays, these days or today?

from English Grammar Today

We can use nowadays, these days or today as adverbs meaning ‘at the present time, in comparison with the past’:
I don’t watch TV very much nowadays. There’s so much rubbish on. It’s not like it used to be.
Young people nowadays don’t respect their teachers any more.

171
Warning:
Take care to spell nowadays correctly: not ‘nowdays’.

These days is more informal:

These days you never see a young person give up their seat for an older person on the bus. That’s what I was taught
to do when I was a kid.
Pop singers these days don’t seem to last more than a couple of months, then you never hear of them again.

Today is slightly more formal:

Apartments today are often designed for people with busy lifestyles.

We can use today, but not nowadays or these days, with the possessive ’s construction before a noun, or with of after
a noun. This use is quite formal:
Today’s family structures are quite different from those of 100 years ago.
The youth of today have never known what life was like without computers.

Warning:
We don’t use nowadays, these days or today as adjectives:
Cars nowadays/these days/today are much more efficient and economical.
Not: The nowadays cars / The these days cars / The today’s cars …

Open or opened?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Open or opened?

from English Grammar Today

We use open as an adjective to mean ‘not closed’:

I stopped the car when I realised that the door was open.
Not: … that the door was opened.

Opened is the past form of the verb open:

Can you open the window, please? (present)
She opened her eyes and immediately looked at the clock. (past)

Warning:
We don’t use open to refer to turning on taps and switches:
Please turn on the taps separately.
Not: Please open the taps …

172
Can you switch on the lights, please?
Not: Can you open the lights …

Opportunity or possibility?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Opportunity or possibility?

from English Grammar Today

We use opportunity to talk about a situation in which we can do something that we want to do. Opportunity is most
commonly followed by a verb in the to-infinitive form, or of + -ing form:
I had the opportunity to go to university when I was younger but I didn’t. Now I wish I had gone.
Not: I had the possibility …
A:
I’ve been waiting for an opportunity to talk to you privately. Are you free now?
B:
Yes. What is it about?
Not: … waiting for a possibility to …
This walk provides the opportunity of seeing some beautiful countryside.

We use possibility to talk about something that may happen or be true. Possibility is normally followed by of + noun
phrase or of + -ing form, or by a that-clause:
I had never even thought of the possibility of working in the USA until I was offered a job there in 1998.
Not: … the possibility to work in the USA …
The possibility that there is life on other planets in the universe has always inspired scientists.

Warning:
We don’t say ‘have the possibility’:
I would love to have an opportunity to meet the Prime Minister.
Not: I would love to have the possibility to meet …

Opposite or in front of?

 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Opposite or in front of?

from English Grammar Today

173
Opposite as a preposition means ‘in a position facing someone or something but on the other side’:
Jake sat opposite Claire in the restaurant. (Jake and Claire are facing each other on different sides of the table.)
Not: Jake sat in front of Claire …

In front of as a preposition means ‘close to the front of something or someone’:

There was a woman in front of me in the bus queue who was crying. (I was standing behind the woman.)

Compare
We parked opposite the We parked in front of the
hotel. hotel.

Other, others, the other or another?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Other, others, the other or another?

from English Grammar Today

Other
Other means ‘additional or extra’, or ‘alternative’, or ‘different types of’.

Other as a determiner

We can use other with singular uncountable nouns and with plural nouns:

The embassy website has general information about visas. Other travel information can be obtained by calling the
freephone number. (additional or extra information)
Some music calms people; other music has the opposite effect. (different types of music)
What other books by Charles Dickens have you read, apart from ‘Oliver Twist’? (additional or extra books)
This one’s too big. Do you have it in other sizes? (alternative sizes)
If we use other before a singular countable noun, we must use another determiner before it:
I don’t like the red one. I prefer the other colour.
Not: I prefer other colour.
Jeremy is at university; our other son is still at school.
He got 100% in the final examination. No other student has ever achieved that.
There’s one other thing we need to discuss before we finish.
Warning:

Other as a determiner does not have a plural form:

Mandy and Charlotte stayed behind. The other girls went home.

174
 Not: The others girls …
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

Other as a pronoun

We can use other as a pronoun. As a pronoun, other has a plural form, others:

We have to solve this problem, more than any other, today.
I’ll attach two photos to this email and I’ll send others tomorrow.

The other
The other as a determiner

The other with a singular noun means the second of two things or people, or the opposite of a set of two:
This computer here is new. The other computer is about five years old.
A:

D’you know the Indian restaurant in Palmer Street?

B:

Yes.
A:

Well, the gift shop is on the other side of the street, directly opposite. (the opposite side)
The other with a plural noun means the remaining people or things in a group or set:
Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids? (the remaining people in a group)
Where are the other two dinner plates? I can only find four. (the remaining things in a set – here six plates)

The other as a pronoun

We can use the other as a pronoun, especially to refer back to something which has been mentioned already in the
sentence:
He had his hat in one hand and a bunch of flowers in the other.
She has two kittens, one is black and the other is all white.

Another
When we use the indefinite article an before other, we write it as one word: another. Another means ‘one more’ or
‘an additional or extra’, or ‘an alternative or different’.

Another as a determiner

We use another with singular nouns:

Would you like another cup of coffee?
You’ve met Linda, but I have another sister who you haven’t met, called Margaret.
I don’t like this place. Is there another café around here we could go to? (alternative or different)

175
 Another as a pronoun

We can use another as a pronoun:

The applications are examined by one committee, then passed on to another.

Other, others, the other or another: typical errors

 When other is a determiner, it does not have a plural form:
These boxes are for books. The other boxes are for clothes.
Not: The others boxes …
 When other as a pronoun refers to more than one person or thing, it takes the plural form, others:
Some scientists think we should reduce the number of flights to prevent global warming; others disagree.
Not: … other disagree.
 Other must have a determiner before it when it comes in front of a singular countable noun. If the noun is
indefinite (e.g. a book, a woman, an idea), we use another:
I’ve posted the first package. What shall I do with that other package?
Not: What shall I do with other package?
After a month in Bolivia, I was ready to move to another country.
Not: … to move to other country.
 We write another as one word:
There is another car park a little further down the same street.
Not: There is an other car park …
 Another is singular. We don’t use it with plural nouns:
Other interesting places to visit include the old harbour and the castle.
Not: Another interesting places to visit …

Out or out of?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Out or out of?

from English Grammar Today

We use out and out of to talk about position and direction.

We use out as an adverb to mean ‘not in a building or an enclosed space’:
[the speaker is outside talking to someone inside]
Don’t come out. It’s too cold.
[a phone call]
A:

176
Is Billy there?
B:

No he’s out. (not at home)

Why’s the cake out? Put it back in the fridge or the chocolate will melt.
We use out of as a preposition to talk about movement from within somewhere or something, usually with a verb
that expresses movement (e.g. go, come). It shows where something is or was going:
You go out of the building and turn right.
He pulled a letter out of his shirt pocket, opened it and handed it to her to read.
When I reached the corner, I jumped out of my car and ran across the road.
Out is the opposite of in. Out of is the opposite of into:
We use out as a verb particle in phrasal verbs:
Look out there’s a car coming.
I thought I’d phone and find out how you are.
Out of: all gone

We use out of to say that something is all gone:

The printer is out of ink. We need to get some soon.
[at a restaurant]
I’m afraid, we’re out of soup.
You will find other meanings of out in a good learner’s dictionary.

Permit or permission?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Permit or permission?

from English Grammar Today

The countable noun permit (pronounced /ˈpɜ:mɪt/) refers to an official document that allows you to do something or
go somewhere. The uncountable noun permission refers to when someone is allowed to do something. It does not
refer to a document:
You need to have a work permit before you can work.
Not: You need to have a work permission …
I have a parking permit which allows me to park on the street outside my house.
Not: I have a parking permission …

We use the word permission with an infinitive with to:

Could I have your permission to leave work early on Friday?
We applied for permission to build a house here but our application was refused.

177
Person, persons or people?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Person, persons or people?

from English Grammar Today

We use person in the singular to refer to any human being:

Joel is such a nice person.
She’s a person I have a lot of respect for.

Persons (plural) is a very formal word. We only use it in rather legalistic contexts:

[notice in a lift]
Any person or persons found in possession of illegal substances will be prosecuted.

To refer to groups of human beings or humans in general, we use people:

I saw three people standing on the corner.
Not: I saw three persons …
Jim and Wendy are such nice people.
People are generally very selfish.
Three people were interviewed for the job, but only one person had the right qualifications and experience.

Pick or pick up?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Pick or pick up?

from English Grammar Today

Pick means ‘remove small pieces of something from something else, usually with your hands’:
Let’s go into the garden and pick some flowers for the dinner table.
Not: … pick up some flowers …
She earned money during the summer picking fruit on local farms.

Pick can also mean ‘choose’:

Have a look at these photos of the walking trip. Pick the ones you want and give me back the rest.

Pick up means ‘lift something up using your hands’:

I’m tired of picking up your clothes from the floor! Can’t you hang them up properly in the wardrobe?

178
 We can also use pick up to mean ‘go to a place and bring something or someone back’:
Let me know what time your flight arrives. I can pick you up at the airport and take you to your hotel.

You will find other meanings of pick and pick up in a good learner’s dictionary.

Play or game?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Play or game?

from English Grammar Today

Play
Play as a noun means ‘a piece of dramatic writing for the theatre or radio or television’:
The students performed a play by Shakespeare and sang some folk songs.
Radio plays are always much better than TV plays – you can use your imagination more.

Warning:
We use play as a verb when we talk about individual roles in a dramatic production, but we say that someone acts in
a play (noun):
Who played Hamlet?
Not: Who acted Hamlet?
McBride acted in over 40 plays.
Not: McBride played over 40 plays.

We use play as a verb to talk about doing sports, music and other leisure activities. We usually don’t use an article
(a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure activities. We usually use an article when we talk about musical
instruments:
I played rugby as a child; we never played soccer.
Can you play the piano?
I’ve never played poker. Have you?

We usually don’t use an article (a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure activities. We usually use an article
when we talk about musical instruments.
See also:
 A/an  and  the

Game
Game is a noun. We use it to talk about sports or other entertaining activities:
Would you like a game of tennis? (or Would you like to play tennis?)
Not: Would you like a play of tennis?

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The children invent some fantastic games to occupy themselves.

Politics, political, politician or policy?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Politics, political, politician or policy?

from English Grammar Today

Politics

Politics means the activities of the government or people who try to influence the way a country is governed. We
use a singular verb with it:
A lot of young people just don’t seem interested in politics these days.
Not: … interested in policy …
Politics is power in action.
Politics also means the study of the ways in which a country is governed:
He studied Politics at university then got a job with the United Nations in New York.

Political

The adjective form related to the noun politics is political:

My friends and I are always having political discussions late into the night.
Not: … having politic discussions …
If I did a degree, I’d like to study Political Science.

Politician

A person who is involved in politics (e.g. a member of parliament or a member of the government) is a politician:
Politicians rarely give straight answers to questions from journalists.
Not: Politics rarely give straight answers …

Policy

Policy means a plan of action or a set of rules agreed by a business, a political group or a government, saying what
they will do in a particular situation:
It’s not company policy to sell goods to persons under the age of 18.
The economic policy of the government is in ruins because of the global credit crisis.
Not: The economic politics of the government …

180
Price or prize?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Price or prize?

from English Grammar Today

Price /praɪs/ and prize /praɪz/ are nouns.
Price means ‘the amount of money you pay to buy something’:
The price of a hotel room includes breakfast in some countries.

Prize means something you win in a competition or game:

The first prize in the competition was a week’s holiday in California.

Principal or principle?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Principal or principle?

from English Grammar Today

Principal as an adjective means ‘most important’:

The principal reason for the failure to take action was poor communication between government departments. (the
most important reason)

We can use principal as a noun to mean the head of a school or college (especially in American English):
The college principal made a speech congratulating all the students who were graduating in that year.

Principle is a noun. It means ‘a rule or theory which explains how something is or works’ or ‘a moral rule or
guideline’:
The scientific principles behind even the most complicated computer are relatively simple.
He seems to have no principles at all, and is only interested in money. (He has no moral rules or guidelines.)

Quiet or quite?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Quiet or quite?

from English Grammar Today

181
Warning:
Quiet /kwaɪət/ and quite /kwaɪt/ are spelt and pronounced differently, and have different meanings.
Quiet is an adjective meaning ‘making very little noise’ or ‘having little activity or excitement’:
The children are very quiet. I wonder what they’re doing? Shall I go and see?
It’s a very quiet, peaceful village and we love living there.
Quite is an adverb which usually means ‘a little or a lot, but not completely’:
I’ve been quite busy this week. I hope things are not so busy next week.

Raise or rise?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Raise or rise?

from English Grammar Today

Raise must have an object, as it is a transitive verb. It is a regular verb; its three forms are raise, raised, raised:
Raise your hand if you know the answer.
Our favourite restaurant has raised its prices again. It’s getting very expensive.

Rise does not take an object, as it is an intransitive verb. It is an irregular verb; its three forms are rise, rose, risen:
The sun rose at 5.30 this morning.
Rents have risen sharply in this part of town.

Remember or remind?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Remember or remind?

from English Grammar Today

Remember

If we remember someone or something, we keep that person or thing in our mind or we bring that person or thing
back to our mind:

182
I will always remember you. You have helped me so much.
Not: I will always remind you.
Suddenly I remembered that I had promised to ring my mother.
Remember + to-infinitive means that we don’t forget to do something:
Remember to save your work often, just in case your computer crashes.
Remember + the -ing form of a verb means ‘have a memory of something we did or of something that happened in
the past’:
I remember meeting her once. It must have been about five years ago.
Not: I remember to meet her once …
She said she didn’t remember getting an email from him.
We can also use remember + object + to when we ask someone to ‘give regards to’ or ‘say hello to’ someone:
A:

Remember me to your parents when you see them.

B:

I will. They always ask about you.

Remind

If a person or thing reminds you of someone or something, they make you think of that person or thing, or they
resemble that person or thing:
That song always reminds me of the time I fell in love with an Italian girl.
Not: … always remembers me of the time …
Jason reminded me of my father. They had the same eyes and the same way of talking.
Not: Jason reminded me my father.
If we remind someone to do something or about something, we make them remember it or help them not to forget it:
He’s probably forgotten he was supposed to be here at 6. Shall I ring him and remind him?
Remind me to email Tony today; otherwise I’ll probably forget.
Not: Remember me to email Tony today;

Right or rightly?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Right or rightly?

from English Grammar Today

We use both right and rightly as adverbs, but they are used in different ways and with different meanings.
Right is an adverb of manner. It means ‘correctly’ or ‘well’:

183
The calculation was wrong first time, but I did it right the second time.
Not: … I did it rightly …
When everything goes right, no one says thank you, but when things go wrong, they start complaining immediately.

We use rightly to give an opinion or viewpoint on something. It usually comes in the normal mid position for
adverbs (between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main
verb). It means ‘in the opinion of the speaker, in a morally correct way’, and is more subjective than right:
He rightly took the money he had found straight to the nearest police station. (In the speaker’s opinion, this was the
morally correct thing to do.)
Climate change is rightly seen as the greatest threat to the world at the present time.

Rob or steal?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Rob or steal?

from English Grammar Today

Rob and steal both mean ‘take something from someone without permission’.

Rob focuses on the place or person from which the thing is taken:
The gang robbed three banks over a period of six months, but were finally caught.
Our local post office was robbed early on Tuesday morning.
A young woman was attacked and robbed as she walked home from work last night.

Warning:
When we are talking about a house, we use burgle:
The house was burgled while they were all sleeping.
Not: The house was robbed …

Steal focuses on the thing that is taken:

The thieves entered the museum through the roof and stole three paintings worth more than two million euros.
Our car was stolen from outside our house last week.

Warning:
We usually don’t say rob + object stolen:
He stole my wallet.
Not: He robbed my wallet.

Say or tell?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Say or tell?

from English Grammar Today

184
Say and tell are irregular verbs. The past simple of say is said, the past simple of tell is told:
They asked if I was looking for work and I said yes.
Then he told me how he had got the job by lying about his age.

We use say and tell in different ways in reported speech. Say focuses on the words someone said and tell focuses
more on the content or message of what someone said:
‘Hello,’ she said.
Not: ‘Hello,’ she told.
She told him they were going on holiday. (The focus is on the information.)

We use say with direct speech. We don’t normally use tell in this way:

He said, ‘I’m not paying £50 for that.’

So that or in order that?

 
Grammar > Easily confused words > So that or in order that?

from English Grammar Today

We use so that and in order that to talk about purpose. We often use them with modal verbs (can, would, will,
etc.). So that is far more common than in order that, and in order that is more formal:
I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
We left a message with his neighbour so that he would know we’d called.

[on a website]
In order that you can sign the form, please print it out and mail it to this address.

We often leave out that after so in informal situations:

I’ve made some sandwiches so (that) we can have a snack on the way.

When referring to the future, we can use the present simple or will/’ll after so that. We usually use the present
simple after in order that to talk about the future:
I’ll post the CD today so that you get it by the weekend. (or … so that you will get it …)
We will send you a reminder in order that you arrive on time for your appointment. (or … so that you arrive on
time … or … so that you’ll arrive on time …)

So that (but not in order that) can also mean ‘with the result that’:
The birds return every year around March, so that April is a good time to see them.

185
Sometimes or sometime?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Sometimes or sometime?

from English Grammar Today

Sometimes means ‘not always or not often’:

We usually played football at school, but sometimes we played hockey.
I sometimes wonder whether I should give up my job and just travel.

Sometime means ‘at an unknown or undecided time in the future or the past’:

Why don’t you come over and have dinner with us sometime? (at an undecided time in the future)
I knew I had met her sometime, but I couldn’t remember when.

Sound or noise?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Sound or noise?

from English Grammar Today

Sound and noise are nouns. We can use them both as countable or uncountable nouns. Both refer to something
which you can hear, but when a sound is unwanted or unpleasant, we call it a noise:
There were lots of sounds in the forest. (countable)
It travels faster than the speed of sound. (uncountable)
She made a lot of noise. (uncountable)
There were some funny noises coming from the engine. (countable)

Speak or talk?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Speak or talk?

from English Grammar Today

186
Speak and talk: uses
The verbs speak and talk both generally mean ‘say words’, but there are some small differences in how they are
used. Speak is more formal than talk.
Compare

Formal. It is possible that:

I need to speak to 1. – the speaker does not know you very well.
you. 2. – this is in a formal setting, such as work.
3. – what the person has to say is important/serious.

Informal. It is possible that:

1. – the speaker is your friend.
I need to talk to you.
2. – the speaker is someone you don’t know very well, but what they have to say is
informal.

We usually use speak for more formal presentations and lectures, and talk for more informal ones:
Dr Graham Foster will speak about the history of the region.
Kyle is going to talk us through the benefits of the software and then Liz will talk about the marketing plan.
When we refer to languages, we use speak:
How many languages do you speak?
Not: How many languages do you talk?
I wish I could speak Italian.
Not: … talk Italian.
Speak usually only focuses on the person who is producing the words:
He spoke about the importance of taking exercise and having a good diet.
Talk focuses on a speaker and at least one listener, and can mean ‘have a conversation’:
I hope I can meet you to talk about my plans for the company.
Not: I hope I can meet you to speak about my plans …
Compare

He always looks down The focus is on his use of his voice to produce words. Speak focuses only
when he is speaking. on the person who is producing the words.

The focus is on the use of words as part of a conversation with someone

I was talking to Maria yesterday.
else.

We use speak on the telephone:

A:

Is Rita there?
B:

187
 Who’s speaking?
A:

My name’s Anna. I work with her.

Not: Who’s talking?
Hello, can I speak to Laura, please?

Speak and talk with prepositions
We usually use to after speak and talk. In more formal situations, people sometimes use with:
I need to speak to you about this conference next week.
I was talking to Richard Moss the other day about the golf club.
May I speak with you for a moment? (rather formal)

Typical errors

 We don’t use talk when referring to foreign languages:

I can speak German and Spanish.
Not: I can talk German and Spanish.
 We don’t use speak to focus on conversation:
They can talk and get to know each other over dinner.
Not: They can speak and get to know each other …

Such or so?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Such or so?

from English Grammar Today

Such is a determiner; so is an adverb. They often have the same meaning of ‘very’ or ‘to this degree’:
Those are such good chocolates.
Those chocolates are so good.
We use such + noun phrase and so + adjective or adverb phrase:
She is such a great cook.
Not: She is so great cook.
That was so unpleasant. (so + adjective)
Not: That was such unpleasant.
Why do you drive so fast? (so + adverb)

188
 Not: Why do you drive such fast?
Compare

so + adjective such + noun phrase

You’re so kind. He’s such a kind person

It was so hot we couldn’t work. November was such a cold month.

So but not such can also be used in front of much, many, little, few to add emphasis:
So much food was wasted every day.
Not: Such much food was wasted …
In those days there were so few doctors in our area.
Not: … there were such few doctors …
See also:
 So
 Such
Typical errors

 We use such, not so, before a noun, even if there is an adjective before the noun:
They’re such snobs! They won’t speak to anyone else in the village.
Not: They’re so snobs …
Those are such cool shoes. Where did you get them?
Not: Those are so cool shoes.
 We use such, not so, before a noun phrase with the indefinite article a/an:
This is such a wonderful kitchen!
Not: This is a so wonderful kitchen!
 We use so, not such, before adjectives:
Thank you. You’re so kind.
Not: You’re such kind.
 We use so, not such, before adverbs:
She always dresses so elegantly.
Not: She always dresses such elegantly.

There, their or they’re?
 

189
Grammar > Easily confused words > There, their or they’re?

from English Grammar Today

There, their and they’re are commonly confused in English, as they sound the same.

There is an adverb which refers to places:
The shop you need is over there.

We also use there to say that something exists:

There is a large oak tree outside the hotel.

Their is a possessive determiner which means ‘belonging to them’:

Their house is very small, isn’t it?

They’re is a shortened form of ‘they are’:

They’re too young to have a holiday so far away from home.

Towards or toward?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Towards or toward?

from English Grammar Today

Towards and toward are prepositions. We can use both forms, but towards is much more common than toward.

Toward(s) most often means ‘in the direction of something’:
The oil pollution is now moving towards the shore, and could threaten beaches and wild life.
He stood up and moved toward the door.
We use toward(s) to mean ‘in relation to someone or something’. We don’t use against or about when we talk about
people’s attitudes, feelings and behaviour in relation to one another:
She’s always been very friendly towards me.
He felt very angry towards her when she refused him.
Not: … angry against her … or … angry about her …
Toward(s): position

We use toward(s) to mean ‘near to or just before a time or place’:

Toward the late afternoon I always get sleepy and can’t work so well.
We sat towards the back of the room but we could still hear the speakers very clearly.

Toward(s): purpose

Toward(s) can mean ‘for the purpose of buying or achieving something’:

190
Would you like to make a contribution towards our new children’s playground? (Would you like to give some
money to help pay for it?)
The essays you do during term count towards your final grade.

Wait or wait for?
 

Grammar > Easily confused words > Wait or wait for?

from English Grammar Today

Wait means ‘stay in the same place or not do something until something else happens’. We can use it with or
without for:
Put a tea bag into the cup, then add water and wait (for) a minute or two before taking it out.
I phoned the head office but I had to wait (for) five minutes before I spoke to anyone.
We waited (for) hours to get the tickets.
Warning:

When we use a direct object after wait, we have to use wait for:

Wait for us outside the cinema. We’ll be there at seven o’clock.
Not: Wait us …
I waited for the postman every day last week hoping that your present would arrive.
Not: I waited the postman …
Wait with the to-infinitive

Wait can be followed by the to-infinitive:

All right, I’ll wait to hear from you, Adam, then I’ll ring Simon.
By 9 pm there were about 20 people still waiting to vote.

Can’t wait

When we are very excited about something that is going to happen, we use the phrase can’t wait for + noun phrase
or can’t wait + to-infinitive:
I can’t wait for tonight. I’m having a party! (I’m really looking forward to tonight.)
We can’t wait to go to Barcelona in June. (We’re really looking forward to going.)

191
Wake, wake up or awaken?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Wake, wake up or awaken?

from English Grammar Today

Wake and wake up are verbs which mean ‘stop sleeping or end someone else’s sleep’. They are used in everyday
language.
Compare
I woke (up) suddenly when the alarm I woke (up) the children. (or I woke the children up.) They had to be
clock went off. in school early.

I stopped sleeping. The children were asleep; then I stopped them sleeping.

Wake up has a similar meaning to wake. It is sometimes used as a stronger form of wake. It can mean ‘stop sleeping’
and ‘make someone feel more awake’:
The noise of the traffic wakes me (up) every morning.
She likes to wake up with a cup of coffee. (It makes her feel more awake.)

We use wake up! as a command:

Wake up! It’s time to get going.
Not: Wake!

The verbs waken, awaken and awake have a similar meaning but are used in more literary contexts, often to refer to
emotions or things as well as people:
Cautiously, trying not to waken him, Caroline stepped quietly out of the room.
Different images can awaken new emotions within us.
I awoke next morning to a brilliant pearly light, but when I went to the window, no sea was visible.

Worth or worthwhile?
 
Grammar > Easily confused words > Worth or worthwhile?

from English Grammar Today

Worth and worthwhile are adjectives.

192
Worth is only used after verbs such as be, seem, look (as a predicative adjective). It means ‘having a particular
value’, especially in money:
A:
I wonder how much the house is worth?
B:
About half a million, probably.

To be worth doing something is a common expression. It means that something is useful or important enough to do:
A:
I haven’t had a reply to my email to Jane. Is it worth phoning her, do you think? (Would it be useful to phone her?)
B:
You could try, I suppose.
We decided it wasn’t worth going all the way to London to buy books we could get on the Internet.

To be worth it means ‘to be of reasonable or good value for the price’:

A business class ticket cost £2,000, but it was worth it for such a long flight. It was very comfortable.

We use worthwhile before a noun (as an attributive adjective) or after verbs such as be, seem, look (as a predicative
adjective). It means ‘useful’, ‘important’ or ‘good enough to be a suitable reward for the money or time spent or the
effort made’:
Do you think working in a supermarket is a worthwhile career for a highly intelligent person?
We had thought of buying a bigger car, but we didn’t think it was worthwhile, since there’s just the two of us.

Nouns, pronouns and determiners

 
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners

Nouns are one of the four major word classes, along with verbs, adjectives and adverbs. A noun identifies a person,
animal or thing.
Pronouns are words like he, she, yourself, mine, who, this and someone. Pronouns commonly refer to or fill the
position of a noun or noun phrase.
A determiner specifies the kind of reference a noun has. Common determiners
are: the, those, my, her, both, all, several and no.
Click on a topic to learn more about nouns, pronouns and determiners.

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Determiners
 
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners

Determiners are words such as the, my, this, some, twenty, each, any, which are used before nouns. Determiners
include the following common types:
Articles:a, an, the
Demonstratives:this, that, these, those
Possessives:my, your, his, her, etc.
Quantifiers:(a) few, some, many, etc.
Numbers:one, two, three, etc.
A/an and the
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > A/an and the

from English Grammar Today

A/an and the: meaning
A/an and the are articles. They are a type of determiner and they go before a noun.
A/an before a noun shows that what is referred to is not already known to the speaker, listener, writer and/or reader
(it is the indefinite article):
Do you have a car?
A:

Do you live in a house?

B:

No, actually, I live in an apartment.

The before a noun shows that what is referred to is already known to the speaker, listener, writer and/or reader (it is
the definite article):
Where did we park the car? (The speaker and the listener know what car is being referred to.)
We had to paint the apartment before we sold it. (The speaker and the listener know what apartment is being
referred to.)
The makes a noun specific.
Compare

194
 Have you been The speaker is not asking about any one specific ice rink but is asking whether they have
to an ice rink? been to any ice rink (an doesn’t refer to a specific ice rink)

Have you been The speaker and listener know the ice rink which is being referred to (e.g. the one in their
to the ice rink? town/the local one). The makes the noun ice rink specific.

Not specific Specific (‘the one you and I know’)

Would you
Would you like to try the apple pie?
like an apple?

Do you have a cat? Have you seen the cat?

See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

When do we use a and when do we use an?

In speaking, we use a /ə/ before a consonant sound:
a car a house a big truck a wheel a grey day
Warning:

Some words that begin with a vowel letter in writing have a consonant sound:
/ə ju:ˈnaɪtɪd …/ /ə ju:niˈvɜ:sɪti/ /ə wʌn …/
a united group a university a one-year-old child
We use an /ən/ before a vowel sound:
an apple an old shoe an orchestra an umbrella
Warning:

Some words that begin with a consonant letter in writing have a vowel sound:

/ən aʊə(r)/ an /ən empi:θri: …/ an MP3

hour player

How do we pronounce the?
We pronounce the in two ways depending on whether the sound which comes after the is a vowel or a consonant:

/ði:/ before vowel sounds

/ði: eksɪt/ the /ði: æpəl/ the

exit apple

195
/ðə/ before consonant sounds

/ðə ti:m/ the /ðə ju:niən/ the

team union

When do we use articles?

A/an and the with types of nouns

Countable nouns

We only use a/an with singular countable nouns:

I have a sister and a brother.
That was an excellent meal.
We can use the with singular and plural countable nouns:

The lion roared. The tree fell.

The lions The trees
roared. fell.

Uncountable nouns

We don’t use a/an before uncountable nouns:

Could I have rice instead of potatoes with my fish?
Not: Could I have a rice
I hope we have nice weather.
Not: I hope we have a nice weather.
We can use the before uncountable nouns when they refer to a specific example:
The rice we bought in the Thai shop is much better than the supermarket rice.
The weather was awful last summer.
To talk about an individual quantity or more than one quantity of an uncountable noun, we use expressions such as a
bit of, a piece of or a [specific measure] of:
That’s an amazing bit of news.
Not: That’s an amazing news.
We just made a big bowl of pasta.
Not: We just made a pasta.
Could I have a litre of milk, please?
Not: Could I have a milk, please?

General nouns

We only use the with general plural nouns when we are referring to a specific set within a general class of people or
things.

196
 Compare

Books are so important in my
I mean all books in general.
life.

The books were all over the

I mean specific books (that you and I know).
floor.

We can make general nouns specific by using an article and adding more information after the noun.

The life of a soldier is full of danger. (specifically the life of soldiers,

Life is wonderful. (life in general) not life in general)
She had a life of hard work. (one specific life)

He wrote a book on the history of boxing. (specifically the history of

History sometimes repeats itself. (history boxing)
in general) The country has a history of going to war. (one specific history of one
country)

Inventions, musical instruments and cultural institutions

When we talk in general about inventions, musical instruments or cultural institutions (such as the cinema, the
theatre, the circus, the opera, the ballet), we often use the:
The computer must be the greatest invention ever. (The computer as an invention in general, not a specific
computer)
The violin sounds different to the viola.
I love a night at the opera.
See also:
 Nouns

No article before determiners (any, some, my, this)

We don’t use an article with other words that specify a noun (determiner), e.g. any, some, my, her, this, that:

I love my job.
Does she want this book?
Not: I love the my
Not: Does she want the this book?
job.

See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

The with things that are universally known

We use the with things known to everyone (the sun, the stars, the moon, the earth, the planet) because they are a part
of our physical environment or part of the natural world:
The earth moves around the sun.

197
 We lay on the grass and watched the stars.

The with everyday things

We use the with things that we know as part of our daily lives. The does not refer to particular things in this context.
I don’t buy the newspaper these days. It’s free on the Internet. (newspapers in general)
They always take the train. (trains in general)

Jobs and professions

When we talk about a person’s job, we use a:

She’s a gardener.
He’s an ambulance driver.

Places

We use the with mountain ranges and some mountains (the Alps, the Eiger), groups of islands (the West Indies),
rivers (the Danube), deserts (the Gobi Desert), seas (the Black Sea), geographical regions or habitats (the Amazon
rainforest), motorways (the M42), the names of some countries (the People’s Republic of China).
We don’t usually use articles with individual mountains or lakes when the name includes Mount or Lake: Mount
Fuji, Lake Victoria. We don’t use articles with continents (Asia), countries (Romania), towns (Edinburgh), and
streets (Lombard Street).
See also:
 Geographical places
 Nationalities, languages, countries and regions
 Place names

The with groups within society

When we talk about particular groups or people within society, we use the + adjective:
I think the rich should pay more tax and that the poor shouldn’t pay any.
The young need to be encouraged and supported in society.

The with dates

When we say a specific date, we use the, but when we write it, we don’t use the:
Speaking: ‘I’ll see you on the twenty fourth of May.’
Writing: I’ll see you on 24th May.
When we talk about months, we don’t use the:
My birthday is in September.
May is my favourite month of all.
When we talk about seasons in general, we can use either in or in the. In without the is often used in more formal or
literary contexts:
These birds arrive in Britain in summer, and leave as the winter begins.
In the summer, we usually go to the mountains.
We rarely get snow in the winter.

198
 When we talk about a specific season, we use the:
The winter of 1947 was one of the coldest in Britain.
We’ll definitely visit you in the summer. (meaning next summer)
See also:
 Nouns

The with Internet, radio and newspaper but mostly not with TV

I looked it up on the Internet.
Not: on internet
She was on the radio once.
Not: on radio
Did you see that story about parrots in the newspaper?
Not: in newspaper
There’s usually nothing on TV. (TV means television)
There’s usually nothing on the television. (less common)

The with go to, be at, be in hospital, school, prison

When we talk about the activity that happens in a building rather than about the building itself, we don’t use the.
Compare

without the with the

She didn’t want to be in hospital but she was too ill to go She didn’t want to be in the hospital … (in the
home. (in hospital means being there as a patient) hospital means being in the building)

When I was at school, we didn’t have computers. (at When I was at the school … (at the school means
school means being there as a student) being in the building)

We don’t use the with bed when we go there to sleep:

I always go to bed at eleven o’clock.
Not: I always go to the bed …
We don’t use the before work when we talk about the place where we do our job:
They go to work at 8 am every morning.
Not: They go to the work …
See also:
 At, on and in (time)

Possessive expressions

We don’t use the to refer to an individual’s behaviour or to parts of an individual’s body:

He spends most of his free time playing computer games.

199
 Not: He spends most of the free time …
I must wash my hands.
Not: I must wash the hands.

This, that and articles

We can use this instead of a/an or the, and these instead of zero article or some when we tell stories and jokes to
create a sense of the present:
[beginning of a joke]
There was this chicken who wanted to cross the road … (compare There was a chicken who wanted to cross the
road …)
These tourists came into the restaurant once and they ordered fifteen Irish coffees. (compare Some tourists came
into the restaurant once and they ordered …)
Spoken English:

In informal speaking, we can use that as an alternative to the in stories when we refer to something familiar or
known to the listener. That highlights the fact that the thing being referred to is known to the speaker and listener:
A:

Where did you buy your skirt? I really like it.

B:

I got it at that new shop next to Green’s Hotel. (compare I got it at the new shop next to Green’s Hotel.)

A/an and the: typical errors

 We don’t use the with plural nouns when we are referring to things in general:
We have to protect wild animals. (referring to wild animals in general)
Not: the wild animals.
 We don’t use the when we refer in general to something abstract or uncountable:
I love Japanese food. (all Japanese food/Japanese food in general)
Not: I love the Japanese food.
 We don’t use the when the noun is not known to the listener or reader:
Last Sunday, we saw a film called ‘Nightmare’. (The speaker doesn’t think that the listener knows of this film.)
Not: … we saw the film called ‘Nightmare’.
 We don’t use the instead of a possessive pronoun:
The police asked us to put our hands up.
Not: The police asked us to put the hands up.
 We don’t use an article with go to bed:
I go to bed at eleven most nights.
Not: I go to the bed at eleven most nights.

200
Determiners (the, my, some, this)
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Determiners (the, my, some, this)

from English Grammar Today

Determiners are words such as the, my, this, some, twenty, each, any, which are used before nouns:

the countrysid this old
some paper
e sofa

five green each perso
my father
chairs n

Determiners include the following common types:

Articles: a/an, the
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, x’s (possessive ’s)
Quantifiers: (a) few, fewer, (a) little, many, much, more, most, some, any, etc.
Numbers: one, two, three, etc.
Here is a list of the determiners included in this book. Many of them have individual entries:

(a) few, fewer,

every most that
fewest

(a) little half much the

(an)other her my their

a/an his neither these

all its no this

Jim’s, Anna’s, one, two, three,
any those
etc. etc.

both least our what

each less several which

201
 whos
either many some
e

enough more such your

Sometimes we don’t use a determiner before the noun. We call this ‘zero determiner’:
Dogs love biscuits.
See also:
 A/an  and  the

What do determiners do?

Determiners have two main functions: referring and quantifying.

Referring

Referring means showing us who or what the noun is pointing to or talking about. The most common types of
determiners which we use for referring are articles, possessives and demonstratives:
A:

Where’s the newspaper?
B:

It’s on the sofa. (the means the noun refers to something the speaker and listener both know or are familiar with)
A:

Have you seen my MP3 player anywhere?

B:

Yes. It’s on the kitchen table. (my refers to something which belongs to the speaker; the refers to something the
speaker and listener can both identify because they both know or share knowledge about it.)
Do you want this bag or are you going to put it in that box? (this refers to something near the speaker; that refers to
something further away.)
Charles is looking for his dictionary. Have you got it? (his means the noun refers to something belonging to a male,
in this case, Charles.)

Quantifying

‘Quantifying’ means showing how much of something there is, or how many:

Five people were arrested during an anti-war demonstration in London today.
There are some letters here for you. (some means a non-specific, small number or quantity of something.)
Do you have enough flour to make the bread. (enough means a quantity that is sufficient or adequate for
something).

202
 Determiners and types of noun
 
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Determiners and types of noun

from English Grammar Today

We cannot use all the determiners with all types of noun. We can use some determiners with any type of noun, but
others must be followed by certain types of noun.

Determiners and singular countable nouns

Some determiners can only be used with a singular countable noun. These are:
a/an another each either every neither one
Would you like another glass of water?
Life gets more expensive every day.
A:
Can we meet on the 15th or 16th?
B:
Sorry. Neither date is good for me. What about the 18th?

See also:
 Each
 Every
 Other

Determiners and singular uncountable nouns

Much, (a) little, less and least can only be used with a singular uncountable noun:
We didn’t get much snow last winter.
There is little information I can give you, I’m afraid.

We sometimes use less with plural nouns, but this is not always considered correct:
There were less children there today than last year. (There were fewer children… is considered correct.)

See also:
 Much
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Less or fewer?

Determiners and singular countable or uncountable nouns

We use this and that with singular countable or uncountable nouns, but not with plural nouns. This refers to
something near the speaker; that refers to something further away:
That film was fantastic. (countable)

203
 This furniture is so ugly! (uncountable)

For plural nouns, we use these and those.

See also:
 This,  that,  these,  those

Determiners and plural countable nouns

Both, many, (a) few, the numbers two, three, four, etc., several, these and those are only used with plural nouns:
It all happened many years ago.
I just have a few photos of my grandparents.
Several items were missing when we opened the box to unpack everything.

See also:
 Both
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Many
 Number

Determiners and uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns

Some determiners can only be used with an uncountable noun or with a plural noun:

all some /səm/ (weak form)

any (weak
zero determiner (i.e. no determiner)
form)

enough

Would you like some juice, or milk? (uncountable noun)

Do we have enough cups for everybody? (plural noun)
We need to buy paper for the printer. (zero determiner, uncountable noun)

See also:
 All
 Enough
 Some  and  any
 Such

Determiners and any type of noun

Some determiners can be used with any type of noun, singular or plural, countable or uncountable.
Determiners which can be used in this way:
1. any (‘strong form’ meaning ‘it doesn’t matter which’)

204
 2. some (‘strong form’ meaning ‘certain/particular’; stressed and pronounced /sʌm/)
3. which (as a question word)
what (as a question word)
4. my, your, his, Anna’s, etc.
5. such
6. the
7. what
8. whose
9. no

countable uncountable

A:
Where would you like to sit? Any information you can give me about the
B: trains would be very useful.
Singula
r Any seat in the front row will be fine. (I don’t mind Whose advice do you listen to most, your
which seat/It’s not important which seat) parents’ or your teachers’?

Whose jacket is this?

Some students always turn up late for class. (certain Some processed meat contains a high level
students) of salt.
Plural
There were no children at the hotel. I have no news for you.

See also:
 Some  and  any

Determiners followed by pronouns

We can use these determiners + of before pronouns:

(a) few,
each many one, two, three, etc.
fewer

(a) little either more several

another enough most some

every
all much those
one

neithe
any half which
r

205
both less

We had twenty tickets to sell and we sold all of them in less than an hour.
A:
Which box do you want?
B:
Either of them will be fine, thanks.
We’ve got loads of umbrellas – you can borrow one of ours.

Determiners (the, my, some, this)

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Determiners (the, my, some, this)

from English Grammar Today

Determiners are words such as the, my, this, some, twenty, each, any, which are used before nouns:

the countrysid this old
some paper
e sofa

five green each perso
my father
chairs n

Determiners include the following common types:

Articles: a/an, the
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, x’s (possessive ’s)
Quantifiers: (a) few, fewer, (a) little, many, much, more, most, some, any, etc.
Numbers: one, two, three, etc.
Here is a list of the determiners included in this book. Many of them have individual entries:

(a) few, fewer,

every most that
fewest

(a) little half much the

(an)other her my their

a/an his neither these

206
 all its no this

Jim’s, Anna’s, one, two, three,
any those
etc. etc.

both least our what

each less several which

whos
either many some
e

enough more such your

Sometimes we don’t use a determiner before the noun. We call this ‘zero determiner’:
Dogs love biscuits.
See also:
 A/an  and  the

What do determiners do?

Determiners have two main functions: referring and quantifying.

Referring

Referring means showing us who or what the noun is pointing to or talking about. The most common types of
determiners which we use for referring are articles, possessives and demonstratives:
A:

Where’s the newspaper?
B:

It’s on the sofa. (the means the noun refers to something the speaker and listener both know or are familiar with)
A:

Have you seen my MP3 player anywhere?

B:

Yes. It’s on the kitchen table. (my refers to something which belongs to the speaker; the refers to something the
speaker and listener can both identify because they both know or share knowledge about it.)
Do you want this bag or are you going to put it in that box? (this refers to something near the speaker; that refers to
something further away.)
Charles is looking for his dictionary. Have you got it? (his means the noun refers to something belonging to a male,
in this case, Charles.)

207
 Quantifying

‘Quantifying’ means showing how much of something there is, or how many:

Five people were arrested during an anti-war demonstration in London today.
There are some letters here for you. (some means a non-specific, small number or quantity of something.)
Do you have enough flour to make the bread. (enough means a quantity that is sufficient or adequate for
something).

Determiners and types of noun

 
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Determiners and types of noun

from English Grammar Today

We cannot use all the determiners with all types of noun. We can use some determiners with any type of noun, but
others must be followed by certain types of noun.

Determiners and singular countable nouns

Some determiners can only be used with a singular countable noun. These are:
a/an another each either every neither one
Would you like another glass of water?
Life gets more expensive every day.
A:
Can we meet on the 15th or 16th?
B:
Sorry. Neither date is good for me. What about the 18th?

See also:
 Each
 Every
 Other

Determiners and singular uncountable nouns

Much, (a) little, less and least can only be used with a singular uncountable noun:
We didn’t get much snow last winter.
There is little information I can give you, I’m afraid.

We sometimes use less with plural nouns, but this is not always considered correct:
There were less children there today than last year. (There were fewer children… is considered correct.)

See also:
 Much
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few

208
 Less or fewer?

Determiners and singular countable or uncountable nouns

We use this and that with singular countable or uncountable nouns, but not with plural nouns. This refers to
something near the speaker; that refers to something further away:
That film was fantastic. (countable)
This furniture is so ugly! (uncountable)

For plural nouns, we use these and those.

See also:
 This,  that,  these,  those

Determiners and plural countable nouns

Both, many, (a) few, the numbers two, three, four, etc., several, these and those are only used with plural nouns:
It all happened many years ago.
I just have a few photos of my grandparents.
Several items were missing when we opened the box to unpack everything.

See also:
 Both
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Many
 Number

Determiners and uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns

Some determiners can only be used with an uncountable noun or with a plural noun:

all some /səm/ (weak form)

any (weak
zero determiner (i.e. no determiner)
form)

enough

Would you like some juice, or milk? (uncountable noun)

Do we have enough cups for everybody? (plural noun)
We need to buy paper for the printer. (zero determiner, uncountable noun)

See also:
 All
 Enough
 Some  and  any

209
 Such

Determiners and any type of noun

Some determiners can be used with any type of noun, singular or plural, countable or uncountable.
Determiners which can be used in this way:
1. any (‘strong form’ meaning ‘it doesn’t matter which’)
2. some (‘strong form’ meaning ‘certain/particular’; stressed and pronounced /sʌm/)
3. which (as a question word)
what (as a question word)
4. my, your, his, Anna’s, etc.
5. such
6. the
7. what
8. whose
9. no

countable uncountable

A:
Where would you like to sit? Any information you can give me about the
B: trains would be very useful.
Singula
r Any seat in the front row will be fine. (I don’t mind Whose advice do you listen to most, your
which seat/It’s not important which seat) parents’ or your teachers’?

Whose jacket is this?

Some students always turn up late for class. (certain Some processed meat contains a high level
students) of salt.
Plural
There were no children at the hotel. I have no news for you.

See also:
 Some  and  any

Determiners followed by pronouns

We can use these determiners + of before pronouns:

(a) few,
each many one, two, three, etc.
fewer

(a) little either more several

another enough most some

210
 every
all much those
one

neithe
any half which
r

both less

We had twenty tickets to sell and we sold all of them in less than an hour.
A:
Which box do you want?
B:
Either of them will be fine, thanks.
We’ve got loads of umbrellas – you can borrow one of ours.

Determiners: position and order

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Determiners: position and order

from English Grammar Today

Where do determiners go?

Determiners come first in noun phrases, before adjectives and noun modifiers.

determiner(s
adjective(s) noun modifier(s) head noun
)

her little brother

every university student

three big, old kitchen tables

my two best friends

See also:

211
 Noun phrases

More than one determiner

We can use more than one determiner in a noun phrase:
My two best friends at school were Mike and Terry.
All your books got wet when you left them in the garden – do you remember?
We don’t use two referring determiners or two quantifying determiners together:
We sold the house.
We sold our house.
Not: We sold the our house.
I have some questions.
I have many questions.
Not: I have some many questions.
However, we can use a quantifying determiner (some, many, enough, etc.) + of together with a referring determiner
(the, this, my, etc):
Many of the people present were very angry.
Some of his friends are awful people.
When there is more than one determiner in a noun phrase, we put them in a fixed order. The table shows the order
from left to right.

quantifier possessive number

article (a/an, demonstrative (this, that, head
(e.g. all, both, the) these, those) (e.g. my, her, our, (e.g. one, noun
some) Anna’s) three, 26)

all (of) the children

both (of) my parents

his two sisters

many of these animals

the three girls

half a mile

none of those six glasses

some of our friends

212
 Many, much, more, most, few, little

We can use many, much, more, most, few and little after the or after a demonstrative or a possessive, especially in
formal styles:
She spent the little money she had left on a new coat and hat.
Those few books which were not destroyed in the fire have been transferred to the new library.
I shall invite my many friends to join me on my 65th birthday.

All, both, half

All, both and half can come before articles, demonstratives and possessives. We can use them with or without of,
with no difference in meaning:
All that food should be put in the fridge. (or All of that food)
Do both your parents work in the city? (or both of your parents)
Half the people at the party hadn’t been invited. (or Half of the people)
See also:
 All
 Both

One of, most of, etc.

Determiners other than all, both and half must be used with of if they come before articles, demonstratives or
possessives:
Do you want any of these boxes, or shall I throw them away?
Not: Do you want any these boxes…
Most of her school friends got married before she did.
I’d like some of the green grapes, please.
Two of my favourite programmes are on TV at the same time!
Determiners which we use with of in this way are:

(a) few enough most

(a) every (every one

much
little of)

all fewer neither

another fewest no (pronoun form none)

any least one, two, three, etc.

both less several

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each many some

either more which

In formal styles, we use each of, every one of, none of and any of with a singular verb when they are the subject:
Each of the children was given a place to hang their coat and bag.
None of my friends owns a house.
However, in informal speaking, people often use plural verbs:
None of the computers are working. They’re all being repaired at the moment.
Determiners with and without of may have slightly different meanings.
Compare

without of with of

Some people had gathered in the main square. (a Some of the people in the hall sounded very angry. (a
fairly small number of people) proportion of the particular group of people)

The school needs more teachers. (a greater number I wish we had more of this paper. I like the colour. (a
of teachers) greater quantity of this particular paper)

Few cities have solved the problems associated with Very few of the children seemed to know basic maths. (not
traffic congestion. (not many cities) many of the particular group of children)

Determiners and modifiers

Determiners which show quantity (underlined) may occasionally have words before them (modifiers, in bold) which
make them more specific or stronger:
Nearly every shop was closed for the public holiday.
The college has received many more applications this year than last year, but the total is still far fewer than ten
years ago.
They were able to give me very little information.

Determiners: typical errors

 

214
 Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Determiners: typical errors

from English Grammar Today

 Some determiners are restricted to certain types of noun:

She gave me some advice.
Not: She gave me an advice (We can’t use a/an with an uncountable noun.)
Europe will face many challenges in the future.
Not: … much challenges… (We can’t use much with a plural noun.)

See also:
 Determiners and types of noun
 We can’t use two referring determiners together:
The restaurant is in the middle of my home town.
Not: … of the my home town. (the and my are both referring determiners)

See also:
 More than one determiner
 We must use of between a quantifier and another determiner:
I was at a party with some of my friends.
Not: … with some my friends. (some must be followed by of before another determiner)

See also:
 More than one determiner
 When do we use articles?
 Pronouns: possessive (my, mine, your, yours, etc.)
 Possession (John’s car, a friend of mine)

Determiners used as pronouns

 
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Determiners used as pronouns

from English Grammar Today

Determiners are words such as the, my, this, some, twenty, each, any, which are used before nouns. We can also use
some determiners as pronouns (i.e. without a noun following and when the meaning is clear without including the
noun).
Compare

215
before a noun as a pronoun (no noun following)

Would you like some bread with your soup? I’ve got a bar of chocolate here. Would you like some?

A:
We didn’t have enough volunteers to make the Do you need more paper?
project work. B:
No. I’ve got enough, thanks.

It’s not just one school that is in financial difficulty; there

Several people complained about the slow service.
are several.

Determiners which can be used as pronouns in this way are:

(a) few either less neither these

(a) enoug man one, two, three,

this
little h y etc.

another fewer more several those

any fewest most some which

muc whos
both least that
h e

each

I’ve had a lot of pairs of sunglasses of different kinds, and I’ve lost a few over the years on various trips.
A:
D’you want tea or coffee?
B:
Neither, thanks. I’ve just had breakfast.
A:
Which shoes do you want to put on?
B:
Pass me those, please. The black ones.

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 Every
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Every

from English Grammar Today

Every is a determiner.

Every meaning ‘each member of a group’

We use every + singular noun to refer individually to all the members of a complete group of something:
There’s a photograph on the wall of every child in the school.
Try to answer every question.
When every refers to the subject of the clause, we use a singular verb:
Every player wants to be in a winning team.
Not: Every player want …
Every cook needs good knives and a chopping board.
The negative of every is normally not every:
Not every noun has a plural form.
We use singular pronouns and possessives to refer back to every + noun, especially in more formal styles, and
especially when what we refer to is not human:
Every store has a manager in charge of it.
Every area has its own park.
In less formal styles, the pronoun or possessive may be plural:
Every student gets a laptop. They have to give it back at the end of the course.
Every user has their own password.
See also:
 All or every?
 Each or every?

Every: regular situations

We use every with a singular noun to refer to something that happens regularly:
The festival is held every August in Budapest.
I leave the house every morning at 6 am.
Not: I leave the house every mornings at 6 am.
We use every with a number and a plural noun to refer to regular intervals of time or numbers:
There are buses into town every ten minutes.
He now works from home, travelling to Amsterdam every two weeks.

Every day or everyday?

We write two words when every day means each day. The adjective everyday is one word. It means ‘normal’ or
‘usual’:

217
 The boys meet up every day in the park.
Not: The boys meet up everyday in the park.
In the Soviet Union, poetry was at the centre of everyday life.

Every single
We often use single with every to emphasise each member of a complete group of people or things:
He was the only player who played in every single match last season.
I’ve got to photocopy every single page.

Every one or everyone?
We use every one, written as two words, to refer back to a noun we have already mentioned:
I received more than a hundred letters from him while I was away and I’ve kept every one.
Everyone, written as one word, means ‘every person’:
Everyone enjoyed themselves.
We use every one of before pronouns and determiners:
There are 107 two-letter words in the dictionary and John Catto, an Aberdeen lorry driver, knows every one
of them.
When Jenkins joined the bank, one of his first acts was to make every one of the bank’s employees reapply for their
jobs.
See also:
 Everyone,  everybody,  everything,  everywhere

Every other
We use every other to mean ‘alternate’:
We worked every other Sunday. (One Sunday he worked, the next Sunday he didn’t work, the next Sunday he
worked, etc.)
He works in Germany every other week. (One week he works in Germany, the next week he doesn’t, the next week
he does, etc.)

Every: typical errors

 We don’t use every on its own, without a noun or without one:
There were five rooms. Every room was decorated in a different style.
Not: Every was decorated in a different style.
 We don’t use every with a plural noun:
I go swimming every day.
Not: I go swimming every days.

218
Possession (John’s car, a friend of mine)
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Possession (John’s car, a friend of mine)

from English Grammar Today

Possessive ’s
We use apostrophe s (’s), also called possessive ’s, as a determiner to show that something belongs to someone or
something:
Is that Olivia’s bag?
Britain’s coastline is very beautiful.
We can also use it in complex noun phrases (underlined):
Greg is her youngest daughter’s husband.
We can use two possessive ’s constructions in the same noun phrase:
We went to Jake’s father’s funeral.
We also use possessive ’s to talk about time and duration:
Is that yesterday’s paper?
I’ve only had one week’s holiday so far this year.

Rules for using possessive ’s

We use ’s after a singular noun and ’ after a plural noun.

Compare

singular noun + ’s plural noun + ’

The girl’s bedroom The girls’ bedroom.

(The bedroom belongs to one girl.) (The bedroom belongs to more than one girl.)

We use ’s with irregular plural nouns (e.g. children, men, people, women):

The children’s parents decided which university they would go to.
They have no respect for other people’s property.
The rules for the pronunciation of a noun with ’s are the same as the rules for pronunciation of plural forms of
nouns.
Compare

noun + ’s or ’ plural noun pronunciation

The cats were running around the

The cat’s dinner is in the fridge. /s/
garden.

The kids’ uncle gave them all some The kids are getting impatient. /z/

219
noun + ’s or ’ plural noun pronunciation

money.

George’s brother was there. There are three Georges in my family. /ɪz/

When a first or second name ends in -s, we can either add ’ or ’s. It is more common to use ’ than ’s. When we
speak, we usually pronounce the final part of the word as /zɪz/ or /sɪz/:
Is that James’ car? (or Is that James’s car?) (both usually pronounced /ˈdʒeɪmzɪz/)
I love Keats’ poetry. (or I love Keats’s poetry.) (both usually pronounced /ˈki:tsɪz/)
With compound nouns, we add ’s to the final noun:
My sister-in-law’s friend came with us.
Not: My sister’s-in-law friend
We don’t usually use the possessive ’s with things:
the door handle
Not: the door’s handle
the shop window
Not: the shop’s window
the kitchen table
Not: the kitchen’s table
Spoken English:

When we talk about places which are familiar to the speaker and the listener, we sometimes don’t use the noun after
possessive ’s:
the hairdresser’s salon – the hairdresser’s
the doctor’s surgery – the doctor’s
We had to take our cat to the vet’s twice last month. (the same as: We had to take our cat to the vet’s clinic twice
last month.)
Do you shop in Marks and Spencer’s?
We decided to go to John’s after the cinema. (the same as: We decided to go to John’s house after the cinema.)
In short answers, we can omit the noun if it is not necessary to repeat it:
A:

Is that your coat?

B:

No, it’s Sandra’s.
We use possessive ’s with words such as one, anyone, someone, anybody, somebody:
It’s important to know one’s rights as a tenant.
Is this someone’s coat here?
When we use else with these words, the ’s is added to else:

220
Why didn’t you come? Everyone else’s husband was there.
Warning:

The pronoun other has the same forms as nouns. We add ’s to the singular form, and we add an apostrophe after the
plural -s ending in the plural form:
They took each other’s hand and started walking.
All of our luggage arrived but the others’ cases didn’t. The airline promise they will be here this evening.
Warning:

We don’t use ’s with possessive pronouns:

Is that dog yours?
Not: Is that dog your’s?
I think that car is theirs.
Not: I think that car is theirs’
We don’t use ’s with the possessive determiner its. It’s means ‘it is’:
The city is proud of its parks.
Not: The city is proud of it’s parks.

Possessives with of
Noun phrase + of + possessive pronoun

We can talk about possession using the pattern: noun phrase + of + possessive pronoun:
A friend of mine told me that all of the tickets have already sold out.
A:

Where’s Martin?
B:

He’s gone to pick up a cousin of his at the station.

Is Linda McGrath a close friend of yours?
Warning:

We use a possessive pronoun, not the object form of the pronoun:

A neighbour of mine called late last night.
Not: A neighbour of me …

Noun phrase + of + possessive ’s noun phrase

We can also use the noun phrase + of pattern before a noun phrase with possessive ’s:
He’s a brother of Maria’s.
A friend of my sister’s has opened a café on Dawson Street.
She was a daughter of the President’s.

’s or of or either?

221
 There are some general rules about when to use ’s and when to use of but there are many cases where both are
possible:
The film’s hero or The hero of the film
The car’s safety record or The safety record of the car
The report’s conclusion or The conclusion of the report
Sometimes when we first mention a noun, we use of, and later when we refer to it again, we use ’s:
The mountains of Pakistan are mostly in the north. At least one hundred of them are above 7,000 metres … Most
of Pakistan’s mountains are in the spectacular Karakoram range.

When we don’t use ’s

We don’t use ’s when the noun is not a person, animal, country, organisation, etc., or when the noun phrase is very
long:
The name of the ship was ‘Wonder Queen’. (preferred to The ship’s name was ‘Wonder Queen’.)
The house of the oldest woman in the village. (preferred to The oldest woman in the village’s house.)

When we don’t use of

When we are talking about things that belong to us, relationships and characteristics of people, animals, countries,
categories, groups or organisations made up of people, we usually use ’s:
The men’s dressing room is on the left at the end of the corridor.
Not: The dressing room of the men …
The cat’s paw was badly cut.
Not: The paw of the cat …
See also:
 Possessive  ’s

Possession: typical errors

 We don’t use ’s with plural nouns:
It’s my responsibility to deal with customers’ complaints.
Not: … to deal with customers's complaints.
 The possessive determiner its has no apostrophe:
We bought this car because we liked its colour.
Not: … because we liked it’s colour.
 We don’t use ’s to make nouns plural. When we want to show that something is plural, we add -s without
an apostrophe:
They had to rebuild the roads after the earthquake.
Not: They had to rebuild the road’s …

Such
 

222
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Such

from English Grammar Today

Such as a determiner
We can use such (as a determiner) before a noun phrase to add emphasis:
We visited such fascinating places on our trip through central Asia.
She has such lovely hair.
She lived in such loneliness. (formal)

We use such before the indefinite article, a/an:

We had such  an awful meal at that restaurant!
Not: We had a such awful meal …

Such meaning ‘of this or that kind’

In more formal situations, we can use such to mean ‘of this or that kind’. We can use it before a/an or after
expressions like the only, the first, the second:
You must not destroy people’s houses. I could never agree to such a plan. (a plan of that kind)
A college is offering a degree in pop music composition. It is the only such course in the country. (the only course
of that kind)

Such … that
We can use a that-clause after a noun phrase with such:
He is such a bad-tempered person that no one can work with him for long.
It was such a long and difficult exam that I was completely exhausted at the end.

This, that, these, those
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > This, that, these, those

from English Grammar Today

This, that, these and those are demonstratives. We use this, that, these and those to point to people and
things. This and that are singular. These and those are plural. We use them as determiners and pronouns.

determiners pronouns

What’s in this box? Come and look at this.

That water tastes strange. That’s a very good idea.

223
determiners pronouns

I might get myself a pair Can I have one

of those shoes. of these?

This, that, these, those as determiners
Pointing to things

We use this and that with singular and uncountable nouns:

Try to repeat this exercise every morning and evening. (this + singular countable noun)
What does this music make you think of? (this + singular uncountable noun)
I’ve never been to that part of France. (that + singular countable noun)
Can I have some of that juice, please? (that + singular uncountable noun)
We use these and those with plural nouns:
You can use any one of these computers. (these + plural noun)
I need to paint those windows. (those + plural noun)

Time phrases

We often use this with words describing time and dates like morning, afternoon, evening, week, month, year to refer
to ‘the one that’s coming’ or ‘the one we’re currently in’:
I’ll be with you some time this evening.
Johan seemed very happy this afternoon.
Ian is in Germany all this week.

This, that, these, those as pronouns
Referring to things or ideas

We normally use this, that, these and those as pronouns to refer to things or ideas:

Put the butter, chocolate and sugar in a saucepan. Heat this over a low flame until it melts.
We’re going to eat first and then go to the film. Are you happy with that? (Are you happy with the idea of eating
first, then going to the film?)
[talking about the TV]
Can you turn that off if you’re not watching it?
[talking about shoes]
What colour are those? Black or dark blue. I can’t see.

Referring to people

We can use this and that as pronouns to refer to people when we want to identify ourselves or others, or to ask the
identity of other speakers:
Linda, this is my mother, Anne.
Is that your brother over there?

224
 We often do this in telephone calls and in answer-phone messages:
Hello, is that Ken Orm? This is Jane Bromham here.

This and these, that and those: uses
Physical closeness and distance

We use this and these most commonly to point to things and people that are close to the speaker or writer, or things
that are happening now:
Shall I use this knife here?
[pointing to something]
Is this what you mean?
I’ll post these letters on my way home.
[pointing to a pile of books]
Do these belong to the Bradshaws?
We use that and those most commonly to point to things and people which are not easy to identify in a situation.
They are often more distant from the speaker, and sometimes closer to the listener:
What’s in that bottle over there?
Could you blow out those candles near you?
Sometimes they are not visible to either the speaker or listener:
Budapest! That’s my favourite place!

Emotional distance

We sometimes use this, these, that, those to identify emotional distance. We use this and these to refer to things that
we feel positive about, that we are happy to be associated with, or we approve of:
I love these new woollen mobile phone covers that you can get.
We use that and those to create distance:
What are you going to say to that sister of yours?
[talking about a restaurant]
I didn’t like the decoration. It had those awful paintings.

Shared knowledge and new information

We sometimes use that instead of the to refer the listener to shared knowledge, often when we are telling a story or
explaining something:
You know that old shop on the corner? Well, they’re going to turn it into a restaurant.
We sometimes use this instead of a/an to refer to something important or recent, or to introduce a new person or
thing in a story:
This guy knocked on the door and asked if I wanted new windows.
Then suddenly she pulled out this big pile of papers from her briefcase and threw them on the table.
See also:
 It, this and that in paragraphs
 Pronouns

225
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

Substitution with that, those

In formal contexts, we can use that and those as substitutes meaning ‘the one(s)’:
The most important information is that given at the beginning of the manual. (that substitutes for the information)
The methods employed are those familiar to researchers. (more formal than The methods employed are the ones
familiar to researchers.)
In formal contexts, especially in academic style, we use that of/those of instead of the one of/the ones of or the …
one/the … ones. This is preferred to the possessive X’s one/X’s ones:
The proton has a similar mass to that of a neutron. (preferred to The proton has a similar mass to the neutron’s.)
The emotions in the poems are those of loss and grief.
Not: The emotions in the poem are loss and grief ones.
We normally only use that as a substitute for a thing, not for a person or animal:
A:

Have you met Mr Kelly?

B:

The one who works at the town hall, or his brother?

A:

The one at the town hall.

Not: That who works at the town hall.
We can use those as a substitute for persons, animals or things:
There are sports facilities for guests. Those interested in golf can enjoy our eighteen-hole course.

Whole
 
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Determiners > Whole

from English Grammar Today

Whole is a determiner. We use whole before nouns and after other determiners (my, the, a/an, their) to talk about
quantity. We use it to describe the completeness of something:
I’ve wanted to be an actor my whole life.
Please can you check the whole document?
I thought the whole experience was very interesting.

226
 We use the whole of when whole is followed by another determiner (my, her, this, the):
She had been in the same job for the whole of her life. (or … for her whole life.)

We often use the whole of with periods of time to emphasise duration:

At dawn, he would finally fall into bed and stay there the whole of the next day.

We also use whole as an adverb:

He took the cake and swallowed it whole.

See also:
 All or whole?

Nouns
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Nouns

from English Grammar Today

Nouns are one of the four major word classes, along with verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Nouns are the largest word
class.

Types of nouns
A noun refers to a person, animal or thing. Some examples are:

Nouns referring to people

boy woman student Maria

teache presiden Lenno

girl
r t n

ma
mother John
n

Nouns referring to animals and things

Mancheste nam
book tree
r e

227
 compute bir plac
idea
r d e

picture dog love

The woman in the picture is my mother.

Her name is Anna. She’s from Manchester.
The diagram shows the different types of nouns and how they relate to one another.
Most nouns are common nouns, referring to classes or categories of people, animals and things.
Proper nouns are the names of specific people, animals and things. They are written with a capital letter at the start.
Concrete nouns refer to material objects which we can see or touch.
Abstract nouns refer to things which are not material objects, such as ideas, feelings and situations.
See also:
 Nouns: countable and uncountable

Identifying nouns
It is not always possible to identify a noun by its form. However, some word endings can show that the word is
probably a noun.

ending examples

-age postage, language, sausage

-ance/-
insurance, importance, difference
ence

-er/-or teacher, driver, actor

-hood childhood, motherhood, fatherhood

-ism socialism, capitalism, nationalism

-ist artist, optimist, pianist

-itude attitude, multitude, solitude

-ity/-ty identity, quantity, cruelty

-ment excitement, argument, government

228
ending examples

-ness happiness, business, darkness

friendship, championship,
-ship
relationship

-tion/-sion station, nation, extension

Gerunds

The -ing forms of verbs (gerunds) can also act as nouns.

Smoking is forbidden on all flights.
The City Council does its economic planning every September.

Nouns: form
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Nouns: form

from English Grammar Today

Singular and plural nouns

Nouns can be either singular or plural. Singular means just one of the person, animal or thing which the noun refers
to. Plural means more than one.

singular plural

a car three cars

my some new
house houses

that cow those cows

We use singular verbs with singular nouns, and plural verbs with plural nouns:
My house is the white house on the corner.
Those houses were all built in the 1950s.
See also:

229
 Noun phrases

Forming the plural of nouns

The rules for making the plural of nouns depend on the spelling and pronunciation. Most nouns form their plural by
adding -s:

school -
face - faces
schools

hole - holes store - stores

monkey -
week - weeks
monkeys

part - parts

In other cases, the plural depends on how the noun ends.

singular plural rule

If the noun ends in -ch, -s, -sh, -x or -z, add -es. The

box, watch, bus boxes, watches, buses plural ending -es. is
pronounced /ɪz/ (/ˈbɒksɪz/, /ˈwɒtʃɪz/).

If the noun ends in a consonant plus -y,

university, baby, ferry universities, babies, ferries
change y to i and add -es.

For some nouns ending in -f, change -f to -ves but

wife, thief, loaf wives, thieves, loaves
note: roof-roofs, belief-beliefs, cliff-cliffs.

potatoes, cargoes, If the noun ends in -o, add -es

potato, cargo, torpedo
torpedoes but note: radio-radios, video-videos.

formula, phenomenon, crisi formulae, phenomena, crise Some nouns which come from Latin and Greek form
s s their plurals in special ways.

Here are some important exceptions to the spelling and pronunciation of plural nouns.

singular plural

child children /ˈtʃɪldrən/

man men

230
singular plural

woman women /ˈwɪmɪn/

teeth /ti:θ/,
tooth, foot
feet /fi:t/

mouse mice /maɪs/

sheep, fish,
sheep, fish, deer*
deer

The plural has the same form as the singular.

A good learner’s dictionary will tell you how to make the plural of any noun.

Nouns and prepositions

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Nouns and prepositions

from English Grammar Today

Many nouns have particular prepositions which normally follow them. Here are some common examples:

prepositio
nouns examples
n

18 is the age at which you are allowed to vote.

age, attempt, point at
Fisk is making his third attempt at the world record.

What’s the reason for your unhappiness?

need, reason, responsibility for
Nobody seems to have responsibility for the budget.

Changes in society have meant that young people leave home

changes, differences, increase in earlier.
There’s been a steady increase in the value of the euro.

inquiry, investigation, The police inquiry into the theft continues.

into
research She did some research into the causes of back pain.

This is an example of international collaboration.

cause, example, way of
We need to find another way of doing things.

231
 prepositio
nouns examples
n

My reaction to it all was to try to forget it.

approach, reaction, response to
Her response to the criticism was very strong.

Typical errors

These are some of the most typical errors with nouns. A good learner’s dictionary will tell you which prepositions to
use after nouns.

Go to our website to get the address of your nearest branch.

address
Not: … the address to your nearest branch.

I saw an advertisement for a teaching job in Malawi which looked interesting.

advertisement
Not: … an advertisement of a teaching job …

There is a growing awareness of the impact of climate change among the young.

awareness
Not: … a growing awareness about the impact of climate change …

Changes in our diet have meant that more and more people suffer heart disease. (changes that
happen)
Not: Changes of our diet …
change The director of studies must be informed of any changes to the timetable. (changes that people
purposely make)
Not: … of any changes in the timetable. (This means changes that happen, not those that people
purposely make.)

Congratulations on your new job!

congratulations
Not: Congratulations for your new job!

I’d like to do a course in computer programming if I could find a good one.

course
Not: … a course of computer programming …

We went to see an exhibition of Viking jewellery.

exhibition
Not: … an exhibition about Viking jewellery.

experience Do you have any previous experience of working with children?

(usually followed by the -ing form of a verb)
Not: … previous experience in working with children?
She has ten years’ experience in television and radio. (usually followed by a noun)

232
 Not: … ten years’ experience on television and radio.

There has been an increase of 200,000 in the city’s population in the last ten years.
increase (Of is used before numbers and quantities after increase/decrease/growth; in is used before the
decrease thing affected by the change.)
growth Not: … an increase of the city’s population …
(Compare change in, above.)

Can you give us some information on/about bus tours, please?

information
Not: … some information of bus tours …?

He seems to have less interest in everything these days.

interest
Not: … less interest to everything these days.

The invitation to the reception at the embassy arrived the next day.

invitation
Not: The invitation of the reception …

For this job you need some knowledge of Portuguese.

Not: … some knowledge in Portuguese.
knowledge
He has an amazing knowledge of European history.
Not: … an amazing knowledge about European history.

I need some lessons in how to set up a website.

lesson
Not: I need some lessons of how to …

Can anyone become a member of your book club?

member
Not: … a member in your book club?

Questionnaires are not necessarily the best method of collecting sociological data.

method
Not: … the best method to collect …

We understand the need for change but we should move slowly.

Not: … the need of change …
need (Of is used with need in the expression in need of:
The village is in need of a community centre where people, especially young people, can go in the
evenings.)

I was a newcomer to windsurfing so I was very nervous.

newcomer
Not: I was a newcomer of windsurfing …

233
 I’d love to show you some of the nice places in my hometown.
place
Not: … the nice places of my hometown.

The possibility of making contact with other intelligent beings in the universe is very small.
possibility
Not: The possibility to make contact …

The problem of finding a good babysitter is one that many parents have faced.
problem
Not: The problem to find …

I’ve never understood the reason for all these different forms we have to fill in.
reason
Not: … the reason of all …

We all know the risks of getting a virus if we don’t protect our computer.

risk
Not: … the risks for getting a virus …

She did a translation into English of some ancient Chinese poems.

translation
Not: … a translation in English …

The visit to the temple was the high point of the holiday.

visit
Not: The visit in the temple …

Nouns: compound nouns

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Nouns: compound nouns

from English Grammar Today

Some nouns consist of more than one word. These are compound nouns. Compound nouns can be formed in
different ways. The most common way is to put two nouns together (noun + noun); other common types are
adjective + noun and verb + noun.
noun + noun

car park Iceland shopkeeper website

adjective + noun

blackberry grandstand greenhouse small talk

234
 verb + noun

breakwater fall-guy go-kart runway

Writing compound nouns

Many compound nouns are written as one word, but some are written with hyphens or spaces. In modern English,
hyphens are less common than they were in the past. A good learner’s dictionary will tell you how each compound
is usually written.
1. Examples of one word
2. bathroom sheepdog windscreen
3. Examples of hyphens
4. check-in fire-fighter son-in-law
5. Examples of spaces
6. bottle opener New Year’s Day Prime Minister

Plurals of compound nouns

We form the plural of most compounds by adding a plural ending to the last part of the compound:
We saw some large greenhouses with vegetables growing in them.
They’re building two new car parks in town.
Warning:

The compounds mother-in-law, brother-in-law, etc. form their plurals on the first noun:
I’ve got one brother-in-law and two sisters-in-law.
Not: two sister-in-laws

Compound nouns and spoken stress

Compound nouns normally have the spoken stress on the first part:
CAR park, BATHroom, WEBsite, BROther-in-law, DOORbell, CHECK-in
However, not all compound nouns follow this rule. Some have spoken stress on the second part, especially in proper
names and titles:
Mount EVerest, Prime MINister, New YORK
A good learner’s dictionary will tell you where to put the stress.

Nouns: countable and uncountable

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Nouns: countable and uncountable

from English Grammar Today

Countable nouns

235
 Some nouns refer to things which, in English, are treated as separate items which can be counted. These are called
countable nouns. Here are some examples:
a car, three cars
my cousin, my two cousins
a book, a box full of books
a city, several big cities

Singular and plural

Countable nouns can be singular or plural. They can be used with a/an and with numbers and many other
determiners (e.g. these, a few):
She’s got two sisters and a younger brother.
Most people buy things like cameras and MP3-players online these days.
These shoes look old now.
I’ll take a few magazines with me for the flight.
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)
 Singular and plural nouns
 Nouns

Uncountable nouns
In English grammar, some things are seen as a whole or mass. These are called uncountable nouns, because they
cannot be separated or counted.
Some examples of uncountable nouns are:
Ideas and experiences: advice, information, progress, news, luck, fun, work
Materials and substances: water, rice, cement, gold, milk
Weather words: weather, thunder, lightning, rain, snow
Names for groups or collections of things: furniture, equipment, rubbish, luggage
Other common uncountable nouns include: accommodation, baggage, homework, knowledge, money, permission,
research, traffic, travel.
These nouns are not used with a/an or numbers and are not used in the plural.
We’re going to get new furniture for the living room.
Not: We’re going to get a new furniture for the living room. or We’re going to get new furnitures for the living
room.
We had terrible weather last week.
Not: We had a terrible weather last week.
We need rice next time we go shopping.
Some nouns always have plural form but they are uncountable because we cannot use numbers with them.
I bought two pairs of trousers.
Not: I bought two trousers.
Other nouns of this type are: shorts, pants, pyjamas, glasses (for the eyes), binoculars, scissors.

236
 Warning:

Some nouns which are uncountable in English are countable in other languages (e.g. accommodation, advice,
furniture, information):
They can give you some information about accommodation at the tourist office.
Not: They can give you some informations about accommodations at the tourist office.
Can you give me some advice about buying a second-hand car?
Not: Can you give me some advices about buying a second-hand car?
A good learner’s dictionary will tell you whether a noun is countable or uncountable.

Quantity expressions (a bit/piece)

To refer to one or more quantities of an uncountable noun, expressions such as a bit of, a piece of, an item of or
words for containers and measures must be used:
He bought a very expensive piece of furniture for his new apartment.
Maggie always has some exciting bits of news when she comes to see us.
I think we’ll need five bags of cement for the patio.
There’s a litre of milk in the fridge for you. And I bought you a bar of chocolate.

Determiners (my, some, the)

Uncountable nouns can be used with certain determiners (e.g. my, her, some, any, no, the, this, that) and expressions
of quantity (e.g. a lot of, (a) little):
They gave me some information about courses and scholarships and things.
Have you heard the news? Fran’s getting engaged.
She’s been studying hard and has made a lot of progress.
There’s no work to do here, so you can go home if you like.
This milk’s a bit old, I’m afraid.
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

Countable phrases for uncountable nouns

We can sometimes use countable noun phrases to talk about an individual example of the thing an uncountable
noun refers to.

uncountable countable

accommodation a house, a flat, a place to live, a place to stay

baggage/luggag
a suitcase, a bag, a rucksack
e

bread a loaf (of bread), a (bread) roll

237
uncountable countable

lightning a flash of lightning

luck a stroke of luck

a note, a coin, a sum of money, a euro, a

money
dollar

poetry a poem

rain a shower, a downpour, a storm

travel a journey, a trip

work a job, a task

Finding a place to live is difficult if you’re a student and you’ve got no money. (or Finding accommodation …)
Not: Finding an accommodation …
She brought two big suitcases and a rucksack with her.
Not: She brought two big luggages …
I read a poem once about someone riding a horse at night.
Not: I read a poetry …
We went on a trip to the Amazon when we were in Brazil.
Not: We went on a travel …

Countable and uncountable nouns with different meanings

Some nouns can be used either countably or uncountably, but with different meanings.
Compare

Countable use Uncountable use

People believed that ships made of iron would

We bought a new iron and an ironing board.
sink.

I broke a glass yesterday. The table was made of hardened glass.

Would you like a chocolate? Would you like some chocolate?

238
Countable use Uncountable use

Let’s get a paper and see what’s on at the cinema. The printer has run out of paper.

‘Hamlet’ is one of Shakespeare’s most

I had work to do so I couldn’t go out.
famous works.

Uncountable nouns used countably

Measures and examples

Sometimes uncountable nouns are used countably, to mean ‘a measure of something’ or ‘a type or example of
something’:
Can I have two teas and one coffee, please? (two cups of tea and one cup of coffee …?)
A:

How many sugars do you want in your tea? (How many spoonfuls/lumps of sugar?)

B:

Just one, please.

To some degree we tend to eat the foods that we ate as children. (i.e. types of food)

Abstract nouns

Some abstract nouns can be used uncountably or countably. The uncountable use has a more general meaning. The
countable use has a more particular meaning.
Nouns of this type include: education, experience, hatred, help, knowledge, life, love, sleep, time, understanding.
Compare

uncountable use countable use

Good education is the best investment in Britain’s The first daughter had a very expensive education at a
future. private school in France.
(education in general) (the time one person spent at school)

Love is like a physical pain for some people. I’ve always had a love of poetry, ever since I was a child.
(love in general/all love) (a specific liking for something)

They have a quiz every week, with questions The job requires a knowledge of statistics and basic
about general knowledge. computing.
(all knowledge/knowledge in general) (a specific type of knowledge)

Time passes more and more quickly as you grow older. We had a great time in Ibiza. We didn’t want to come

239
uncountable use countable use

home.
(time in general)
(a specific period of time)

Nouns: forming nouns from other words

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Nouns: forming nouns from other words

from English Grammar Today

We often form nouns from other parts of speech, most commonly from a verb or an adjective. We can then use the
noun phrase instead of the verb or adjective to create a more formal style. We call this nominalisation:

excite → invade →
grow → growth
excitement invasion

industrial →
fly → flight wide → width
industrialisation

After 1900 there was a growth in trade with Europe. (less formal: After 1900 trade with Europe grew.)
The closure of the Meteorcorp factory caused 200 workers to lose their jobs. (less formal: Meteorcorp closed the
factory and 200 workers lost their jobs.)
Nominalisation is common in writing, especially formal writing.

Nouns: singular and plural

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Nouns: singular and plural

from English Grammar Today

Nouns used only in the singular

Some nouns are used only in the singular, even though they end in -s. These include: the names of academic subjects
such as classics, economics, mathematics/maths, physics; the physical activities gymnastics and aerobics; the
diseases measles and mumps; and the word news:
Maths was never my best subject at school.
Aerobics is great fun – you should try it!

Nouns used only in the plural

240
Some nouns only have a plural form. They cannot be used with numbers. They include the names of certain tools,
instruments and articles of clothing which have two parts.

Tools and instruments

binocular headphone sunglasse

s s s

glasses scissors tweezers

Clothing

pyjama
jeans tights
s

knicker trouser
shorts
s s

pants

I’ve got new sunglasses. Do you like them?

He always wears shorts, even in the winter.

A pair of

We can use pair of to refer to one example of these nouns:

I bought a new pair of binoculars last week.
That old pair of trousers will be useful for doing jobs in the garden.
We use pairs of to refer to more than one example of this type of noun:
They’re advertising two pairs of glasses for the price of one.
I bought three pairs of shorts for the summer.

Other nouns which are always plural in form

belongings outskirts

clothes premises (buildings)

congratulation
savings (money)
s

earnings stairs

241
goods surroundings

likes/dislikes thanks

Please ensure that you take all your belongings with you as you leave the aircraft.
They live on the outskirts of Frankfurt, almost in the countryside.
My clothes are wet. I’ll have to go upstairs and change.
She spent all her savings on a trip to South America.

Collective nouns (group words)

Some nouns refer to groups of people (e.g. audience, committee, government, team). These are sometimes called
collective nouns. Some collective nouns can take a singular or plural verb, depending on whether they are
considered as a single unit or as a collection of individuals:

audience crew public

committe
enemy team
e

governmen Manchester
company
t United

Compare

seen as a single unit seen as individuals

The audience was larger than average and the concert

The audience were all cheering wildly.
was a success.

The government is hoping that online voting will The government are all very nervous about the report,
attract more young people to vote. which will be published tomorrow.

Manchester United is the world’s most famous football Manchester United are looking forward to meeting
club. Valencia in the final next week.

In general, a plural verb is more common with these nouns in informal situations.

Accommodation
 

242
 Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > Accommodation

from English Grammar Today

Accommodation is an uncountable noun. It means a place to live:

In Rome we had nice accommodation not far from the coast.
Not: In Rome we had a nice accommodation …
Accommodation in San Francisco is very expensive.
Not: Accommodations in San Francisco are …
You will sometimes hear the plural accommodations in American English.
See also:
 Nouns
Spelling

Warning:

Take care to spell accommodation correctly, with cc and mm.

Equipment
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > Equipment

from English Grammar Today

We use the uncountable noun equipment to mean ‘the set of things that you need for a particular purpose’, such as
tools or clothing:
We’ve bought camping equipment, including new sleeping bags and a little refrigerator.
All of Vincent’s camera equipment was stolen from his car.
Warning:

Because equipment is uncountable, we cannot say ‘an equipment’ or ‘equipments’. To refer to a single item of
equipment, we say a piece of equipment:
On board is a piece of equipment – a radiometer called the ATSR – which can measure the temperature of the seas.

Furniture
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > Furniture

from English Grammar Today

Furniture is an uncountable noun:

243
The house has no furniture but we decided to rent it anyway.
Not: The house has no furnitures …
We commonly use piece of furniture to refer to one or more item or to refer to different kinds of furniture:
We need to buy a few more pieces of furniture for the bedroom, say, a new cupboard and a bedside table.

Information
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > Information

from English Grammar Today

Information is an uncountable noun meaning ‘facts about someone or something’. It is often followed by about:
A:

Can I help you?

B:

Can you give us some information about restaurants in the area, please?

Warning:

We do not use information in the plural form and we do not use it with a/an. We use piece or pieces to
make information countable:
I found a lot of information about Ecuador on the Internet.
Not: I found a lot of informations about Ecuador …
She told me an interesting piece of information about the new manager.
Not: She told me an interesting information …
In more formal contexts, information may be followed by on:
The report included information on family incomes in 2006.
The airline’s website gives information on hand baggage.

Luck and lucky
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > Luck and lucky

from English Grammar Today

We use the noun luck and the adjective lucky to talk about good things happening by chance, and not because of our
own efforts:
A:

Helen won first prize in an online competition, a two-week holiday in Italy.

244
 B:

Oh, that’s nice! I never have any luck. I never win anything.

It was a lucky coincidence that the train was late, because I was also late getting to the station.
Warning:

Luck and lucky do not mean the same as happiness and happy:

The most important thing in life is to find happiness.
Not: … is to find luck.
My grandparents had a very happy marriage. They were together for 54 years.
Not: … a very lucky marriage.
Luck is an uncountable noun, so we do not use it with the indefinite article a/an. We use expressions such as some, a
bit of or a lot of to express amounts of luck:
I’ve had a lot of luck with jobs over the years.
Not: I’ve had a luck …
When we talk about luck in general, we don’t use the definite article the:
A lot of good things in life happen through luck rather than through planning.
Not: … through the luck …
See also:
 When do we use articles?
Good luck!, (The) best of luck! and I wish you luck! are common expressions we use to say that we hope good things
will happen to someone. They are followed by with:
A:

I’ve got my driving test tomorrow.

B:

Good luck!
A:

Thanks.
Best of luck with your job interview!
Not: Best luck.

News
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > News

from English Grammar Today

245
We use the uncountable noun news to mean ‘information or reports about recent events’. It takes a singular verb:
The news is good about Mary. The doctors are very happy about her progress.
Not: The news are good about Mary.
Do you have any news of your sister? How is she these days?
I’ve got some news for you – I’m getting married!
Not: I’ve got a news for you …
If we want to talk about news as an individual thing, we can use bit of, piece of or item of (more formal):
I heard a couple of interesting pieces of news the other day about the company’s plans for expansion.
An item of news caught her eye in the newspaper. It was about a child who was missing.
We say the news when we refer to the television or radio programme that gives reports of recent events:
I always watch the news on CNN before I go to bed.

Progress
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > Progress

from English Grammar Today

Progress is an uncountable noun. We most commonly use it with the verb make:

She’s made a lot of progress in Maths this term. Her teacher’s very pleased.
Not: She’s made a lot of progresses …
Progress is slow with the building of the new head office because the company is short of money.
Warning:

When we refer to the ways in which society in general goes forward and improves itself, we
use progress without the:
Progress will only happen when people begin to understand that every individual has a responsibility to play their
part.
Not: The progress will only …

Weather
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Nouns > Uncountable nouns > Weather

from English Grammar Today

Weather is an uncountable noun:

We had nice weather on Monday for our trip to the coast.
Not: We had a nice weather on Monday.

246
The weather is always hot around the time of my birthday.
If we want to talk about an individual period of weather, we can use spell:
We had a beautiful spell of weather for about a week, and then it rained for two weeks non-stop!

247
Noun phrases
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Noun phrases

from English Grammar Today

A noun phrase consists of a noun or pronoun, which is called the head, and any dependent words before or after the
head. Dependent words give specific information about the head.
Examples of noun phrases:

dependent
head dependent word(s)
word(s)

love

him

the moon

a gold ring

the red one

good food

websit
my own personal
e

that house there

the longest river in the world

a feeling of isolation

the tall, blonde woma we met at Joanna’s

248
 dependent
head dependent word(s)
word(s)

n house

Noun phrases can refer to a particular example of something or to a whole class of people or things.
Compare

particular example whole class

my mother women

the red star in the southern

the stars
sky

New York a big city

See also:
 Noun phrases: complements
 Noun phrases: determiners (a, the, my, his, some, this, etc.)
 Noun phrases: premodifiers (big, good, red)
 Noun phrases: postmodifiers
Noun phrases: dependent wordsNoun phrases: orderNoun phrases: usesNoun phrases: noun phrases and verbsNoun
phrases: two noun phrases together

Each other, one another

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Each other, one another

from English Grammar Today

We use each other and one another to show that each person in a group of two or more people does something to the
others. There is very little difference between each other and one another and we can normally use them in the same
places. Each other is more common than one another:
Rick and Gina never liked each other. (Rick never liked Gina and Gina never liked Rick.)
Everyone in the family gave each other presents. (Each member of the family gave each member of the family a
present.)
A:

How’s Maria? Do you see her often?

249
 B:

She’s great. We phone each other/one another regularly.

We use each other’s and one another’s as possessive determiners:
Lisa and Kate hated each other’s husbands. (Lisa hated Kate’s husband and Kate hated Lisa’s husband.)
My friend Olivia and I know very little about one another’s work.
Typical errors

 Be careful not to use us or ourselves instead of each other/one another:

We’ve known each other/one another for twelve years.
Not: We’ve known us for twelve years or We’ve known ourselves …
See also:
 Pronouns: reflexive (myself, themselves, etc.)
 We write each other as two separate words and we do not use a hyphen (-):
We got to know each other very quickly.
Not: We got to know eachother
 We don’t use each other or one another as a plural form:
They love each other.
Not: They love each others.

Everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere

from English Grammar Today

Everyone, everybody, everything and everywhere are indefinite pronouns.

We use them to refer to a total number of people, things and places. We write them as one word:
His name was Henry but everyone called him Harry.
All your clothes are clean. I washed everything yesterday.
The sand got everywhere, into eyes, hair, tents, cups of tea, camera lenses.
We use everyone, everybody, everything and everywhere with singular verbs:
Everybody knows the truth.
At night, with the lights shining on the water,  everything looks different.
We couldn’t get a seat. Everywhere was so crowded.
Warning:

We don’t add s to everything to make it plural:

Children can buy everything they want.

250
 Not: Children can buy everythings they want.
When we want to refer back to everyone or everybody and we don’t know if everyone is male or female, we use him
or her and his or her. In informal styles, we use plural pronouns they, their and them:
Everybody has a team leader in charge of him or her.
Not everyone has his or her own desk.
Everyone has to climb to the top. When they get to the top, they have to blow their whistle. (more informal)
Has everyone got their coats? (more informal)
We can use everybody and everyone as the subject of imperative clauses. We use the base form of the verb:
Everybody stand up!
Everyone and everybody

Everyone and everybody mean the same. Everyone is a little more formal than everybody. Everyone is used more in

writing than everybody:
She knew everybody in the room.
Could everybody listen for a minute?
When everyone had gathered in the garden, Sergeant joined them and said, ‘Welcome, everyone!’
See also:
 Pronouns: indefinite (-body, -one, -thing, -where)

Typical error

 We write everyone as one word:

Twenty years ago everyone used an alarm clock that rang like a bell. (every person)
Not: Twenty years ago every one used an alarm clock …
 We don’t normally use ‘all people’ to generalise about human beings:
Everyone has a right to basic freedoms.

It
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > It

from English Grammar Today

We commonly use the pronoun it as both a subject and an object pronoun:

Don’t drink the milk. It smells terrible.
Has anyone seen my phone? I can’t find it anywhere.
We often use it in question tags:
That furniture is lovely. It isn’t too expensive for us, is it?
You know the flat with three bedrooms by the supermarket? It’s the best one we’ve seen so far, isn’t it?

251
 See also:
 Tags
 It, this and that in paragraphs

It as an ‘empty’ or ‘dummy’ subject and object

We can use it as an ‘empty’ subject or as an ‘empty’ object. It is ‘empty’ because it doesn’t refer to anything in
particular:
I know it’s going to rain today!
It’s getting a bit late now, so let’s watch a DVD at home, shall we?
She doesn’t like it when you are so quiet.
How long will it be before he gives up smoking?

Anticipatory it
We also use it to introduce or ‘anticipate’ the subject or object of a sentence, especially when the subject or object of
the sentence is a clause. Most commonly, such clauses are to + infinitive and that clauses. We also call this use
of it a ‘dummy’ subject, since the real subject is another part of the sentence (real subject underlined):
It’s good that she’s doing more exercise. (or, more formally: That she’s doing more exercise is good.)
It was nice to talk with them again. (or, more formally: To talk with them again was nice.)
It’s quite likely that we shall be late, so please do start without us.

I find it amazing that …

With verbs such as find or consider, it + adjective + that clause or it + adjective + to infinitive, are commonly used
to anticipate an object:
I find it amazing that they’ve never stopped arguing about football.
Not: I find amazing that they’ve …
I must say, local people will consider it to be an insult that they have not learned to speak a few words of the
language.
I find it surprising to see so many people here.
We also use it when a clause is the subject of a verb such as appear, seem, look, occur, which hedge or soften the
statement, making it less direct:
It seems they’ve all lost contact since they met at the wedding.
It occurred to me that we might visit them while we are in South Africa.
See also:
 Hedges (just)

It and cleft sentences (It was my friend who …)

We use it in cleft sentences. It emphasises the subject or object of the main clause:
It was his sister who ran the marathon in New York, wasn’t it?
[talking about a computer problem]
Was it the printer that caused the problem?
It was Mary they promoted, not Laura.

252
 See also:
 Cleft sentences (It was in June we got married.)

It with the passive voice

It is common with the passive voice. It makes the sentence seem less personal and more objective:
It was decided that we should all swim across the lake before breakfast.
It is accepted that research into cancer has advanced considerably in the last few years.

Gender
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Gender

from English Grammar Today

Some languages mark words according to whether they are masculine, feminine or neuter. In English, we do not
commonly mark nouns according to gender.
However, we use pronouns and possessive determiners to show gender (for example, he, she, it, his, hers):
She’s selling her house.
Some nouns which refer to living things can be marked for gender (e.g. actress, heroine). Some people may
consider such words to be dated.
More commonly, words such as actor are used to refer to both male and female. Some nouns which used to end in
-man are now neutral and are used to include both genders:
chair (preferred to chairman)
flight attendant (preferred to steward and stewardess)
spokesperson (preferred to spokesman)
The title Ms is preferred to Mrs (married woman) or Miss (unmarried woman) so that we cannot tell whether the
woman is married or not.
We give some animals male and female words:
1. tiger–tigress
2. dog–bitch
We can use the pronoun it to refer to very small children and babies when we speak generally about them, or when
we do not know their gender. We also use it to refer to animals when they’re not pets or when we don’t know them
personally:
The baby in the flat next door is always awake and it just never seems to stop crying.

253
No one, nobody, nothing, nowhere
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > No one, nobody, nothing, nowhere

from English Grammar Today

No one, nobody, nothing and nowhere are indefinite pronouns.

We use no one, nobody, nothing and nowhere to refer to an absence of people, things or places. We use them with a
singular verb:
Nobody ever goes to see her. She’s very lonely.
You usually have to wait for a long time. Nothing happens quickly.
There was nowhere to park the car.
We often use the plural pronoun they to refer back to (singular) no one or nobody when we do not know if the
person is male or female:
No one remembers the titles of the books they’ve read.
No one or nobody?

No one and nobody mean the same. Nobody is a little less formal than no one. We use no one more than nobody in
writing:
I knew nobody at the party.
No one moved; no one said anything.
We write no one as two separate words or with a hyphen: no one or no-one but not noone.

Nobody or not … anybody, etc.

Nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere are stronger and more definite than not … anybody/anyone/anything/anywhere:

I did nothing. (stronger than I didn’t do anything.)
She told no one, not even her mother. (stronger than She didn’t tell anyone …)
We don’t use not + anyone/anything/anywhere as the subject of a clause:
Nothing will make me change my mind.
Not: Not anything will make me change my mind.
We don’t use nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere after no, not, never or other words which have a negative meaning
(hardly, seldom). We use anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere:
I can’t do anything.
Not: I can’t do nothing.
She talks to hardly anyone.
Not: She talks to hardly no one.

254
One
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > One

from English Grammar Today

We commonly use one and its plural ones as a substitute for a countable noun:

A:

What about a cake?

B:

All right. Thank you. But I’m trying to slim, so I’ll just have a small one.
A:

Can you fetch the DVDs from the shop?

B:

Which ones?
A:

The ones we ordered last week. The musicals.

We don’t use one to refer back to uncountable nouns:
A:

Have you got any milk?

B:

Yes.
A:

Can I borrow some?
Not: Can I borrow one?
As a noun substitute, we don’t use ones immediately after some, any, both and numbers, unless it is premodified:
A:

Are there any mangoes for dessert today?

B:

Yes, Nuala bought some at the supermarket.

Not: … bought some ones at …
A:

How many pens did you buy?

B:

255
 I bought four green ones and six red ones. That should be OK, shouldn’t it? (The underlined words are
premodifiers.)
In informal English, my, his, her, etc. (possessive determiners) can come before one. This makes the statement more
emphatic:
A:

I couldn’t use my laptop today.

B:

Neither could I. My one got stolen. (more emphatic than Mine got stolen.)

When one refers back to a previous noun and is premodified, a determiner (a/an, the, this, your) must be used:
The hotel that we had booked turned out to be a luxury one.
Not: The hotel that we had booked turned out to be luxury one.
I liked all your songs, but Yesterday was your best one.
See also:
 One  and  one’s

One and one’s
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > One and one’s

from English Grammar Today

As a personal pronoun (both subject and object), one can be used to refer to ‘people in general’. We often use one in
making generalisations, especially in more formal styles. However, if one is used too much, it can make the
speaker sound too formal. One takes a third person singular verb:
One never knows, does one?
One should not use mobile phones when driving.
Holidays are supposed to allow one to forget about work.
You and they are also used in a similar way. However, one and you include the speaker in the generalisation:
[a durian is a kind of fruit]
Does one eat durian in Malaysia? (includes the speaker, who is there or has an interest in going there; more formal)
Do you eat durian in Malaysia? (less formal)
Do they eat durian in Malaysia? (refers to others)
One’s is a possessive determiner:
One’s health is much more important than having lots of money.

256
Pronouns: personal (I, me, you, him, it, they, etc.)
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Pronouns: personal (I, me, you, him, it, they, etc.)

from English Grammar Today

We use personal pronouns in place of noun phrases. We often use them to refer back to people and things that we
have already identified (underlined):
Peter complained to the chef about the meal. She wasn’t very helpful so he spoke to the manager. (she = the
chef, he = Peter)
A:

Where’s the knife? I can’t find it.

B:

It’s in the drawer. (it = the knife)

Personal pronouns show person and number. He, she, him and her show gender. They have different subject and
object forms (except you, it and one which have only one form):

subjec
object number gender person
t

I me singular first

you you singular or plural second

he him singular masculine third

she her singular feminine third

it it singular third

we us plural first

they them plural third

one one generic third

Subject and object pronouns

257
Personal subject pronouns act as the subject of a clause. We use them before a verb to show who is doing the verb.
We do not usually leave out the pronoun:
She loves playing basketball.
Not: … loves playing basketball.
They don’t finish the lesson until four o’clock.
It’s getting late.
We use personal object pronouns in all other positions, such as after the verb or after a preposition:
Paula’s coming to visit us in September. (us = object)
Thanks again for everything you did for me. (for me = prepositional phrase)
We also use personal object pronouns as complements of the verb be:
That’s him. That’s the man I was talking about. (him = complement of be)
We can use some object pronouns (me, him, her, us and them) as short answers, particularly in informal speaking:
A:

Who ate all the biscuits?

B:

Me. (or more formally: I did.)

I, me
We use I and me to refer to the speaker or writer. I is the subject form and me is the object form:
I can’t come on Friday. I’m working.
I am writing to apply for the position of …
Helen asked me to get some milk.
It’s me. Can you open the door? I haven’t got my key. (It is I. is not often used. It is very formal.)
Spoken English:

We sometimes hear me used as a subject in informal speaking after another subject + and:

My friends and me went on holiday to a little town on the south coast. (or Me and my friends went on holiday
…; My friends and I went … is considered to be more correct.)
We sometimes use us to refer to me in informal speaking:
Pass us an orange, will you?

You
We use you to refer to the listener or reader. It is both the subject and the object form. You can refer to one person or
more than one person. It is usually clear from the context whether you is singular or plural:
Paul, do you need any help? (refers to one person, Paul)
[coach to team]
The match starts at 10.30. I need you to be here at 10. (refers to a group of people)
We sometimes use you all to address everyone in a group:
What would you all like to eat?
In informal contexts, we also use you to refer to people in general, not someone specific:

258
 You get a pension if you’re a man over the age of 65 or a woman over 60.

He, him; she, her
He, him, she and her are singular third person pronouns. He and him are the masculine forms. She and her are the
feminine forms:
A:

Have you seen Johnny Roberts recently?

B:

Yes I saw him in town last week. He’s looking really well.

She didn’t like the way he spoke to her.
Traditionally, he and him were used to refer to both genders in formal writing:
If anyone has any evidence to oppose this view, let him inform the police immediately.
Nowadays, we often see gender neutral forms (e.g. he or she, he/she, s/he, (s)he, they and him or her, him/her, them)
when we do not know if the person referred to is male or female:
The bank manager could help with your problem. He or she will probably be able to give you a
loan. (or … he/she will probably be able to … or … they will probably be able to …)
Go to a hairdresser. Ask him or her to come up with a style that suits you, your hair, your lifestyle. (or …
ask him/her to come up with a style … or … ask them to come up with a style …)
When you get into the building, go to the person on the desk in the reception area. They can tell you where to
go. (or He or she can tell you where to go.)
See also:
 One
 Sexist language

It
We use it to refer to things:
My computer isn’t working. It’s crashed again. Can you have a look at it?
We use it as an empty pronoun, also known as a ‘dummy’ subject, where there is no other subject to put in the
subject position, particularly when referring to the weather or time:
It’s so lovely to see you.
It’s already ten o’clock.
It’s snowing.
We usually use it to refer to countries, vehicles and machines. In some traditional styles, she was sometimes used,
but this is now considered inappropriate by many people:
We spent three weeks in Malaysia. It’s a beautiful country.
Three hours after the ship sailed, it developed engine trouble. (or, more traditionally: … she developed engine
trouble.)
See also:
 Subjects
 It

259
 Sexist language
 Dummy subjects

We, us
We use we and us to refer to different groups of people, but always including the speaker. We and us can refer to the
speaker + the listener, or the speaker + other people but not the listener, or people in general including the speaker:
We could go and see a film tonight. What do you think? (we = speaker + listener)
Gerald asked us if we’d drive to London and get you. (us/we = speaker + others but not listener you)
Changing diet, rather than dieting, is a healthier alternative. There are changes we should all make. (we = speaker
+ listener + all other people)

They, them
We use they and them to refer to specific groups of people, things and animals:
The kids are getting on my nerves. They’re making so much noise. Can you tell them to be quiet? I’m trying to
work.
A:

Have you seen my keys? I never remember where I’ve left them.

B:

They’re by the front door.

We also use they and them to refer to institutions or authorities, and groups of people in general:
I heard they’re going to publish a new edition of ‘War and Peace’.
They’re opening the new motorway tomorrow.
See also:
 Pronouns
 One

Pronouns: possessive (my, mine, your, yours, etc.)

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Pronouns: possessive (my, mine, your, yours, etc.)

from English Grammar Today

We use pronouns to refer to possession and ‘belonging’. There are two types: possessive pronouns and possessive
determiners. We use possessive determiners before a noun. We use possessive pronouns in place of a noun:
Is that [determiner]your scarf? It’s very similar to [pronoun]mine. (It’s very similar to my scarf.)
That’s not [determiner]their house. [pronoun]Theirs has got a red front door.

260
 It was [determiner]his fault not [pronoun]hers.

personal pronoun possessive determiner possessive pronoun

I my mine

you (singular and
your yours
plural)

he his his

she her hers

it its its*

we our ours

they their theirs

one one’s one’s*

*We avoid using its and one’s as possessive pronouns except when we use them with own:
The house seemed asleep yet, as I have said, it had a life of its own.
One doesn’t like to spend too much time on one’s own.
Typical errors

 We don’t use ’s after possessive pronouns:

Are those gloves hers?
Not: Are those gloves her’s?
 ’s is not used with the possessive pronoun its. It’s means ‘it is’:
The team is proud of its ability to perform consistently well.
Not: … proud of it’s ability …
 We don’t use another determiner with a possessive determiner:
I’m going to get my hair cut this afternoon.
Not: … get the my hair cut …
 We don’t use possessive determiners on their own. They are always at the beginning of noun phrases:
That’s not my book. It’s yours. (or It’s your book.)
Not: It’s your.
 We don’t use possessive pronouns before nouns:
Lots of our friends were at the party.
Not: Lots of ours friends …

261
 See also:
 Possessives with  of
 Possessive  ’s
 Pronouns: personal (I, me, you, him, it, they, etc.)
 It’s or its?
 One

Pronouns: reflexive (myself, themselves, etc.)

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Pronouns: reflexive (myself, themselves, etc.)

from English Grammar Today

Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves. They refer back to the subject forms of personal pronouns (underlined in
the example below):
We didn’t decorate it ourselves. Someone else did it for us.

subject pronoun reflexive pronoun

I myself

you (singular) yourself

he himself

she herself

it itself

one oneself

we ourselves

you (plural) yourselves

they themselves

Reflexive pronouns for same subject and object

We often use reflexive pronouns when the subject and the object of the verb refer to the same person or thing:

262
 He cut himself on the broken glass.
She made herself a cup of tea and sat down in front of the television.
Parents often blame themselves for the way their children behave.
We use a reflexive pronoun to make it clear who or what is being referred to.
Compare

Agnes looked at herself in the

The subject and the object are the same.
mirror.

The subject and the object are different. Agnes is looking at someone else in
Agnes looked at her in the mirror.
the mirror.

Reflexive pronouns for emphasis

We can use reflexive pronouns for emphasis:
The director of the company wrote to us himself to apologise for the dreadful service. (or The director of the
company himself wrote to us to apologise for the dreadful service.)
We don’t use reflexive pronouns on their own as the subject of a clause, but we can use them with a noun or
pronoun to emphasise the subject:
Parents and teachers always pass on to children what they themselves have been told, and this has been going on
for hundreds, or even thousands of years.

Reflexive pronouns + by meaning alone

We often use reflexive pronouns with by to mean ‘alone’ or ‘without any help’:
Why don’t you go by yourself?
The children made the entire meal by themselves.

Reflexive pronouns for politeness

We sometimes use reflexive pronouns instead of personal pronouns for politeness, but not as the subject of a clause:
The National Trust is a charity depending on the support of people like yourself. (or … people like you.)
Warning:

We don’t use reflexive pronouns with verbs of everyday actions unless we want to emphasise something:
She washed and dressed and had breakfast in the tiny kitchen.
Not: She washed herself and dressed herself …
See also:
 Pronouns: personal (I, me, you, him, it, they, etc.)
 Each other,  one another

263
Pronouns: indefinite (-body, -one, -thing, -where)
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Pronouns: indefinite (-body, -one, -thing, -where)

from English Grammar Today

Somebody, anyone, everything, etc. are indefinite pronouns.

We use -body, -one, -thing, -where to refer to people, places and things in a general way. We write them as one
single word, apart from no one, which can be written as two separate words or with a hyphen (no-one).

somebody someone something somewhere

anybody anyone anything anywhere

nobody no one nothing nowhere

everybod everyon everythin everywher

y e g e

The differences in their meanings are the same as the differences between some, any, every and no. We use them all
with a singular verb:
Is anyone helping Claire with the washing up?
Everybody makes mistakes.
I’m looking for somewhere I can store my bike.
-body and -one

-body and -one mean the same thing. In informal contexts, we use indefinite pronouns ending in -body more often
than pronouns ending in -one. The forms with -one are more common in formal writing:
Nobody was interested in the talk. (or No one was …)
Everyone started to clap. (or Everybody …)

Somewhere nice, nothing much

We can add an adjective or adverbial expression to these indefinite pronouns to make them more specific:
A:

What did you do at the weekend?

B:

Nothing much.
Are you thinking of anyone in particular?
Is there something else I can do to help?

264
Pronouns: one, you, we, they
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Pronouns: one, you, we, they

from English Grammar Today

One, you, we and they are generic personal pronouns. We can use one, you, we and they to refer to ‘people in
general’.

One, you and we
We can use one, you or we when we are making generalisations and not referring to any one person in particular.
When used like this, one, you and we can include the speaker or writer:
One can use the Internet without understanding cookies. (or You can use … or We can use …)
You usually need a raincoat in Ireland. It rains a lot.
We tend to avoid talking about money.
One is much more formal than you or we, and is rare in speaking:
One would have thought that agreement could be reached easily on that matter.
We can use one’s before a noun as a possessive determiner:
Conversations with one’s children are extremely predictable, especially as they hit adolescence.

They
We can use they to talk about a wide group of people, such as an authority or an institution. In such cases, they does
not refer to specific people:
They’re chopping down the rainforests.
They’ve opened a new cinema in the town centre.
They started running yoga classes at the school.
We use they and them to refer back to the indefinite pronouns someone, anyone, everyone (underlined below) when
we do not know the number or gender. We also use they and them in question tags:
If someone comes with a parcel for me, can you ask them to take it next door.
I believe anyone can do anything if they really want to enough, can’t they?

Relative pronouns
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Relative pronouns

from English Grammar Today

265
 Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses. The most common relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which,
that. The relative pronoun we use depends on what we are referring to and the type of relative clause.

who people and sometimes pet animals defining and non-defining

defining and non-defining;

which animals and things clause referring to a whole
sentence

that people, animals and things; informal defining only

possessive meaning;
whose for people and animals usually; sometimes for things in formal defining and non-defining
situations

people in formal styles or in writing; often with a preposition;

whom defining and non-defining
rarely in conversation; used instead of who if who is the object

no relative
when the relative pronoun defines the object of the clause defining only
pronoun

(In the examples, the relative pronoun is in brackets to show where it is not essential; the person or thing being
referred to is underlined.)
We don’t know the person who donated this money.
We drove past my old school, which is celebrating its 100th anniversary this year.
He went to the school (that) my father went to.
The Kingfisher group, whose name was changed from Woolworths earlier this year, includes about 720 high street
shops. Superdrug, which last week announced that it is buying Medicare, is also part of the group.
The parents (whom/who/that) we interviewed were all involved in education in some way.
See also:
 Relative clauses: defining and non-defining
 Relative clauses referring to a whole sentence

Relative pronouns: who
We use who in relative clauses to refer to people, and sometimes to pet animals. We use it to introduce defining and
non-defining relative clauses:
I think there’d be a lot of children who’d love to have a climbing wall in school. (defining)
That’s the dog who doesn’t like me. (defining; referring to a pet animal)
There’s this guy at work, who’s one of my friends, well he’s never been on a train. (non-defining)

Subjects and objects

Who can act as the subject or the object of the relative clause:

266
 She’s going out with a bloke who’s in the army. (who refers to a bloke and is the subject of is in the relative
clause; bloke is an informal word for a man)
The woman who I saw yesterday was Sheila. (who refers to the woman and is the object of saw in the relative
clause)

Who + prepositions

We can use who as the complement of a preposition:

It was Cath who Ian gave the keys to. It wasn’t me. (who refers to Cath and is the complement of the preposition to)
We put the preposition at the end of the relative clause, and not immediately before who:
Of all my friends, she’s the one who I know I can rely on.
Not: … the one on who I know I can rely.

Who with collective groups of people

We often use who with collective human nouns (e.g. committee, government, group, panel, police, team):

Nicola phoned the fire brigade, who then alerted the police and social workers.
We do not use who for things:
There are some very good art books which you can get ideas from.
Not: There are some very good art books who you can get ideas from.
See also:
 Relative pronouns:  whom

Relative pronouns: whom
Warning:

We use whom in formal styles or in writing to refer to people when the person is the object of the verb. It is much
more common in writing than in speaking:
The response of those managers whom I have consulted has been very positive and we are looking forward to
meeting together. (whom refers to those managers and is the object of consulted in the relative clause)
She was a celebrated actress whom he had known and loved, on and off, almost since her first appearance on the
stage.

Whom + prepositions

The most common use of whom is with a preposition. We can use whom as the complement of a preposition:
The first book was a terrible historical novel for children which was turned down by every publisher to whom it
was sent. (whom refers to every publisher and is the complement of the preposition to)
Drama in schools is particularly good for pupils for whom English is a second language.
We put the preposition before whom.
Compare

267
 more formal less formal

There was only one person to whom the old man spoke. There was only one person who the old man spoke to.

She smiled as she remembered the quiet scholar with She smiled as she remembered the quiet
whom she had shared a love of books. scholar who she had shared a love of books with.

See also:
 Relative pronouns:  who

Relative pronoun: whose
We usually use whose as a relative pronoun to indicate possession by people and animals. In more formal styles we
can also use it for things.
We use whose before nouns instead of a possessive expression (my, your, his, her, its, our, their, x’s) in defining and
non-defining clauses:
He’s marrying a girl whose family don’t seem to like him. (The family of the girl he’s marrying don’t seem to like
him.)
There was me and there was Kate, whose party it was, and then there were two other people. (It was Kate’s party.)
It is a rambling Tudor house, whose sitting room looks out over a wonderful walled garden. (The sitting room of
the house looks out over …)

Whose + prepositions

We can use whose + noun as the complement of a preposition:

Kate, whose sister I used to share a house with, has gone to work in Australia. (whose sister refers to Kate and is
the complement of with)
We can put the preposition immediately before the relative pronoun (more formal written styles) or at the end of the
relative clause (more informal).
Compare

more formal more informal

Thomas Goldney III, in whose house and garden Thomas Goldney III, whose house and garden several
several generations of Bristol students have now lived, generations of Bristol students have now lived in, was
was described in the late 18th century as ‘a very described in the late 18th century as ‘a very curious
curious gentleman’. gentleman’.

Relative pronouns: which
We use which in relative clauses to refer to animals and to things. We use it to introduce defining and non-defining
relative clauses. We always use which to introduce relative clauses when they refer to a whole sentence or clause:
You need to tick the box which says yes. (defining)
He won’t have much time to prepare for the meeting, which is this afternoon. (non-defining)

268
She had to get up and walk all the way to the other side of the room, which isn’t easy with a bad back. (which refers
to the whole sentence before it)
We use which or that, not what:
Another activity which/that I have chosen is photography.
Not: Another activity what I have chosen is photography.

Subjects and objects

Which can act as the subject or the object of the relative clause:

The new sports complex, which will be built on the site of the old power station, will provide facilities for cricket,
soccer, bowls and badminton. (which refers to the new sports complex and is the subject of will be built in the
relative clause)
It was the same picture which I saw at the National Gallery. (which refers to the same picture and is the object
of saw in the relative clause)

Which + prepositions

We can use which as the complement of a preposition:

Early in the Autumn Term there is a reception at which you can meet current staff and students. (which refers to a
reception and is the complement of at)
Close by, in the churchyard, is the famous Rudston stone, from which the village takes its name. (which refers
to the famous Rudston stone and is the complement of from)
We can put the preposition immediately before the relative pronoun (more formal) or at the end of the relative clause
(more informal).
Compare

more formal more informal

The title of the poem indicates that the poet knows himself to be I’ve never felt close to the
separated from the community in which he grew up. community which I grew up in.

Which referring to a whole sentence

Relative clauses referring to a whole sentence are always introduced by which:

There’s going to be a new headteacher in September, which is good. It’s time for a change.
[talking about a playschool for young children]
A:

It’s lovely and clean there, and there are lots of toys that he can play with and he’s so happy.
B:

Which is much more important.

Relative pronouns: that
We use that instead of who, whom or which in relative clauses to refer to people, animals and things. We use it to
introduce defining clauses only. That is more informal than who, whom or which:

269
We met somebody last night that did the speech therapy course two years after you. (refers to a person)
The 8.30 is the train that you need to get. (refers to a thing)
She blamed herself for everything that had happened.

Subjects and objects

That can act as the subject or the object of the relative clause:

He finally remembers one lesson that his mum had taught him early – Don’t take money that doesn’t belong to
you. (that refers to money and is the subject of belong in the relative clause)
It’s the same cooker that my mother has. (that refers to the same cooker and is the object of has in the relative
clause)

That after superlatives

We often use that after superlatives:

The Wimbledon men’s final was the best game of tennis that I’ve ever seen.

That + prepositions

That can refer to the complement of a preposition:

We’ve got some tennis balls that you can play with. (that refers to some tennis balls and is the complement of the
preposition with)
Warning:

Unlike which, whom and whose, we can’t use that with the preposition immediately before it:

Not: We’ve got some tennis balls with that you can play.

No relative pronoun
In informal styles, we often leave out the relative pronoun. We only do this in defining relative clauses, and when
the relative pronoun is the object of the verb. We don’t leave out the relative pronoun when it is the subject of the
verb nor in non-defining relative clauses:
German is a language which I’ve found hard to learn. (or German is a language I’ve found hard to learn.)
(defining relative clause: which is the object)
She’s the singer who I heard on the radio. (or She’s the singer I heard on the radio.) (defining relative
clause: who is the object)
There’s a hill which begins three miles after the start of the race. (defining relative clause: which is the subject)
Not: There’s a hill begins three miles after the start of the race.
Sir James, whose birthday is on February 26, plans to lay on a big party. (non-defining relative clause)

No relative pronoun + preposition

In defining relative clauses, we can also leave out the relative pronoun when it is the complement of a preposition.
When we do this, we always put the preposition at the end of the relative clause:
She was at the garden party which I was telling you about. (or She was at the garden party about which I was
telling you. or She was at the garden party I was telling you about.) (defining relative clause: which is the
complement of about)

270
 Relative pronouns: when, where and why
In informal language, we often use where, when or why to introduce defining relative clauses instead of at which, on
which or for which.

wher I know a restaurant where the food is excellent.

places
e (… a restaurant at which the food is excellent)

There isn’t a day when I don’t feel rushed off my feet.

when times
(… a day on which I don’t feel rushed …)

Do you know the reason why the shop is closed

reason today?
why
s
(… the reason for which the shop is closed …)

Relative pronouns: typical errors

 We can’t use that instead of who, whom or which in non-defining relative clauses:
It gives me a good chance to improve my Italian, which has become a little bit rusty.
Not: It gives me a good chance to improve my Italian, that has become a little bit rusty.
 We don’t use what as a relative pronoun:
So, he can make himself easily understood in the two languages, which helps a lot.
Not: So, he can make himself easily understood in the two languages, what helps a lot.
 We don’t use who for things:
She’s written some great cookery books which have got pictures of delicious-looking recipes.
Not: She’s written some great cookery books who have got pictures of delicious-looking recipes.
 Take care to spell which correctly: not ‘wich’.

Questions: interrogative pronouns (what, who)

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Questions: interrogative pronouns (what, who)

from English Grammar Today

We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. They are: who, which, whom, what and whose. These are also
known as wh-words. Questions using these are called wh-questions:
Who called last night?
Which keys are yours?
Whom do I ask for at the desk?

271
What did you do when the electricity failed?
Whose watch is this?

Interrogative pronouns: uses

We use who and whom on their own:
Who paid?
Whom did you speak to?
We can use whose, which and what either on their own (as pronouns) or with a noun head (underlined):

As pronouns With a noun head

Whose are these books? Whose books are these?

Which sweater did you
Which did you buy?
buy?

What is the number on the What number is your

door? house?

We can use who, whose, which and what both as subject and object:

Who is the best footballer in the world? (who as subject)
Who did you meet? (who as object)
What happened next? (what as subject)
What did you buy? (what as object)

Who or whom?

Warning:

We use whom as an object in formal styles. When we use a preposition before whom, it is even more formal. We
don’t normally use it in speaking:
Whom did you give the book to? (formal)
To whom did you give the book? (very formal) Or, less formally: Who did you give the book to?

What or which?

We use what when we ask about specific information from a general range of possible answers:
What’s the tallest building in the world?
What did you say? I couldn’t hear you.
What’s your address?
We use which when we ask for specific information from a restricted range of possible answers:
[looking at a list of addresses]
A:

272
 Which is your address?
B:

This one here.

Which hand do you write with?
[looking at a photograph of three women]
Which one is your sister?
Which airport do we leave from, Heathrow or Gatwick?
See also:
 Questions: wh-questions

Someone, somebody, something, somewhere
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > Someone, somebody, something, somewhere

from English Grammar Today

Someone, somebody, something, somewhere are indefinite pronouns. They function in a similar way to some. We

use them in affirmative clauses and in questions expecting a particular answer. We can use them to refer to both
general and specific people or things. We use them with a singular verb:
I know someone who gives piano lessons. (a specific person)
Somebody has obviously made a mistake. (general, we don’t know who)
Can you hear something?
There was no mistaking the smell. Burning. There was a fire somewhere.
We often use the plural pronoun they to refer back to (singular) someone or somebody when we do not know if the
person is male or female:
Never judge someone by the way they look. (or Never judge someone by the way he or she looks.)

That
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Pronouns > That

from English Grammar Today

That is a very common word in both writing and speaking. We use it as a determiner, a demonstrative pronoun and a
relative pronoun. We also use it as a conjunction to introduce that-clauses.

That: determiner and pronoun

273
 We use that most commonly to point to a thing or person. We use it with singular nouns. The thing or person is
often distant from the speaker and sometimes closer to the listener, or not visible to either the speaker or listener:
Can you pass me that green bowl over there? (determiner)
[pointing to one of a selection of different paint colours]
I quite like that one.
That’s Harold in the white shirt, isn’t it? (pronoun)
We also use that to refer back to a whole clause:
A:

We’re having a few friends round for dinner. Would you like to come?
B:

That sounds lovely.
Why don’t you come at around 8? That’ll give me time to get ready.
A:

Can you tell Kat to hurry up? We’ve got to leave at 11.
B:

I’ve already told her that.

We use that to refer back to something that has already been spoken or written about:
If he gets that job in London, he’ll be able to visit us more often.

That: relative pronoun

We use that to introduce defining relative clauses. We can use that instead of who, whom or which to refer to people,
animals and things. That is more informal than who or which:
She picked up the hairbrush that she had left on the bed.
He was the first director of the National Science Foundation, and he funded science research with an annual
budget that grew to 500 million dollars.
See also:
 Relative clauses

That-clauses
We also use that to introduce that-clauses after some verbs, adjectives and nouns:
I admit that I was wrong. (verb + that-clause)
Are you certain that the man in the car was Nick? (adjective + that-clause)
The name of the company illustrates my belief that sign language is a fascinating form of communication. (noun
+ that-clause)
See also:
 That-clauses

That: other uses

274
That’s + adjective

We use that’s + adjective (e.g. that’s lovely, that’s good, that’s great, that’s terrible, that’s awful) to respond to
something that someone is telling us, to show that we are listening:
A:

They got stuck in traffic on the way to the airport and missed the plane.
B:

Oh, that’s awful.

That as an intensifier

We use not that + adjective to mean ‘not very’ or ‘not as … as you are saying’. We put spoken stress on that:
A:

I thought the meal was delicious.

B:

Mine wasn’t that nice. (My meal wasn’t as nice as you are saying. My meal wasn’t delicious.)
A:

I wouldn’t be surprised if Emily became an actress.

B:

I don’t think she’s that good.

A bit
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > A bit

from English Grammar Today

We use a bit (of) or bits (of) to refer to quantities. The phrases can refer to both abstract and concrete things. They
are an informal alternative to some, or a piece of or pieces of:
Do they need a bit of help with their luggage? (or … some help …)
There were bits of glass everywhere. (or … pieces of glass …)
Have you lost a bit of weight? (or … some weight?)
The storm had broken the fence into bits. (meaning ‘into small pieces’)
A bit or bits often have deliberately vague and informal meanings:
I’ve given him a few bits of advice.
These words can also soften the meaning, so that a statement is not too direct:
Wearing those shoes is a bit of a problem for her, I’m afraid.

275
We also use a bit to modify adjectives, or as an adverb. It is more informal than a little:
They had got a bit tired working in the garden.
Can you wait a bit for us? We’re in heavy traffic.
A bit is also used to modify comparative adjectives and comparative determiners:
The climate in New Zealand was a bit nicer than we had expected.
However, a bit and a bit of are not normally used to modify comparative adjectives before nouns:
It was a bit more entertaining than the last play we saw.
Not: a bit more entertaining play. or a bit more of entertaining play.

All
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > All

from English Grammar Today

All as a determiner
All means ‘every one’, ‘the complete number or amount’ or ‘the whole’. We use it most often as a determiner. We
can use a countable noun or an uncountable noun after it:
All my friends are away at university.
All tickets cost 25 pounds.
All information about the new product is confidential.
As a determiner, all comes before articles, possessives, demonstratives and numbers.

articl
possessive demonstrative number
e

Al
the trees had died.
l

Al
my family were at the party.
l

Al food must be eaten

this
l today.

Al
25 students took the test.
l

All with no article

276
 When all refers to a whole class of people or things, we don’t use the:
All children love stories. (i.e. every child in the world)
Not: All the children love stories.
We don’t use the with time expressions such as all day, all night, week, all year, all summer:
I spent all day looking for my car keys.
The party went on all night and some of the neighbours complained.
See also:
 A/an  and  the

All of
We use all of before personal pronouns (us, them), demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) and relative
pronouns (whom, which). The personal pronoun is in the object form:
I need to speak to all of you for a few minutes.
He brought gifts for all of us.
We had to contact the insurance firm and the airline, all of which took a lot of time. (all of which = ‘contacting the
insurance firm and the airline’)
With demonstratives (this, that, these, those) we can say all of or all without of:
[talking about a pile of kitchen waste]
All (of) this has to go out into the rubbish bin.
We often use of after all in definite noun phrases (i.e. before the, possessives and demonstratives), but it is not
obligatory:
All (of) the workers were given a pay-rise at the end of the year.
I gave all (of) my old books to my sister when she went to university.
What shall we do with all (of) this cardboard? Throw it out?

All without of
We use all, not all of, before indefinite plural nouns referring to a whole class of people or things:
All cats love milk.
Not: All of cats love milk.
This book was written for all children, everywhere.
We use all, not all of, before uncountable nouns:
All junk food is bad for you.
Not: All of junk food is bad for you.
I love all music, not just classical.
Warning:

We don’t normally say all people; we say everybody or everyone:

Everyone wants to achieve their personal goals in life.
Not: All people want to achieve …

All with personal pronouns

277
When all refers to a personal pronoun which is the object in a clause, we can use pronoun + all or all of + pronoun.
The pronoun is in the object form:
I used to have three pens but I’ve lost them all. (or … but I’ve lost all of them).
Not: … but I lost all them.
However, in short responses, all of must be used:
A:

How many of these boxes are you going to need?

B:

All of them.
Not: Them all.
We use all of with the object form of the pronoun, even when the pronoun is the subject in the clause:
All of us are hoping for good news.
A long line of people waited to speak to the officer. All of them had a story to tell.

All as a pronoun
We can use all alone as a pronoun in formal situations:
All were happy with the outcome. (less formal: Everyone was happy with the outcome.)
All will be revealed to the public in 25 years’ time, when the cabinet papers are released. (less formal: Everything
will be revealed to the public …)
Usually, all as a pronoun is premodified or postmodified:
More than 100 people came to the refugee centre. Almost all had lost family members or property or both.
All that we had been told turned out to be untrue.

All as an adverb
When all refers to the subject of a clause, it usually comes in the normal mid position for adverbs (between the
subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
The kids all go to school on the same bus.
These items could all have been bought cheaper on the Internet.
The students are all here now. We can start.

All meaning ‘completely’ or ‘extremely’

We can also use all as an adverb meaning ‘completely’ or ‘extremely’, especially in informal styles:
He lived all alone in an old cottage in the woods.
He came back all covered in mud.
I lost a good friend, and all because of my stupidity.
Maggie got all upset when she found out the house had been sold. (informal)

All: not all

We can make all negative by using not in front of it:

278
 Not all the buses go to the main bus station, so be careful which one you get.
We weren’t all happy with the result.
See also:
 All or every?
 All or whole?
 At all

All: after all

We use after all in two main ways. We use it to mean ‘in spite of what happened before’. With this meaning it
usually occurs in end position:
[spoken by someone who was previously not hungry]
I think I might have something to eat now after all.
She thought she would fail her driving test but she passed after all.
After all can also mean ‘it should be remembered that’:
Why don’t you invite Nadia? After all, you do work with her every day.
Warning:

After all does not mean ‘finally’ or ‘at last’:

We spoke about it and finally decided to sign the contract.
Not: … and after all decided to sign the contract.

Any
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Any

from English Grammar Today

Any is a determiner and a pronoun.

Any as a determiner
We use any before nouns to refer to indefinite or unknown quantities or an unlimited entity:
Did you bring any bread?
Mr Jacobson refused to answer any questions.
If I were able to travel back to any place and time in history, I would go to ancient China.
Any as a determiner has two forms: a strong form and a weak form. The forms have different meanings.

Weak form any: indefinite quantities

We use any for indefinite quantities in questions and negative sentences. We use some in affirmative sentences:

279
 Have you got any eggs?
I haven’t got any eggs.
I’ve got some eggs.
Not: I’ve got any eggs.
We use weak form any only with uncountable nouns or with plural nouns:
[talking about fuel for the car]
Do I need to get any petrol? (+ uncountable noun)
There aren’t any clean knives. They’re all in the dishwasher. (+ plural noun)
Warning:

We don’t use any with this meaning with singular countable nouns:

Have you got any Italian cookery books? (or … an Italian cookery book?)
Not: Have you got any Italian cookery book?

Strong form any meaning ‘it does not matter which’

We use any to mean ‘it does not matter which or what’, to describe something which is not limited. We use this
meaning of any with all types of nouns and usually in affirmative sentences.
In speaking we often stress any:
Call 0800675-437 for any information about the courses. (+ uncountable noun)
When you make a late booking, you don’t know where you’re going to go, do you? It could be any destination. (+
singular countable noun)
[talking about a contract for new employees]
Do we have any form of agreement with new staff when they start? (+ singular countable noun)
[a parent talking to a child about a picture he has painted]
A:

I don’t think I’ve ever seen you paint such a beautiful picture before. Gosh! Did you choose the colours?
B:

We could choose any colours we wanted. (+ plural countable noun)

See also:
 Determiners and types of noun
 Some  and  any

Any as a pronoun
Any can be used as a pronoun (without a noun following) when the noun is understood.
A:

Have you got some £1 coins on you?

B:

Sorry, I don’t think I have any. (understood: I don’t think I have any £1 coins.)
[parents talking about their children’s school homework]

280
 A:

Do you find that Elizabeth gets lots of homework? Marie gets a lot.
B:

No not really. She gets hardly any. (understood: She gets hardly any homework.)
A:

What did you think of the cake? It was delicious, wasn’t it?
B:

I don’t know. I didn’t get any. (understood: I didn’t get any of the cake.)
See also:
 Determiners used as pronouns

Any of
We use any with of before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, these), pronouns (you, us) or possessives (his,
their):
Shall I keep any of these spices? I think they’re all out of date.
Not: … any these spices?
We use any of to refer to a part of a whole:
Are any of you going to the meeting?
I couldn’t answer any of these questions.
I listen to Abba but I’ve never bought any of their music.
See also:
 More than one determiner

Not any and no
Any doesn’t have a negative meaning on its own. It must be used with a negative word to mean the same as no.
Compare

not any no

There aren’t any biscuits left. They’ve eaten them all. There are no biscuits left. They’ve eaten them all.

I’m selling my computer because I haven’t got

any space for it. I’m selling my computer because I’ve got no space for
it.
Not: … because I’ve got any space for it

There weren’t any technical problems. The singer had a

sore throat so they cancelled the concert. There were no technical problems. The singer had a
sore throat so they cancelled the concert.
Not: There were any technical problems.

281
 The examples with no in the right-hand column above give greater emphasis than the examples with not any in the
left-hand column.
See also:
 No or not?

Any or every?
We use any and every to talk about the total numbers of things in a group. Their meanings are not exactly the same:
Any doctor can prescribe medicine. (or Every doctor can …)
Every always refers to the total number of something. Any refers to one, several or all of a total number. We
use every not any with singular countable nouns when we mean ‘each individual member of a group of something’.
Compare

You can come over for dinner any evening. It doesn’t matter which one, or you can come every evening.

He came over for dinner every evening last

All of the evenings.
week.

See also:
 Every

Any and comparatives
We use any with comparative adjectives and adverbs:
You can’t buy this laptop any cheaper than here. (It isn’t possible to buy the laptop cheaper in another place.)
I’ll see if we can go any faster. (faster than we are going now)

Any: typical errors

 We don’t use ‘weak form’ any with singular countable nouns:
They have a big lunch in school so they don’t need a hot meal in the evening.
Not: … so they don’t need any hot meal in the evening.
 We use every not any with singular countable nouns when we mean ‘each individual member of a group’:
The hotel is luxurious and it has every type of activity.
Not: … it has any type of activity …
See also:
 Every
 We don’t use ‘weak form’ any on its own in statements. We use no or we put a negative word, e.g. not,
before it:
There were no lifts so we had to climb five flights of stairs.
There weren’t any lifts so we had to climb five flights of stairs.
Not: There were any lifts …
 We use some not any before countable nouns in statements to refer to an indefinite quantity of something:

282
I must buy some plants. They’re so nice.
Not: I must buy any plants.

Both
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Both

from English Grammar Today

We use both to refer to two things or people together:

Both those chairs are occupied, I’m afraid. (The two chairs are occupied.)
Are both your parents going to Chile? (Are your mother and father going to Chile?)

Both with nouns
When we use both before a determiner (e.g. a/an, the, her, his) + noun, both and both of can be used:
She knew both my children. (or … both of my children.)
Both her brothers are living in Canada. (or Both of her brothers …)
We can use both before a noun:
This button starts both engines at the same time. (or … both of the engines …)
Are both cats female?

Both with pronouns
Pronoun + both

We can use both after a subject pronoun or an object pronoun:

We both prefer classical music.
Let’s open them both now.

Both of + object pronoun

When we use both as part of a subject or object which is a pronoun, it may be followed by of + an object pronoun:
We both dislike soap operas. (subject pronoun + both) or Both of us dislike soap operas. (both + of + object
pronoun)
She looked at both of us.
We usually use both of + object pronoun after prepositions:
He shouted at both of them. (preferred to He shouted at them both.)
That’ll be so nice for both of you. (preferred to That’ll be so nice for you both.)

Both as a pronoun

283
 We can use both on its own as a pronoun:
There are two youth hostels in the city. Both are described as expensive, dirty, with poor lighting and poor security.
Applicants for this course must speak French or German, preferably both.

Both: position
If both refers to the subject of a clause, we can use it in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and
main verb, after a modal verb or the first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb:
They both wanted to sell the house. (between the subject and the main verb)
They had both been refused entry to the nightclub. (after the first auxiliary or modal verb)
They were both very nice, kind and beautiful. (after be as a main verb)
Not: They both were very nice …
See also:
 Adverbs

Both in short answers

We use both on its own in short answers:
A:

Would you like something to drink?

B:

A coffee and a tea, please.

A:

Both?
B:

Yeah, one for me and one for Brenda. She’s joining us in a minute.
A:

Are you working on Monday or Wednesday next week?

B:

Both!
Not: The both.

Both of or neither of in negative clauses

We usually use neither of rather than both of … not in negative clauses:
Neither of them can swim. (preferred to Both of them can’t swim.)
Neither of my brothers lives at home any more. (preferred to Both of my brothers don’t live at home any more.)
When a negative verb is used, we use either (of). In informal speaking, we often use a plural verb after either, even
though it is a singular word:
She didn’t like either dress. (She looked at two dresses.)

284
 A:

Are Yvonne and Lesley both coming?

B:

We don’t know if either of them are coming. (or, more formally, … if either of them is coming.)
See also:
 Either

Both … and as a linking expression

We use both … and to emphasise the link between two things. This makes a stronger connection than and alone:
Both Britain and France agree on the treaty. (stronger link than Britain and France agree on the treaty.)
She played both hockey and basketball when she was a student. (stronger link than She played hockey and
basketball when she was a student.)
See also:
 Conjunctions

Both: typical errors

 We don’t use both with a negative verb; we use either instead:
There was not a considerable difference in percentages for either sex in terms of having a Bachelor’s degree.
Not: There was not a considerable difference in percentages for both sex. …
 When we use the verb be as a main verb, both comes after the verb:
These films are both famous with people of all ages …
Not: These films both are famous …

Either
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Either

from English Grammar Today

Either is a determiner, a pronoun, an adverb or a conjunction.

We can pronounce either /ˈaɪðə(r)/ or /ˈi:ðə(r)/.

Either as a determiner
Either referring to two choices or possibilities

We can use either as a determiner before a noun to talk about two choices or possibilities. The noun that
follows either must be a singular countable noun:

285
Personally, I don’t like either jacket.
Not: … I don’t like either jackets.
Either restaurant will be okay, as they both serve vegetarian food. (It doesn’t matter which of the two restaurants
you go to.)

Either of

Either must be followed by of if we use it before the, these, those or possessives (my, your) with a plural noun:
Either of the children can come with us; we don’t mind which.
I don’t want either of my parents to know I’ve lost my job.
Not: I don’t want either my parents …

Either meaning ‘both’

Either as a determiner before a singular countable noun can mean ‘both’:

There were shops on either side of the street.

Either as a pronoun
We can use either as a pronoun:
A:

Which sweater do you like, the green one or the blue one?
B:

I don’t like either. (I don’t like the green one and I don’t like the blue one.)
A:

What colour paper do you want, white or cream?

B:

Either. It doesn’t matter.

Either as an adverb
We can use either as an adverb after a negative verb:
It was a really nice hotel, and it wasn’t very expensive either.
She doesn’t like eggs and she doesn’t like fish either.

Either as a conjunction
We can use either with or as a conjunction to connect two clauses:
Either we go by train or we rent a car. Which do you prefer?

286
Enough
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Enough

from English Grammar Today

Enough is a determiner, a pronoun or an adverb. We use enough to mean ‘as much as we need or want’.
Enough as a determiner

We can use enough before a noun as a determiner:

A:

Do you have enough money to pay for your train fare and taxis?
B:

Yes, thanks. I’m fine.

There was enough food for about ten people.
We use enough of before other determiners (the, my) and pronouns (us, them):
You haven’t eaten enough of your dinner, Jason.
Not: You haven’t eaten enough your dinner, Jason.
There weren’t enough of them.
Not: There weren’t enough them.

Enough as a pronoun

We can use enough as a pronoun:

[at the end of a meal]
A:

Have you had enough?

B:

Yes, thanks. That was delicious.

I need to go and get some more chairs. There aren’t enough here.

Enough as an adverb

We use enough as an adverb of degree:

A:

Are you ready for your exam?

B:

Yes, I think I’ve studied enough. That’s all I can do.

Warning:

287
 We use enough as an adverb directly after an adjective or directly after another adverb:
Is this box big enough for all those books?
Not: Is this box enough big …
Strangely enough, no one seemed to notice that Boris was in his pyjamas. (It is/was strange that no one …)

Least, the least, at least

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Least, the least, at least

from English Grammar Today

We use the quantifier least to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. (The) least is the superlative form of little.
We use the least with different classes of words.
We use the least to make the superlative forms of longer adjectives and the majority of adverbs:
Rosalind seems to be the least worried about their move. (+ adjective)
The least environmentally damaging power source is also the most expensive.
The machines that worked (the) least efficiently were replaced.
We use the least with a noun to mean ‘less than all of the others’. We can leave out the noun when it is obvious:
He did the least work of any of us.
We had a quiz. Rory got the most points. Tim got the least. (the least points)
We use least and the least with a verb as an adverb:
None of them worked much, but Karen worked the least.
Think of the person you’d least expect to get the job.
See also:
 Comparative and superlative adjectives: form
At least

We use at least (and with more emphasis at the very least) to talk about a minimum number or amount, meaning ‘no
less than’:
There were at least twenty people there.
It’ll cost you £3,000 at the very least.
We also use at least to express a minimum of what we expect to happen, usually when we are annoyed about
something:
You could at least have phoned me to say you weren’t coming. I waited for ages.
We use at least to rephrase something we have said, to make it more accurate:
She hasn’t got any children. At least, I don’t think she has.
We also use at least to introduce something positive in a situation that seems negative:

288
 It’s a shame it’s so cold but at least it isn’t raining.

Less
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Less

from English Grammar Today

We use the quantifier less to talk about reduced quantities, amounts or degree. Less is a comparative word.

Less: position
We use less with different classes of words. We use less after verbs but before every other word class:
[talking about a car]
This model consumes less fuel. (less + noun)
[sign on a bus]
Give up this seat to someone less able to stand. (less + adjective)
Second class post arrives less quickly than first class. (less + adverb)
It costs less to go by bus than by train. (verb + less)
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few

Less with nouns
We use less on its own with singular uncountable nouns:
You’ve got less chance of passing if you don’t work hard.
Small local shops can be more expensive and can have less choice.

Less of
Whenever we use less before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or pronouns
(him, it), we need of:
Doctors and nutritionists always seem to be telling us to eat less of the food we enjoy.
There was less of a crowd at the match today than at last week’s.
We see less of them since they moved away.

Less without a noun (as a pronoun)

We usually leave out the noun after less when the noun is understood:
That’s too much pasta for me. Can I have less? (less pasta)

289
Less and less
We often use less and less to emphasise a decrease in something:
Ever since I met you, my work has seemed less and less important.
I’ve been sleeping less and less.

Little, a little, few, a few

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Little, a little, few, a few

from English Grammar Today

(A) little and (a) few are quantifiers meaning ‘some’. Little and few have negative meanings. We use them to mean
‘not as much as may be expected or wished for’.
Compare

All she wanted was a few moments on her

some, a small number
own.

She had few moments on her own. not many/almost none

She saves a little money every month. some, a small amount

They had little money to spend. not much/almost nothing

A:

Have you got any money?

some, a small amount
B:

Yes, a little.

A:

Have you got any money?

not much/almost nothing
B:

No, very little.

A little, a few with a noun

We use a little with singular uncountable nouns. We use a few with plural countable nouns:
Mary said nothing, but she drank some tea and ate a little bread.

290
 We stayed a few days in Florence and visited the museums.
See also:
 Nouns: countable and uncountable

Little, few with a noun

We use little with uncountable nouns. We use few with plural countable nouns. They are used in formal contexts:
I’m not very happy about it but I suppose I have little choice.
Few cities anywhere in Europe can match the cultural richness of Berlin.
[talking about a period of history]
At that time few people travelled who didn’t have to.

(A) little, (a) few without a noun

We can use (a) little and (a) few as pronouns. We can use them to substitute for a noun when it is obvious from the
context:
After that, she began to tell them a little about her life in Scotland, particularly her life with the Rosenblooms.
Don’t take all the strawberries. Just have a few. (Just have a few strawberries.)
Little and few are not very common without a noun. We use them in formal contexts:
Little is known about his upbringing and education.
Few would be in favour of police officers carrying weapons.
See also:
 Determiners followed by pronouns
 Determiners and singular countable nouns
 Determiners and singular countable or uncountable nouns
 Substitution

(A) little of, (a) few of

We use of with (a) little and (a) few when they come before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that),
possessives (my, your) or pronouns (him, them):
Put the flour into a bowl, blend with a little of the milk, beat in the egg yolks, then the sugar and the rest of the milk.
A few of his films were seen abroad.

A little: adverb
We use a little as an adverb of degree. It is more formal than a bit:
He smiled just a little.
Her hands were shaking a little.
See also:
 A bit
 Adverbs

A little with adjectives, determiners, adverbs

291
 We use a little before adjectives and adverbs to modify them. It is more formal than a bit:
She seemed to be getting a little better.
What you need is a little more romance.
We often use a little with bit:
I find that a little bit hard to believe.
See also:
 A bit
 Much, many, a lot of, lots of: quantifiers

Little: adjective
We use little as an adjective to mean ‘small’:
‘You’re going to have a little baby brother, Martha,’ her mother told her one day.
I know a little restaurant not far from here.

Little or small?

Little and small have similar meanings. We use small to refer only to size. We use little to refer to size, but also to
express a positive emotion (especially with words like beautiful, lovely, wonderful):
He’s a small baby. (He’s smaller than average.)
He’s a lovely little baby. (He’s lovely and small.)
There’s a wonderful little café at the end of the street. (preferred to: There’s a wonderful small café at the end of the
street.)
See also:
 Less or fewer?
 Comparison: nouns (more money, the most points)

Lots, a lot, plenty
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Lots, a lot, plenty

from English Grammar Today

We use lots, a lot and plenty in informal styles to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. Lots and a lot are
similar in meaning to much and many. Plenty means ‘enough’ or ‘more than enough’. Lots is even more informal
than a lot:
Lots, a lot, plenty with a noun

When we use lots, a lot or plenty with a noun, we need of:

I’ve got lots of plans for today.
There’ll be a lot of your friends there.
There’s no need to rush. We’ve got plenty of time.

292
 Not: We’ve got plenty time.

Lots, a lot, plenty without a noun

We usually leave out the noun after a lot, lots and plenty when the noun is obvious. When there is no following
noun, we don’t use of:
A:

I haven’t got any money

B:

Don’t worry, I’ve got plenty. (plenty of money)

She didn’t bring anything to eat but we’ve got lots anyway.
Not: … but we’ve got lots of anyway.

Formal styles: a great deal of, a good deal of, a large number

We prefer to use expressions like a great deal of (+ singular uncountable nouns) or a large number of (+ plural
nouns) in more formal styles:
There’s a great deal of truth in what he said.
From here, a large number of roads led back to various parts of the city.
See also:
 Much, many, a lot of, lots of: quantifiers

Many
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Many

from English Grammar Today

We use many to refer to a large number of something countable. We most commonly use it in questions and in
negative sentences:
Were there many children at the party?
I don’t have many relatives. We’re a small family.
We can use many with not, meaning ‘few’:
Not many people realise that the mathematical notion of ‘zero’ is a relatively recent invention.
We don’t normally use many alone before a noun in an affirmative statement:
There were a lot of people at the swimming pool this morning.
Not: There were many people …
However, we can sometimes use many (of) instead of a lot of or lots of in rather formal contexts in affirmative
statements:

293
 Many politicians have suffered at the hands of the popular press. (formal)
Many of his friends and colleagues were shocked upon hearing of his sudden death. (formal)
We often use many in formal situations in affirmative statements when the noun is followed by a relative clause
(acting as a postmodifier):
There are many elderly people who have never touched a computer in their lives.
We can modify many with very, a great or so:
Very many people have complained about the situation.
There were a great many questions which were left unanswered at the end of the investigation.
Why do so many people watch reality TV shows?
We can use the expression as many as to talk about a high number that is surprising or shocking:
As many as 5,000 people are believed to have died in the earthquake.
We can use the expression in as many to mean ‘in the same number of’:
He doesn’t seem to be very lucky in love. He’s had three girlfriends in as many months. (He’s had three girlfriends
in three months.)

More
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > More

from English Grammar Today

We use the quantifier more to talk about additional quantities, amounts and degree. More is a comparative word.

More with nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, prepositions

We use more with different classes of words. We use more after verbs but before every other word class:
[instructions on a computer screen]
Click here for more answers. (more + noun)
My father was more upset than I had ever seen him. (more + adjective)
The interest rate has gone up again. We’re going to have to pay more. (verb + more)
[talking about a car]
It will start more easily, run more smoothly and deliver more power. (more, + adverb, more + adverb, more +
noun)
Who’s more in need of a good night’s sleep, you or me? (more + prepositional phrase)
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)
 Less
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)

294
More with nouns

We can use more with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns:

There are more chairs in the room opposite if you need them. (countable)
We need more information before we can make a decision. (uncountable)

More of

When we use more before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or pronouns (him,
it), we need of:
Can I have more of that delicious cake you baked?
How many more of my relatives have you not met, I wonder?
I think we’re going to see a lot more of her.

More without a noun (as a pronoun)

We usually leave out the noun after more when the noun is obvious:

I’d like some coffee. Is there any more? (more coffee)

More and more

We often use more and more to emphasise an increase or decrease in something:

More and more people are using the Internet every day.

More or longer?

When we are talking about more time, we usually use longer rather than more:

Would you like to stay a bit longer?
Not: Would you like to stay a bit more?

Most, the most, mostly
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Most, the most, mostly

from English Grammar Today

Most
We use the quantifier most to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. We can use it with a noun (as a determiner)
or without a noun (as a pronoun). We can also use it with adjectives and adverbs to form the superlative.

Most with a noun

We use most with nouns to mean ‘the majority of’:

She plays tennis most mornings.

295
 Most tap water is drinkable.
Warning:

We don’t use the most with this meaning:

The sun shines over 800 hours during June, July and August and on most days temperatures rise above 25 degrees.
Not: … and on the most days …
When we are talking about the majority of something in general, we use most + noun. When we are talking about
the majority of a specific set of something, we use most of the + noun.
Compare

Most desserts are sweet. Desserts in general

The food at the party was delicious. He’d made most of the desserts A specific set of desserts (at the
himself. party)

When we use most before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or pronouns (him,
them), we need of:
Most of the information was useful. Some of it wasn’t relevant.
Not: Most the information …
They sold most of their apartments quite quickly.
Warning:

When there is no article, demonstrative or possessive pronoun, we don’t usually use of:

There hasn’t been much rain. Most rivers are below their normal levels.
Not: Most of rivers are below their normal levels.
We use most of before geographical names:
[from a weather forecast]
Most of England and Wales should be dry throughout the day.

Most without a noun

We can leave out the noun with most when the noun is obvious:

[talking about school lunches]
Some children brought a packed lunch but most had a cooked meal in the canteen. (most children)
See also:
 Most
 Least,  the least,  at least
 Adjectives: comparative and superlative

The most
The most is the superlative form of many, much. We use the most with different classes of words.

296
 The most with adjectives and adverbs

We use the most to make the superlative forms of longer adjectives and the majority of adverbs:
They’re using the most advanced technology in the world. (+ adjective)
[the Lake District is an area in Britain]
Scafell Pike is the most easily identifiable peak in the Lake District. (+ adverb)

The most with a noun

We use the most with a noun to mean ‘more/less than all of the others’:

Ian earns the most money in our family.
We can leave out the noun when it is obvious:
He didn’t tell the best jokes but he told the most. (the most jokes)

The most with a verb

We use the most with a verb as an adverb:

They all cried, but Claire cried the most.
See also:
 Superlative forms
 Least,  the least,  at least

Mostly
Mostly is an adverb that means ‘mainly’:
I am mostly interested in the history of the house. (I am interested in other things about the house but my main
interest is its history.)
We don’t use mostly instead of most or the most.
Compare

What I liked most were the beautiful beaches.

I liked the beautiful beaches more than anything else.
Not: What I liked mostly were the beautiful
beaches. Which beaches were the ones that you liked more than any
others?
Which beaches did you like most?
We stayed on the beach for the majority of the time.
We mostly stayed on the beach.

Much, many, a lot of, lots of: quantifiers

 

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 Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Much, many, a lot of, lots of: quantifiers

from English Grammar Today

We use the quantifiers much, many, a lot of, lots of to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. We can use them
with a noun (as a determiner) or without a noun (as a pronoun).

Much, many with a noun

We use much with singular uncountable nouns and many with plural nouns:
[talking about money]
I haven’t got much change. I’ve only got a ten euro note.
Are there many campsites near you?

Questions and negatives

We usually use much and many with questions (?) and negatives (−):

Is there much unemployment in that area?
How many eggs are in this cake?
Do you think many people will come?
It was pouring with rain but there wasn’t much wind.
There aren’t many women priests.

Affirmatives

In affirmative clauses we sometimes use much and many in more formal styles:

There is much concern about drug addiction in the US.
He had heard many stories about Yanto and he knew he was trouble.
In informal styles, we prefer to use lots of or a lot of:
I went shopping and spent a lot of money.
Not: I went shopping and spent much money.
See also:
 Lots,  a lot,  plenty

Much of, many of

When we use much or many before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or
pronouns (him, them), we need to use of:
How much of this book is fact and how much is fiction?
Claude, the seventeenth-century French painter, spent much of his life in Italy.
Unfortunately, not many of the photographers were there.
How many of them can dance, sing and act?

This much, that much

Spoken English:

298
 When we are talking to someone face-to-face, we can use this much and that much with a hand gesture to indicate
quantity:
[the speaker indicates a small amount with his fingers]
I only had that much cake.

A lot of, lots of with a noun

We use a lot of and lots of in informal styles. Lots of is more informal than a lot of. A lot of and lots of can both be
used with plural countable nouns and with singular uncountable nouns for affirmatives, negatives, and questions:
We’ve got lots of things to do.
That’s a lot of money.
There weren’t a lot of choices.
Can you hurry up? I don’t have a lot of time.
Are there a lot of good players at your tennis club?
Have you eaten lots of chocolate?
See also:
 Lots,  a lot,  plenty

Much, many, a lot of, lots of: negative questions

When we use much and many in negative questions, we are usually expecting that a large quantity of something isn’t
there. When we use a lot of and lots of in negative questions, we are usually expecting a large quantity of something.
Compare

(No, they haven’t.)

Haven’t they sold many tickets?
The speaker expects that they have sold a small quantity of tickets.

Haven’t they sold a lot of tickets? (or lots (Yes, they have.)

of) The speaker expects that they have sold a large quantity of tickets.

(No, there isn’t.)

Isn’t there much food left?
The speaker expects that there is a small quantity of food left.

(Yes, there is.)

Isn’t there a lot of food left? (or lots of)
The speaker expects that there is a large quantity of food left.

Much, many, a lot, lots: without a noun

We usually leave out the noun after much, many and a lot, lots when the noun is obvious:
A:

Would you like some cheese?

B:

299
 Yes please but not too much. (not too much cheese)
A:

Can you pass me some envelopes?

B:

How many? (how many envelopes?)

A:

How many people came?

B:

A lot. (or Lots.)

Much with comparative adjectives and adverbs: much older, much faster

We can use much before comparative adjectives and adverbs to make a stronger comparison:
Sometimes the prices in the local shop are much better than the supermarket’s prices.
I feel much calmer now I know she’s safe. (much calmer than I felt before)
She’s walking much more slowly since her operation. (much more slowly than before)

Too much, too many and so much, so many

Too much, too many with a noun

We often use too before much and many. It means ‘more than necessary’. We can use too much before an

uncountable noun and too many before a plural noun, or without a noun when the noun is obvious:
I bought too much food. We had to throw some of it away.
They had a lot of work to do. Too much. (too much work)
There are too many cars on the road. More people should use public transport.
There are 35 children in each class. It’s too many. (too many children)

So much, so many with a noun

We use so rather than very before much and many in affirmative clauses to emphasise a very large quantity of

something:
He has so much money!
Not: He has very much money!
There were so many jobs to do.

As much as, as many as

When we want to make comparisons connected with quantity, we use as much as and as many as:
Try and find out as much information as you can.
You can ask as many questions as you want.
See also:
 As  …  as

300
 As much as,  as many as

Much, many and a lot of, lots of: typical errors

 We use much with uncountable nouns and many with countable nouns:
It doesn’t need much effort.
Not: It doesn’t need many effort.
 We usually use a lot of and lots of rather than much and many in informal affirmative clauses:
There are a lot of monuments and a lot of historic buildings in Rome.
Not: There are many monuments and many historic buildings in Rome.
She gave me a lot of information.
Not: She gave me much information.
 We don’t use of after much or many when they come immediately before a noun without an article (a/an,
the), demonstrative (this, that), possessive (my, your) or pronoun (him, them):
They haven’t made many friends here.
Not: They haven’t made many of friends here.
 We don’t use a lot of without a noun:
A:

Do many people work in your building?

B:

Yes. Quite a lot. (quite a lot of people)

Not: Quite a lot of.

No, none and none of
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > No, none and none of

from English Grammar Today

No and none of are determiners. None is a pronoun. No, none and none of indicate negation.

No

We use no directly before nouns:

I’ve got no time to waste.
There are no people I recognise here.
She says she has no friends.

301
 None

None is the pronoun form of no. None means ‘not one’ or ‘not any’. We use it as a pronoun to replace countable and
uncountable nouns. We use it as subject or object:
Slorne stared … and seemed to try to find some strength which would let her speak. But none came. (No strength
came.)
My mother had two brothers. My father had none. (My father didn’t have any brothers.)
A:

What reasons did he give?

B:

None.
When none is the subject, the verb is either singular or plural depending on what it is referring to.
I’m always looking for inspiration. None ever comes.
She’s always looking for ideas. None ever come.
Warning:

We don’t use none where we mean no one or nobody:

They had a wonderful time and luckily no one was injured.
Not: … and luckily none was injured.

None of

We use none with of before the, demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or pronouns:

None of his old friends knew what had happened to him.
It doesn’t matter. None of it was your fault.
We don’t use none of when there is already a negative word (not, n’t) in the clause:
She doesn’t remember any of us.
Not: She doesn’t remember none of us.
Warning:

When we are referring to two things or people, we use neither of rather than noneof:

We sat down at the table, just the two of us. He carried on eating his food. Neither of us said anything.
Not: None of us said anything.
In formal styles, we use none of with a singular verb when it is the subject. However, in informal speaking, people
often use plural verbs:
None of that surprises me.
Indeed, none of his novels is well shaped or well written.
None of the products have been tested on animals and all the bottles are recyclable. (informal)

Typical error

 We don’t use none directly before nouns. We use no + noun or none of + noun:

No children in my group caused any trouble. (or None of the children in my group …)

302
 Not: None children in my group …

Plenty
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Plenty

from English Grammar Today

Plenty as a pronoun
We use plenty as a pronoun to mean ‘enough’ or ‘more than enough’:
A:

How much money do you think I need to bring with me?

B:

About one hundred pounds should be plenty.

[A is pouring milk into B’s coffee]
A:

Is that enough?
B:

That’s plenty. Thanks.

Plenty of as a quantifier

We use plenty of as a quantifier before both countable and uncountable nouns to mean ‘a lot’, ‘a large quantity’:
Don’t worry there are plenty of options.
[risotto is an Italian rice dish]
A:

What shall we have for dinner?

B:

Well, we’ve got plenty of rice. How about risotto?

Plenty of people have dropped out of school early and have still been very successful in their careers.

Plenty: typical errors

 Take care to spell plenty correctly: not ‘planty’.
 We use plenty of before nouns:
There’s no rush. We’ve got plenty of time.

303
 Not: We’ve got plenty time.
See also:
 Lots,  a lot,  plenty
 Many

Some
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Some

from English Grammar Today

Some is a determiner and a pronoun.

Some as a determiner
We use some before nouns to refer to indefinite quantities. Although the quantity is not important or not defined,
using some implies a limited quantity:
Can you get me some milk? (The quantity isn’t specified. Some suggests a normal amount, not an unlimited amount.
Compare: Can you get me five litres of milk?)
I’ve got some questions for you.
There are elephants in Africa and Asia. (The number is not limited.)
Not: There are some elephants in Africa and Asia.
Some as a determiner has two forms: a weak form and a strong form. The forms have different meanings.

Weak form some /səm/

We use the weak form of some in affirmative sentences and in questions (usually expecting the answer ‘yes’), when
the quantity is indefinite or not important (we use any in questions and negative sentences):
I’ve got some /səm/ water.
Have you got some water? (expecting the answer yes)
Have you got any water? (open yes-no question)
I haven’t got any water. (negative)
We use the weak form of some only with uncountable nouns and plural nouns:
I’m looking for some advice. (+ uncountable noun)
Do you need some help? (+ uncountable noun)
We need to make some changes to the programme. (+ plural noun)
There are a lot of advantages in doing the course online, but there are some disadvantages too. (+ plural noun)
Warning:

304
 We don’t use weak form some with singular countable nouns:
If you’re looking for a book to read, I can recommend ‘Animal Farm’.
Not: If you’re looking for some book to read …

Strong form some /sʌm/

The strong form of some is stressed. This form contrasts with others or all or enough:

Why do some people live longer than other people? (some, not others)
Some boys went to the front of the stage to get a better view. The rest of us couldn’t see a thing. (some, not all)
There were some cakes left but not enough for everyone. (some, but not enough)
I’m not keen on some types of fish. I find plaice a bit tasteless.
We can use this strong form to refer to someone or something particular but unknown, especially with singular
countable nouns:
There must be some way of opening this printer!
Some idiot driver crashed into the back of me.

Some with numbers

We use the strong form of some with numbers. It can suggest an unexpectedly high amount:
Some £30 billion was needed to rebuild the hospital.
Some 60% of the course is devoted to design.
See also:
 Some  and  any
 Determiners and any type of noun
 Determiners and uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns

Leaving out some

We don’t use some when we are talking about things or people in general, when we have no idea of number or
quantity:
Rats make good pets. (rats in general)
There were some rats in the kitchen. (a number of rats)
Does your car run on petrol or diesel? (general)
I need some petrol. (specific petrol for my car)
We don’t use some for large or unlimited quantities and amounts:
The earthquake victims urgently need tents, blankets and water.
Not: … some tents, some blankets and some water.
See also:
 A/an  and  the
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

Some as a pronoun
We use some as a pronoun (i.e. without a noun following) when the noun is understood:

305
 If you need any money, I’ll lend you some.
French mustards are usually flavoured with spices. Some have added sugar. Some are quite salty.
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)
 Pronouns

Some of
Warning:

We use some with of before the, demonstratives (this, that), pronouns (you, us) or possessives (my, your). We
use some of to refer to a part of a whole:
I wasn’t sure about some of the answers.
It was great to meet some of her friends and colleagues.
Not: … some her friends …
[from a TV news programme]
First a look at some of today’s main stories in some more detail.
See also:
 Determiners: position and order
 More than one determiner

Some: typical errors

 We don’t use weak form some with singular countable nouns:
In the reception area we found a brochure about the history of the house.
Not: … we found some brochure …
 We use some, not a or an, before uncountable nouns:
Do you need some overnight accommodation?
Not: … an overnight accommodation?
 We don’t use weak form some on its own in negative statements. We use any:
A:

Did you get the eggs?

B:

No, there weren’t any.

Not: No, there weren’t some.
 We don’t use some to mean a few when we are referring to units of time:
I’m looking for someone to help me for a few days.
Not: … to help me for some days.
See also:
 Determiners followed by pronouns

306
 Some and any
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Quantifiers > Some and any

from English Grammar Today

We use some and any in different types of clauses.

He’s got some homework.

+ Some is most common in affirmative clauses.
Not: He’s got any homework.

He hasn’t got any homework.

– Not: He hasn’t got some Any is most common in negative clauses.
homework.

? Has he got any homework?

+ Has he got some homework?

Any is more common in questions but we can use some when we are expecting

Hasn’t he got any the answer to be ‘yes’.
? homework?
− Hasn’t he got some
homework?

See also:
 Some
 Any
 Determiners followed by pronouns

What
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > What

from English Grammar Today

What is a wh-word. We use what to ask questions and as a pronoun and determiner.

What as a question word

We can use what to ask for information about things and actions:

307
 What do you want?
What’s she doing? Tell her to stop at once!
What time are you leaving?
We can also use what in indirect questions:
She asked me what my address was.
I wonder what Jim Barfield is doing these days.
See also:
 Questions: wh-questions

What meaning ‘please repeat’

We can use what in informal situations to ask someone to repeat something if we don’t hear it or understand it:
A:

Did you get the paper?

B:

Sorry, what? (sorry alone would be more polite)

A:

Did you get the paper?

B:

Oh, yes. It’s in the kitchen.

Emphatic questions with whatever and what on earth

We can ask emphatic questions using whatever or what on earth to express shock or surprise. We
stress ever and earth:
Joan, whatever are you doing? You’ll give yourself an electric shock! (stronger than What are you doing?)
What on earth is she wearing? She looks awful in that red and white dress! (stronger than What is she wearing?)

What as a pronoun
We can use what as a pronoun to mean ‘the thing(s) that’:
What we need to do is make a list of useful phone numbers. (the thing we need to do)
I can’t decide what to buy Liz for her birthday.
I haven’t got many Beatles CDs, but you can borrow what I have.
We don’t use what as a relative pronoun. We use which:
This is the book which the lecturer mentioned.
Not: … the book what the lecturer mentioned.

What as a determiner
We can use what in exclamations to express a strong feeling or opinion. In this case, we use what as a determiner
before a noun or before a/an (+ adjective) + noun:

308
 What lovely flowers!
What a horrible smell!
What a mess!

What … for?
We can use what … for? in two ways. We can use it in informal situations to mean why?:
What did you phone her for? (informal: Why did you phone her?)
We can also use what … for? to ask about the purpose of something:
A:

What’s that button for? (What is the purpose of that button?)

B:

It’s the on–off switch for the radio.

What: typical errors

 We don’t use what as a relative pronoun:
The hotel which was least expensive turned out to be the best.
Not: The hotel what was least expensive …
She never asked our permission to use the room, which was very rude of her.
Not: … what was very rude of her.
 We don’t use what after words which take a that-clause:
I am very happy that you can come and visit us.
Not: … happy what you can come …
See also:

When
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > When

from English Grammar Today

When is a wh-word. We use when to ask questions, as a conjunction and to introduce relative clauses.

When as a question word

We can use when to ask for information about what time something happens:
When did you leave?
When are you going on holiday?

309
 When will you know the result of the exam?
We can use when in indirect questions:
She asked me when I would be ready to start the job.
I wonder when the new computers will arrive.
See also:
 Questions
 Questions: wh-questions
 Future

When as a conjunction
We use when as a conjunction meaning ‘at the time that’. The clause with when is a subordinate clause (sc) and
needs a main clause (mc) to complete its meaning. If the when-clause comes before the main clause, we use a
comma.

Talking about the past

[SC]When I was young, [MC]there were no houses here.

[MC]Nobody spoke [SC]when she came into the room.

Talking about the present

When you start the engine, there’s a strange noise.

Talking about the future

In references to the future with when, we use the present simple or the present perfect in the when-clause, not the
future with shall and will:
When the new park opens, I’ll go there every day.
Not: When the new park will open, I’ll go there every day.
When I’ve finished my homework, I’m going to phone Marita.
Not: When I’ll finish my homework, I’m going to phone Marita.
We can use when as a conjunction to mean ‘considering that’:
What’s the point in going out when we have to be home by eleven o’clock?
See also:
 Conjunctions
 Punctuation
 As

When as a relative pronoun

We can use when as a relative pronoun in relative clauses:
That was the week when we booked our holiday.
The parcel arrived in the post at 11 am, when I was still at work.
See also:

310
 Relative clauses

Since when?
We can use since when to ask at what time something began. We often use it as a response when we are surprised
that something has begun:
A:

Hilary’s working at the Art Museum now.

B:

Really? Since when?
A:

Oh, she’s been there about three months.

Warning:

Using Since when at the start of a question can express anger or sarcasm:

[talking about children watching television]
A:

Maybe you should try not to let them watch so much television.
B:

Since when are you an expert on childcare? (This is very direct.)

When or if?
We use when to refer to a future situation or condition that we are certain of, whereas we use if to introduce a
possible or unreal situation.
Compare

When I see Gary, I’ll tell him that you said

I will definitely see Gary.
hello.

If I see Gary, I’ll tell him that you said hello. I may see Gary but I am not certain.

See also:
 If or when?

When or since?
We use when to mean ‘(at) the time that’. We use since to refer to a particular time in the past until another time or
until now:
I had a great time when I went to the coast.
I have been having a boring time since I came back home.
Not: I have been having a boring time when I came back home.

311
 See also:
 Since

When: typical errors

 Be careful not to use when instead of if:
If you arrive too late, you are not allowed to take the examination because they don’t accept late enrolment.
Not: When you arrive too late, …
 Be careful not to use when instead of since:
I was very surprised to see him because it’s been a long time since I last saw him.
Not: … it’s been a long time when I last saw him.
 We don’t use will after when to mean ‘at that time’:
When I start college, I’ll miss my old school friends.
Not: When I’ll start college, I’ll miss my old school friends.

Where
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > Where

from English Grammar Today

Where is a wh-word. We use where to ask questions, as a conjunction and to introduce relative clauses.

Where as a question word

We can use where to ask for information about place:
Where did you buy those shoes?
Where will you be working next Monday?
We can use where in indirect questions:
I asked him where I could buy an umbrella.
Can you tell me where she left the keys?

Emphatic questions with wherever and where on earth

We can ask emphatic questions using wherever or where on earth to express shock or surprise. We
stress ever and earth:
Wherever are you going with such a big bag? (stronger than Where are you going?)
Where on earth have I put my wallet? (stronger than Where have I put my wallet?)
See also:
 Questions

312
 Indirect speech: reporting questions

Where as a conjunction
We use where as a conjunction meaning ‘in the place that’ or ‘in situations that’. The clause with where is a
subordinate clause and needs a main clause to complete its meaning. If the where clause comes before the main
clause, we use a comma:
Where you find a lot of water, you will also find these beautiful insects.
Where you have to pay a deposit, be sure to get a receipt.

Where as a relative pronoun

We can use where as a relative pronoun:
The hotel where we spent our honeymoon has been demolished.
The hall where you’re giving your talk has a really good sound system.
See also:
 Relative clauses

Which
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > Which

from English Grammar Today

Which is a wh-word. We use which to ask questions and to introduce relative clauses.

Which as a question word

We use which in questions as a determiner and interrogative pronoun to ask for specific information:
‘Which car are we going in?’ he asked Alexander.
Which museums did you visit?
Which do you prefer? Lemon cake or carrot cake?
We use which in indirect questions and statements:
In the Young Cook of Britain competition, the finalists were asked which famous person they would like to cook for.
Find out which way they’re going and we’ll follow.
See also:
 Indirect speech: reporting questions

313
 Which or what?

We use both which and what to ask questions. We use which when there is a restricted range of answers. We

use what more commonly when the range of answers is not restricted:
Which is the capital of Liberia? Monrovia or Greenville?
What’s the capital of Liberia?

Which in relative clauses

We use which in relative clauses to refer to animals and to things:
We have seen a lot of changes which are good for business.
The cruise ship, which will depart from Liverpool for a fifteen-night Mediterranean cruise, returns to the Mersey
on 29 September.
We also use which to introduce a relative clause when it refers to a whole clause or sentence:
She seemed more talkative than usual, which was because she was nervous.
People think I sit around drinking coffee all day. Which, of course, I do.
We often use which with prepositions. Some formal styles prefer to use a preposition before which rather than to
leave the preposition ‘hanging’ at the end of the sentence:
There are several small ponds in which a variety of fish live. (or There are several small ponds which a variety of
fish live in.)
See also:
 Prepositions
 Relative pronouns:  which

Which + of
We use of with which before other determiners (the, those, your) and pronouns (yours, them):
Which of the following features do you feel are important when choosing a house?
Which of your sisters lives in Boston?
There are a lot of high-street retailers. Which of them are offering the best value for money?
See also:
 Relative clauses
 Questions: interrogative pronouns (what, who)
 Indirect speech: reporting questions
 Relative pronouns:  which

Who, whom
 

314
Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > Who, whom

from English Grammar Today

Who and whom are wh-words. We use them to ask questions and to introduce relative clauses.

Who as a question word

We use who as an interrogative pronoun to begin questions about people:
Who’s next?
Who makes the decisions here?
Who did you talk to?
We use who in indirect questions and statements:
The phone rang. She asked me who it was.
Can you tell me who I should talk to.
I can’t remember who told me.

Emphatic questions with whoever and who on earth

We can ask emphatic questions using whoever or who on earth to express shock or surprise. We
stress ever and earth:
Whoever does she think she is, speaking to us like that? (stronger than Who does she think she is?)
Who on earth has left all this rubbish here? (stronger than Who has left all this rubbish here?)

Who in relative clauses

We use who as a relative pronoun to introduce a relative clause about people:
The police officer who came was a friend of my father’s.
He shared a flat with Anne Bolton, who he married, and eventually they moved to Australia.

Whom
Whom is the object form of who. We use whom to refer to people in formal styles or in writing, when the person is
the object of the verb. We don’t use it very often and we use it more commonly in writing than in speaking.
We use whom commonly with prepositions. Some formal styles prefer to use a preposition before whom than to
leave the preposition ‘hanging’ at the end of the sentence:
Before a job interview it is a good idea, if you can, to find out some background information about the people for
whom you would be working. (preferred in some formal styles to … about the people whom you would be
working for)
Over 200 people attended the ceremony, many of whom had known Harry as their teacher.
We use it in relative clauses:
She gave birth in 1970 to a boy whom she named Caleb James.
We use it in indirect questions and statements:
He didn’t ask for whom I had voted.
He told me where he went and with whom. (preferred in some formal styles to He told me where he went and who
with.)

315
 See also:
 Relative clauses
 Questions: interrogative pronouns (what, who)
 Indirect speech: reporting questions
 Prepositions
 Relative pronouns:  who
 Relative pronouns:  whom

Whose
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > Whose

from English Grammar Today

Whose is a wh-word. We use whose to ask questions and to introduce relative clauses.

Whose as a question word

We use whose to ask a question about possession:
Whose birthday is it today?
Whose house was used in the film ‘Gosford Park’?
Whose are these gloves?
We use whose in indirect questions:
Juliet wondered whose the sports car was.
Warning:

Don’t confuse whose and who’s. Who’s means who is:

Whose book is this? (Who does this book belong to?)
Who’s driving us home? (Who is driving us home?)

Whose in relative clauses

We use whose to introduce a relative clause indicating possession by people, animals and things:
John works with that other chap whose name I can’t remember.
Shirley has a 17-year-old daughter whose ambition is to be a photographer.
This is the book whose title I couldn’t remember.

Typical error

 We don’t use whose when we mean who’s (who is)

316
 Who’s there?
Not: Whose there?
Whose little brother is he?
Not: Who’s little brother is he?
See also:
 Relative clauses
 Questions: interrogative pronouns (what, who)
 Indirect speech: reporting questions
 Relative pronoun:  whose

Why
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > Why

from English Grammar Today

Why is a wh-word. We use why to talk about reasons and explanations.

Why as a question word

We can use why to ask about reasons and explanations:
Why did he leave home when he was 16?
Why didn’t you tell Gemma?
Why is the Earth round?
We can use why in indirect questions:
He asked me why I wanted to leave the job.
I wonder why he told nobody he was getting married.
We can use why on its own as a response:
A:

I’m going home now.

B:

Why?
When we reply to a negative statement, we usually say why not?:
A:

I don’t like it here.

B:

Why not?

317
Why: asking for reasons
When we ask for reasons in speaking, we can use the phrase why is that? In informal conversations we often
say why’s that?:
A:

Look, the moth is attracted to the light.

B:

Why is that?
A:

I’m not sure.

A:

She’s not going to college this year.

B:

Why’s that?
A:

She says she wants to travel for a while.

We can use why ever or why on earth to add emphasis and to show shock or surprise. We usually
stress ever and earth:
A:

Beth has decided to go on holiday by herself this year.

B:

Why ever would anyone want to go on holiday alone?

Why on earth has Julie bought me this expensive present?
In informal contexts we sometimes use what for? with the same meaning of asking for a reason:
A:

Ann’s going to be really upset with me.

B:

What for?
A:

I forgot to call her back last night.

Warning:

We don’t use why as a conjunction when we mean because:

I’m going home now because I’m tired.
Not: … why I’m tired.

That’s why …: giving reasons

318
 We often use the phrase that’s why to give a reason:
A:

Frank and Ellen have three children now.

B:

That’s why they moved house. They needed more space.

A:

Ian’s not been feeling well recently, has he?

B:

No. That’s why he’s taken some time off.

Why should …: expressing annoyance

When we are annoyed about something, we sometimes use the phrase why should:
Why should taxpayers have to pay more because the government has not managed its spending properly?
Why should old people have to worry about health insurance?
Why should I? as a response is very direct and rude:
[A is a mother and B is a child who is opening and closing the car window]
A:

Stop doing that.

B:

Why should I?

Why don’t and why not: making suggestions

We use why don’t and why not to make suggestions:
Why don’t we leave the washing-up until tomorrow morning? It’s too late now. (or Why not leave the washing
up …)
See also:
 Suggestions

Why not?: showing agreement

We can use the phrase why not? as a reply which shows that we agree to a suggestion or request:
A:

How about we invite Barbara and Gina round on Saturday night?

B:

Why not? We haven’t seen them in a long time.

319
 Typical error

 Be careful not to use why instead of because:

I have not placed an order for a long time because I am unhappy with the last delivery.
Not: I have not placed an order for a long time why I am unhappy …

How
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Question words > How

from English Grammar Today

The adverb how most commonly means ‘in what way’ or ‘to what extent’.
How in questions

We use how when we introduce direct and indirect questions:

I haven’t seen you for ages. How are you?
How was the film? Was it as bad as you thought?
Do you know how I can get to the bus station?
I asked her how she was but she didn’t answer me.
We use how to introduce questions about measurements or amounts:
How old is your grandfather?
How often do you get to your cottage at weekends?
How much does the average DVD player cost these days?
[the ‘Prado’ is a museum and art gallery in Madrid]
How far is it to the Prado and how long will it take us to get there by taxi?

How in indirect questions

We often use how with verbs such as tell, wonder and know in indirect questions:

I just don’t know how she manages to cook so well in such a small kitchen.
I wonder how they do that.

How in exclamations

In exclamations we use how before adjectives, adverbs and verb phrases. In verb phrases the word order is subject +
verb:
They’ve bought her some flowers. How nice of them!
How fantastic!
How beautifully they sang!
How we love New York!
We don’t use how with a noun phrase. We use what:

320
 What a gorgeous coat!
Not: How a gorgeous coat!
See also:
 Exclamations
 What

How about …?

In informal speaking we commonly use how about + noun phrase and how about + -ing form when we make
suggestions:
Liz, how about some more fruit juice?
How about going to the concert with us this weekend?
See also:
 Suggestions

Typical errors

 In exclamations involving clauses, the word order is subject + verb:

How I love real Italian ice-cream!
Not: How love I real Italian ice-cream!
 We don’t use how with a noun phrase, we use what:
What a nice idea!
Not: How a nice idea!

Piece words and group words

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Piece words and group words

from English Grammar Today

Piece words
Piece words make it possible to talk about a single unit or units of something which is seen as uncountable. Piece
words include words such as piece, bit, item, article. We normally use them with of. We can use them in the singular
or the plural.
Compare

uncountable
uncountable use with a piece word
noun

We need information about trains to
information She told me an interesting piece of information.
Moscow.

321
uncountable
uncountable use with a piece word
noun

news Do you have any news for us? He told me a bit of news that shocked me.

Two items of furniture were sold for more than

furniture We’re going to buy new furniture.
£50,000 at the sale.

The workers all wore The police found an article of clothing and some
clothing
protective clothing. money.

The piece words combine (collocate) with nouns in different ways. Here are the most common combinations. The
piece words are arranged from the least formal (bit) to the most formal (article).

piece
common combinations
word

bit of fun, luck, time, work, paper, information, bread, money, news, gossip

least piece of paper, software, information, work, writing, furniture, wood, equipment, music, cloth, land
formal
most item of clothing, equipment, furniture, food, information, interest, business, jewellery, news
formal

furniture, clothing (article is the least common piece word and is rather formal. It combines
article of
mostly with these two nouns).

This is a new piece of equipment which helps rescuers find earthquake victims trapped in buildings.
Not: … a new equipment …
I had a bit of luck the other day – an old friend offered me a job!
Not: I had a luck …
Three items of jewellery were stolen from Miss Hart’s dressing-room.
Every article of clothing must be marked with the child’s name.
There are also more specific piece words which combine with particular nouns:
a drop of water, a drop of milk, a slice of bread, a loaf of bread, a bar of chocolate, a bar of soap, a pinch of
salt
You will find these and more examples in a good learner’s dictionary.

Group words
Group words (sometimes called collective nouns) are nouns which refer to groups of people, animals or things.
There are special group words for particular combinations of people, animals and things:

322
group
common combinations
word

bunch flowers (and types of flowers such as roses, tulips), grapes, cherries (and other similar fruit), keys

crowd people, onlookers, admirers, protesters, shoppers

flock sheep, birds (and types of birds such as pigeons, geese)

gang workers, kids, youths, teenagers, thieves, criminals

group (can be used with most nouns)

herd sheep, cattle, cows, goats (and similar animals)

pack wolves, dogs, hyenas, cards, lies

glasses, cups, plates, keys, tools (and other objects which form a group because they share the same
set
features), rules, standards

shoal fish (and types of fish such as herring, cod)

swarm bees, flies, ants (and other insects)

team scientists, researchers, experts, designers, detectives

Group words take a singular verb when they are used in the singular, and a plural verb when they are used in the
plural:
A team of experts was called in to investigate the problem.
There was a flock of about 30 sheep in the field.
Gangs of youths were fighting one another in the streets.
There were swarms of flies everywhere.
Sometimes, singular group words are followed by a plural verb, but some people may consider this to be incorrect:
The committee produced a set of rules that were intended to prevent people from abusing the system. (or … a set of
rules that was intended …)
I found a bunch of keys on the floor. Are they yours?

323
Comparison: nouns (more money, the most points)
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Comparison: nouns (more money, the most
points)

from English Grammar Today

More, less and fewer

We can use more, less and fewer with noun phrases to create comparisons which are similar to the comparative
forms of adjectives and adverbs:
There was more snow this year than last year.
She has more problems than most people.
You should eat less junk food and start to take better care of your health.
There are fewer birds in the countryside now than there were 30 years ago.
Traditionally, we use less with uncountable nouns and fewer with plural countable nouns. Nowadays, many people
use less with plural countable nouns. Some people consider this to be incorrect, and prefer to use fewer:
I think the room would look better with less furniture. (less + singular uncountable noun)
There were fewer cars on the roads twenty years ago. (fewer + plural countable noun; traditional correct form)
Less kids take music lessons now than before. (less + plural countable noun; considered incorrect by some people)
Warning:

We use more + noun phrase, not much + noun phrase, to make a comparison:

Footballers earn more money than other sportsmen.
Not: … much money than other sportsmen

More and more, less and less, fewer and fewer

We can use more and more, less and less and fewer and fewer in noun phrases to refer to things which increase or
decrease over time:
There are more and more low-quality reality shows on TV.
I seem to have less and less time to myself these days.
She visited her family on fewer and fewer occasions, till soon she stopped seeing them altogether.

Most, least and fewest

We can use most, least and fewest with noun phrases to create comparisons which are similar to the superlative
forms of adjectives and adverbs. It is more common to use the before most, least and fewest, but we can also leave it
out:
The points are added up, and the team with the most points wins.
Who got most votes in the election?
The room that has the least furniture would be best for dancing.
The class with the fewest students was always Miss Murray’s philosophy seminar.

324
 Traditionally, we use least with singular uncountable nouns and fewest with plural countable nouns. Nowadays,
many people use least with plural countable nouns. Some people consider this to be incorrect, and prefer to
use fewest:
Which horse eats the least food? That’s the one I’ll buy! (least + singular uncountable noun)
Of all the models we tested, the B226X had the fewest faults. (fewest + plural countable noun; traditional correct
form)
Of the three cities, I’d say Limerick gets the least tourists. (least + plural countable noun; considered incorrect by
some people)
See also:
 Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)
 Comparison: adverbs (worse, more easily)

Nouns and gender

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Nouns and gender

from English Grammar Today

Most English nouns do not have grammatical gender. Nouns referring to people do not have separate forms for men
(male form) and women (female form). However, some nouns traditionally had different forms. Nowadays, people
usually prefer more neutral forms.

male form female form neutral form

actor actress actor

chairman chairwoman chair or chairperson

headmaste
headmistress headteacher or head
r

(social) host
host hostess (on an aircraft) cabin
attendant

policewoma
policeman police officer
n

(on an aircraft) cabin
steward stewardess
attendant

325
male form female form neutral form

waiter waitress waiter

Traditional work-roles

Some jobs were normally done by men in the past, and their names had no form for women (e.g. fireman,
fisherman). Some were normally done by women, and their names had no form for men (e.g. nurses and secretaries
were almost always women). Nowadays, fire-fighter is preferred to fireman, and nurse is preferred for both sexes
instead of male nurse for a man. Personal assistant (or PA) is often used instead of secretary. The neutral words are
more ‘politically correct’ (not likely to offend anyone):
Two fire-fighters were injured in a blaze at an electronics factory yesterday.
My brother’s a nurse in the local hospital.

Animal names

Some animal names have male and female forms. Very often, one of the names acts as a neutral term, even if we
know the sex of the animal.

male female neutral

bull cow cow

dog bitch dog

drak
duck duck
e

There were loads of people out walking with dogs today.

In the middle of this park there was a lovely pond with ducks swimming on it.

Reported speech: reporting nouns

 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Reported speech: reporting nouns

from English Grammar Today

326
Reporting nouns are nouns such as comment, criticism, remark, statement. We can represent indirect speech with
reporting nouns as well as with reporting verbs. These are more common in writing than speaking, and are usually
quite formal. (Reported speech is underlined.)
His remark that we hadn’t worked hard enough upset everyone. (original remark: ‘You haven’t worked hard
enough.’)
The Prime Minister’s comment that this was not the right time for an election has made headlines in all today’s
papers.
Jason’s claim that he was ignored by everyone is hard to believe.
Her excuse that she had been abroad at the time was not accepted by the court.
Common reporting nouns

announcemen complain explanatio

response
t t n

answer criticism news statement

suggestio
argument demand offer
n

claim denial promise threat

comment excuse remark warning

Reporting nouns and reported clauses

The reported clause after a reporting noun is usually a that-clause which acts as the complement of the noun. We do
not usually omit that after reporting nouns:
For years, nobody listened to the warnings that global temperatures were rising.
Not: For years, nobody listened to the warnings global temperatures were rising.
We can also use some reporting nouns (for example claim, offer, promise, suggestion and threat) with a to-
infinitive:
She made a promise to visit him at least once a month.
Nobody took seriously her threat to sell the business.

Reporting nouns and adjectives

We often use adjectives with reporting nouns to describe particular qualities of what someone said:
Her sudden announcement that she was getting divorced came at 5 pm yesterday.
His feeble excuse that he had missed the train convinced nobody.

327
Age
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Age

from English Grammar Today

We use age as a noun to refer to how many years someone has lived:

She looks a lot younger but she is actually the same age as me.
At the age of … is a common expression:
He started to play golf at the age of three.
The two sisters started their careers as teachers at the ages of thirty and thirty-three.
Warning:

We don’t say in the age of when we refer to people’s age:

Children normally start school at the age of five.
Not: Children normally start school in the age of five.
When we talk about someone’s age, we use of age or old. Of age sounds more formal than old:
He is a fully qualified pilot and is only twenty-five years of age. (more formal)
He is a fully qualified pilot and is only twenty-five years old. (less formal)
When asking direct questions about someone’s age or the age of a thing, we don’t normally use age. We say How
old …?
How old are you?
Not: What is your age?
How old is your car?
Not: What age is your car?
We only use What age …? in more formal situations:
What age was the child when she first showed signs of the illness?
Age or ages can also be used to mean ‘a long time’, or a specific long period in history:
It seems an age since we last saw them.
During the Ice Age, the whole of Britain was covered in a sheet of ice.
I waited for them for ages but they must have forgotten about the meeting.
We say the Middle Ages to refer to the period of European history from about the sixth to the sixteenth century AD:
Life in the Middle Ages was very hard for most people.
Not: Life in the middle age …
Middle age and middle-aged refer to a person’s life from the ages of about 40 to 65:
Middle age is the most prosperous time of life for many people.
Many middle-aged people go to keep-fit classes.

328
Half
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Half

from English Grammar Today

A half is one of two equal parts of something:

Half an orange.
The plural of half is halves, pronounced /hɑ:vz/:
She cut it into two halves.

Half in noun phrases

We can use half and half of before nouns with the definite article (the), possessives (my, your) and demonstratives
(this, that):
We spent half the time talking. It was an absolute waste of time for all of us.
Why don’t you have half my chocolate?
At least half of those books can be sold.
Half of, not half, can occur with a pronoun as head of the noun phrase:
Almost half of us were not allowed to vote. It was completely unfair.
Half, not half of, is used in the pattern half a/an and is followed by a noun of measurement:
It’s at least half a kilometre to those shops.
Not: … half of a kilometre … or … half kilometre …
It’ll take me half an hour so I’ll see you at the club.
Not: … half of an hour … or … half hour …

Half as an adverb
We can use half as an adverb which means ‘not completely’, ‘partly’:
She’s half French and half Algerian.
The theatre wasn’t even half full.
She is not half as clever as her sister.

Half as a noun
It took them a day and a half to reach the top of the mountain.
He’s lecturing on English painting in the first half of the nineteenth century.
It looks like it’s broken but we should be able to glue the two halves together.

Half as an adjective
They’re offering the flowers for almost half price.
Children under sixteen can travel half fare on trains.

329
Holiday and holidays
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Holiday and holidays

from English Grammar Today

Holiday as a singular noun commonly refers to a specific day or event:

It’s a public holiday on Monday, isn’t it, so I suppose the banks’ll be closed?
She seems very tired and upset at the moment. She needs a holiday.
We booked a holiday online yesterday – two weeks in Greece.
We use the plural noun holidays and holiday in similar ways:
We are all going to Croatia for our holidays this year.
We are all going to Croatia for our holiday this year.
We often use on with holiday:
They’re very good friends. We first met them when we were on holiday in Morocco.
Not: … when we were in holiday … or … when we were at holiday … or … when we were on holidays …

Opinion
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Opinion

from English Grammar Today

We use opinion as a noun to mean beliefs or judgements about someone or something. When it refers to the beliefs
or judgements of individuals, it is countable:
I’ve never agreed with Chris’s opinion on taxation.
A lot of people have strong opinions about bullfighting. (referring to their individual opinions)
When it refers to the beliefs or judgements of a group of people, opinion is usually uncountable:
The government is worried about public opinion.
We use phrases such as in my opinion, in your opinion, in Peter’s opinion to show whose opinion we are referring
to:
In Maria’s opinion, we paid too much.
We often introduce ideas, especially in writing, with the phrase in my opinion:
In my opinion, there are too many cars on the road with just one person in them.
Not: On my opinion/To my opinion/According to me/In my point of view

330
 Warning:

We don’t use in my opinion and I think together:

In my opinion, she’s wasting her time.
Not: In my opinion I think she’s wasting her time.
The phrases It is my opinion that … and I am of the opinion that … are more formal:
It is my opinion that everyone should have free healthcare.
I am of the opinion that the Prime Minister should resign.
See also:
 According to

Mind
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Mind

from English Grammar Today

Mind as a verb
We use the verb mind to mean ‘take care or be careful of or about something’, or ‘pay attention to something’. In
this meaning, we usually use it in the imperative:
Mind your step!
Mind your head. This is a very small door!
Kathy, mind that you don’t trip over my bag. It’s right by the door.
See also:
 Imperative clauses (Be quiet!)
We can also use mind to mean ‘take care of someone or something’:
My mother has offered to mind the children while we are away.
Could you mind my bag for a moment?
Warning:

We don’t use mind to mean remember:

We must remember that it is our responsibility to protect and care for the environment.
Not: We must mind that …

I don’t mind, he doesn’t mind

We can use don’t/doesn’t mind to mean ‘not feel annoyed or worried by something’.

I don’t mind living near the train line. You get used to it.
She doesn’t mind waiting up late.
Warning:

We say I don’t mind, or it doesn’t matter. We don’t say it doesn’t mind:

331
 A:

Sorry, there are no more chairs!

B:

I don’t mind. I can sit on the floor. (or It doesn’t matter. I can sit on the floor.)
Not: It doesn’t mind …
See also:
 Matter
Warning:

When we refer to the future, we use present (not future) verb forms after mind:
I don’t mind what day they come and stay as long as it’s not Tuesday 12th because I’m away.
Not: … what day they will come and stay …

Would you mind? and Do you mind?

We use the phrases would you mind + -ing form, and do you mind + -ing form to ask people politely to do
things. Would you mind is more polite and more common:
Would you mind opening the window, please?
Do you mind turning down the volume a little, please?
Do you mind me turning on the light? (I want to turn on the light)
When we ask for permission politely, we can use would you mind if I + past or do you mind if I + present:
Would you mind if I turned on this light?
Do you mind if I sit here?
When someone asks for permission, we usually reply no …, meaning ‘I don’t mind’ or ‘I’m happy with that’. If we
want to say that we are not happy, we usually begin with I’m afraid …:
A:

Would you mind if we sat here?

B:

No, not at all. (you can sit here – I don’t mind)

A:

Do you mind if I use your phone?

B:

I’m afraid the battery is dead.

Not: No. The battery is dead.

Never mind

We use the phrase never mind to tell someone not to worry about something because it is not important:
A:

332
Amy, I’m afraid I’ve broken a cup in your kitchen.
B:

Never mind, Liz. It’s only a cup!

A:

I really want to see that new Brad Pitt movie.

B:

It finished last week at the cinema.

A:

Oh, never mind. I’ll get it on DVD eventually.

Mind you

Spoken English:

We use the phrase mind you in speaking to mean ‘but we should also remember or take into account’:
We had such terrible weather on our holiday. Mind you, it was winter in Tasmania when we went there.
We also use mind you when we are joking:
[A is reading a newspaper headline]
A:

Lotto winner John builds golf-course in back yard.

B:

Oh yeah. That is one way of spending your money.

A:

Yeah.
B:

Yeah. Must have a big back yard, mind you, to have ten holes of golf.

Mind as a noun
The noun mind refers to the part of a person that enables them to think, feel emotions and be aware of things:
I was imagining fields of golden daffodils in my mind.
My mind was filled with ideas.
There are many commonly used phrases with mind:
Liam was going to come with us, but he’s changed his mind. (make a new or different decision about something)
We’ve made up our minds. We’re moving to New Zealand. (make a decision)
What’s on your mind? (what’s bothering you?)
As a detective, I have to keep an open mind. (be willing to consider all of the options and possibilities)
You will find other meanings of mind in a good learner’s dictionary.

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 Mind: typical errors
 We don’t use to-infinitive after would you mind or do you mind:
Would you mind getting me a newspaper?
Not: Would you mind to get me a newspaper?
 We don’t use mind to mean ‘remember’:
Many people refuse to give any importance to computers but they should remember they have better lives because
of them.
Not: … they should mind they have better lives because of them.

Promise
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Promise

from English Grammar Today

Promise is a noun and a verb.

A promise is something that you say you will definitely do:
I’ll be here for your birthday. That’s a promise!
We often use the verb make with promise:
Beth made a promise to Owen that she would look after his dog whenever he was away. Now she regrets it.
We can use the verb promise to say that we will definitely do something. We use it with a clause with will, would or
with a to-infinitive. It is sometimes followed by that:
I promise I’ll buy you another one.
Not: I promise I buy you another one.
I promise never to tell him.
The builder promised that he would be here on Tuesday.
We can use the modal verb will to make promises:
I’ll always remember you.
We’ll send you the contract tomorrow.

Reason
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Reason

334
 from English Grammar Today

Reason for
We use reason for + noun phrase, not reason of:
What’s the reason for the delay? We’ve been waiting more than an hour.
Not: What is the reason of the delay?
There were several reasons for his strange behaviour.
We normally only use of after reason in the formal expression for reasons of:
The government claims the new law is necessary for reasons of national security.

Reason why
We use reason why before a clause. We often omit why, especially in statements:
The reason (why) I didn’t contact you was that I was only in town for a few hours.
Warning:

We don’t say reason because:

Is there a reason why you just listed people’s initials and not their full names?
Not: Is there a reason because you …
See also:
 When as a relative pronoun

Reason that
We use reason that before a clause. We often omit that, especially in statements. Reason that is less common and
slightly more formal than reason why:
The reason (that) we need new guidelines is that the present ones are just not working.
One reason that the panel could not decide who was the best person for the job was that the interview times were
too short.
We do not use reason in the plural with a that-clause:
There are several reasons why I don’t like the book.
Not: There are several reasons that …

Reason + to-infinitive
We can use reason with a to-infinitive:
There’s no reason to be suspicious – everything, is perfectly normal.
You have every reason to demand a guarantee in writing. I would do that at once, if I were you.

Sort, type and kind

335
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Sort, type and kind

from English Grammar Today

Sort, type and kind all generally mean the same thing. They are words we use to refer to a group of people or things
which share the same characteristics. We use these words very often when we describe things and we often find
them in dictionary definitions:
Jazz isn’t the sort of music I can listen to for very long.
A fastener is a type of metal button which fits together to join clothes, for example a coat might have fasteners.
There are many kinds of birds coming to feed in my garden at the moment.
We often use sort, type and kind as vague expressions to suggest that we think something is like something else. We
do this either because we are not sure, or because we do not want to be too specific and too direct:
[joking about a cheap perfume that someone got as a present]
And it was, it was really cheap, I mean, it was a sort of a rose perfume and I think the whole box only cost him one
pound fifty, or something. You could probably run your car off it.
We sometimes use some before sort, type and kind as vague expressions:
Karen has made some sort of cake for the party.
There was some type of hole in the road and we didn’t see it.
There’s some kind of strange smell in here.
We often use and that kind of thing or and that sort of thing to refer to categories. We usually give an example or
two from the category we are referring to first, e.g. apples and that kind of thing, bookshops and libraries and that
sort of thing:
A:

What are you doing tonight?

B:

Well, first, I’ve got lots of marking and that sort of thing to do.
A:

Are you taking anything to eat?

B:

Just a few snacks – crisps and that kind of thing.

Thing and stuff
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Thing and stuff

336
 from English Grammar Today

Thing
We use the general noun thing more commonly in speaking than in writing.
It is most commonly used to refer to physical objects, but we also use thing to refer to ideas, actions and events:
What’s that thing over there in the car park?
She always says that she hasn’t a thing to wear.
Can you put your things in the upstairs room? (things here = personal belongings)
Anger is a very dangerous thing in a young man.
So don’t rush him. These things take time and we certainly don’t want to upset him.
A holiday? That’s just the thing for you.
A:

Hi Geoff. How’s things? (How’s things is a common informal greeting.)

B:

Fine, thanks. How are you?

We often use thing in a similar way to wh-cleft constructions (What we need to do is …). It is also often used
with to and with that-clauses (underlined):
The  thing  we need to know is why they missed the train.
The  thing  they said that we shouldn’t forget was to take a boat trip on the lake.
The best  thing  to do is to phone the doctor at once.
The  thing  that worries me most is the cost of the holiday.
In speaking, we commonly use the phrase the thing is. We use it when we want to focus on something, or to indicate
that there is a problem:
The thing is … erm … we don’t have time to visit New York as well as Washington.
Yeah, that’s OK, but the thing is, he still hasn’t apologised for being late.
Thing is an example of vague language. It allows speakers not to sound too direct. We often use thing in phrases
such as things like that, that kind of thing:
They’re cooking lots of different Italian and Spanish dishes and things like that.
When I worked in a newspaper office, there wasn’t time for eating lunch or that kind of thing, you know.
We also use thing to show both positive (usually affectionate) and negative attitudes, mainly when accompanied by
appropriate adjectives:
Our cat is too old now to leave the house, poor thing.
You lucky thing! I wish I had the chance to visit New Zealand.
A:

You’re going to get paint on that dress. Why don’t you get changed?
B:

It doesn’t matter. It’s just an old thing.

See also:
 Cleft sentences (It was in June we got married.)

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 Vague expressions

Stuff
Stuff is one of the most common nouns in speaking. It is more informal than thing. It is not at all common in writing.
Stuff is an uncountable noun. We use stuff in similar ways to thing, especially in vague language phrases such
as stuff like that:
Where can we put our stuff? (our belongings) (very similar to, but more informal than, Where can we put our
things?)
She didn’t have much advice to offer. She just told us to learn lots of new English vocabulary and stuff like that.
See also:
 Kind of  and  sort of
 Sort,  type  and  kind
 Vague expressions
 The thing,  the one thing,  something

View
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > View

from English Grammar Today

View as a noun
View as a noun means a belief, opinion or idea about something:
I don’t have strong views on religion. (or I don’t have strong views about religion.)
What are your views on climate change? (or What are your views about climate change?)
We can introduce our ideas with in my view or from my point of view:
In my view, everyone should stay in school until they are 18.
Not: In my point of view …
I spent two months working in England. From my point of view, that was the easiest way to learn English.
Not: In my point of view … or On my point of view …
Warning:

We use from my point of view to express how we see something or how it affects us personally. When we are
expressing our beliefs or opinions, we use in my opinion or in my view.
Compare

From my point of view, driving is not a good option. I get very In my opinion/In my view, in 100 years’ time

338
 tired if I drive more than about two hours. people will still be wearing jeans.

A general opinion about the clothes people will

How the speaker is personally affected by something.
be wearing in 100 years’ time.

See also:
 Think
We can use point of view as a noun phrase in the singular or plural:
If you ask people how the economic crisis affects them, you will get many different points of view.
We can also use view to refer to what we can see from a particular place:
The view from my window is amazing.
We booked a room with a view, but our room was overlooking the car park.

View as a verb
We also use view as a verb to mean ‘hold an opinion’:
How does your company view unions? (What is the company’s opinion of unions?)
Changes are often viewed with suspicion.
In formal contexts, we can use view to mean ‘watch or look at something’:
The DVD can also be viewed on your PC.
View can also mean ‘look at a house when you are thinking of buying or renting it’:
We’re still looking for a house. We’ve viewed ten places already and we didn’t like any of them.

Way
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Way

from English Grammar Today

Way is a noun and adverb.

Way as a noun
As a noun the most common meanings of way are ‘method or style’, ‘route, direction, road’ and ‘distance’:
I make cheese sauce a different way from my mother.
The hospital is on Sandford Road. Do you know the way?
Which way shall we go?
It’s a long way from here on foot. You can take a bus.
We can use a to-infinitive or an -ing form after way when it means ‘method’:
There’s an easier way to do that. (or There’s an easier way of doing that.)

339
 Way as an adverb
We can use way informally as a degree adverb to mean ‘a lot’:
The project is way behind schedule.
She had way more chances than me.

In the way, on the way

We use in the way for things that are obstructing a path or stopping us from getting somewhere:
Can you move, please? You’re in the way.
Shall I move these? Are they in your way?
We use on the way to mean in the middle of the journey:
A:

Where are you?

B:

I’m on my way. I’ll be there in 20 minutes or so.

They’re on their way. They had to stop for some petrol.
You will find other meanings of way and expressions with way in a good learner’s dictionary.
See also:
 In the way,  on the way

Work (noun)
 

Grammar > Nouns, pronouns and determiners > Using nouns > Work (noun)

from English Grammar Today

Work as an uncountable noun

Work is an uncountable noun when it means something we do that takes an effort, often as part of a job or for study:
Hard work is good for you. It keeps you fit. (work as a physical activity)
I’m not going out tonight. I’ve got a lot of work to do. We’ve got exams next week. (work as study)
Warning:

We don’t use work with the indefinite article (a) or in the plural. The word for a specific occupation or task is job,
which is a countable noun:
They offered me a job in Helsinki, but Finland is a long way from home.
Not: They offered me a work …

340
We always have a lot of jobs to do round the house at weekends, like cleaning, washing clothes, gardening, and so
on.
Not: … a lot of works to do …

At work

We can say that someone is at work when they are at the place where they work and are doing their job:
Can I ring you back later? I’m at work at the moment and I can’t really talk privately.

Work as a countable noun

Work as a countable noun means something created, especially a book or painting or piece of music or sculpture:
She bought me the complete works of Shakespeare for my birthday.
Several works of art were stolen from the town museum yesterday.
The statue is a beautiful new work by the Swedish sculptor Lars Ahlander.

Prepositions: uses
We commonly use prepositions to show a relationship in space or time or a logical relationship between two or more
people, places or things. Prepositions are most commonly followed by a noun phrase or pronoun (underlined):
The last time I saw him he was walking down the road.
I’ll meet you in the cafe opposite the cinema.
It was difficult to sleep during the flight.
It was the worst storm since the 1980s.
Give that to me.
There are over 100 prepositions in English. The most common single-word prepositions are:

about beside near to

betwee
above of towards
n

across beyond off under

underneat
after by on
h

against despite onto unlike

along down opposit until

341
 e

among during out up

around except outside upon

as for over via

at from past with

before in round within

behind inside since without

below into than

beneat
like through
h

Although most prepositions are single words, some pairs and groups of words operate like single prepositions:
They were unable to attend because of the bad weather in Ireland.
Jack’ll be playing in the team in place of me.
In addition to getting a large fine, both brothers were put in prison for three months.
I always get nervous when I have to speak in front of an audience.
We estimate that there’ll be up to 10,000 people at the concert.
The most common prepositions that consist of groups of words are:

ahead of except for instead of owing to

apart in addition
near to such as
from to

on account thanks
as for in front of
of to

as well as in place of on top of up to

because
in spite of out of
of

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due to inside of outside of

Prepositions or conjunctions?

Some words which are prepositions also function as conjunctions. When we use a preposition that is followed by a
clause, it is functioning as a conjunction; when we use a preposition that is followed by a noun phrase, it stays as a
preposition. Among the most common are after, as, before, since, until:
After I’d met him last night, I texted his sister at once. (conjunction)
After the meeting last night, I texted his sister at once. (preposition)
We’ll just have to wait until they decide what to do. (conjunction)
Okay, we’ll wait here until six o’clock. (preposition)

Prepositions or adverbs?

Several words which are prepositions also belong to the word class of adverbs. These include: about, across,
around, before, beyond, in, inside, near, opposite, outside, past, round, through, under, up, within:
There were lots of people waiting for a taxi outside the club. (preposition)
A:

Where’s your cat?

B:

She’s outside. (adverb)
The gallery is opposite the Natural History Museum. (preposition)
A:

Can you tell me where the bus station is?

B:

It’s over there, just opposite. (adverb)

Prepositions and abstract meanings

Common prepositions that show relationships of space often have abstract as well as concrete meanings.
Compare

That map you need is behind the filing cabinet. (basic Everyone is behind the government. (behind = gives
spatial sense or position) support)

Beyond the hotel were beautiful mountains. (basic Learning Chinese in a year was beyond them

spatial sense or position) all. (beyond = too difficult for)

Some common prepositions such as at, in and on can have abstract meanings:

I think you will both need to discuss the problem in private.
All three singers were dressed in black.

343
 You now have the next day at leisure and can do whatever you wish.
Our dog stays on guard all night, even when he’s sleeping!

Prepositions and adjectives

We commonly use prepositions after adjectives. Here are the most common adjective + preposition patterns.

prepositio
adjectives
n

aware, full of They weren’t aware of the time.

different,
from Is French very different from Spanish?
separate

due, similar to This picture is similar to the one in our living room.

familiar, wrong with What’s wrong with Isabelle?

We were really surprised at the price of food in restaurants on our

good, surprised* at
holiday.

interested in Lots of people are interested in Grand Prix racing but I’m not.

responsible, good for Exercise is good for everyone.

worried, excited about We’re really excited about our trip to Argentina.

*We can also say surprised by

Prepositions and nouns

Many nouns have particular prepositions which normally follow them:

There’s been a large increase in the price of petrol.
Does anyone know the cause of the fire?
See also:
 Nouns and prepositions
 Nouns

Prepositions and verbs

Many verbs go together with prepositions to make prepositional verbs. These always have an object:
I just couldn’t do without my phone.
Robert accused her of stealing his idea.

344
 Phrasal-prepositional verbs contain a verb, an adverb particle and a preposition (underlined). We cannot separate the
particle and the preposition:
The taxi is due any minute. Can you listen out for it?
I can’t put up with this noise any longer.
See also:
 Prepositional verbs
 Phrasal-prepositional verbs
 Prepositional phrases

Prepositions: position and stranding

Traditional grammatical rules say that we should not have a preposition at the end of a clause or sentence. However,
we sometimes do separate a preposition from the words which follow it (its complement). This is called preposition
stranding, and it is common in informal styles:
She was someone to whom he could talk. (formal)
She was someone who he could talk to. (informal)
Which room are they having breakfast in? (informal)
In which room are they having breakfast? (formal)
If we leave out words that are clear from the context (ellipsis), we can use wh-questions with a wh-word + stranded
preposition:
A:

The office is moving next year.

B:

Really, where to?
A:

I’m going to buy some flowers online.

B:

Who for?
A:

My mother.

Prepositional phrases
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Prepositional phrases

345
from English Grammar Today

Prepositions and their complements

Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition and the words which follow it (a complement). The complement
(underlined below) is most commonly a noun phrase or pronoun, but it can also be, an adverb phrase (usually one of
place or time), a verb in the -ing form or, less commonly, a prepositional phrase or a wh-clause:
They first met at a party. (preposition + noun phrase)
She was taken ill during the film. (preposition + noun phrase)
Would you like to come with me please? (preposition + pronoun)
From there, it’ll take you about half an hour to our house. (preposition + adverb)
Until quite recently, no one knew about his paintings. (preposition + adverb phrase)
She’s decided on doing a Chinese language course. (preposition + -ing clause)
Not: … decided on to do …
It’s a machine for making ice-cream. (preposition + -ing clause)
If you can wait until after my meeting with Jack, we can talk then. (preposition + prepositional phrase)
We were really surprised at what they wrote. (preposition + wh-clause)
We can put an adverb before a preposition to modify it. This applies mainly to prepositions of time or place which
are gradable (above, before, far, deep, down, opposite):
They’ve moved far into the country.
They left the party just before us.
You can’t miss it. His office is almost opposite the coffee machine.

Prepositional phrases after verbs

Prepositional phrases can be complements of verbs. If we need a special preposition to introduce the complement of
the verb, we call such verbs ‘prepositional verbs’:
Do these keys belong to you?
We’re not happy but we do approve of their decision.
We sometimes use an adverb particle before the preposition. The verb + adverb particle + preposition structure
forms a verb which has a single meaning. We call such verbs ‘phrasal prepositional verbs’. Their meaning is often
not related to the meaning of the original verb:
She really looks up to her grandfather. (admires)
We’re all looking forward to having a few days’ holiday together. (anticipate with pleasure)

Above
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Above

from English Grammar Today

346
 Above is a preposition (prep) or an adverb (adv).
Above meaning ‘higher than’

Above means ‘higher than’. We usually use it when there is no contact between people or things:
[a doctor asks a patient]
Can you raise your hand [PREP]above your head for me please? (Can you raise you hand higher than your head?)
The river flowed gently through the valley, while birds flew [ADV]above. It was a beautiful scene.
The opposites of above are under, below and beneath.
See also:
 Over
 Beneath
 Above or over?

Measuring higher

We use above to talk about measurements and temperatures that are higher than a particular level:
Mexico City is 2,240 metres above sea level.
Temperatures above 25 degrees are rare in this part of the world.

As mentioned above: Referring back in writing

In formal writing, we often use above not before to refer back to something we have already written about. We can
use as mentioned above, as noted above, as demonstrated above, as shown above:
As noted above, all employees must take part in our health and safety course.
Not: As noted before …
As demonstrated above, this problem is very complex.
Not: As demonstrated before …
We can also say the above. We only do this when the readers understand clearly what the above refers to:
As the table above shows, there has been a rapid rise in greenhouse gases. (or As the above shows … the reader
understands that the above refers to the table)

After, afterwards
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > After, afterwards

from English Grammar Today

After as a preposition and conjunction

After means ‘later than’ and ‘next in time or place’.

347
 After can be used before a noun phrase (as a preposition):
Shall we have a swim after lunch?
The bank is just after the park, on the left.
After can introduce a clause (as a conjunction):
After I left him a message, he phoned me immediately.
She did voluntary work in a hospital after she graduated.
Warning:

We use the present simple following after when referring to the future:

I’ll contact you after we reach the airport.
See also:
 Conjunctions

After or afterwards as an adverb
We can use after as an adverb, but afterwards is more common. When after is used, it is usually as part of an adverb
phrase:
They lived happily ever after. (means ‘for ever’)
She had an operation on her leg and afterwards was unable to walk for at least a month.
See also:
 Before
 Finally, at last, lastly or in the end?

After: typical error

When after refers to future time, we use the present simple, not the future with shall or will:
I’ll do another course after I finish this one.
Not: … after I will finish …

Against
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Against

from English Grammar Today

Against is a preposition.

Against: reactions
We use against to refer to negative, hostile or opposing reactions to situations, beliefs, people, events, etc.

Against with verbs

Millions of people campaigned against the war.

348
It’s not easy to go against your parents’ advice.
That referee has something against our team. (he doesn’t like our team)
Here are some common verbs often followed by against:

speak
act decide guard
out

demonstrat have
advise struggle
e something

discriminat
argue protest testify
e

be fight react vote

campaig
go rebel
n

Against with nouns

Discrimination against people on the basis of race, age or gender is illegal.

Everyone can be part of the fight against litter.
The best protection against illness is a good diet and lots of exercise.
Here are some common nouns often followed by against:

accusatio discriminatio
campaign protest
n n

action case evidence reaction

aggressio rebellio
charge fight
n n

appeal complaint law

argument defence prejudice

demonstratio
battle protection
n

Against: physical contact

We often use against to talk about physical contact between two or more things:

349
 She was leaning against the wall reading a book. (there was contact between her and the wall)
The bed was against the wardrobe. (there was contact between the bed and the wardrobe)

Against: competition
We often use against with verbs and nouns connected with sport and competitions, such as compete/competition,
final, game, match, play, semi-final:
Japan competed against Germany in the semi-final.
England’s match against Jamaica was cancelled.

When we don’t use against

We use about, not against, to refer to taking action to solve problems:
A:

Did you enjoy last night?

B:

We enjoyed the food but the people at the table next to us were so loud that we couldn’t hear each other. We asked
the waiter to do something about it but he said that he couldn’t.
Not: We asked the waiter to do something against it
To make contrasts we use phrases such as contrary to, in contrast to and compared with, not against:
My opinion is contrary to yours.
Not: My opinion is against yours.
We don’t use against to talk about medication:
Have you got something for a headache?
Not: … something against a headache

Against: typical error

 We use against, not with, in sport when two teams or individuals compete:
All my family play tennis and sometimes we play against each other in competitions.
Not: … we play with each other …

Among and amongst
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Among and amongst

from English Grammar Today

Among and amongst are prepositions.
Among means ‘in the middle or included in a larger group of people or things’. Among is commonly followed by a
plural noun phrase:
I’m not worried about her. She’s living among friends.

350
 I think I’ve got that album among my boxes of CDs upstairs.
Amongst is sometimes used as an alternative to among. It is more formal and less common:
The results show that both girls are amongst the top 10% of students in the whole school.
See also:
 Between or among?

As
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > As

from English Grammar Today

As is a preposition or a conjunction.

As as a preposition
We use as with a noun to refer to the role or purpose of a person or thing:
I worked as a waiter when I was a student. Most of us did.
Not: I worked like a waiter …
[The Daily Telegraph is a British newspaper]
The Daily Telegraph appointed Trevor Grove as its Sunday editor.
Internet shopping is seen as a cheaper alternative to shopping on the high street.
A sarong is essential holiday gear. It can be used as a beach towel, wrap, dress or scarf and will take up no space
in your bag.
Warning:

We don’t use as + noun to mean ‘similar to’. We use like + noun:

It’s almost like a real beach, but it’s actually artificial.
Not: It’s almost as a real beach …
I would like to have a white cat like the one in my dream.
Not: … as the one in my dream
See also:
 Like

As as a conjunction
The conjunction as has several different meanings. We use as when one event happens while another is in progress
(‘during the time that’). In this case the verb after is often in the continuous form:
They arrived as we were leaving. (time conjunction meaning ‘while’ or ‘when’)
We use as to connect a result with a cause:

351
 I went to bed at 9 pm as I had a plane to catch at 6 am. (reason and result meaning ‘because’)
We also use as to mean ‘in the way that’:
As the forecast predicted, the weather was dreadful for the whole of the weekend.
She arrived early, as I expected.

The same as
We use as with the same to talk about identical things:
Your jacket is the same colour as mine.
See also:
 Same, similar, identical

As: simultaneous changes

We use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as with this meaning, we usually use a simple
(rather than continuous) form of the verb:
As the show increases in popularity, more and more tickets are sold daily.
Compare

When you get older, moving house gets

One thing happens first and as a result the second thing is true.
harder.

As you get older, moving house gets harder.

The two things happen at the same time.
Not: While you get older …

Warning:

We don’t use as alone to introduce examples. We say such as:

They gave them gifts such as flowers and fruit and sang a special welcome song.
Not: … gifts as flowers …
See also:
 As  …  as
 Conjunctions
 Same, similar, identical

At
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > At

from English Grammar Today

352
 At is a preposition. We use at to refer to time or place. We also use it to refer to activities.

At: time
We use at to talk about points in time, ages and some periods of time:
I was up at 6 am this morning. (a point in time)
At 12 noon, all the bells rang out. (a point during the day)
They all get dressed up at Halloween. (a point on the calendar)
Many children leave school at 16. (referring to a specific age)
At 20, I thought I knew everything.
We can use at to refer to some periods of time: at night, at that time, at the New Year:
They leave the front-door light on at night. (period of time)
See also:
 At, on and in (time)

At: place
We use at to describe a position or location seen as a point:
A fisherman waited near his nets at the side of the quay. (position as a point)
There was no one at the information desk. (location as a point)
We use at to describe locations including firms, companies, workplaces and educational institutions:
Did you once work at Intel?
The ancient manuscript, The Book of Kells, can be seen at Trinity College, Dublin.
Warning:

We say at school, at college but in class:

What did you study at college?
We’re not allowed to have mobile phones in class.
Not: … at class.
We use at when we refer to an address:
The restaurant used to be at number 72 Henry Street.
We use at the to refer to public places where we get treatments, such as a dentist’s or doctor’s surgery, hairdresser’s
or spa:
While Liz was at the dentist, I went shopping.
I read an interesting article about plastic surgery in a magazine when I was at the hairdresser’s.
See also:
 At, on and in (place)

At: group activities

We use at to refer to activities which involve a group of people:
I didn’t know anyone at the party.
There was a demonstration at the opening of the exhibition.

353
 Good at, bad at
We use adjective + at to talk about things that we do well or badly:
I was never very good at sports.
She was always brilliant at drawing.
He was terrible at keeping his accounts in order.

At: numbers
In specific contexts, we use at with numbers.
Talking about prices:
At 80 pounds a night for a double room, the hotel is good value.
Talking about speeds:
According to the police, he was driving at 120 mph. (mph means ‘miles per hour’)

At: direction
We use at after a verb when we are talking about directing something towards another person or thing, often with
verbs of perception and communication (smile at, shout at, wave at):
He threw the ball at the wall.
She was waving at the crowd.

At or at the
When we talk about buildings, we often use at the to refer to the building itself. When we refer to the activity that
happens in the building, we don’t use the after at or in:
The taxi dropped me at the school. (referring to the building)
I hated being at school. (referring to the activity within the school not the building)
See also:
 At, on and in (place)

At: typical errors

 When we talk about how well or badly we do something, we say good/bad at, not in:
I’m so bad at telling left from right!
Not: I’m so bad in telling left from right!
 We use at, not in, for points of time or place:
What are you doing at the weekend?
Not: … in the weekend
Come and sit at the table.
Not: … in the table
 We use at, not in, when we talk about a person’s age:
He died at the age of 85.
Not: … in the age of …

354
 At, in and to (movement)
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > At, in and to (movement)

from English Grammar Today

We use to when we are talking about movement in the direction of a point, place, or position:
Let’s all go to the cinema tonight!
When you come to my place, you’ll see our new pet rabbit.
[giving directions]
If you drive to the end of the road, then turn left and park in the first car park on the right …
We often use the combination from … to … when we are talking about moving from one point to another:
Is it far from your house to the nearest shop?
How long will it take to get from the hospital to the train station?
Warning:

Go in is a commonly used phrasal verb meaning ‘enter’. We don’t use it to talk about travelling to or moving in the
direction of a place:
Why don’t you go in? (phrasal verb meaning ‘enter’)
When did you go to Barcelona? (preposition to)
Not: When did you go in Barcelona?
We say that we arrive at a place, when we see it as point, but we arrive in a larger area (e.g. a city or a country). We
don’t use to with arrive:
I arrived at the station just in time. (arrive at a place)
Not: I arrived to the station …
It was 4 pm when we arrived in Italy. (arrive in a country)
Not: … when we arrived to Italy.

At, on and in (place)
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > At, on and in (place)

from English Grammar Today

We use at:
 to refer to a position or location which we see as a point:
I was sitting at my desk.
 to talk about locations at companies, workplaces when we see them as a place of activity:

355
 How many people are working at Microsoft?
 to refer to activities which involve a group of people:
Were you at Lisa’s party? (also at the cinema, at the theatre)
 with school/college/university:
She always did well at school.
 to refer to an address:
They once lived at number 12 South George’s Street.
 to talk about public places where we get treatments, such as a hairdresser’s or doctor’s surgery:
I can’t meet at four. I’ll be at the hairdresser’s until five.
 to refer to most shops:
Look what I bought at the butcher’s today.
We use on:
 to refer to a position on any surface:
I know I left my wallet on the table.
 to describe a position along a road or river or by the sea or by a lake:
Dublin is on the east coast of Ireland.
 to talk about a floor in a building:
They live on the 15th floor!
 to talk about being physically on public transport:
I was on the train when she phoned. (but to talk about ways of travelling, we use by: I went to Rome by train.)
We use in:
 to talk about locations within a larger area:
I know my book is somewhere in this room. Can anyone see it?
 to talk about workplaces when we see them as a physical location:
She works in an open-plan office. (but we use on when we talk about a farm: I’ve always wanted to work on a
farm.)
 with class:
He found it difficult to concentrate in class.
See also:
 At, on and in (time)

At, on and in (time)
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > At, on and in (time)

from English Grammar Today

We use at:
 with particular points on the clock:

356
 I’ll see you at five o’clock.
 with particular points in the day:
The helicopter took off at midday and headed for the island.
 with particular points in the week:
What are you doing at the weekend?
 with special celebrations:
At the New Year, millions of people travel home to be with their families (but we say on your birthday).
We don’t use at with the question What time …? in informal situations:
What time are you leaving? (preferred to At what time are you leaving?)
We use on:
 with dates:
We moved into this house on 25 October 1987.
 with a singular day of the week to refer to one occasion:
I’ve got to go to London on Friday.
 with a plural day of the week to refer to repeated events:
The office is closed on Fridays. (every Friday) In informal situations, we often leave out on before plural days:
Do you work Saturdays?
 with special dates:
What do you normally do on your birthday?
We use in:
 with parts of the day:
I’ll come and see you in the morning for a cup of coffee, okay?
 with months:
We usually go camping in July or August.
 with years:
The house was built in 1835.
 with seasons:
The garden is wonderful in the spring when all the flowers come out.
 with long periods of time:
The population of Europe doubled in the nineteenth century.
At or on?

We use at to talk about public holidays and weekends, but when we talk about a particular special day or weekend,
we use on.
Compare

We never go away at the New Year because the traffic is

On New Year’s Day, the whole family gets together.
awful.

357
 I’ll go and see my mother at the weekend if the weather’s The folk festival is always held on the last weekend in
okay. July.

*Note that American English speakers usually say on the weekend.

In or on?

We use in with morning, afternoon, evening and night, but we use on when we talk about a specific morning,

afternoon, etc., or when we describe the part of the day.
Compare

I always work best in the morning. I often get tired in The ship left the harbour on the morning of the ninth
the afternoon. of November.

In the evening they used to sit outside and watch the sun

It happened on a beautiful summer’s evening.
going down.

At or in?

In the night usually refers to one particular night; at night refers to any night in general:
I was awake in the night, thinking about all the things that have happened.
‘It’s not safe to travel at night,’ the officer said.

At the end or in the end?

We use at the end (often with of) to talk about the point in time where something finishes. We use in the end to talk
about things that happen after a long time or after a series of other events:
At the end of the film, everyone was crying.
Not: In the end of the film …
I looked everywhere for the book but couldn’t find it, so in the end I bought a new copy.

At the beginning or in the beginning?

We use at the beginning (often with of) to talk about the point where something starts. We usually use in the
beginning when we contrast two situations in time:
At the beginning of every lesson, the teacher told the children a little story.
In the beginning, nobody understood what was happening, but after she explained everything very carefully, things
were much clearer.
See also:
 At

Other uses of in with time

We use in to say how long it takes someone to do something:
He was such a clever musician. He could learn a song in about five minutes.

358
 We use an apostrophe -s construction (in a year’s time, in two months’ time) to say when something will happen.
We don’t use it to say how long someone takes to do something:
I won’t say goodbye because we’ll be seeing each other again in three days’ time. We can also say in three days,
without time, in this example.
He ran the marathon in six hours and 20 minutes.
Not: He ran the marathon in six hours and 20 minutes’ time.

Time expressions without at, on, in

We don’t normally use at, on or in before time expressions beginning with each, every, next, last, some, this, that,
one, any, all:
He plays football every Saturday.
Are you free next Monday at two o’clock?
Last summer we rented a villa in Portugal.
See also:
 Time
 Next

At, on and in (time): typical errors

 We use on not at to talk about a particular day:
The two couples were married in two different cities on the same day, 25 years ago.
Not: … at the same day, 25 years ago.
 We don’t use at to refer to dates:
The General was killed on 26 August.
Not: … at 26 August.
 We use at, not in, with weekend(s):
What do you usually do at the weekend? Do you go away?
Not: What do you usually do in the weekend?
 We use in with months, not on:
They’re going to Australia in September for a conference.
Not: They’re going to Australia on September …

Below
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Below

from English Grammar Today

Below is a preposition or an adverb.

359
 Below meaning ‘lower than’
We use below most commonly as a preposition meaning ‘lower than’. It has a similar meaning to under. The
opposite of below is above. We use it when there is no contact between people or things:
[a teacher talking to a class]
Open your exercise book on page 27. Just below the picture there are some questions. Look at the picture and
answer the questions.
There was a big clock below the painting.
When the adverb below is used to modify a noun, it follows the noun:
The apartment below is owned by a French couple.
We lived up in the mountains and the nearest town below was half an hour’s drive.
We use the adverb below when referring to the lower level or deck of a boat or ship:
[talking about a boat]
It was a wonderful little boat. We spent most of our time fishing and watching the sea. We’d go below to sleep and
to eat.

Below with numbers, amounts or statistics

When we talk about numbers, amounts or statistics being at a lower level, we use below more than under:
Inflation has fallen below 5% for the first time in six years.
The company’s profits in 2008 were below what they had hoped for.

Below referring forward in writing

In formal writing, we use below to refer to something that we will mention or show later:
In the figure below, the results show that 54% of the rats tested were carrying the antibody …
There has been much discussion and debate about global warming (see below).
See also:
 Above
 Beneath

Below: typical error

 We don’t use below when one thing touches or covers or hides something else; we usually
use under instead:
Under a white coat, she wore an amazing red dress.
Not: Below a white coat …

Beneath
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Beneath

360
 from English Grammar Today

Beneath is a preposition or an adverb.

Beneath: meaning and use

Beneath means ‘at a lower level than’.
Beneath is most common in formal writing. We don’t use it often in informal speaking. In
speaking, under and below are much more common.
See also:
 Below
 Under

Beneath as a preposition

We use beneath most commonly to describe the position of things which are at a lower level than something else:
Archaeologists discovered a gold cup just beneath the surface at the site of a Roman villa.
The metro station is right beneath the airport.
Beneath is particularly common when talking about the ground or surface directly under one’s feet:
She could feel the train coming because the ground beneath her feet was moving.

Beneath as an adverb

Beneath as an adverb isn’t very common and we mostly use it in formal writing:

She looked down from the balcony at the two men talking beneath.
In the kitchen there was a modern sink with cupboards and drawers beneath.

Beneath, under or below?
Beneath has a meaning similar to under and below but we do not use it with numbers:
We bought it for just under 200 pounds.
Not: … for just beneath 200 pounds.
The temperature was below zero all that week.
Not: The temperature was beneath …
We use beneath, not under, to talk about things which are at a lower level in terms of a person’s abilities, status or
expectations. We often use beneath not under when someone feels that they are too important or too intelligent to do
something:
[A student is commenting on a language course]
The writing and grammar courses were good but maybe a bit beneath my expectations.
Not: … maybe a bit under my expectations.

Beyond

361
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Beyond

from English Grammar Today

Beyond is a preposition or an adverb.

Beyond referring to place

Beyond as a preposition means ‘further away in the distance (than something)’:

Beyond the door was a narrow corridor that led off to the right.
He could see the horse in the field, just beyond the hedge.
As an adverb, beyond is less common and is rather formal:
The balcony provided a magnificent view of the river and the mountains beyond.

Beyond meaning ‘outside the limits’

We use beyond with expressions of time to mean ‘after that time’ or ‘further than that time’:
It’s impossible to predict beyond the next five years as regards world economic trends. (we cannot predict further
in time than the next five years)
Beyond very often has a meaning of ‘outside the limits of something’. We often use it in the expressions beyond
belief and beyond doubt:
That the government should want to tax the poor even more heavily is beyond belief. (no one can believe it)
Her commitment to her profession is beyond doubt. (no one can doubt it)
The mechanic announced that the engine was beyond repair. (it could not be repaired)

By
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > By

from English Grammar Today

By is a preposition or an adverb.

By and time
We use by meaning ‘not later than’ to refer to arrangements and deadlines:
They said that the plumber would be here by Monday.
The postman is always here by 11 am.
We use by the time, meaning ‘when’, to connect an action that has happened or will have happened before a second
action. The action that happened second comes after by the time:
By the time [action 2]you wake up, [action 1]I’ll have finished work! (When you wake up, I will have finished
work)
Not: By the time you will wake up …

362
 Unfortunately the man had died by the time the ambulance arrived. (When the ambulance arrived, the man had
already died.)
See also:
 Before,  by,  till,  until

By and the passive

When we use the passive voice, we can use a phrase with by to say who did the action:
The new street was opened by the Mayor.
The wedding cake was made by Henry’s mother.
See also:
 Passives with an agent
 Passives without an agent

By meaning ‘how to do something’

We use by + -ing form to describe how to do something:
By pressing this button, you turn on the alarm system. Then by entering the code 0089, you can turn it off again.
We use by + noun to describe how someone travels or communicates, or how things are processed:
I’ll send it by email; I can send it by post as well if you wish.
Can I pay by credit card?
We say by car, by bus, by plane, etc. but if there is a determiner (e.g. a/an, the, some, my, his) before the noun, we
say in or on.
Compare

We went by train to Pisa.

It’s easier to get there by car. by + mode of transport
Did you travel by plane?

I’ll have to go on the 5 am train.

Barbara is travelling in Ann’s car.
on/in + determiner + mode of transport
Have you ever travelled in a small
plane?

Warning:

When we walk, we say on foot:

It takes me just 20 minutes to get to work on foot.
Not: … to get to work by foot.

By + myself etc.
When we say by + myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, it means
‘alone’. We sometimes use all for emphasis:

363
 They painted the whole house by themselves! (They did it alone.)
I was all by myself in the house last night but I didn’t mind. (I was alone.)
Did you build that castle all by yourself? (Did you do it alone?)
See also:
 Pronouns: reflexive (myself, themselves, etc.)

By and place
We use by to mean ‘beside’ or ‘at the side of’:
There’s a lovely café by the river. We could go there. (The café is beside the river.)
By and near have a similar meaning but by refers to a shorter distance:
Compare

I live by a football stadium. The stadium is beside my house.

I live near a football
The stadium is in my neighbourhood.
stadium.

We also use by to mean ‘movement past something’:

Three people walked by the house as Henry opened the door. (They walked past the house.)
By as an adverb is often used in this sense:
Lisa waved as she went by. (She passed the house without stopping.)

By and measurements and amounts

We use by to talk about measurements, and increases and decreases in amounts:
My bedroom is just three metres by two metres! (three metres in one direction and two metres in the other direction)
When you work part-time, you are usually paid by the hour.
The price of fuel has increased by 12% this year.

By meaning ‘during’
We sometimes use by + day and by + night to mean ‘during the day or the night’:
He works by night and sleeps by day.

By meaning ‘written’ or ‘composed’

We use by when we talk about the writers of books, songs, poems, symphonies, etc.:
What’s the name of the latest song by U2?
This website makes works by Beethoven available free for downloading.
You will find other meanings of by in a good learner’s dictionary.

By: typical errors

 We say by car, by bus, by plane etc. but if there is a determiner (e.g. a/an, the, some, his), we say in or on:

364
 They always travel on the bus.
Not: … by the bus.
 We use by, not with, to talk about the action of something:
He got into the house by breaking the window. (action)
Not: … with breaking the window.
 We use with, not by, to refer to the object or instrument that we use to do something!
He broke the window with a rock. (object/instrument)
Not: … by a rock.

During
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > During

from English Grammar Today

We use during before nouns and noun phrases to refer to when something happens over a period of time. During can
refer to the whole time of the event:
You are not allowed to use your mobile phone during class. (the whole of the class)
I have to have my window open during the night. (the whole of the night)
In this meaning, during can often mean the same as in:
His grandfather fought in the army during the First World War. (or … in the First World War.)
When I was a kid, our cousins often came to stay with us during the summer. (or … in the summer.)
During can refer to something that happened while the main event was taking place. In such contexts, during means
‘at some unspecified point in time’ and is more common than in:
What was that noise I heard during the night, I wonder? or … in the night. (I heard a noise at an unspecified point
in the night.)
One day, during the Second World War, her father just disappeared. (He disappeared at an unspecified point.)
Warning:

We don’t use during when we refer to numbers and lengths of time. In this case, we use for:
They lived in Edinburgh for four years.
Not: They lived in Edinburgh during four years.
However, we can use during with the first or the last + length of time or time expression:
During the first three years of the war, 50,000 civilians were killed. (during refers to when this happened.)
I haven’t done any exercise during the last week. (during refers to when I didn’t do exercise.)
See also:
 For
 During or for?
Typical error

365
  We use during before nouns and noun phrases but not before verbs:
While I was waiting for the bus, I phoned some friends.
Not: During I was waiting for the bus…

For
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > For

from English Grammar Today

For is usually a preposition and sometimes a conjunction.

For: purpose
We use for to talk about a purpose or a reason for something:
I’m going for some breakfast. I’m really hungry.
She leaves on Friday for a 15-day cruise around the Mediterranean.
I wear these old trousers for painting.
In questions we often use what … for instead of why to ask about the reason or purpose of something especially in
informal situations:
What are you here for?
What are they doing it for?
See also:
 For  +  -ing

For someone
We often use for to introduce the person or people receiving something:
She bought a teapot for her sister.
Mike Cranham and his staff at the hotel cook for 800 people a day, on average.

For: duration
We use for with a period of time to refer to duration (how long something lasts):
There’s a lovely open-air pool near us. We usually go there for a couple of hours in the evenings when it’s warm
enough.
Warning:

Don’t confuse for and in when referring to time:

We’re going to Cape Town for two months. (We will spend two months in Cape Town.)
We’re going to Cape Town in two months. (We’re leaving to go to Cape Town two months from now.)

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 After a negative we can use for and in with the same meaning. In is particularly common in American English:
I haven’t seen him in five years. (or for five years.)
See also:
 For or since?

For: exchange
We use for to refer to an exchange:
[sign in a food shop]
2 for £2 or £1.36 each. (Two for two pounds or one pound thirty-six each.)
I got 124 euros for 100 pounds at today’s exchange rate.

For meaning because
We sometimes use for as a conjunction meaning ‘because’. We use it in very formal, and often literary, contexts:
Chasing the white stag through the forests, never catching it, of course, for it is a creature of legend.

For in multi-word verbs

We often combine for with a verb to form a multi-word verb:
She’s been caring for her mother for years.
It’s not a good time to look for it now. We have to go.
You will find other multi-word verbs with for in a good learner’s dictionary.

For + -ing
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > For + -ing

from English Grammar Today

For + -ing: function
We use for + the -ing form of a verb to talk about the function of something or how something is used:
I need something for storing CDs.
[a PC is a personal computer]
The PC is still the most popular tool for developing software systems.

For + -ing: reason
We use for + the -ing form of a verb to refer to the reason for something:
You should talk to Jane about it. You know, she’s famous for being a good listener. (A lot of people know she’s
such a good listener.)

367
For + -ing or to + infinitive?
Warning:

We don’t use for + -ing to express our purpose or intention. We use to + infinitive:

We’re going to Lisbon to visit my aunt.
Not: We’re going to Lisbon for visiting my aunt. or … for visit my aunt.
He’s now studying to be a doctor.
Not: He’s now studying for to be a doctor. or … for being a doctor.
You don’t need to bring anything. There’ll be sandwiches to eat and juice to drink.
Not: There’ll be sandwiches for eat and juice for drink.

From
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > From

from English Grammar Today

From is a preposition.

Starting point
We use from to show the time or point in time when something starts:
Tickets for the concert are on sale from Monday.
The finals take place from 1.30 pm on Sunday.
We use from to show the level that things begin at, such as numbers or prices:
Prices start from £366 per week for a property that sleeps four, including a return ferry crossing.
We use from to talk about distance in relation to somewhere else:
The Metro station is nearby and we are only five minutes from the motorway.

Origin
We use from to refer to the place where someone or something starts or originates:
Bernie comes from Manchester.
We get our vegetables from the farm shop. They’re really fresh.
Would you get me a knife from that drawer?
We use from to talk about the way we use materials or ingredients to make things:
Camembert is also made from unpasteurised milk, like Brie.
[A twig is a small, thin stick from a tree. A broom is a type of brush.]
Brooms used to be made from twigs.
See also:

368
 Of
 Made of

From … to
We use from … to to talk about ranges of different things:
Prices range from £405 to £425, depending on the size of the room, and include breakfast and dinner.
Sir Edward Youde was the Governor of Hong Kong from 1982 to 1985.
The river flows from east to west.
There were six Miller children, ranging in age from nineteen to seven.
We use from … to to talk about a change in the state of someone or something:
He’s moved from Wimbledon to Leeds.
A small cloud of smoke rose from the glass and the colour of the liquid changed from red to purple,
and from purple to a watery green.

In front of
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > In front of

from English Grammar Today

The prepositional expression in front of means ‘close to the front of something or someone’. It is the opposite
of behind:
A really tall man was sitting in front of me and I couldn’t see the screen properly. or I was sitting behind a really
tall man and I couldn’t see the screen properly.

In spite of and despite
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > In spite of and despite

from English Grammar Today

In spite of and despite are prepositional expressions.

In spite of and despite have a similar meaning to although or even though. They express a contrast between two
things. They are both more common in writing than in speaking. Despite is a little more formal than in spite of.
We usually use in spite of and despite with a noun:
He got the job in spite of his prison record.
[recession is a time when the economy of a country is not good]

369
 John’s company is doing extremely well despite the recession.
We can also use in spite of and despite with -ing:
He was very fast in spite of being terribly overweight.
They arrived late despite leaving in plenty of time.
Warning:

We don’t use a that-clause after in spite of or despite. We use in spite of the fact that or despite the fact that:
When they arrived at Malaga it was hot, in spite of the fact that it was only the end of April.
Not: … in spite of that it was only the end of April
In spite of is written as three separate words. We never use of with despite:
They enjoyed the rides in spite of the long queues. (or … despite the long queues.)
Not: … inspite the long queues or … despite of the long queues.
See also:
 Although or though?
 Even  though  and  even if

In, into
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > In, into

from English Grammar Today

In and into are prepositions.

In, into: position and direction

We use in to talk about where something is in relation to a larger area around it:
A:

Where’s Jane?
B:

She’s in the garden.
I’ve left my keys in the car.
We use into to talk about the movement of something, usually with a verb that expresses movement (e.g. go, come).
It shows where something is or was going:
A:

Where’s Jane?
B:

370
 She’s gone into the house.
Helen came into the room.
Compare

She’s gone for a walk in the

She is in the garden walking.
garden.

She walked into the garden. She entered the garden.

With some verbs (e.g. put, fall, jump, dive) we can use either in or into with no difference in meaning:

Can you put the milk in/into the fridge?
Her keys fell in/into the canal.
See also:
 At, on and in (place)
 At, in and to (movement)

Into: enthusiasm, interest

We use be into to express enthusiasm or strong interest for something:
He’s really into his work.
I’m into classical music and Thai food.

Change into, turn into

We use into after verbs describing change:
We’ve translated the course into six different languages.
She changed into her swimming costume and went for a swim.
They divided the cake into four pieces.
Not: They divided the cake in four pieces.

In: phrasal verbs

We use in to make a number of phrasal verbs:
I was feeling very tired and I couldn’t really take in what she was saying. (understand)
Please call in and see us next time you’re in the area. (visit us briefly)
A good learner’s dictionary will include the most common phrasal verbs with in.

Near and near to
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Near and near to

371
from English Grammar Today

Near and near to are prepositions. Near is also an adjective.

Near and near to as prepositions
The preposition near (to) means ‘not far away in distance’. Near and near to mean the same, but near is more
common:
She comes from a small place on the coast near Barcelona.
My mother loves to sit near the fire at night.
She reached out her hand and drew him near to her.
We can use near (to) to talk about time:
My boss is near retirement. (He will retire soon.)
Call me back near the end of September.
We can use near (to) to talk about being almost in a particular state or condition:
It was full of soldiers and of military police, and I was near despair.

Near as an adjective
In formal contexts, we can use near as an adjective to refer to time with the phrase in the near future meaning
‘soon’. It is usually in end position:
Bank interest rates are expected to rise in the near future.
Warning:

We don’t use near as an adjective modifying a noun when it refers to distance:

We went to a nearby restaurant in the evening.
Not: … a near restaurant …

Of
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Of

from English Grammar Today

Of is a preposition.
Of commonly introduces prepositional phrases which are complements of nouns, creating the pattern: noun + of +
noun. This pattern is very common, especially to indicate different parts, pieces, amounts and groups:
Lima is the capital of Peru.
Twenty-four-hour TV news makes sure we all know the main events of the day.
Would you like some more pieces of toast?
We also commonly use of as a preposition after different adjectives (afraid of, generous of, proud of) and verbs
(approve of, dream of, think of):

372
I never thought she could take a flight on her own at her age. I feel very proud of her.
Best of luck with the interview tomorrow. We’ll be thinking of you.
We use the structure determiner + of + noun in expressions of quantity:
Most of the new workers in the country are from Turkey.
Some of my best friends are computer scientists.
Of is optional with all, both, half except before the object pronouns me, you, it, him, her, us, them:
Both (of) the finance ministers have decided to resign.
All of them will be able to travel on the bus.
Not: All them will be able to …

On, onto
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > On, onto

from English Grammar Today

On and onto are prepositions.
We use on when we refer to a position on a surface (on the table, on the ocean, on the moon, on the roof, on the
bus):
Your keys are on the table.
The men were standing on the roof.
We use onto to talk about direction or movement to a position on a surface, usually with a verb that expresses
movement:
The cat climbed onto the roof.
She emptied the suitcase full of clothes onto the floor.
We use on to describe a position along a road or river or by the sea or by a lake:
The hotel is on the road opposite the beach.
They have a fabulous house on a lake in Ireland.
We use onto to describe movement towards an end position along a road or river:
The path leads onto the main road.
We use on or onto with very little difference in meaning to refer to attachment or movement of something to
something else. Onto gives a stronger feeling of movement:
There’s a battery pack with the camera that you can clip onto a belt.
You can save the data onto your hard disk.
Have you put the pictures on your memory stick?

Over

373
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Over

from English Grammar Today

Over is a preposition, adverb, adjective or prefix.

Over as a preposition
Over for movement and position

We use over to talk about movement or position at a higher level than something else:
A beautiful white bird flew over the lake.
With an umbrella over my head, I was able to protect myself from the midday sun.
We can also use over when talking about movement across a surface:
A small boat came over the lake and approached our cottage.
Shall we go over the road and see if there’s a bank on the other side?

Over and all over

We can use over, and the stronger form all over, when something is covering something:
You can buy a plastic cover to put over your computer if you’re worried about dust.
He had mud all over his face.

Over for periods of time

We can use over to refer to extended periods of time:

Over a period of three centuries, very little changed in the pattern of life for the poorest people.
What are you doing over the summer holidays? Are you going away?

Over with numbers

Over means ‘more than’ a particular number, or limit:

There were over 100 people at the lecture.
If your hand baggage weighs over 10 kilos, you must check it in.
She couldn’t enter the competition. She was over the age limit.

Over as an adverb
We can use over as an adverb to talk about movement above something or someone:
We were sitting in the garden and a huge flock of geese flew over. It was beautiful.
Over as an adverb can mean ‘to someone’s house’:
Would you like to come over and have dinner one evening? (to the speaker’s house)

Over and over (adverb phrase)

Over and over means ‘repeatedly’, ‘many times’. It often refers to things which people do not want to happen:

374
 [adult to a little child]
Stop it! I’ve told you over and over not to play with the radio!

Over as an adjective: be over

We can use be over to mean ‘finished’, ‘at an end’:
We were so late that, when we got to the cinema, the film was over.

Over as a prefix
We can use over as a prefix to mean ‘too much’. We connect over to the word which comes after it, sometimes with
a hyphen after over:
That new restaurant is overpriced if you ask me. (the meals are too expensive)
I didn’t enjoy the play. It was a student production, and everyone seemed to be overacting.
These are the main meanings of over but you will find other meanings and phrasal verbs with over in a good
learner’s dictionary.
See also:
 Above
 Under

Over: typical errors

 Over, when used with periods of time, refers to the period from start to finish, not to any one moment
during that time:
I arrived during the afternoon.
Not: I arrived over the afternoon.
 Over as a prefix meaning ‘too much’ is connected to the word that comes after it, sometimes with a
hyphen; we don’t write two separate words:
The nightclub was overcrowded.
Not: The nightclub was over crowded.

To
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > To

from English Grammar Today

To is a preposition. It is also used as part of the infinitive (the to-infinitive):

Does this train go to Cambridge? (preposition)

375
 I’d like to see that film. (to-infinitive)

To as a preposition: destination or direction

We can use to as a preposition to indicate a destination or direction:
We’re going to Liverpool next week.
Does he want to come to the park with us?
The dog ran to us as soon as we arrived.

To as a preposition: receiver of an action

We use to with verbs such as give, hand, send, write, to indicate the person or thing that receives or experiences the
object of the verb:
I [V]gave [O]the keys to [receiver]Jane.
She’s always writing letters to the local newspaper.
See also:
 Complements
 Objects

To as a preposition: time

We use to in telling the time, when we refer to the number of minutes before the hour:
Her train arrives at quarter to five.
It’s ten to six. We’d better leave now or we’ll be late.
We can use to with the meaning of ‘until’ when we are talking about time. We often use it in the expression from …
to …:
It’s just three days to New Year’s Day.
They’re only open from Monday to Friday. They’re closed at the weekend.

To as a preposition: approximate numbers

We can use to when we refer to an approximate number somewhere between a lower number and a higher number:
There were forty to fifty people at the meeting.
It’ll probably cost you thirty to thirty-five pounds.

To as a preposition: after nouns

A number of nouns are followed by to. These include nouns expressing direction or destination such as door,
entrance, road, route, way:
The door to the main office was open.
Is this the way to the airport?
They also include nouns referring to transport, such as bus, coach, ferry, flight, train:
The ferry to Santander takes 12 hours.
Is this the bus to the stadium?

376
 Nouns expressing reactions and responses are also followed by to. These include answer, key, reaction, reply,
response, solution:
His reaction to her comments was very aggressive.
They don’t seem to be able to find a solution to the problem of global warming yet.

To as a preposition: after verbs

Some verbs are followed by the preposition to, including be used, get used, listen, look forward, object, reply,
respond:
We listened to that CD you lent us. It’s great.
I object to your remarks.
The bank hasn’t replied to my letter yet.
See also:
 Prepositional verbs
 Phrasal-prepositional verbs

To as a preposition: after adjectives

Some adjectives connected with people’s behaviour and feelings are followed by to, including cruel, faithful,
generous, kind, loyal, nasty:
I cannot bear people being cruel to animals.
Be kind to her. You’re so nasty to her!
Many individuals have been loyal to the Conservative Party all their lives.

To: the to-infinitive
We use to before a verb to make the to-infinitive form:
She loves to wear really colourful dresses.
I need to leave early today.
To get an outside line, you have to dial 9 first.

Under
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Under

from English Grammar Today

Under is a preposition. When we use under as a preposition, it is similar to below. We use under to talk about

something that is below or lower than something else:
The cat is under the table.

377
His shoes were under his bed.
When we use under, we can also mean that one thing is touching or covering something else. We do not
use below in this way:
The wreck of the Titanic still remains under the sea.
Not: … below the sea.
He had hidden the money under the floorboards.
Not: … below the floorboards.
Warning:

We don’t use under to refer to something in a lower position than something else. We use below:
Venus is just below the moon right now.
Not: Venus is just under the moon …
Age

We use under, not below, to refer to age:

You have to be under 18 to get an allowance.
They have three children under the age of five.

Measurements

We use under, not below, to talk about measurements of time and weight:

We finished the project in under a year and a half.
The bag was just under 10 kilos, so I was able to bring it on the plane.
When we talk about height and temperature, we use below not under:
The roof of the new building is just below the height of the church and I think it distracts from the church.
Not: … under the height of the church …
The liquid must be kept below five degrees. (preferred to … under five degrees.)
Underneath is similar to under, but it usually only refers to position:
Underneath the stairs is where we keep our vacuum cleaner and brushes.
The child weighed under five kilos.
Not: … underneath five kilos.

Until
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Until

from English Grammar Today

Until is a preposition and a conjunction. Until is often shortened to till or ’til. Till and ’til are more informal and we
don’t usually use them in formal writing.

378
Until as a preposition
Until as a preposition means ‘up to (the time that)’:
We played chess until midnight. (up to midnight)
The film didn’t end till eleven o’clock.
We use from with until or till to talk about when something begins and when it ends:
I worked out at the gym from 6 pm till 7.30 pm.
The road outside our house will be closed from 6 am until 6 pm tomorrow.
We use by, not until, to talk about something that will happen before a particular time or deadline:
The movie will be finished by 9 pm.
Not: The movie will be finished until/till 9 pm.
We don’t use until or till to talk about quantity or numbers. We use up to:
The taxi can take up to five people.
Not: The taxi can take until five people.
We don’t use until or till to talk about distance. We use as far as:
Larry drove me as far as the shop and I walked the rest of the way home.
Not: Larry drove me until the shop …

Until as a conjunction
We use until as a subordinating conjunction to connect an action or an event to a point in time:
Let’s wait here till the rain stops. (till + subordinate clause)
Warning:

We don’t normally put the until-clause before the main clause:

No one left the room until the talk ended.
Not: Until the talk ended no one left …
We use present verb forms to refer to the future after until:
I can’t wait until the summer holidays begin.
Not: … until the summer holidays will begin.
We also use the present perfect after until to refer to actions or events that will continue up to a point in the future:
We’ll sit here till Donna has finished.
Not: … until Donna will have finished.
We use the past simple and past perfect to talk about events in the past:
He was the headteacher until he retired in 1968.
We couldn’t put down the new floor till the plumber had finished.
Warning:

We can’t use until or till to mean ‘in advance of’. In this case we use before:

Please return your registration form before you leave the room.
Not: Please return your registration form until you leave the room.

379
 Until: typical errors
 We don’t use until to talk about things that will happen before a particular time or deadline; we use by:
All applications must be received by Friday, 26 June 2009.
Not: … until Friday, 26 June 2009.
 We don’t use until or till to talk about quantity; we use up to:
The theatre can hold up to two hundred people.
Not: The theatre can hold until two hundred people.
 We don’t use until or till to talk about distance; we use as far as:
We had to drive as far as Liverpool for the last hockey match that I played.
Not: We had to drive until Liverpool …
 Take care to spell until with only one l at the end: not ‘untill’.

With
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > With

from English Grammar Today

With is a preposition.

With meaning ‘in the same place as’

With means ‘in the same place as someone or something’ or ‘accompanying’:
She arrived with her boyfriend.
I don’t like tea with milk.
There was a free phone with the car.

With: reactions and feelings

With often follows adjectives which refer to reactions and feelings:
Are you happy with your music lessons?
The teacher got angry with them because they were behaving badly.
I’m delighted with this new jacket.

With meaning ‘using’
We use with to refer to what we use to do something:
They opened the package with a knife.

380
I’ll tie it with some tape to keep it closed.
He cleaned the table with a cloth he found in the kitchen.

With meaning ‘having’
We use with to mean ‘having’ or ‘possessing’:
It’s the house with the really big gates.
She woke with terrible toothache.
The Commonwealth Institute used to be a building with a very unusual roof in Kensington.

With meaning ‘because of’

Spoken English:

We use with to mean ‘because of’ or ‘as a result of’. This is especially common in speaking:
With all this work, I’d better stay in tonight.
I couldn’t sleep with the noise of the traffic.

With: other uses

With is used with the following words:
She made contact with Marina after ten years.
Not: She made contact Marina after ten years. or She made contact to Marina after ten years.
He always helped Xavier with the cooking.
Not: He always helped Xavier the cooking. or He always helped Xavier by the cooking.
The company provide us with a car and a uniform.
Not: The company provide us a car and a uniform.
My parents were strict with me when I was a child.
Not: My parents were strict to me when I was a child.
They agree/disagree with bullfighting. (They approve/disapprove of it)
Not: They agree/disagree to bullfighting.
She’s really good with computers.
Not: She’s really good in computers.
Communicating with new customers is important in my job.
Not: Communicating to new customers is important in my job.
We had some difficulties with the production of the manual.
Not: We had some difficulties to produce the manual.
Warning:

With often follows adjectives to describe feelings:

I was disappointed with the food.
Not: I was disappointed the food.
I’m so bored with this small town.

381
Not: I’m so bored about this small town.
Warning:

But note that with is not used with married:

Brian is married to Helen, isn’t he?
Not: Brian is married with Helen, isn’t he?

Within
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Within

from English Grammar Today

Within is a preposition.

Within: space
Within means ‘inside or not further than a particular area or space’:
People who live within the city pay higher local taxes than people who live just outside the city. (= the people who
live no further than the city boundary or limits)
We’ve always lived within ten miles of the coast. We love the sea. (We’ve always lived no further than ten miles
from the coast.)

Within: time
We can use within to refer to time:
I’ve booked train tickets on the Internet. They should arrive within three days. (no later than three days from now)
I’ve noticed her change within a very short time.
Warning:

Within does not mean the same as in. Within stresses that something is not further than a particular area or space or
not later than a particular time:
Your shirt is in the drawer.
Not: Your shirt is within the drawer.
I always have tea in the afternoon.
Not: I always have tea within the afternoon.

Without
 

Grammar > Prepositions and particles > Without

382
 from English Grammar Today

The preposition without means ‘not having something’ or ‘lacking something’:

I can’t drink tea without milk.
I found myself in a strange country, without money and with no one to turn to.
When without is followed by a singular countable noun, we use a/an:
Don’t go out without a hat. It’s very cold.
Not: Don’t go without hat.
Without + -ing form can also mean ‘if someone does not do something’:
I couldn’t get the picture out of the frame without breaking the glass. (if I did not break the glass)
Typical errors

 We don’t omit the indefinite article a/an after without + singular countable noun:

How can you live without a telephone nowadays?
Not: … without telephone …
 We don’t use without to mean ‘apart from’ or ‘in addition to’:
Apart from my mother tongue, I can speak two other languages.
Not: Without my mother-tongue …
 Without has a negative meaning. We don’t use another negative word immediately after it:
The flight was delayed and we had to wait for five hours without anything to eat or drink.
Not: … without nothing to eat or drink.

Collocation
 

Grammar > Using English > Collocation

from English Grammar Today

Collocation refers to how words go together or form fixed relationships.

typical
incorrect/untypical collocations
collocations

heavy rain thick rain

high temperature tall temperature

scenic view scenic picture

383
 typical
incorrect/untypical collocations
collocations

have an
do/make an experience
experience

She has blonde hair.
Not: She has beige hair.
She was discharged from hospital.
Not: She was released from hospital.
Collocations may be strong or weak. Strong collocations are where the link between the two words is quite fixed and
restricted. Weak collocations are where a word can collocate with many other words.
Compare

strong
make Very few words can collocate with the noun wish. This makes wish
express + a wish a strong collocator.
fulfil

weak
big+ apartment, beach, car, camera,
chance,
disappointment, fight, gun, lamp, moon, big can collocate with hundreds of words, therefore it’s a weak
news, collocator.
ocean, pain, pity, price, queue, table,
umbrella,
upset, wait, window

Strong collocations

whisk an egg curly hair

winding blissfully
road ignorant

Weak collocations

1. big/enormous/large + house/lorry/cup
2. fast/shiny/expensive + car/motorbike/aeroplane
3. very/really/extremely + interesting/hot/generous
4. brown/straight/long + fence/hair/line

384
Becoming aware of collocations is part of vocabulary learning. All languages have a large number of collocating
words. A good dictionary will help you and dictionaries of collocations are also available.

Commands and instructions

 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Commands and instructions

from English Grammar Today

Giving commands
We often use an imperative in commands, and we also use must. They both sound very direct:
[in class]
Stop talking now!
[a father to his child]
Don’t press that button.
[a mother to a child]
You must wear a coat. It’s raining.
There are a number of ways of making commands sound more polite. We can add please at the end of what we say,
or we can use a question form to make a command sound more like a request, or we can use I’d like you to +
infinitive or I’d be grateful if you’d + infinitive without to:
[a boss to an assistant]
Ask Max to sign this form and then send it off immediately please, Gwyn.
Will you bring us the files on the Hanley case please, Maria?
I’d like you to bring us four coffees at eleven when we take a break in the meeting.
I’d be grateful if you didn’t tell anyone about this.

Public notices

Public notices often give direct commands using no, do not or must:

Giving instructions
We use instructions to tell someone how to do something. We usually use imperatives. They do not sound too direct
in this context:
[a cookery class]
Beat four eggs, like this. Then add the flour gradually. Don’t beat the eggs too much though.
[instructions on how to replace a missing button]
Thread your needle with a piece of thread about 25 cm long. Mark the spot where you want the button. Insert the
needle from the back of the fabric and bring it through …
Spoken English:

385
In speaking, we often use the present simple when we are giving instructions and demonstrations, and we say like
so meaning ‘like this’:
You fold the A4 piece of paper like so. Then you glue some shapes onto this side and sprinkle some glitter on
it like so.

Commentaries
 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Commentaries

from English Grammar Today

Commentaries are reports on events such as a public ceremony or a football match. They are usually spoken while
the events are being viewed. We use both the present simple and the present continuous. The present simple is used
to make the commentary sound more immediate:
[a football commentary: swings the ball here means ‘kicks the ball with a high pass’]
Chelsea are a goal down and need to score in the next ten minutes. It’s Terry now, passes to Bridge,
Bridge swings the ball over to the left and finds Malouda.
The present continuous is used to describe actions which are slower:
The president is now making his way towards the palace and is waving to the crowds.
The two golfers are now playing the final stage of the match.

Invitations
 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Invitations

from English Grammar Today

When we give somebody an invitation, we ask if they would like to go somewhere or do something or have
something. We can use the formal phrase would you like (to) and the more informal phrase do you want (to):
Would you like to come to dinner on Friday night?
Karen, would you like some cake?
Do you want to go for a coffee?
We can accept or reject an invitation. Thanks on its own means ‘yes’:
Accept

A:

Frank, would you like a chocolate?

B:

386
Yes, please.
A:

Would you like to come to the cinema with us tonight?

B:

Thanks. That would be great.

Reject

A:

Do you want some more coffee?

B:

No thanks. I’m fine.
A more forceful but polite way of inviting someone to do something is to use an imperative, including emphatic
imperatives with do:
Come and join us.
Do sit down anywhere you like.
Don’t be afraid to ask if you want anything.
We often use you’ll have to and you must when we are not specific about the time, for example soon, in the New
Year, some time:
You’ll have to come over soon. (come over means ‘visit us’)
You must come for a walk with us some time.
We can also make invitations with Why don’t you …?:
A:

Why don’t you join us for lunch on Sunday?

B:

Thanks, that’s very kind of you.

Offers
 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Offers

from English Grammar Today

When we offer, we ask someone if they would like to have something or if they would like us to do something for
them. We usually say yes, please or no, thanks when we reply to offers.
Offers of food or drinks

A:

387
Would you like some cake?
B:

Oh yes, please. It looks delicious.

A:

Can I get you more juice?

B:

No, thanks.
In more informal offers, we can use want or a noun phrase with a questioning intonation:
Do you want some more salad, Peter?
A:

Want some of my sandwich?
B:

No, thanks.
A:

Tea?
B:

Oh yes, please.

Offers to do something for someone

A:

Shall I wash the car?

B:

Oh, that would be great, thanks.

A:

Would you like me to walk you home?

B:

No, thanks.
Warning:

We don’t use the present simple to offer to do something for someone. We most commonly use ’ll:
I’ll do the ironing if you want.
Not: I do the ironing …
Jim’s doing nothing. He’ll walk the dog for you if you like.

388
Offers to do something in different situations

[A is visiting B’s house. B is preparing dinner]

A:

Is there anything I can do?

B:

Actually yes, you can chop these carrots while I wash the potatoes.
[in a shop, A is the shop assistant and B is the customer]
A:

Can I help you?

B:

No, thanks. I’m just looking around.

[on a telephone helpline]
A:

Hi my name is Inez. How may I help you?

B:

Well, there’s something wrong with my internet connection …

[at an information desk]
A:

What can I do for you?

B:

I’m interested in seeing the city centre. Is there a bus tour, or something like that, that I can take?
When we are almost certain that a person would like something, we can use let me:
Let me get you some more soup.
Let me carry your bag. That’s too heavy for you.

Requests
 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Requests

from English Grammar Today

When we make a request, we ask someone for something, or we ask someone to do something.

Asking for something

389
There are different ways of asking for something. We usually ask for something in a polite and indirect way, for
example, using can, could, would you mind if and may:
A:

Can I have the salt?

B:

Of course, here you are.

A:

Could I ask you the time, please?

B:

No problem. It’s quarter past four.

A:

Would you mind if I borrowed your pen, please?

B:

Of course, here you are.

A:

May I have the bill, please? (May is more formal.)

B:

Certainly, Madam.
I need is very direct and is usually used for urgent requests:
I need a doctor.
I need the fire extinguisher. Fast!
I want is very direct and can sound impolite. We don’t normally use it to make requests unless we want to be very
direct:
I want to speak to the manager right now. I am not leaving here until I get my money back.

Asking someone to do something

There are a number of ways of asking someone to do something in a polite and indirect way. We often use please to
make our requests more polite:
Could you call a taxi for me, please?
Would you ask Rose whether she has signed the card, please?
Would you mind collecting my suit from the dry cleaner’s, please?
Do you think you could come in ten minutes early tomorrow, before the presentation?
We sometimes use can you and will you to make requests but they are more informal:
Mum, can you wake me at seven o’clock?
Will you send me an email tomorrow just to remind me to book a hotel?
We need is often used in work contexts by a boss or manager to ask for something to be done in a polite way:
We need to email the contract to Peter immediately.

390
We need someone to go to the meeting in Paris on Wednesday. Bill can’t go.
When we are not sure if someone will be able to do what we ask, we sometimes use you wouldn’t …, would
you? or you couldn’t …, could you?:
You wouldn’t drop this into the post office for me, would you?
You couldn’t stop at a bank machine, could you?
In formal letters and formal emails, we can use the following expressions:
I would be grateful if you could send me more information about the course.
We would be most grateful if you could send someone to meet us at the airport as we do not speak Japanese.

Greetings and farewells: hello, goodbye, Happy New Year

 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Greetings and farewells: hello, goodbye, Happy New Year

from English Grammar Today

Saying hello
When we see someone we know, we usually exchange greetings:

Good
morning/afternoon/evening
Hello more formal
Morning less formal
Hi
Hi there

A:

Hi.
B:

Hello, how are you?

A:

Fine, thanks. How about you?

Saying goodbye
When we leave people, we usually say something as we leave:

Good night more formal

Goodbye less formal
Bye bye

391
Bye
See you
later
See you

A:

See you later.

B:

OK. Bye.
Warning:

We use Good night only when we are leaving someone at the end of the day, before going home or going to bed:
[leaving someone’s house]
Good night. Thanks for a lovely evening.
[before going to bed]
I’m off to bed. Good night.

Congratulating and celebrating

We use different expressions for celebrations:

Happy New Year!

on special occasions
Happy birthday!

to wish someone luck before an important

Good luck!
event

Well done!
to congratulate someone
Congratulations! (more formal)

We don’t say congratulations to wish someone a happy birthday:

Happy birthday, Nora.
Not: Congratulations, Nora.

Suggestions
 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Suggestions

392
 from English Grammar Today

If we make a suggestion, it means that we mention a possible course of action to someone. There are a number of
expressions which we can use to make suggestions.
How about/what about + -ing?

How about starting a book club?

What about opening your present now?

How about + present simple?

A:

How about I pick you up at eight o’clock on my way to the airport?

B:

Great. I’ll see you then.

We often use how about and what about + noun phrase when we make suggestions about food or drink. These
suggestions are invitations:
A:

Are you hungry?

B:

Yeah, how about some lunch?

What about a coffee?
See also:
 Invitations
 How
 What
 Supposing

Why not …? and why don’t …?

We can use why not to make a general suggestion. We often find it in advertising:

Why not take a break in the south-west?
Why not treat yourself to a meal at the Icon Restaurant?
We can use why don’t …? to make a specific suggestion:
You look really tired. Why don’t you take some time out and rest?
It’s getting late in the evening now. Why don’t we stop now and work on this tomorrow morning?
See also:
 Why

Let’s … and let’s not …

We use let’s (let us) to make suggestions about doing something with someone:

393
 Let’s call Michael and see if he knows how to fix it.
Let’s make a curry tonight.
We use let’s not to make negative suggestions:
Let’s not argue about this.
Let’s not spend all night talking about my problems.
See also:
 Let,  let’s

Could

We often use phrases with could to make suggestions. Some are neutral, some are strong. The negative
form, couldn’t, is stronger than the affirmative form:

Strong

A:

I only have three chairs. There will be four of us for dinner.

B:

Couldn’t you use the one in your bedroom?

A:

I need to finish this essay by tonight.

B:

Couldn’t you get up early in the morning to finish it?

Neutral

A:

I have nothing to wear to the party.

B:

You could wear your red dress and your black shoes.

A:

We’ll need to have at least £300 for the concert tickets, the accommodation and the train.
B:

We could cut lawns and wash cars and that kind of thing. Or we could borrow the money from our parents and pay
them back.
See also:
 Could

394
Can’t you …?

We can use can’t you to make a strong suggestion. It can sound very direct when it is addressed to someone who is
present:
[mother to child]
Can’t you finish your homework before going?
[a woman is talking about her husband who wants a new television]
A:

I think our television is fine. I don’t want it to be replaced really.

B:

Mm.
A:

And he’ll want one of those wide screens.

B:

Oh dear. Can’t he manage with the one you have?

I thought we might/could

We can use phrases with I thought we might or I thought we could to make weak suggestions, especially when we
don’t want to sound too forceful:
On Saturday, I thought we might go to town and see the Farmers’ Market and then I thought we could have lunch
in a nice little café by the river.

You could always

We can use the phrase you could always or we could always to make weak suggestions:
A:

Oh no! We’re out of olive oil.

B:

We could always use butter. I know it’s not as healthy, but it’ll taste good.

There’s always

We use the phrase there’s always to make very weak suggestions. It is sometimes used when someone is trying to
cheer someone up or trying to be funny:
A:

How did it go?

B:

We lost four nil. That’s it for this year. We’re out of the championship now.
A:

Don’t worry. There’s always next year.

395
[friends are chatting about the Beatles; Paul and Ringo are the names of two of its members]
A:

I always liked Paul.

B:

I once dreamt that I married Ringo.

A:

Oh no! That was a nightmare!

C:

There’s always divorce!
We also use suggest and shall to make suggestions.

Telephoning
 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Telephoning

from English Grammar Today

Making and answering a telephone call

Here is the start of an informal telephone call between friends:

[B calls A]
A:

Hello.
B:

Hi, Kathryn. (ways of saying hello)

A:

How are you?

B:

Great, and you? (ways of asking how are you?)

A:

Good, thanks.
B:

396
I was wondering if you’d be interested in going to the cinema with me tonight? (explaining why you called)
When you call someone you don’t know:
[B calls A]
A:

Hello.
B:

Hello, my name is Chloe Anderson, and I’m calling about the job you have advertised in the Evening Herald. (caller
identifies who they are and why they are calling)
Warning:

When we want to tell someone who we are, we say my name is …, this is … or it’s …:
[B calls A]
A:

Hello.
B:

Hi. My name is Jenny and your friend Cathy gave me your number.

A:

Oh yes, hello Jenny. Cathy has mentioned you.

Hello. My name is John Pierce. I am calling about your advertisement in the local paper this week.
[B calls A]
A:

Hello.
B:

Hello. Is that Ellie?

A:

No, this is Carmel.
Not: No, I’m Carmel
[B calls A]
A:

Hello.
B:

Hi. Can I speak to Lesley?

A:

Who’s calling?
B:

397
It’s Ian. I work with her.
In many languages you answer the phone by giving your name. In English we don’t unless we represent a company
or an institution:
[B calls a beauty salon]
A:

Tranquillity Beauty Salon. Maria speaking, how can I help you?

B:

I wonder if I could have an appointment for a facial tomorrow afternoon?

[B calls an electrical company]
A:

All Electrics. How can I help you?

B:

Could I speak to the manager, please?

A:

Certainly. I’ll put you through to her office.

Ending a phone call

We often use discourse markers such as right and okay when we want to end a call:

A:

That was nice that you invited your mum around for her birthday. I bet she was so happy.
B:

Yeah. It was really nice.

A:

Right, well I’d better be going.

B:

Okay, thanks for calling, Liz.

A:

Okay, bye, Mel.
B:

Bye.

Asking for someone

If we want to ask for someone, we say can I speak to X please? or is X there please? (more informal):
A:

Hello. Can I speak to Jackie, please?

398
B:

Speaking. (This means that Jackie is the person who answered the phone.)
A:

Hi. Is Emma there, please?

B:

I’ll get her for you now.

Asking someone to wait

If we want to ask someone to wait, we usually say can you hold (on) (a minute) please?:
A:

Is Carol there, please?

B:

Sure. Can you hold on a minute please and I’ll get her for you?
A:

Can I speak to Mr Peterson, please?

B:

Absolutely. Can you just hold a second and I’ll put you through to his office?

When someone is not available

When someone phones and asks to speak to someone who is not available, we say X is not available or X is not
here or X is not in his/her office and we usually offer to take a message:
A:

Can I speak to Laura Watts, please?

B:

I’m afraid Laura is not available at the moment. Can I take a message?
A:

Can you tell her that Esther called and that I’ll call her back later.
A:

Can I speak to Mr Richard Nicks, please?

B:

I’m afraid Mr Nicks is not in his office right now. Can I take a message?
A:

No, that’s fine. I’ll call back later.

399
Warnings
 

Grammar > Using English > Functions > Warnings

from English Grammar Today

A warning is something that makes us aware of possible danger. There are a number of ways of warning someone.
Warnings can be weak or strong.
Weak warnings

Weak warnings are similar to advice. We can use a number of phrases:

I wouldn’t swim there if I were you.
I don’t think you should drink the water here.
I don’t think you ought to say no to the job offer. (more formal)
A word of warning, there are snakes on the trails. (Be careful)

Strong warnings

We usually use don’t in strong warnings:

Don’t cross the road when the pedestrian light is red.
Don’t try to open the door when the train is moving.
Whatever you do, don’t take a lift from an unofficial taxi driver.
Sometimes we say I warn you or I must warn you:
It’s a wonderful restaurant but, I warn you, it isn’t cheap.
I must warn you it gets very cold at night in the mountains. Make sure to bring some warm clothes.

Public warning notices

We often use beware of, caution, warning and danger in public warning notices:

Beware of the dog.
Caution: Wet floor.
Warning: this building site is private property.
[near a river where it is dangerous to swim]
Danger: Strong currents.

Warning of immediate danger

Spoken English:

When we want to say something to warn someone about an immediate danger, we can use phrases like careful, be
careful, watch out, look out, mind:
Be careful! That chair is broken!

400
 Watch out! You’re about to hit the car behind you.
Look out! There’s a rock falling.
Mind your step! (pay attention to the step)

Dates
 

Grammar > Using English > Numbers > Dates

from English Grammar Today

Writing the date

We write the date in English in different ways. The most common way in British English is to write the day of the
month first, then the month (starting with a capital letter) and then the year:

20 January 14 November
1993 2005

We can also write the date in numbers only:

20 January 1993 = 14 November 2005 = 14–11–2005 or

20/1/1993 14.11.05

Sometimes the last two letters of the number as spoken can be used (th, rd, st, nd):
Today is the 7th September.
The grand opening is on 1st June. or … on June 1st.
With the exception of May and June, months can be shortened as follows:
Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, Jul, Aug, Sept, Oct, Nov, Dec.

Dates in American English

In written American English, the month of the date comes before the day and year. For example, Independence Day
in the USA is on July 4th each year. In the year 2000 the date was 4/7/2000 in British English. In American English
this is written 7/4/2000.
See also:
 British and American English

Speaking the date

We ask the date or about dates in several ways. We can add the and of when we reply:
What date did they get married?
A:

401
 What date is it?
B:

It’s the first of June. (1st June)

A:

What’s the date today?
B:

It’s June the first. (June 1st)

A:

What’s today’s date?
B:

Fifteenth of April. (15th April)

We talk about years like this:

Before the year 2000

1492: fourteen ninety-two

1700: seventeen hundred
1801: eighteen hundred and one or eighteen oh /əʊ/ one
1908: nineteen oh eight

After the year 2000

2000: two thousand

2003: two thousand and three or twenty oh three
2012: two thousand and twelve or twenty twelve

Typical error

 Make sure you use the correct abbreviated form:

My birthday is the 28th of January.
Not: … the 28st …

Measurements
 

Grammar > Using English > Numbers > Measurements

from English Grammar Today

402
 Area: length, width, depth and height
We use the nouns length, width, depth and height and the adjectives long, wide, deep and high to talk about area and
size:
A:

What length is the pool at the sports club?

B:

Eighteen metres, I think.

A:

And what about the depth?

B:

It’s not very deep, maybe a metre.

The island is 11 miles long and 5 miles wide.
We were travelling at a height of 10,000 metres above sea level.
The statue is 3 metres high.
The zoo insists on the mammals having a pool at least 10 metres deep, 30 metres wide and 150 metres long.
We can use by instead of long and wide:
The island is 11 miles by 5 miles.

Tall or high?

We use tall for people, buildings and things that grow. Otherwise we use high:

She’s very tall for her age.
Not: She’s very high for her age.
The Burj Dubai will be the world’s tallest tower.
The plants were two metres tall.
High ceilings are common in Georgian houses.
They built high walls around the garden.
See also:
 High or tall?

Weight and volume

We use the verb weigh to measure weight:
The engine is designed to take minimum space and weighs 55 kg.
We buy things (fruit, vegetables, flour, etc.) by the kilo/pound, etc:
We buy rice by the kilo, which works out cheaper.
We use the verb hold to indicate volume:
The bath holds 500 litres before it overflows.

Frequency, speed, time

403
We use many different expressions to describe frequency, speed and time. Here are some of them:

Frequency

[from a brochure describing a holiday villa]

Linen is changed weekly and the villa is cleaned twice a week.

Speed

Each time you fill the bath, the water flows in at the rate of 15 litres per minute through the cold tap and 12 litres
per minute through the hot tap (when they are fully turned on).
The traffic moves at a fast pace; a speed of over one hundred kilometres an hour is not difficult. (or … 100
kilometres per hour.)

Time

You could hire the boats by the hour, and so they took one and rowed on the lake.
Warning:

We use a/an or per when we talk about prices or times in relation to weights, speed and other times, not the:
This cheese is £12.50 a kilo. (or £12.50 per kilo)
Not: … £12.50 the kilo
The speed limit in towns in the UK is 30 miles per hour. (or 30 miles an hour)
Not: … 30 miles the hour.
It costs 20 pounds an hour to rent a boat on the lake.

Number
 

Grammar > Using English > Numbers > Number

from English Grammar Today

When we use the word number, we refer to specific numbers:

Here’s the phone number of the firm where she works.
She plays in the local hockey team and wears the number six.
We also use the phrases a number of, numbers of or the number of with a plural verb when we mean ‘many’ or
‘several’:
There are a number of things we need to discuss.
A significant number of people are ill with flu so the performance had to be cancelled.
Large numbers of bees have died because of the cold summer.

404
 I couldn’t believe the number of cars that were parked outside the hall.

Numbers: first, second, third
Numbers such as first, second, third are ordinal numbers. We use them to put things in an order. We most
commonly use ordinal numbers as determiners. When we use ordinal numbers as determiners (before nouns), we
commonly use other determiners such as articles (a/an, the) and possessives (my, your) in front of them:
This was the fifth science exam that he had failed.
It’s her twenty-first birthday and she’s spending it with friends in Malaysia.
We use the ordinal numbers to refer to dates. We usually write them in abbreviated form and often in superscript
(above the line). We usually say the and of when we speak, but we often omit them in writing:
My birthday is 3rd January. (usually spoken as ‘the third of January’)
The museum was opened on 25th June 2008.
What are you doing on the 2nd of May? Do you want to join us at the theatre?
We also use ordinal numbers as nouns:
All three singers in the competition were excellent but I’m voting for the third.
Ordinal numbers are also used as adverbs:
A:

He came tenth in the New York marathon.

B:

That’s fantastic! Did he really?

First, let me introduce you to my brother Jack.
See also:
 Finite and non-finite verbs
 Dates

Numbers: one, two, three
Numbers such as one, five, eleven, two hundred are cardinal numbers. We most commonly use cardinal numbers as
determiners (before nouns). When we use them in this way, we can use other determiners such as articles (a/an, the)
and possessives (my, your) in front of them. We can use cardinal numbers + of before determiners (one of my
friends):
She loves animals and has two dogs, three cats and one rabbit.
My two best friends are Amy and Louise.
Three of his colleagues were sacked yesterday. (sacked = lost their jobs)
We also use cardinal numbers as nouns:
The children arrived in twos and threes.

Large numbers

We normally say a hundred, a thousand, a million. We only say one hundred, one thousand and one million when
we want to emphasise the number:
What would you do if you won a million euros? (preferred to one million euros)

405
The city is about a hundred kilometres from the capital.
Numbers such as 100, 200, 1,000, etc. do not take a plural -s when we use them as determiners:
There were about two hundred people at the meeting.
Not: There were about two hundreds people …
However, we use the plural forms hundreds, thousands, millions + of + noun to refer to large, non-specific numbers:
It’s happened hundreds of times.
Millions of people live in poverty.
We often use commas in writing to separate long numbers of a thousand or more into each thousand part:
The repairs cost £1,250.
A total of $5,000,000 was spent on the project.

Time
 

Grammar > Using English > Numbers > Time

from English Grammar Today

Time is a noun with a number of meanings. In some senses it is countable, and in others it is uncountable. A good
learner’s dictionary will give you its many meanings and tell you whether it is countable or uncountable.

Time: seconds, minutes, hours, years

We use time to refer to what is measured in seconds, minutes, hours and years as a whole. In this sense it is
uncountable:
How much time do we have for this project?
Children nowadays spend more time watching TV than playing.
Not: … spend more times …
In some expressions time is countable:
At a time in our history when technology is developing so fast, we can’t afford not to invest in Information
Technology.
I haven’t seen Brian for a long time.

Time: talking about clock or calendar time

When we talk about specific clock times, time is countable. We do not say hour:
What time is it now?
Not: What hour is it?
Is this a bad time to phone?
Is the swimming pool open at that time?
Not: … at that hour?

406
 We use in …’s time to say when something will happen:
I’ll be finished college in three months’ time.
I’ve ordered a new computer and it’ll be here in a week’s time.
See also:
 At, on and in (time)
 Telling the time

On time and in time
We use on time to talk about timetabled events. If something is on time, it means that it is at the scheduled time. We
often use right on time or, more informally, dead on time or bang on time, for emphasis:
The trains are usually on time. (They arrive at the scheduled times, not early or late.)
A:

It’s quarter to two. We’d better get back for the meeting.
B:

Don’t worry. These meetings never start on time.

I was lucky. The flight to Chicago arrived right on time, so I got my connection.
We use in time to say we are not late and have enough time to do something. We use it with for plus a noun, or with
a verb in the to-infinitive form:
If we leave here at about ten, we should arrive at the coast in time for lunch.
I hope to be there in time to see you before lunch. (early enough to have time to see you before lunch)
We often use the phrase just in time to emphasise that we have time to do something but are almost too late:
You’re just in time for lunch!
Compare

The stadium must be completed on time. The stadium must be completed in time for the Olympics.

It must be completed according to the It must be completed with time to spare before the start of the
schedule. Olympics.

See also:
 At, on and in (time)

Time: referring to past events

We often use expressions with time to refer to past events (the time, the time that, the time when):
Remember the time your phone went off at Olivia and John’s wedding?
I’ll never forget the time that we all dressed up as clowns for Elaine’s party.
One time when I was driving home, I saw a strange guy hitchhiking.
Children’s stories often begin with Once upon a time:
Once upon a time, there was a little girl called Cinderella …

407
Telling the time
Asking the time

We can ask about the time in different ways:

What time is it, please?
What’s the time, please, Mark?
What time does the meeting start?
Could you tell me the time, please? (more formal)
At what time does the concert begin? (formal and literary style)
What time do you make it? (informal)
Have you got the time, please?

Saying the time

When we talk about time on a clock, we use am to refer to times between 12.00 in the night and 11.59 in the day and
we use pm to refer to times between 12.00 in the day and 11.59 in the night:
I never get up before 10 am.
We weren’t home until 1.00 am.
It was 7.00 pm before the plane took off.
We usually have a lunch break at 12.30 pm.
9.00 nine o’clock
9.05 five past nine or nine oh five
9.10 ten past nine or nine ten
9.15 quarter past nine or nine fifteen
9.20 twenty past nine or nine twenty
9.25 twenty-five past nine or nine twenty-five
9.30 half past nine or nine thirty
9.35 twenty-five to ten or nine thirty-five
9.40 twenty to ten or nine forty
9.45 quarter to ten or nine forty-five
9.50 ten to ten or nine fifty
9.55 five to ten or nine fifty-five
10.00 ten o’clock
We only use o’clock for the hour:
It’s ten o’clock.
Not: It’s quarter past ten o’clock.
For times outside five-minute intervals, we say minutes past or minutes to:
9.01 one minute past nine
9.03 three minutes past nine
9.36 twenty-four minutes to ten
9.58 two minutes to ten

408
We also use the twenty-four-hour clock, especially in formal writing and in timetables:

The 24-hour
am and pm
clock

09.00 9.00 am

11.45 11.45 am

13.15 1.15 pm

22.50 10.50 pm

[13.00]
At thirteen hundred (hours), a bus will collect passengers from the front of the hotel.
[18.40]
The meeting ended at eighteen forty.

Short ways of saying the time

In informal situations, we often drop o’clock:

I usually get up at seven and I have to be at work by nine. (= I usually get up at seven o’clock and I have to be at
work by nine o’clock.)
When the speaker and the listener both know the hour, they may not need to say it:
A:

Is it quarter past yet?
B:

No, it’s only ten past. (For example, if A and B know that the hour is six, quarter past means quarter past
six and ten past means ten past six.)
[A and B are going to the cinema to see a film that they know begins at eight o’clock. Their friend Karen is
collecting them at 7.40.]
A:

What time is Karen picking us up?

B:

At twenty to.
Spoken English:

In informal speaking, we can leave out past in half past:

A:

What time is it?

B:

409
Half two.
Warning:

This means 2.30, not 1.30.

Geographical places
 

Grammar > Using English > People and places > Geographical places

from English Grammar Today

Rivers

We use the before the names of rivers. We usually write the without a capital letter. If we use the word river, we
usually write it without a capital letter: the river Thames, the river Severn, the Yangtze river.
We don’t always use the word river, especially when it is obvious that we are talking about a river: the Mississippi,
the Nile, the Ganges, the Loire.

Mountains and islands

We use the with the names of some mountains: the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau.

We do not use the if the name includes Mount or Mountain: Mount Olympus, Brokeback Mountain.
We often refer to some mountains just by their name without the: Everest, Kilimanjaro, Snowdon.
We usually use the before the names of ranges of mountains and groups of islands: the Dolomites, the Himalayas,
the Rockies, the Bahamas, the Florida Keys, the Canaries.

Deserts, oceans and seas

We usually use the before the names of deserts, oceans and seas. We often leave out the
word desert, ocean or sea: the Sahara or the Sahara Desert, the Atlantic or the Atlantic Ocean, the
Mediterranean or the Mediterranean Sea.

Cities, countries and continents

We don’t use the with the names of cities, countries or continents: Paris, Tokyo, France, Peru, Africa, Asia.
A small number of country names include the: The United Kingdom, The USA, The United Arab Emirates, The
Netherlands.

Lakes

We don’t usually use the with the names of lakes. We often use the word Lake before the name: Lake Como, Lake
Michigan, Lake Geneva, Lake Tahoe.

410
Names and titles: addressing people
 

Grammar > Using English > People and places > Names and titles: addressing people

from English Grammar Today

When we talk to someone directly, we use names and titles:

Hello, John, how are you?
Professor Sana, there’s someone to see you.
When we are talking about people, we use different forms depending on our relationship with them.
We use first names only in informal situations:
A:

I saw Mel earlier today.
B:

Did you? I haven’t seen her for weeks.

We use first name + family name (surname) when we are not sure if the person we are talking to knows who we’re
talking about:
Do you know Simon Perry?
Joy Goodfellow had to go to hospital today. I’m not sure why.
We use a title (Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr, Prof) and the surname in more formal situations. We don’t usually use the title
alone, or the title and first name (although we sometimes use a job title):
Dr O’Donnell, can I ask you a question?
Not: Dr David, can I ask …?
Could you ask Mrs Zatta to call me when she gets back?
Not: Could you ask Mrs to call me …?
We use Mr /ˈmɪstə(r)/ for men. We do not usually write ‘Mister’ in full. We use Mrs /ˈmɪsɪz/ for married women.
Ms /məz/ does not indicate if the person is married or not. Some women take on their husband’s surname and the
title Mrs when they get married. Some women prefer to keep their surname and use the title Ms.
In formal contexts, we sometimes use Master for boys and Miss for girls. Miss also indicates single status (not
married). The use of Miss is becoming less common among younger women, and Master now sounds old-fashioned.
Parents and grandparents

We use mother (usually formal), mum, mam, mummy (less formal) mom (American English) to talk to a mother,

and father (usually formal), dad, daddy, papa (less formal) to address a father. For a grandmother we use gran,
grandma, nana, nan, and for grandfather we use grandad, grandpa, granpy, gramps, pops:
Mum, you’re going to be really pleased to hear this.
I can borrow your car, can’t I, Gran?

411
 Terms of endearment

We use terms of endearment for people we are very close to or to whom we want to show affection or friendship.
They include: darling, dear, poppet (usually to a little child), love, luvvie, sweetheart. They may combine with
names:
Can you lock the car, darling?
Peter, love, could you take this to the post-box for me?

Groups of people

We use folks, guys, everyone/everybody, children, boys, lads, girls, ladies, gentlemen to address groups. Some of
these are more formal. For example, ladies and gentlemen is more formal than folks or guys. Guys is used more and
more for groups of both sexes, not just males:
OK, boys, could you all wait in the main hall, please.
Everybody, could you all hand in your evaluations as you leave, please.
Come, on guys, come and help!

Very polite terms of address

We use sir or madam most often in places such as shops or hotels where a service is being given. We
use sir and miss to address male and female school teachers (but not teachers in higher education):
[in a shop: a shop assistant is addressing a customer]
How can I help you, madam?
[in a school classroom: a pupil is addressing the teacher]
Sir, she keeps talking all the time.

Addressing strangers

English does not have a standard polite way of addressing strangers. For example, it is very difficult to know how to
attract the attention of a stranger. Hello, sorry or excuse me are most likely to be used. Sir! Madam! are not
commonly used:
Sorry, you’ve dropped your scarf.
Excuse me, are you a friend of Sheila’s?

Job titles

We don’t normally call people by the name of their job or profession. Some jobs or professions which we can use as
terms of address are: doctor (medical), driver, nurse, minister, officer, waiter:
Do you think it’s serious, doctor?
Now, minister, can you explain this policy to us?
Excuse me, waiter, sorry, could I have some more bread, please?
We use Dr /ˈdɒktə(r)] for medical doctors and people with a doctorate qualification (PhD). We use a wide range of
titles for jobs. Some common ones in business management are:
1. Chief Executive Officer CEO /si: i:əʊ/
2. Managing Director MD /em ˈdi:/
3. Financial Director FD /ef di:/
4. Chief Technical Officer CTO /si: ti: əʊ/

412
5. Vice-President VP /vi: ˈpi:/ (especially in the USA)
6. Chair/Chairperson/Chairman /ˈtʃeəmən/
We often use abbreviations:
Kapor was founder and CEO of Lotus.

Nationalities, languages, countries and regions

 

Grammar > Using English > People and places > Nationalities, languages, countries and regions

from English Grammar Today

When we refer to a nation or region, we can use:

– the name of the country or region: Turkey, Japan, Germany, Brazil, Asia
– a singular noun that we use for a person from the country or region: a Turk, a Japanese, a German, a Brazilian, an
Asian
– the plural expression the … used for the whole population of a country or region: the Turks, the Japanese, the
Germans, the Brazilians, the Asians
– an adjective: Turkish, Japanese, German, Brazilian, Asian
The name of a national language is commonly the same as the national adjective. In this case, the words are nouns
and may be modified by adjectives. We don’t use the or the word language:
Do you speak Chinese?
Not: Do you speak the Chinese? or Do you speak Chinese language?
Russian is difficult to learn, isn’t it, especially the alphabet?
She speaks fluent French.
We use a capital letter when we refer to a nationality, a language, a country and a region:
They have studied American literature.
Not: They have studied american literature.
When we talk about the United Kingdom (UK), English is not the same as British. English is not used for Scottish or
Welsh or Northern Irish people. (Great) Britain refers to the territory of England, Scotland and Wales. The United
Kingdom refers to England, Scotland, Wales and the six counties of Northern Ireland. Some people from Northern
Ireland refer to themselves as British in the context of the United Kingdom of Britain and Northern Ireland.
However, everyone from Northern Ireland has the right to Irish nationality and can hold an Irish passport. Irish also
refers to citizens of the Irish Republic.
The Scots themselves prefer the adjective Scots and it also occurs in the compounds Scotsman and Scotswoman. We
use the adjective Scotch to refer only to food and drink from Scotland e.g. Scotch broth (broth is a kind of soup).
Nowadays we use the noun Briton only to refer to the ancient tribes that lived in Britain:
The ancient Britons built huge earthworks to bury their kings and leaders.
The short form of British, Brit, is often used as a noun (or less commonly as an adjective) in journalistic style and in
informal situations to refer to British people:
The Brits have a bad reputation in some countries.

413
We use Arabic for the language spoken in Arab countries; the normal adjective is Arab (e.g. the Arab World,
the Arab Press). We use Arabian in a few fixed expressions and place names (e.g. Arabian Nights is a famous film;
the Arabian Sea).
Countries and regions and their adjectives and nouns

The singular noun is normally the same as the adjective (e.g. Moroccan), and the plural expression is the same as the
adjective + -s (e.g. the Moroccans).

Country/Region Adjective Person (noun) People (plural noun)

Algeria Algerian an Algerian the Algerians

Australia Australian an Australian the Australians

America/the
American an American the Americans
USA

Belgium Belgian a Belgian the Belgians

Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian the Brazilians

Europe European a European the Europeans

Italy Italian an Italian the Italians

Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian the Hungarians

Morocco Moroccan a Moroccan the Moroccans

Norway Norwegian a Norwegian the Norwegians

Greece Greek a Greek the Greeks

Iraq Iraqi an Iraqi the Iraqis

Israel Israeli an Israeli the Israelis

Thailand Thai a Thai the Thais

China Chinese a Chinese the Chinese

Portugal Portugues a Portuguese the Portuguese

414
Country/Region Adjective Person (noun) People (plural noun)

Russia Russian a Russian the Russians

Slovakia Slovaks a Slovak the Slovaks

Switzerland Swiss a Swiss the Swiss

Here are some exceptions:

Adjectiv
Country/region Person (noun) People (plural noun)
e

Britain British a British man/woman the British

an
England English the English
Englishman/woman

France French a Frenchman/woman the French

Ireland Irish an Irishman/woman the Irish

Spain Spanish a Spaniard the Spanish

The
Dutch a Dutchman/woman the Dutch
Netherlands/

Holland

Wales Welsh a Welshman/woman the Welsh

Denmark Danish a Dane the Danes

Finland Finnish a Finn the Finns

Poland Polish a Pole the Poles

Sweden Swedish a Swede the Swedes

415
 Adjectiv
Country/region Person (noun) People (plural noun)
e

Turkey Turkish a Turk the Turks

The + country name

A few countries have the as part of their name, for example, The United States, The United Kingdom, The United
Arab Emirates. We often abbreviate these to USA, UK and UAE.

Place names
 

Grammar > Using English > People and places > Place names

from English Grammar Today

Buildings, monuments, cathedrals, etc.

We use the with some names of buildings (we usually write the without a capital letter, the Taj Mahal, the
Alhambra, the Houses of Parliament, the Pentagon) but not with others: Stonehenge, Windsor Castle, St Paul’s
Cathedral, Chichen Itza.

Roads, streets, etc.

We use the with the names of major roads in a country: the M6, the A40, but not with the names of areas, squares,
streets and roads in a town or city: Broadway, Covent Garden, Times Square, Princes Street.

Facilities in a town or city

We usually use the with the names of hotels, cinemas, museums and art galleries: the Marriott, the Louvre, the
National Gallery.
When we are referring to buildings or institutions that don’t include the name of a town or city, we use the: the
airport, the University Press, but not when the name of the town or city is included: Gatwick Airport, Cambridge
University Press.
But there are some exceptions:
Have you been on the London Eye?
They’ve been on the Eye at least ten times.
We saw ‘Mamma Mia’ at the Bristol Hippodrome. (the name of a theatre)
Have you been to the Hippodrome since they renovated it?

The sea, the coast, etc.

When we are referring to general features of a country or its landscape, we use the: the sea, the countryside, the city,
the coast.

416
 Places: fixed expressions

There are a lot of common fixed expressions relating to places. We don’t normally use the with these expressions.
Here are some of them:
to town: I’m going to town this afternoon.
in town: She works in town.
at school/university: They met at university.
from school/university: What time do they get home from school?
in hospital: Linda’s been in hospital since Friday.
in prison: Her husband is in prison, and life is very difficult for her.

Politeness
 

Grammar > Using English > Spoken English > Politeness

from English Grammar Today

Politeness is about keeping good relations with your listener or reader. There are two types of politeness
1. – showing the listener or reader that you value and respect them.
2. – changing or softening what you say so as not to be too direct or forceful.

Politeness: showing respect

There are many ways in which we can show that we value and respect our listener or reader. In more formal
situations, we are especially careful to use certain polite phrases:
[addressing an audience]
Ladies and gentlemen, please welcome Mr Patrick Murphy …
[a waiter in a restaurant]
May I take your plate, sir?
[a message in a thank-you card]
Thank you for your wonderful gift.
[asking a stranger for directions]
Excuse me, I’m looking for Cathedral Street.
Not: Where’s Cathedral Street?
In formal contexts when we don’t know people and we want to show respect, we use titles such as Mr + family
name, Ms + family name, sir, madam, doctor (Dr), professor (Prof.):
[checking out at a hotel reception desk]
A:

Here’s your credit card, Mr Watts. Have a safe trip.

417
 B:

Thank you.
[at a restaurant]
Shall I take your coat, Madam?
[emailing a professor that you dont know]
Dear Prof. Kinsella …
Not: Hi John …
See also:
 Names and titles: addressing people

Politeness: making what we say less direct

When we speak and write, we usually try not to be too direct. There are a number of ways in which we can do this.

Softening words (hedges)

We can use softening words or hedges to make what we say softer.

Compare

softer more direct

It’s kind of cold in here, isn’t it? Could we close

It’s cold in here. Let’s close the window.
the window?

Turn down the radio. (The imperative is very direct when

Could you just turn the radio down a little, please?
used in requests.)

Your playing could possibly be improved.

[giving someone criticism on their musical
You must improve your playing. You need to spend more time
performance]
working on the rhythm.
You may need to spend more time working a little
bit on the rhythm.

See also:
 Requests
 Hedges (just)

Vague language

We use vague language to make times and quantities sound less direct and more approximate:
A:

Are you coming for dinner tomorrow night?

B:

418
 Absolutely. What time is best for you?
A:

Any time around eight would be perfect.

It’s about seven o’clock so I think we should be leaving soon. (less direct than It’s seven o’clock so we should be
leaving now.)
A:

What colour is your dress?

B:

It’s kind of green and brown, with a few gold buttons on the front.

See also:
 Vague expressions

Modal expressions

We can use certain modal verbs, especially the past forms of the modal verbs can, may,
shall and will (could, might, should and would), to be more polite or less direct. We can also use other modal
expressions (certainly, possibility, be likely to, be supposed to be). We often do this when we ask for something or
ask someone to do something:
Might I ask if you are related to Mrs Bowdon? (rather formal and more polite/less direct than May I ask …?)
Would you follow me, please, sir? (more polite/less direct than Will you follow me …?)
Would you mind moving your car, please?
A:

Could you take a look at my laptop? It’s taking so long to start up.

B:

Well I’ll certainly take a look. Is there a possibility that it might have a virus?

A:

Well, the anti-virus is supposed to be up to date.

You are likely to feel stressed before your exam. (less direct than You will feel stressed before your exam.)
See also:
 Modality: introduction
 Modal expressions with  be
 Please  and  thank you
 Requests

Changing tenses and verb forms

Sometimes we use a past verb form when we refer to present time, in order to be more polite or less direct. We often
do this with verbs such as hope, think, want and wonder. The verb may be in the past simple, or, for extra politeness,
in the past continuous:
A:

419
 Where’s the key to the back door?
B:

I was hoping you had it. (less direct than I hope you have it.)

I thought you might want to rest for a while since it’s been a long day.
I wanted to ask you a question.
I am having problems with my internet connection and I was just wondering if you could tell me how to fix it. (less
direct and forceful than I have a problem with my internet connection and I wonder if you could tell me how to fix
it.)
Warning:

In formal contexts, we sometimes use past forms in questions, invitations and requests in the present so as to sound
more polite:
Did you want another coffee?
I thought you might like some help.
We were rather hoping that you would stay with us.
In shops and other service situations, servers often use past verb forms to be polite:
Assistant:

What was the name please?

Customer:

Perry, P-E-R-R-Y.
Assistant:

Did you need any help, madam?

Customer:

No, thanks. I’m just looking.

See also:
 Past verb forms referring to the present

If and politeness

In speaking, we often use if followed by will, would, can or could to introduce a polite request:

If we can move on to the next point for discussion. (more polite than Can we move on …)
If I could just say one more thing … (more polite than Listen to me, I want to say something.)
If you will follow me, please. (more polite than Follow me, please.)
We use other expressions with if to express politeness: if you don’t mind, if it’s OK with you, if I may say so, if it’ll
help:
If you don’t mind, I think I need that cup of tea.
I’ll stay here, if it’s OK with you.

420
 Two-step questions

In speaking, we sometimes ask two questions rather than one so as to be less direct. The first question is an
introduction for the listener and the second one asks a more specific question:
A:

Do you like sport? I mean, do you play sport?

B:

Yeah. I play basketball. I’m on the school team.

The first question introduces the topic of sport; the second one asks a more specific question about it. The listener
answers the second question.
We sometimes use yes-no questions one after the other:
A:

Is this your pen?

B:

Yes, that’s mine.

A:

Do you mind if I borrow it for a minute?

B:

Not at all.
This is less direct than asking Can I borrow this pen? as a question on its own.
See also:
 Questions: two-step questions

Using names

We can make what we say more polite and less direct by using a person’s name:
What’s the time, John? (less direct than What’s the time?)
I’m not sure I agree with you, Liam. (less direct than I’m not sure I agree with you.)
See also:
 Names and titles: addressing people

Politeness: what is impolite?

Being direct is impolite so we need to be careful when using direct forms.

The imperative form

In most contexts, the imperative is very direct and is usually impolite when used outside of family and friends:
[in a café]
Give me a coffee.
Polite form: Could I have a coffee, please?

421
 [asking the time]
Tell me the time.
Polite form: Would you mind telling me the time, please?
However, it is acceptable to use an imperative in warnings, offers, written requests and when giving directions or
instructions:
Mind your step!
Have another coffee.
Turn left once you get past the cinema. Then take a right along a narrow road …
To stop in an emergency, press this button.
See also:
 Imperatives as offers and invitations
 Imperative clauses (Be quiet!)
 Telling the time
 Warnings

Using titles inappropriately

We use titles before names, for example Mr Oakley, Dr Morrison:

[in a letter or email to Professor Harry Murray]
Polite form: title + family name: Dear Prof. Murray
Not: Dear Prof. Harry
See also:
 Names and titles: addressing people

Using very familiar terms of address inappropriately

When people know each other very well, for example, couples or very close friends, parents and their children, they
may address each other using terms such as love, honey, darling, pet. In certain dialects, you may also hear people
use these terms in shops and cafés, for example. It is impolite to use these terms in formal contexts:
[in an interview]
Where do you come from, love?
[in a restaurant]
Mr Kane, pet, your table is ready.

Reported speech
 

Grammar > Using English > Reported speech > Reported speech

from English Grammar Today

422
 Reported speech is how we represent the speech of other people or what we ourselves say. There are two main types
of reported speech: direct speech and indirect speech.
Direct speech repeats the exact words the person used, or how we remember their words:
Barbara said, “I didn’t realise it was midnight.”
In indirect speech, the original speaker’s words are changed.
Barbara said she hadn’t realised it was midnight.
In this example, I becomes she and the verb tense reflects the fact that time has passed since the words were
spoken: didn’t realise becomes hadn’t realised.
Indirect speech focuses more on the content of what someone said rather than their exact words:
“I’m sorry,” said Mark. (direct)
Mark apologised. (indirect: report of a speech act)
In a similar way, we can report what people wrote or thought:
‘I will love you forever,’ he wrote, and then posted the note through Alice’s door. (direct report of what someone
wrote)
He wrote that he would love her forever, and then posted the note through Alice’s door. (indirect report of what
someone wrote)
I need a new direction in life, she thought. (direct report of someone’s thoughts)
She thought that she needed a new direction in life. (indirect report of someone’s thoughts)
See also:
 Reported speech: direct speech
 Reported speech: indirect speech

Reported speech: reporting and reported clauses

Speech reports consist of two parts: the reporting clause and the reported clause. The reporting clause includes a
verb such as say, tell, ask, reply, shout, usually in the past simple, and the reported clause includes what the original
speaker said.

reporting clause reported clause

William said, “I need your help.”

Then a
“Get out of there, fast!”
man shouted,

The postman said he had a package for us.

she’s thinking of moving to

Clarissa told me
Canada.

Reported speech: punctuation

423
 Direct speech

In direct speech we usually put a comma between the reporting clause and the reported clause. The words of the
original speaker are enclosed in inverted commas, either single (‘…’) or double (“…”). If the reported clause comes
first, we put the comma inside the inverted commas:
“I couldn’t sleep last night,” he said.
Rita said, ‘I don’t need you any more.’
If the direct speech is a question or exclamation, we use a question mark or exclamation mark, not a comma:
‘Is there a reason for this?’ she asked.
“I hate you!” he shouted.
We sometimes use a colon (:) between the reporting clause and the reported clause when the reporting clause is first:
The officer replied: ‘It is not possible to see the General. He’s busy.’
See also:
 Punctuation

Indirect speech

Warning:

In indirect speech it is more common for the reporting clause to come first. When the reporting clause is first, we
don’t put a comma between the reporting clause and the reported clause. When the reporting clause comes after the
reported clause, we use a comma to separate the two parts:
She told me they had left her without any money.
Not: She told me, they had left her without any money.
Nobody had gone in or out during the previous hour, he informed us.
Warning:

We don’t use question marks or exclamation marks in indirect reports of questions and exclamations:
He asked me why I was so upset.
Not: He asked me why I was so upset?
See also:
 Punctuation

Reported speech: reporting verbs

Say and tell

We can use say and tell to report statements in direct speech, but say is more common. We don’t always mention the
person being spoken to with say, but if we do mention them, we use a prepositional phrase with to (to me, to Lorna):
‘I’ll give you a ring tomorrow,’ she said.
‘Try to stay calm,’ she said to us in a low voice.
Not: ‘Try to stay calm,’ she said us in a low voice.
With tell, we always mention the person being spoken to; we use an indirect object (underlined):
‘Enjoy yourselves,’ he told them.
Not: ‘Enjoy yourselves,’ he told.

424
 In indirect speech, say and tell are both common as reporting verbs. We don’t use an indirect object with say, but we
always use an indirect object (underlined) with tell:
He said he was moving to New Zealand.
Not: He said me he was moving to New Zealand.
He told me he was moving to New Zealand.
Not: He told he was moving to New Zealand.
We use say, but not tell, to report questions:
‘Are you going now?’ she said.
Not: ‘Are you going now?’ she told me.
We use say, not tell, to report greetings, congratulations and other wishes:
‘Happy birthday!’ she said.
Not: Happy birthday!’ she told me.
Everyone said good luck to me as I went into the interview.
Not: Everyone told me good luck …
See also:
 Say or tell?

Other reporting verbs

add comment explain offer state

admit complain hint order suggest

point threate
advise confess inform
out n

agree confirm insist promise warn

announc interrup
continue protest wonder
e t

cry (= shout maintai
answer repeat
) n

ask demand note reply

claim enquire observe shout

The reporting verbs in this list are more common in indirect reports, in both speaking and writing:
Simon admitted that he had forgotten to email Andrea.
Louis always maintains that there is royal blood in his family.

425
The builder pointed out that the roof was in very poor condition.
Most of the verbs in the list are used in direct speech reports in written texts such as novels and newspaper reports.
In ordinary conversation, we don’t use them in direct speech. The reporting clause usually comes second, but can
sometimes come first:
‘Who is that person?’ she asked.
‘It was my fault,’ he confessed.
‘There is no cause for alarm,’ the Minister insisted.

Reported speech: direct speech

 

Grammar > Using English > Reported speech > Reported speech: direct speech

from English Grammar Today

Direct speech is a representation of the actual words someone said. A direct speech report usually has a reporting
verb in the past simple. The most common reporting verb is said. The reporting clause may come first or second.

reporting clause first reported clause reporting clause second

Jimmy said, ‘Let me have a look.’

Then the
‘Are there any toys?’
child asked,

‘Hand it over at
he demanded.
once!’

‘I believe that too,’ she added.

The reporting clause may sometimes come in the middle of the reported clause, especially in literary styles:
“No,” she said, “I’ve never seen it before.”
‘Was it,’ he asked, ‘the first time you had spoken to Mrs Dalton?’
We can use adverbs with the reporting verb to describe the way someone said something. This is more common
when the reporting clause comes second:
“I will not accept it!” he said angrily.
‘Can I speak to the doctor?’ she asked rather nervously.
See also:

426
 Reported speech: punctuation
 Reported speech: reporting and reported clauses

Direct speech: inversion of subject and reporting verb

In narratives, especially novels and short stories, when the reporting clause comes second, we often invert the
subject (s) and reporting verb (v):
“Things have always been the same in this village,” [V]said [S]the old man.
‘Hold on! I’m coming!’ [V]cried [S]Maurice.

Direct speech: present simple and continuous reporting verbs

Informal narratives

In informal conversation, we sometimes use the present simple in the reporting clause. This makes the direct speech
more vivid and dramatic:
So then this guy says, “I’ve got something for you. Come over here.” And he picked up a box and he says, “Open
that.”
We can make the direct speech even more vivid and dramatic by using the present continuous. This is very informal:
And he’s looking at me and he’s asking, “Who are you?” and I said, “I’m your nephew” and he’s mumbling, “I
don’t know you. I’ve never seen you before in my life.”
In very informal conversation, people sometimes use says as a reporting verb for all persons (I, you, she, he, we,
they):
She says, ‘What’s going on here?’ and I says, ‘Nothing. There’s nothing happening – everything’s okay.’
Warning:

Many speakers consider the above examples to be incorrect. This applies especially to the use of says with all
persons.

Newspaper headlines

We also use the present simple in newspaper headlines. This makes the reported words more dramatic:
‘I WON’T RESIGN,’ SAYS MINISTER

Reported speech: indirect speech

 

Grammar > Using English > Reported speech > Reported speech: indirect speech

from English Grammar Today

Indirect speech focuses more on the content of what someone said rather than their exact words. In indirect speech,
the structure of the reported clause depends on whether the speaker is reporting a statement, a question or a
command.

427
 direct indirect reported clause

statement ‘I’m tired,’ I said. I told them (that) I was tired. that-clause

‘Are you ready?’ the nurse asked The nurse asked Joel if/whether he was if-clause/whether-
question Joel. ready. clause
‘Who are you?’ she asked. She asked me who I was. wh-clause

comman
‘Leave at once!’ they ordered. They ordered us to leave at once. to-infinitive clause
d

Indirect speech: reporting statements

Indirect reports of statements consist of a reporting clause and a that-clause. We often omit that, especially in
informal situations:
The pilot commented that the weather had been extremely bad as the plane came in to land. (The pilot’s words
were: ‘The weather was extremely bad as the plane came in to land.’)
I told my wife I didn’t want a party on my 50th birthday. (that-clause without that) (or I told my wife that I didn’t
want a party on my 50th birthday.)

Indirect speech: reporting questions

Reporting yes-no questions and alternative questions

Indirect reports of yes-no questions and questions with or consist of a reporting clause and a reported clause
introduced by if or whether. If is more common than whether. The reported clause is in statement form (subject +
verb), not question form:
She asked if [S] [V]I was Scottish. (original yes-no question: ‘Are you Scottish?’)
The waiter asked whether [S]we [V]wanted a table near the window. (original yes-no question: ‘Do you want a
table near the window?)
He asked me if [S] [V]I had come by train or by bus. (original alternative question: ‘Did you come by train or by
bus?’)
See also:
 Questions: yes-no questions (Are you feeling cold?)
 Whether

Reporting wh-questions

Indirect reports of wh-questions consist of a reporting clause, and a reported clause beginning with a wh-word (who,
what, when, where, why, how). We don’t use a question mark:
He asked me what I wanted.
Not: He asked me what I wanted?
The reported clause is in statement form (subject + verb), not question form:
She wanted to know who [S]we [V]had invited to the party.
Not: … who had we invited …

428
 Who, whom and what

In indirect questions with who, whom and what, the wh-word may be the subject or the object of the reported clause:
I asked them who came to meet them at the airport. (who is the subject of came; original question: ‘Who came to
meet you at the airport?’)
He wondered what the repairs would cost. (what is the object of cost; original question: ‘What will the repairs
cost?’)
The reported clause is in statement form (subject + verb), not question form:
She asked us what [S]we [V]were doing. (original question: ‘What are you doing?’)
Not: She asked us what were we doing?
See also:
 Whom

When, where, why and how

We also use statement word order (subject + verb) with when, where, why and how:

I asked her when [S]it [V]had happened (original question: ‘When did it happen?’).
Not: I asked her when had it happened?
I asked her where [S]the bus station [V]was. (original question: ‘Where is the bus station?’)
Not: I asked her where was the bus station?
The teacher asked them how [S]they [V]wanted to do the activity. (original question: ‘How do you want to do the
activity?’)
Not: The teacher asked them how did they want to do the activity?
See also:
 Questions: wh-questions

Indirect speech: reporting commands

Indirect reports of commands consist of a reporting clause, and a reported clause beginning with a to-infinitive:
The General ordered the troops to advance. (original command: ‘Advance!’)
The chairperson told him to sit down and to stop interrupting. (original command: ‘Sit down and stop
interrupting!’)
We also use a to-infinitive clause in indirect reports with other verbs that mean wanting or getting people to do
something, for example, advise, encourage, warn:
They advised me to wait till the following day. (original statement: ‘You should wait till the following day.’)
The guard warned us not to enter the area. (original statement: ‘You must not enter the area.’)
See also:
 Verbs followed by a to-infinitive

Indirect speech: present simple reporting verb

We can use the reporting verb in the present simple in indirect speech if the original words are still true or relevant
at the time of reporting, or if the report is of something someone often says or repeats:
Sheila says they’re closing the motorway tomorrow for repairs.
Henry tells me he’s thinking of getting married next year.

429
 Rupert says dogs shouldn’t be allowed on the beach. (Rupert probably often repeats this statement.)

Newspaper headlines

We often use the present simple in newspaper headlines. It makes the reported speech more dramatic:
JUDGE TELLS REPORTER TO LEAVE COURTROOM
PRIME MINISTER SAYS FAMILIES ARE TOP PRIORITY IN TAX REFORM
See also:
 Present simple (I work)
 Reported speech
 Reported speech: direct speech

Indirect speech: past continuous reporting verb

In indirect speech, we can use the past continuous form of the reporting verb (usually say or tell). This happens
mostly in conversation, when the speaker wants to focus on the content of the report, usually because it is interesting
news or important information, or because it is a new topic in the conversation:
Rory was telling me the big cinema in James Street is going to close down. Is that true?
Alex was saying that book sales have gone up a lot this year thanks to the Internet.
See also:
 Indirect speech: reporting statements

Backshift
‘Backshift’ refers to the changes we make to the original verbs in indirect speech because time has passed between
the moment of speaking and the time of the report.
Compare

direct speech indirect speech

I said, ‘I’m not very happy at work.’ I told her I was not very happy at work.

They said: ‘We’re going home.’ They told us they were going home.

He said, ‘Jane will be late.’ He said that Jane would be late.

‘I’ve been working,’ she said. She said she had been working.

‘What happened to make her so angry?’ he He asked what had happened to make her so

asked. angry.

In these examples, the present (am) has become the past (was), the future (will) has become the future-in-the-past
(would) and the past (happened) has become the past perfect (had happened). The tenses have ‘shifted’ or ‘moved
back’ in time.

430
Backshift changes

direct indirect

present simple → past simple

present continuous → past continuous

present perfect simple → past perfect simple

present perfect
→ past perfect continuous
continuous

past simple → past perfect simple

past continuous → past perfect continuous

future (will) → future-in-the-past (would)

past perfect ↔ past perfect (no change)

The past perfect does not shift back; it stays the same:

Direct
Indirect speech
speech

He asked: ‘Had the girls He asked if the

already left?’ girls had already left.

Modal verbs

Some, but not all, modal verbs ‘shift back’ in time and change in indirect speech.

direct speech indirect speech change

He promised they would be
will ‘We will be there,’ he promised. will becomes would
there.

She said she would need more

She said, ‘I shall need more shall usually becomes would
money.
shall money.’ in reported
She asked if she should open
‘Shall I open it?’ she asked. questions, shall becomes should
it.

431
 direct speech indirect speech change

‘I can see you at 2.30,’ he He added that he could see me

can can becomes could
added. at 2.30.

She said she might be back

‘I may be back later,’ she said.
later. may (possibility) becomes might
may ‘You may wait in the hallway,’
He said we could wait in the may (permission) becomes could
he said.
hallway.

She said, ‘You must pay by 30th She said we had to pay by 30th

must (obligation) usually
April.’ April.
must becomes had to
‘It must be awful to live in such She said it must be awful to
must (speculation) does not change
a noisy place,’ she said. live in such a noisy place.

‘We could sell it for about 2,000 He said they could sell it for

could no change
euros,’ he said. about 2,000 euros.

shoul ‘You should go there She said I should go there

no change
d immediately,’ she said. immediately.

‘I would buy it if I had the He said he would buy it if he

would no change
money,’ he said. had the money.

‘It might snow tonight,’ he He warned that it might snow

might no change
warned. that night.

‘You needn’t come till six He said we needn’t come till

need no change
o’clock,’ he said. six o’clock.

We can use a perfect form with have + -ed form after modal verbs, especially where the report looks back to a
hypothetical event in the past:
He said the noise might have been the postman delivering letters. (original statement: ‘The noise might be the
postman delivering letters.’)
He said he would have helped us if we’d needed a volunteer. (original statement: ‘I’ll help you if you need a
volunteer’ or ‘I’d help you if you needed a volunteer.’)
Used to and ought to do not change in indirect speech:
She said she used to live in Oxford. (original statement: ‘I used to live in Oxford.’)
The guard warned us that we ought to leave immediately. (original statement: ‘You ought to leave immediately.’)

No backshift

We don’t need to change the tense in indirect speech if what a person said is still true or relevant or has not
happened yet. This often happens when someone talks about the future, or when someone uses the present simple,
present continuous or present perfect in their original words:

432
He told me his brother works for an Italian company. (It is still true that his brother works for an Italian company.)
She said she’s getting married next year. (For the speakers, the time at the moment of speaking is ‘this year’.)
He said he’s finished painting the door. (He probably said it just a short time ago.)
She promised she’ll help us. (The promise applies to the future.)

Indirect speech: changes to pronouns

Changes to personal pronouns in indirect reports depend on whether the person reporting the speech and the
person(s) who said the original words are the same or different.

direct indirect

‘I don’t want to shock Tom said he didn’t want to shock different speakers (I changes

people,’ Tom said. people. to he)

‘I’ll look after Toby,’ I said. I said I would look after Toby. same speaker (no change)

‘You need to be here at nine George told Beatrice she needed to be different speakers (you changes

o’clock,’ George told Beatrice. there at nine o’clock. to she)

‘I hope you will join us I told James I hoped he would join us same speaker (no change

tonight,’ I said to James. that night. to I; you changes to he)

Indirect speech: changes to adverbs and demonstratives

We often change demonstratives (this, that) and adverbs of time and place (now, here, today, etc.) because indirect
speech happens at a later time than the original speech, and perhaps in a different place.
Compare

direct speech indirect speech

I said, ‘I’ll meet you here tomorrow.’ I told her I would meet her there the next/following day.

She said, ‘I do not wish to discuss it at this moment She said she did not wish to discuss it at that moment in
in time.’ time.

He said, “I want it now.” He said he wanted it then/at that moment.

‘I finished the job three weeks ago,’ the boy The boy protested that he had finished the job three weeks
protested. before.

433
 Typical changes to demonstratives, adverbs and adverbial expressions

direct indirect

this → that

these → those

now → then

yesterday → the day before

the next/following
tomorrow →
day

two weeks
→ two weeks before
ago

here → there

Indirect speech: typical errors

 The word order in indirect reports of wh-questions is the same as statement word order (subject + verb), not
question word order:
She always asks me where [S] [V]I am going.
Not: She always asks me where am I going.
 We don’t use a question mark when reporting wh-questions:
I asked him what he was doing.
Not: I asked him what he was doing?

Sexist language
 

Grammar > Using English > Sexist language

from English Grammar Today

Sexist language is language which excludes one sex or the other, or which suggests that one sex is superior to the
other. For example, traditionally, he, him and his were used to refer to both sexes, male and female, but nowadays

434
 many people feel that this makes she, her and hers seem less important or inferior. It is best to avoid sexist language
in order not to offend people.

He, she, him, her, his, hers
In writing, we can use (s)he, he/she, him/her or his/her to refer to both sexes at the same time. When speaking
formally, we say he or she and his or her:
The teacher is the person who organises the class. (S)he is the one who controls timekeeping and the sequence of
events.
Not: She is the one … or He is the one …
A police officer should remember that he/she is a public servant and should therefore always be polite. It
is his/her duty to assist the public.
University administrator: Could each candidate please leave his or her exam registration form at the office before
midday, please? (spoken)
We can use they, them, their and theirs to refer to both sexes at the same time, even when a singular noun has been
used, although some people consider this unacceptable. However, in present-day English, this usage is becoming
more accepted:
Every student must show their identity card on entering the examination room. (preferred to Every student must
show his identity card.)
A nurse has to be very open and understanding. They must listen to their patients and respond to them. (preferred
to She must listen to her patients. or He must listen to his patients.)
See also:
 Pronouns: indefinite (-body, -one, -thing, -where)

Suffixes -man, -master -woman and -ess
Many people feel that traditional uses of the suffixes -man, -master, -woman and -ess are sexist and outdated, so
alternative, neutral forms are often used (m = male; f = female).

traditional form neutral alternative

fireman (m) fire-fighter

policeman (m) policewoman (f) police officer

headmaster (m) headmistress (f) headteacher or head

waiter (m) waitress (f) server (American English)

In many cases, we can use the traditional male suffix for both sexes.

traditional form neutral alternative

actor (m) actress (f) actor

435
traditional form neutral alternative

manager (m) manageress (f
manager
)

poet (m) poetess (f) poet

waiter (m) waitress (f) waiter

Nouns, adjectives and verbs with man

Some nouns, adjectives and verbs which include man are considered sexist nowadays. We can often use neutral
alternatives:

traditional form neutral alternatives

workers, workforce, staff, personnel, human

manpower (noun)
resources

man (verb) staff, be at, attend to

manmade (adjective
artificial, synthetic
)

The firm is hoping to take on more workers (or staff). (preferred to … more manpower …)

Somebody will have to be at the entrance to take the tickets as people come in. (preferred to Somebody will have to
man the entrance …)
Synthetic fibres are never as nice to wear as natural ones. (preferred to Manmade fibres …)

According to
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > According to

from English Grammar Today

436
 According to means ‘as reported by’ or ‘as stated by’ and refers to an opinion which is not the speaker’s
opinion. According to usually occurs in front position. It is commonly followed by a noun phrase and sometimes by
a clause:
According to Jeff, the film starts at 7.30.
According to the instructions, you’ll need to buy some glue.
The government, according to a poll taken last month, may lose the next election.
We often use according to in formal contexts to refer to official evidence such as statistics or reports:
According to a recent report by the Department of Health, most people still do not take enough exercise.
According to also means ‘depending on’ or ‘in agreement with’:
They take a test and are then put in to groups according to their ability.
The rents are high but they vary according to whether you want a garden.

Typical error

 We only use according to when we refer to an opinion from someone else or somewhere else. When we
talk about our opinion, we use phrases such as ‘in my opinion’ or ‘in our view’:
In my opinion, they were not very polite.
Not: According to me …

Actual and actually
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > Actual and actually

from English Grammar Today

Actual
Actual is an adjective meaning ‘true’, ‘real’ and ‘the thing in itself’. It does not refer to time. Actual always comes
immediately before the noun it is describing:
We didn’t go to the actual match but we watched it on TV.
People think she is over thirty but her actual age is eighteen.
Spoken English:

Actual is often used in speaking in the expression ‘in actual fact’. It has a similar meaning to ‘in fact’, but it gives
more emphasis to what the speaker is saying:
In actual fact, her health a year ago was much worse.
See also:
 In fact

Actually as a discourse marker

437
 Spoken English:

Actually is often used in speaking as a discourse marker. We use it to indicate a new topic of conversation or a
change or contrast in what is being talked about. We also use actually to give more detail about a topic. We do not
use it to refer to time:
A:

I suppose you’re going away this weekend?

B:

Actually, I am going to stay at home. I’ve got a lot of work to do on the computer.
[a customer (A) in a large bookshop is asking about books about travel.]
A:

Could you tell me where your books on Austria are kept?

B:

What kind of books?

A:

Well, actually I’m looking for a book on skiing in Austria.

B:

Er, yes, they’re in that corner over there.

See also:
 Discourse markers (so, right, okay)

Actually as contrast
Spoken English:

We can use actually to emphasise a contrast with what is expected to be true or real:

He actually admitted that he enjoyed it. (He was not expected to enjoy it)
A:

Where are they now?

B:

They’re very near to your apartment actually. (They were not expected to be so near)
We can also use actually to correct someone politely:
I think ten people, not eight, came to the meeting, actually.

Actual and actually: typical errors

 In some languages actual has the meaning of ‘current’ and ‘at the present time’. This is not correct in
English:
The current population of the Russian Federation is 230 million.
Not: The actual population of the Russian Federation …

438
At the present time she is working in London.
Not: Actually she is working in London.

Approximations (around four o’clock)

 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > Approximations (around four o’clock)

from English Grammar Today

When we speak, we often try not to be too exact or factual because it can sound very direct. As a result, we add
expressions to make what we say more approximate or vague.
Compare

I’ve lived here for two years and four months. This might sound too factual or exact.

I’ve lived here for almost two and a half

This is more approximate and sounds less factual and exact.
years.

Before a number

We’ll pick you up around six.

In this country, we usually have dinner at about seven o’clock.
A:

How long have you been living here?

B:

For about three years.
Roughly 30 people are coming to my graduation party.
Up to 20 people are still missing after the earthquake.
She said she’d call here at or around ten o’clock.
We also use approximation in formal speech and writing:
The accident occurred at approximately 9 am.
In the region of 40 jobs are to be lost at the factory.
As many as 300 people were on the train when it broke down.

After a number

Number + -odd

Forty-odd people turned up at the demonstration. (at least 40 and maybe more)

A:

439
How much oil does the tank hold?
B:

I’m not sure. Fifty-odd litres, I’d say. (at least 50 litres and maybe more)
We do not use -odd to talk about time:
It’s about seven o’clock at least.
Not: … seven-odd o’clock …

Number + head noun + or so

A:

Can I have a lift to town with you?

B:

Absolutely. I’ll be leaving in ten minutes or so.

Number + head noun + or something

A:

What’s the weight limit for luggage?

B:

20 kilos or something.

Number + head noun + or thereabouts (more formal)

[someone is giving directions]

Once you get to the school, turn left and our house is the first one on the left, half a mile, or thereabouts, up that
road.

Number + more or less (informal speaking)

This is going to cost four hundred pounds, more or less. (preferred to This is going to cost more or less four
hundred pounds.)

Using or between numbers

The bus from the airport usually costs just three or four pounds.

Adding the suffix -ish (informal speaking)

A:

What time are we going out?

B:

I think Linda said that she’d pick us up at sixish.

A:

440
What age are Gabriela’s children?
B:

Her daughter is fourish and her son must be at least seven.

At all
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > At all

from English Grammar Today

At all means ‘in any way’. We use it with questions and negatives to add emphasis, but not with affirmative
statements:
Do you want to swim in the sea at all?
She was not at all frightened.
We can use at all before or after an adjective:
Were you at all upset by Kevin’s behaviour?
They weren’t interested at all.
At all and politeness

We often use at all at the end of a question to make the question sound more polite:
[ID is an abbreviation of ‘identification’]
Do you have any ID at all?
[a waiter in a restaurant]
Would you like any desserts at all?
We can use not at all as a polite response to questions asking Would you mind …? or Do you mind …? and as a
polite follow-up response to thank you:
A:

Would you mind taking this parcel to the main office?.

B:

No, not at all.
A:

Do you mind if I sit here?

B:

Not at all.
A:

That’s very kind of you, thank you.

441
B:

Not at all.

Else
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > Else

from English Grammar Today

Else with someone, anybody, nobody, etc.

We use else after words beginning with any-, every-, no- and some-, to mean ‘other’, ‘another’, ‘different’ or

‘additional’.
This group of words includes:

anybody everybody nobody somebody

somewher
anyone everyone no one
e

anywher everywher nowher

someone
e e e

[in a shop; A is the shop assistant, B is the customer]

A:

Will there be anything else, sir? (Do you want any additional thing(s)?)

B:

No thanks, that’s it for now.

I was the only one who knew any German. No one else had ever done it at school. (No other person had ever learnt
it.)
[outside a restaurant]
It looks really busy in there. Let’s go somewhere else. (Let’s go to a different place.)
This must be someone else’s coat. It’s not mine.

Else with who, what, where, etc.

We use else after how, what, where, who and why to mean ‘other’, ‘another’, ‘different’ or ‘additional’:

What else do you need apart from new shoes? (What other things do you need apart from new shoes?)

442
We’ve invited Jean and Richard. Who else should we invite? (What other person or people should we invite?)
Where else have you worked, apart from the airport? (What other place(s) have you worked at?)
We don’t use else after which:
Which other one do you want apart from this blue shirt?
Not: Which else do you want …?

Else: or else

We use or else to say what the result will be if something does not happen:
I’ll have to leave now, or else I’ll miss my train. (If I don’t leave now, I’ll miss my train.)

Hear that, see that

 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > Hear that, see that

from English Grammar Today

We use hear that and see that to introduce new pieces of information. When we do this, the verbs hear and see mean
‘understand’ or ‘notice’. We normally use hear when we are thinking of something someone told us, and see when
we are thinking about something we read about or saw. We often use the verbs in the present simple and sometimes
leave out that:
I hear Kevin’s getting married in June.
I see the Indian cricket team won again.
We use verbs such as understand, learn and gather in a similar way:
We gather that this is the key for the flat.
I saw them yesterday and they understand he has resigned.

However, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, whoever
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > However, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, whoever

from English Grammar Today

443
It doesn’t matter how, what, when, etc.

If we add -ever to wh-words like how, what, which, when, where and who, we change their meaning.

form meaning

however ‘any way at all’ or ‘it doesn’t matter how’

whatever ‘anything at all’ or ‘it doesn’t matter what’

whicheve
‘any one at all’ or ‘it doesn’t matter which’
r

whenever ‘any time at all’ or ‘it doesn’t matter when’

wherever ‘any place at all’ or ‘it doesn’t matter where’

whoever ‘any person at all’ or ‘it doesn’t matter who’

However you try to explain it, I still can’t understand it. (Any way at all that you try to explain it … /It doesn’t
matter how you try …)
Please take whatever you want from the fridge if you feel hungry. (anything at all that you want)
Whatever you do, don’t lose this key.
Choose whichever time suits you best then write your name against that time on the list.
Call in whenever you like. I’m always at home. (at any time at all that you like)
Wherever you live, you have the right to a good postal service. (it doesn’t matter where you live)
Whoever you ask, you will get the same answer: no. (any person you ask/it doesn’t matter who you ask)

Emphasising questions

We can use wh-words with -ever to ask very emphatic questions. In speaking, we stress -ever:
However will you manage to live on such a small income? (stronger than How will you manage …?)
Charlie, whatever are you doing? (stronger than What are you doing?)
Whenever are you going to stop complaining? You’re getting on everyone’s nerves!

Being vague: whatever, whenever, wherever, whoever

We can use whatever, whenever, wherever and whoever alone to refer in a non-specific way to people and things:
A:

Shall I send you all the dates and times?

B:

Yes, whatever. That would be useful. Thanks. (it doesn’t matter what you send)
A:

444
What time shall I come?
B:

Whenever, really. (no specific time/it doesn’t matter)

If you talk to the manager or whoever, you’ll be able to find out what’s happening. (talk to the manager or a similar,
unspecified person)
Sometimes people use whatever in a sarcastic or disrespectful way, usually saying it in an exaggerated way, to show
they are not interested (for example, with exaggerated intonation):
Parent:

You’d better start saving money if you want to go to university!

Teenager:

Whatever!

Whatsoever

Whatsoever is an emphatic form of whatever. It is most common after a negative phrase:

He seems to have no ambitions whatsoever.
I can see no reason whatsoever why she should not attend classes.

It’s time
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > It’s time

from English Grammar Today

We can use the expression it’s time + subject + past verb form to refer to the present moment:
Gosh! It’s almost midnight. It’s time we went home.
Not: It’s time we go home.
It’s time with a verb in the to-infinitive form can refer to the speaker and the listener together:
Come on. It’s time to start packing. We have to leave in two hours. (or It’s time we started packing.)

May as well and might as well

 

445
Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > May as well and might as well

from English Grammar Today

We can use may as well and might as well for making suggestions. We can use them to say what we think is the
easiest or most logical course of action when we cannot see a better alternative. They are both fairly informal. Might
as well is more common than may as well:
You might as well get a taxi from the station. It’ll be quicker than me coming in to get you.
A:

What time does the film finish?

B:

I think it’s ten o’clock.

A:

Uh-huh. We may as well eat in town before it, then.

We can make may as well and might as well stronger by using just after may or might:
Well, I think if it’s a choice between a job and a place at college, you may just as well take the job. At least you’ll
earn some money.
We don’t know anyone here and they’re discussing stuff that doesn’t concern us. We might just as well leave.
Warning:

May as well and might as well don’t mean the same as may also and might also, in the sense of ‘possibly in
addition’:
Before you go hiking, buy yourself a good pair of boots. You may also need to buy thick walking socks. (in addition
to boots, you might need to buy socks)
Not: You may as well buy …

More or less
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > More or less

from English Grammar Today

More or less means ‘mostly’, ‘nearly’ or ‘approximately’. We use it in mid position (between the subject and main
verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb). It is slightly informal:
We had more or less finished, so we decided to go for lunch.
We commonly use it after numbers and measurements:
It should cost you about £100, more or less.
Warning:

We don’t normally use more or less before people’s ages:

446
She’s about 35, I think.
Not: She’s more or less 35.

Of course
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > Of course

from English Grammar Today

We use of course to refer to things that are obvious or already known to the speaker and listener, or to everybody:
A tropical climate is, of course, very humid, so we sweated all the time. (We use commas here, before and after of
course, to show that it refers to the whole of the first clause.)
A:

It’s a public holiday – that’s why the shops are closed.

B:

Oh, of course, yes! I’d completely forgotten.

We use of course when a situation or piece of information is not surprising:
Our car broke down on the way to the station so, of course, we missed the train and had to buy new tickets. It cost
us £80!
He’s mega-rich and, of course, he can afford to fly first class all the time.
We use of course to mean ‘yes’ when we are giving permission to someone to do something:
A:

Can I borrow your newspaper for a minute?

B:

Of course. Go ahead.
Warning:

We don’t use of course when we answer a question and give the listener information they do not already know. This
can sound impolite:
A:

When you were in London, did you go to any shows?

B:

Yes, we did. We went to three.

Not: Of course. We went to three. (The listener A may hear of course as meaning ‘how could you think we didn’t go
to any shows?’ and A may think B felt that A had asked a stupid question)

447
Point of view
 

Grammar > Using English > Useful phrases > Point of view

from English Grammar Today

We use the expression from x’s point of view to talk about a way of considering something and/or how it affects
someone or something:
From my point of view, nine-thirty would be better than nine o’clock, as I have to drop the children off at school for
nine.
Not: To/In my point of view, …
From an environmental point of view, a hybrid car is better than a petrol or diesel car.
We use the noun phrase point of view to mean ‘opinion’. The plural is points of view:
We all have different points of view on how we should prevent crime.

Apostrophe (’)
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Apostrophe (’)

from English Grammar Today

Apostrophe to show two words have been connected (contraction)

We sometimes connect two words to make one shorter word. We use an apostrophe to show that we have left out
one or more letters:

do not → don’t They don’t like salt in their food.

it is → it’s It’s a long way to walk.

is not → isn’t Isn’t that such a pretty dress?

you have → you’ve You’ve broken my watch!

cannot → can’t We can’t tell your father.

will not → won’t She won’t eat any vegetables.

wh-word + ’s, ’d, What’s he doing? Who’d like some

448
 etc. coffee?

Warning:

We use ’s for has and is:
She’s seen that movie already. (has)
He’s my brother. (is)
Warning:

We use ’d for had and would:
They’d never been to Japan before. (had)
She’d love to live in the USA. (would)
See also:
 Contractions

Apostrophe + s to show possession

When we show who owns something or has a close relationship with something, we use an apostrophe + s after the
name or the noun. When the noun is plural, we put the apostrophe after the s:
Is that Frank’s camera?
There was a big teachers’ conference last week in Mexico City. (a conference for teachers)
See also:
 Possession (John’s car, a friend of mine)

Apostrophe with time

We can use an apostrophe + s to show duration. When the time noun is plural, the apostrophe comes after the s:
For me, writing an essay involves at least an hour’s work.
It was just ten minutes’ walk from my house to my office. (the walk from my house to my office takes just ten
minutes)
When we write the time, we sometimes use o’clock:
14:00: two o’clock
18:00: six o’clock
See also:
 Telling the time

Apostrophe: typical error

 We use an apostrophe to contract it is to it’s. We don’t use an apostrophe with possessive its:
The University is very proud of its gardens.
Not: … of it’s gardens.

449
Apposition
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Apposition

from English Grammar Today

When we use two noun phrases (np) next to each other in a clause, and they refer to the same person or thing, we
call this apposition:
[NP 1]The living room, [NP 2]the biggest room in the house, looks out on to a beautiful garden. (The living
room and the biggest room in the house are the same room.)
[NP 1]Timothy, [NP 2]their youngest child, is very musical. (Timothy and their youngest child are the same
person.)
The second noun phrase tells us something more about the first noun phrase (its identity or its qualities). We can
also reverse the order of the phrases:
[NP 1]The biggest room in the house, [NP 2]the living room, looks out on to a beautiful garden.
[NP 1]Their youngest child, [NP 2]Timothy, is very musical.
Types of apposition

In writing, we often separate the noun phrases by commas. We do this when the second noun phrase gives extra
information which is not necessary to identify the person or thing:
Edinburgh, Scotland’s capital city, has a population of around 450,000. (Scotland’s capital city is extra
information which is not necessary to identify Edinburgh.)
Sometimes the second noun phrase contains information which specifies which person or thing we are referring to
from a number of possible people or things. In these cases, we don’t use a comma.
Compare

commas no commas

My brother, Philip, works at the local My brother Mark is a police officer. My brother Joe is still at
museum. (The speaker probably only university. (The speaker has more than one brother. Mark and Joe specify
has one brother.) which brother we are talking about.)

Contractions
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Contractions

from English Grammar Today

We use contractions (I’m, we’re) in everyday speech and informal writing. Contractions, which are sometimes
called ‘short forms’, commonly combine a pronoun or noun and a verb, or a verb and not, in a shorter form.
Contractions are usually not appropriate in formal writing.

450
We make contractions with auxiliary verbs, and also with be and have when they are not auxiliary verbs. When we
make a contraction, we commonly put an apostrophe in place of a missing letter.
The following are the most common contractions.

Contractions with I, you, he, she, it, we, and they

’m = am (I’m)
’re = are (you’re, we’re, they’re)
’s = is and has (he’s, she’s, it’s)
’ve = have (’ve, you’ve, we’ve, they’ve)
’ll = will (I’ll, you’ll, he’ll, she’ll, it’ll, we’ll, they’ll)
’d = had and would (I’d, you’d, he’d, she’d, it’d, we’d, they’d)

Contractions with auxiliary verb and not

The contraction for not is n’t:

aren’t = are not (we aren’t, you aren’t)

can’t = cannot

couldn’t = could not

didn’t = did not (I didn’t, they didn’t)

hasn’t = has not

haven’t = have not

isn’t = is not (she isn’t, it isn’t)

mustn’t = must not

shan’t = shall not

shouldn’
= should not
t

wasn’t = was not

weren’t = were not

451
won’t = will not

wouldn’t = would not

We use contractions with be + negative in two ways:

She is not is contracted to she isn’t or she’s not. I am not is only contracted to I’m not. Not: I’m n’t or I am n’t. They
are not is contracted to they aren’t or they’re not. The isn’t / aren’t contractions are more common after nouns.
The ’s / ’re not contractions are more common after pronouns: The cakes aren’t ready yet. She’s not a friend of
mine.

Other contractions

Contractions can occur after nouns, names, here, there and now and question words. These contractions are not
considered appropriate in formal writing:

My sister’s got
= My sister has got married.
married.

John’ll be very happy. = John will be very happy.

Here’s the coffee. = Here is the coffee.

There’s your watch. = There is your watch.

Now’s your chance. = Now is your chance.

Where’s the milk? = Where is the milk?

What’s happened? = What has happened?

We don’t use more than one contraction:

He’s not free.
Not: he’sn’t free.
We don’t use affirmative contractions at the end of clauses:
A:

I think we’re lost.

B:

Yes, I think we are.

Not: I think we’re
However, we do use negative contractions at the end of clauses and we do commonly use contractions in tag
questions:
A:

452
You’ve contacted Jan, haven’t you?
B:

No, I haven’t.
In question forms, am not is contracted to aren’t:
I’m getting a pay rise, aren’t I?
Not: amn’t I?

Contrasts
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Contrasts

from English Grammar Today

There are several common expressions for making contrasts in English. They include on the one hand … on the
other hand, on the contrary, in comparison, by comparison, in contrast, by contrast.

On the one hand … on the other hand

We can use on the one hand and on the other hand when we contrast two different things or two different ways of
thinking about something. We often use them to present a balanced argument in which both sides must be
considered:
On the one hand, mobile phones are very useful and can save lives. On the other hand, people seem to use them
for the most pointless and unnecessary calls.
We often use on the other hand on its own in the second part of a contrast, without on the one hand:
It’s a chaotic and disorganised country, but on the other hand it’s a very friendly and beautiful place. (Both things
are true about the country.)
Not: … but on the contrary …

On the contrary

We can use on the contrary to emphasise that something is the opposite of something which has been mentioned.
We often use it to state that an original statement was not true, and we often use it after a negative statement. On the
contrary is much more common in writing than in informal speaking:
He didn’t seem offended by her criticisms; on the contrary, he seemed to enjoy them. (It was not true that he was
offended by the remarks – he enjoyed them.)

In comparison and by comparison

We can use in comparison and, less commonly, by comparison to contrast two clauses or sentences. They indicate
how people and things are different when we compare them side by side:
London is England’s biggest city. Its second city, Birmingham, in comparison, is quite small by global standards.
Driving the old model of this van was hard work. Driving the new model is easy in comparison.
Cynthia was very nervous. Martha was quite calm by comparison.

453
We can use in comparison with X, Y is … to make a contrast:
In comparison with his older brother, who never stops talking, he’s quite shy.

In contrast and by contrast

We use in contrast and, less commonly, by contrast to link two clauses. In contrast and by contrast stress the
difference between two people or things more strongly than in comparison and by comparison:
Holistic medicine treats the whole person. Conventional medicine, in contrast, treats specific symptoms and parts
of the body.
We can use in contrast to or, less commonly, in contrast with to contrast two noun phrases:
In contrast to most of the city’s museums, the art museum is modern, bright and has a friendly atmosphere.
The white roses looked lovely in contrast with the red ones.
By contrast is less common than in contrast. We can use it alone or followed by with, but not by to:
In the south much of the land is flat. By contrast, in the north there are hills and mountains everywhere.
By contrast with the external appearance of the place, the room into which the front door opened was, if not
particularly attractive, clean and well ordered.
Not: By contrast to the external appearance …

Detached impersonal style

 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Detached impersonal style

from English Grammar Today

Formal styles are common in English writing. There are many different kinds of formal style, and choice of
grammar and vocabulary is important. Formal styles commonly contain few personal pronouns; noun phrases and
the passive voice are commonly used. The more formal the style, the more likely it is that it will appear detached
and impersonal.

Few personal pronouns

Pronouns are replaced by impersonal constructions with it and there.

Compare

more personal more detached and impersonal

We suggest that you leave the building after 8 It is suggested that you leave the building after 8
pm. pm.

I should like to note a number of things here. There are a number of things to note here.

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 Noun phrases

Noun phrases, rather than verb phrases are common in detached impersonal styles. This process is sometimes called
nominalisation.
Compare

more personal more detached and impersonal

She will retire as company director in May next Her retirement as company director will be in May next
year. year.

See also:
 Nouns
 Noun phrases
 Nouns: forming nouns from other words

Passive voice

The passive voice is common in detached impersonal styles. It is also common in academic writing. The passive
voice allows the writer to concentrate on processes, rather than on the actions of the human subject.
Compare

more personal more detached and impersonal

In this book I discuss and analyse the literature of the In this book the literature of the 1990s is discussed and
1990s. analysed.

Internet discourse and text messages

 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Internet discourse and text messages

from English Grammar Today

We commonly communicate by means of emails or by sending texts on mobile phones and other small devices. This
type of communication is normally informal, and the messages are often written very quickly.
Emails

We can write email messages like formal letters, but they are usually informal and involve shortened words and
phrases. They often have ellipsis:

455
[Typical email]
Hi, Jim. Just to say, I’m going to be late for the meeting tomorrow but will send the report to you before the end of
today.
Cheers,
Geoff.
(Hi = informal version of dear; Just to say = ellipsis of I just want to say/I’m just writing to say; will send = I will
send)

Text messages

Text messages are even more informal and can involve a lot of abbreviations:
[Typical text message]
Sara will b l8 4 the party 2nite. F, xx (Sara, [I] will be late for the party tonight. Francis)

It, this and that in paragraphs
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > It, this and that in paragraphs

from English Grammar Today

We use it, this and that to introduce further information about a topic already mentioned. However, the words have
different uses.
We use it to continue to refer to the topic we are already writing or speaking about:
The heart is the central organ in our bodies. It is used to pump oxygen around the body through the
bloodstream. (It refers back to The heart)
The new album by ‘The Noughts’ went on sale yesterday. It is their third album in three years and is set to become
as great a success as previous releases.
Warning:

We don’t use it when we first give information about a topic, for example immediately after a chapter or section title
in a text:
(b) Green application form
This must be signed by all applicants and returned by 30 November 2009.
Not: It must be signed …
We can use this to refer back to whole clauses and sentences and to previous parts of a text. This highlights the
information referred to much more strongly than it. Writers often use this when a point or idea is to become an
important part of the discussion that follows:
More and more people are discovering that Tai Chi is one of the most valuable forms of exercise. This has led to a
big demand for classes. (This refers back to a whole sentence.)
Heavy rains and stormy conditions throughout the summer have led to severe shortages in strawberries and other
soft fruits. This has led to price rises in many supermarkets and shops.

456
We use that in a similar way to this. However, when we use that, we distance ourselves more from the topic or from
aspects of the topic:
For many traditional football supporters, it is a problem that so many young girls and women attend football
matches these days. That is a sexist attitude of course.
That is also used to refer to ideas associated with another person:
The chairman apologised for the poor performance of the company and promised a better future for
investors. That was a promise many people felt he could not possibly keep.

Paragraphs
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Paragraphs

from English Grammar Today

We organise what we write into sentences and paragraphs. A paragraph begins on a new line within the text and
there is often a blank line between paragraphs. A paragraph usually contains more than one sentence and it is usually
about one topic.
The first sentence in a paragraph is sometimes called the key or topic sentence because it gives us the key to what
the paragraph will be about. The other sentences usually relate to the key sentence. There is usually a conclusion in
the final sentence of a paragraph and sometimes there is a link to the next paragraph.

Punctuation
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Punctuation

from English Grammar Today

The most common punctuation marks in English are: capital letters and full stops, question marks, commas, colons
and semi-colons, exclamation marks and quotation marks.
In speaking, we use pauses and the pitch of the voice to make what we say clear. Punctuation plays a similar role in
writing, making it easier to read.
Punctuation consists of both rules and conventions. There are rules of punctuation that have to be followed; but there
are also punctuation conventions that give writers greater choice.

Punctuation: capital letters (B, D) and full stops (.)

We use capital letters to mark the beginning of a sentence and we use full stops to mark the end of a sentence:

457
 We went to France last summer. We were really surprised that it was so easy to travel on the motorways.
The Football World Cup takes place every four years. The next World Cup will be held in South Africa. In 2006 it
was held in Germany.
We also use capital letters at the beginning of proper nouns. Proper nouns include personal names (including titles
before names), nationalities and languages, days of the week and months of the year, public holidays as well as
geographical places:
Dr David James is the consultant at Leeds City Hospital.
They are planning a long holiday in New Zealand.
Can she speak Japanese?
The next meeting of the group will take place on Thursday.
What plans do you have for Chinese New Year?
We use capital letters for the titles of books, magazines and newspapers, plays and music:
‘Oliver’ is a musical based on the novel ‘Oliver Twist’ by Charles Dickens.
The Straits Times is a daily English language newspaper in Singapore.
They are performing Beethoven’s Sixth Symphony.
In addition to closing sentences, we also use full stops in initials for personal names:
G. W. Dwyer
David A. Johnston, Accountant
Full stops are also used after abbreviations, although this practice is becoming less common:

Arr. (arrival
etc. (etcetera)
)

Dr. (doctor) Prof. (professor)

See also:
 Noun phrases

Punctuation: question marks (?) and exclamation marks (!)

We use question marks to make clear that what is said is a question. When we use a question mark, we do not use a
full stop:
Why do they make so many mistakes?
A:

So you’re Harry’s cousin?

B:

Yes. That’s right.

We use exclamation marks to indicate an exclamative clause or expression in informal writing. When we want to
emphasise something in informal writing, we sometimes use more than one exclamation mark:
Listen!
Oh no!!! Please don’t ask me to phone her. She’ll talk for hours!!!
See also:

458
 Exclamative clauses

Punctuation: commas (,)

We use commas to separate a list of similar words or phrases:
It’s important to write in clear, simple, accurate words.
They were more friendly, more talkative, more open than last time we met them.
We do not normally use a comma before and at the end of a list of single words:
They travelled through Bulgaria, Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Poland.
American English does use a comma in lists before and:
We took bread, cheese, and fruit with us.
We use commas to separate words or phrases that mark where the voice would pause slightly:
I can’t tell you now. However, all will be revealed tomorrow at midday.
We had, in fact, lost all of our money.
James, our guide, will accompany you on the boat across to the island.

Separating clauses with commas

When main clauses are separated by and, or, but, we don’t normally use a comma if the clauses have the same
subject. However, we sometimes use commas if the clauses have different subjects:
They were very friendly and invited us to their villa in Portugal. (same subject)
Footballers these days earn more money but they are fitter and play many more matches. (same subject)
It was an expensive hotel in the centre of Stockholm, but we decided it was worth the money. (different subjects)
When a subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we commonly use a comma to separate the clauses.
However, we do not always do this in short sentences:
If you get lost in the city centre, please don’t hesitate to text us or phone us.
If you get lost just phone us.
When we use subordinate or non-finite comment clauses to give further details or more information, we commonly
use commas to separate the clauses:
You do need to wear a darker jacket, if I may say so.
To be honest, I thought they were very very rude.

Commas and relative clauses

We use commas to mark non-defining clauses. Such clauses normally add extra, non-essential information about the
noun or noun phrase:
The ambulance, which arrived after just five minutes, took three people to the hospital immediately.
Hong Kong, where the first ASEAN meeting was held, is a very different city now.
The same is true for non-finite clauses:
The storm, lasting as it did for several days, caused serious damage to villages near the coast.
Warning:

We don’t use commas to mark defining clauses:

Barcelona was the Spanish city that was selected for the Olympic Games.

459
 Not: … the Spanish city, that was selected …
See also:
 Clauses

Commas and speech forms

We commonly separate tags and yes-no responses with commas:

They are going to the party, aren’t they?
No, thank you. I’ve already eaten too much.
We also usually separate vocatives, discourse markers and interjections with commas:
Open the door for them, Kayleigh, can you. Thanks. (vocative)
Well, what do you think we should do about it? (discourse marker)
Wow, that sounds really exciting. (interjection)
We use commas to show that direct speech is following or has just occurred:
He said in his opening speech, ‘Now is the time to plan for the future.’ (or He said in his opening speech: ‘Now is
the time to plan for the future.’)
When the direct speech is first, we use a comma before the closing of the quotation marks:
‘We don’t want to go on holiday to the same place every year,’ he said impatiently.
See also:
 Reported speech

Punctuation: colons (:) and semi-colons (;)

We use colons to introduce lists:
There are three main reasons for the success of the government: economic, social and political.
We also use colons to indicate a subtitle or to indicate a subdivision of a topic:
Life in Provence: A Personal View
We often use colons to introduce direct speech:
Then he said: ‘I really cannot help you in any way.’
We commonly use a colon between sentences when the second sentence explains or justifies the first sentence:
Try to keep your flat clean and tidy: it will sell more easily.
We use semi-colons instead of full stops to separate two main clauses. In such cases, the clauses are related in
meaning but are separated grammatically:
Spanish is spoken throughout South America; in Brazil the main language is Portuguese.
Semi-colons are not commonly used in contemporary English. Full stops and commas are more common.

Punctuation: quotation marks (‘…’ or “…”)

Quotation marks in English are ‘…’ or “…”. In direct speech, we enclose what is said within a pair of single or
double quotation marks, although single quotation marks are becoming more common. Direct speech begins with a
capital letter and can be preceded by a comma or a colon:
She said, “Where can we find a nice Indian restaurant?” (or She said: ‘Where can we find a nice Indian
restaurant?’)
We can put the reporting clause in three different positions. Note the position of commas and full stops here:

460
The fitness trainer said, ‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin.’ (quotation mark after comma introducing
speech and after full stop)
‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin,’ the fitness trainer said. (comma before closing quotation mark)
‘Don’t try to do too much,’ the fitness trainer said, ‘when you begin.’ (commas separating the reporting clause)
When we use direct speech inside direct speech, we use either single quotation marks inside double quotation marks,
or double quotation marks inside single quotation marks:
“It was getting really cold,” he said, “and they were saying ‘When can we go back home?’”
Jaya said, ‘They were getting really excited and were shouting “Come on!”’.
We commonly use question marks inside the quotation marks unless the question is part of the reporting clause:
‘Why don’t they know who is responsible?’ they asked.
So did they really say ‘We will win every match for the next three weeks’?
We also use single quotation marks to draw attention to a word. We can use quotation marks in this way when we
want to question the exact meaning of the word:
I am very disappointed by his ‘apology’. I don’t think he meant it at all.
NEW ‘WAR’ OVER NORTH SEA FISHING PLANS
We sometimes use quotation marks to refer to the titles of books, newspapers, magazines, films, songs, poems,
videos, CDs, etc:
There’s a special report all about it in ‘The Daily Mail’.
We can use italics instead of quotation marks for these citations:
There’s a special report all about it in The Daily Mail.
Articles or chapters within books, or titles of short stories, are normally punctuated by single quotation marks:
The longest chapter in the book is the last one called ‘The Future of Africa’.

Punctuation: dashes ( – ) and other punctuation marks

Dashes are more common in informal writing. They can be used in similar ways to commas or semi-colons. Both
single and multiple dashes may be used:
Our teacher – who often gets cross when we’re late – wasn’t cross at all. No one could believe it!
Just wanted to thank you for a lovely evening – we really enjoyed it.
Brackets have a similar function to dashes. They often add extra, non-essential information:
Thriplow (pronounced ‘Triplow’) is a small village in the eastern part of England.
We use brackets around dates and page numbers in academic writing:
Heaton (1978) gives a convincing explanation of how hurricanes are formed (pages 27–32).
We often use forward slashes in internet addresses and to indicate and/or in academic references:
You can find the figures you need on www.bbc.co.uk/finance
Binks (1995/1997) has already researched this aspect of Roman history.

Punctuation: numerals and punctuation

In British English the date is usually given in the order day, month, year.
We use full stops in dates. Forward slashes or dashes are also commonly used:
Date of birth: 1.8.1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1–8–1985)
In American English the day and the month are in a different order so that 8 January 1985 is written as follows:

461
1–8–1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1.8.1985)
We don’t usually punctuate weights and measures and references to numbers:
4kg (4 kilograms)10m (10 metres) 5m dollars (5 million dollars)
Commas are used in numbers to indicate units of thousands and millions:
7,980 (seven thousand, nine hundred and eighty)
11,487,562 (eleven million, four hundred and eighty-seven thousand, five hundred and sixty-two)
We use full stops, not commas, to indicate decimal points:
6.5 (six point five)
Not: 6,5
We can punctuate times with full stops or colons:
The shop opens at 9.30. (or 9:30)

Saying email and internet addresses

Spoken English:

When we speak email and web addresses, we say each word separately. To avoid confusion, we sometimes spell out
each letter of a word:
[email protected] = Hannah dot reeves at l-i-t dot com
miles_hotel.com/home = miles underscore hotel dot com forward slash home
www.theplace.org = www dot theplace (all one word) dot org

Symbols and typographic conventions

. full stop X.X decimal point (2.2: two point two)

, comma * asterisk

? question mark () parentheses (or round brackets)

! exclamation mark [] square brackets (or box brackets)

: colon {} curly brackets

; semi-colon ° degrees (40º: forty degrees)

“
double quotation marks % per cent
”

‘’ single quotation marks & and (also called ‘ampersand’)

’ apostrophe © copyright

462
- hyphen < less than

– dash > greater than

+ plus @ at

– minus ✓ tick

× multiplied by (2 × 2: two multiplied by two) X cross

divided by
÷
(6 ÷ 2: six divided by two) X_
underscore (ann_hobbs: ann underscore hobbs)
X
= equals

/ forward slash \ back slash

Speech into writing

 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Speech into writing

from English Grammar Today

Both speech and writing can be formal or informal. Whether language is formal or informal depends on who our
readers and listeners are, for what purpose we use the language and the situation in which we use it. For example, an
official notice would be written in formal English, whereas the same information would be more commonly written
informally by an individual in a less public situation:
Customers are reminded that parking is not permitted in front of this entrance. Thank you.
Please don’t park in front of this gate. Thanks.
A lot of writing these days is informal. Common examples of such writing are emails, text messages,
advertisements, postcards, notes and a lot of the language used in internet discourse. Informal writing creates a
direct dialogue with the reader.

463
Some magazines and newspapers also include a lot of informal writing. Informal writing contains forms which are
more commonly found in speaking, such as contractions, personal pronouns, ellipsis, spoken discourse markers and
question tags:
[article in a magazine about an interview with a pop star who is marketing a new perfume]
Well, how long was it, do you think, before we talked about it? Exactly. You’ve got it. Over two minutes.

Spelling
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Spelling

from English Grammar Today

Words in English are not always spelled as they are pronounced. Spelling in English follows some basic rules and
the majority of English words (around 75%) follow these rules. You can learn the rules but there are always
exceptions to the rules that need to be learned too.
The main basic spelling rules of English relate to: prefixes and suffixes; spelling and plurals; doubling letters;
dropping and adding letters; verb forms. This section focuses on British English but also covers some basic
differences in spelling between British and American English.

Spelling: prefixes
When there is a prefix, we do not normally add or take away more letters:

dis + obey → disobey mis + spell → misspell

dis + satisfied → dissatisfied over + hear → overhear

super + human →
in + humane → inhumane
superhuman

in + sane → insane un + natural → unnatural

inter + national →
un + sure → unsure
international

mis + rule → misrule under + pass → underpass

Prefixes il-, im-, ir-

We commonly change the prefix in- to il-, im- or ir- when the first letter of a word is l, m, p, or r.

464
in becomes il- before  in becomes im- before m or  in becomes ir- before 
l p r

illegible immoral irrelevant

illiterate immature irresponsible
illogical impossible irreplaceable

Spelling and plurals

There are rules for the plurals of regular nouns and the -s forms of regular verbs.
The general rule is add -s:

bring → brings day → days ear → ears smile → smiles speak → speaks town →

towns

If the ending is pronounced as ‘ch’ /tʃ/ or ‘s’ /s/, we add -es /ɪz/:

noun plurals verb -s forms

bus → buses cross → crosses

church →
fetch → fetches
churches

guess →
kiss → kisses
guesses

If a word ends in an -e, we add an -s:

base → bases face → faces judge → judges lose →

loses

If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, we change -y to i and add -es:

noun plurals verb -s forms

marry →
baby → babies
marries

opportunity →
reply → replies
opportunities

We add -es to some words ending in -o:

465
 noun plurals noun plurals/verb -s forms

tomato →
echo → echoes
tomatoes

cargo → cargoes embargo → embargoes

hero → heroes go → goes (go [n] = attempt)

However, some words ending in -o only require -s: videos, discos, pianos, memos, photos.
For some nouns ending in -f or -fe, we form the plural by changing the -f or -fe to -ves:
loaf → loaves shelf → shelves thief → thieves wife → wives
See also:
 Forming the plural of nouns

Spelling: doubling consonants

We often double the final consonant of a word (b, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, t) when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added
(-ed, -er, -est, -ing):

slim + -ing →
hop + -ed → hopped
slimming

red + -ish →
thin + -er → thinner
reddish

rub + -ed → rubbed travel+ -er → traveller

sit + -ing → sitting wet + -er → wetter

When we add a suffix to a word with more than one syllable, we double the consonant only when the word ends in a
stressed syllable (the stressed syllable of the base form is in bold):

admit + -ing → admitting prefer + -ed → preferred

transmit + -ed →
forget + -ing → forgetting
transmitted

occur + -ence →
upset + -ing → upsetting
occurrence

Compare, however, visit or enter where the spoken stress is on the first syllable:

visit → enter →

466
visiting entered

Not: visitting Not: enterred

Note too that in each case the vowel before the last consonant is a short vowel.
Warning:

We don’t double the final consonant before a suffix:

– if the word ends in two written consonants, e.g. export = exported, find = finding, insist = insisted, lift = lifted,
persist = persistence
– if there are two written vowels together in the word, e.g. meeting, rained, weaken, trainer, repeated.

Irregular forms and exceptions

Warning:

Some monosyllabic words ending in -s are irregular. We normally do not double the -s, although some doubled
forms will be seen. For example: busses and buses; gasses and gases. (Busses and gasses are not common.)
Some words, several of them ending in l, with more than two syllables, have a double consonant even though the
last syllable is not stressed; for example, labelling, traveller, equalled, handicapped, programmed.
In American English the single consonant spelling is usually more common: labeling, traveler.

Spelling: dropping and adding letters

The final -e

We often drop the final -e when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word:

approve + -al →
hope + -ing → hoping
approval

invite + -ation →
fame + -ous → famous
invitation

hate + -ed → hated note + -able → notable

Warning:

We keep the -e in dyeing (from dye) and singeing (from singe) to differentiate them from similar words

e.g. dying (from die) and singing (from sing).
When a suffix begins with a consonant (e.g. -less, -ful, -ly, -ment) we do not normally drop the -e:
definitely excitement forceful hopeless lately widely
Sometimes we do drop the -e:

argue → argumen
true → truly
t

467
 whole → wholl
due → duly
y

Some words have alternative forms with or without an -e: for example, acknowledgement or acknowledgment,
and judgement or judgment.

The suffix -ally

The suffix -ally is added to adjectives ending in -ic to form adverbs:

basic → basically
realistic → realistically
tragic → tragically
Warning:

BUT: publicly

Changing -y to -i

When we add a suffix to a word ending in a consonant + -y, we normally change -y to i:

amplify + -er →
happy + -ly → happily
amplifier

busy + -ness → business hurry + -s → hurries

purify + -cation →
day + -ly → daily
purification

easy + -ly → easily reply + -ed → replied

fury + -ous → furious spy + -s → spies

Warning:

Some words with one syllable keep the -y before a suffix: dryness, shyness, slyness.
We keep -y before -ing: studying, worrying.
We keep -y before ’s: the fly’s wings, Andy’s house.
We usually keep the -y in most words that end in a vowel + -y:
buy → buyer
destroy → destroys
Warning:

BUT: day → daily

Spelling: ie or ei?

468
If in doubt about ie or ei, when the sound of the vowel is as in brief /i:/, we spell it ie; but after the letter c, we spell
it ei:

ei after 
ie
c

achiev
ceiling
e

belief conceit

diesel deceive

niece receipt

relieve perceive

Words in which -y has changed to i end in -ies even after a c:

emergency → emergencies
bureaucracy → bureaucracies
Warning:

In most words that do not have the pronunciation /i:/ as in brief, the usual order is e before i, e.g. neighbour, leisure,
height; friend, ancient, science are common exceptions.

Spelling and verb forms

Past and -ed forms

The past and -ed forms are the same in regular verbs. The following are the spelling rules for regular verbs.
We add -ed to the base form of the verb:
clean → cleaned echo → echoed email → emailed sail → sailed
If the word ends in -e, we add -d to the base form of the verb:
agree → agreed dine → dined love → loved
If the word ends in a consonant + -y, we change the -y to i before -ed:
apply → applied cry → cried
There are three common exceptions, where we change the -y to i after a vowel and just -d is added:
pay → paid say → said

-ing forms

The general rule is add -ing to the base form of the verb:

go → going hurry → hurrying play → playing
If the word ends in -e, we drop the -e before -ing:
love → loving lose → losing write → writing

469
But if the word ends in -ee, -ye, or -oe, we keep the -e:
agree → agreeing dye → dyeing (compare: die/dying) see → seeing
If the word ends in -ie, we change the -i to -y and we drop the -e before -ing:
die → dying lie → lying tie → tying

Addition of final -e to indicate long vowel

We use a final silent -e to indicate that the stressed vowel is long:

long vowel short vowel

hate, fate hat, fat

theme,
them, fed
impede

dine, bite din, bit

Warning:

There are some common exceptions:

com
have none there
e

live (as a
done one were
verb)

som wher
give love
e e

gone

British and American English Spelling

Here are some common differences between British and American English spelling. A good learner’s dictionary will
give information about other spelling differences:

British
American English
English

analyse analyze

aeroplane airplane

470
British
American English
English

centre center

cheque (bank) check

colour color

criticise criticize

defence defense

labour labor

neighbour neighbor

programme program

theatre theater

Such as
 

Grammar > Using English > Writing > Such as

from English Grammar Today

We can use such as to introduce an example or examples of something we mention. We normally use a
comma before such as when we present a list of examples. Where there is just one example, we don’t need a
comma:
The shop specialises in tropical fruits, such as pineapples, mangoes and papayas. (… for example, pineapples,
mangoes and papayas.)
Countries such as Sweden have a long record of welcoming refugees from all over the world.
Such as is similar to like for introducing examples, but it is more formal, and is used more in writing than like:
She has worked in several countries where English is spoken as a first language, such as Australia, New Zealand,
Canada and so on. (or, less formal, … like Australia, New Zealand, Canada and so on.)
Warning:

We don’t use as on its own to introduce examples:

471
 Young kids these days seem to love 1960s rock bands, such as the Beatles, the Kinks or the Rolling Stones.
Not: … to love 1960s rock bands, as the Beatles …
Warning:

We don’t use such as when we compare things:

The group from Dublin all wore green, white or gold t-shirts, like the colours of their national flag.
Not: … such as the colours of their national flag.

Word classes and phrase classes

 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word classes and phrase classes

from English Grammar Today

Major word classes

English has four major word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They have many thousands of members,
and new nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are often created. Nouns are the most common type of word, followed
by verbs. Adjectives are less common and adverbs are even less common.
Many words belong to more than one word class. For example, book can be used as a noun or as a verb; fast can be
used as an adjective or an adverb:
It’s an interesting book. (noun)
We ought to book a holiday soon. (verb)
He loves fast cars. (adjective)
Don’t drive so fast! (adverb)

Typical word-class suffixes

A suffix can often, but not always, tell us if a word is a noun, verb, adjective or adverb:

adjective
nouns verbs adverbs
s

station soften carefull

drinkable
y
governmen identify
Japanese
t easily
industrialis
useless
cruelty e sadly

A good learner’s dictionary will tell you what class or classes a word belongs to.
See also:
 Nouns
 Verbs
 Adjectives

472
 Adverbs
 Suffixes
 Word formation

Other word classes

The other word classes include prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions and interjections.

Prepositions

Prepositions describe the relationship between words from the major word classes. They include words such as at,
in, on, across, behind, for:
We went to the top of the mountain. (to describes the relationship between went and top; of describes the
relationship between top and mountain)
Are you ready for lunch yet? (for describes the relationship between ready and lunch)
See also:
 Prepositions

Pronouns

Pronouns are words which substitute for noun phrases, so that we do not need to say the whole noun phrase or repeat
it unnecessarily. Pronouns include words such as you, it, we, mine, ours, theirs, someone, anyone, one, this, those:
That’s Gerry in the photo. He lives in Barcelona.
This jacket’s mine. That must be Linda’s.
See also:
 Pronouns

Determiners

Determiners come before nouns. They show what type of reference the noun is making. They include words such
as a/an, the, my, his, some, this, both:
Have you got a ruler I can borrow?
I need some paper for my printer.
This phone isn’t easy to use.
See also:
 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

Conjunctions

Conjunctions show a link between one word, phrase or clause and another word, phrase or clause. They include and,
but, when, if, because:
Joe and Dan are brothers.
It was okay, but I wouldn’t recommend it as a restaurant.
We’ll ring you when we get to London.
See also:
 Conjunctions

473
 Interjections

Interjections are mostly exclamation words (e.g. gosh! wow! oh!), which show people’s reactions to events and
situations:
A:

I’m giving up my job.

B:

Oh.
Yippee! I don’t have to go to work tomorrow!
Gosh! What an awful smell!
See also:
 Interjections (ouch, hooray)
 Discourse markers (so, right, okay)

Phrase classes
The different word classes can form the basis of phrases. When they do this, they operate as the head of the phrase.
So, a noun operates as the head of a noun phrase, a verb as the head of a verb phrase, and so on. Heads of phrases
(H) can have words before them (e.g. determiners (det), adjectives (adj), adverbs (adv)) or after them (e.g.
postmodifiers (pm) or complements (c)):
Noun phrase (underlined)
[DET]That [ADJ] [H]old box [PM (clause)]you left in the kitchen has got a hole in it.
Adverb phrase (underlined)
It all happened [ADJ]very [H]suddenly.
Prepositional phrase (underlined)
[H]The President [C]of  the United States arrives tomorrow.

Word formation
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > Word formation

from English Grammar Today

There are four main kinds of word formation: prefixes, suffixes, conversion and compounds.

Prefixes
We add prefixes before the base or stem of a word.

474
 examples prefixes

monorail, monolingual mono- means ‘one’

multipurpose, multicultura
multi- means ‘many’
l

post-war, postgraduate post- means ‘after’

unusual, undemocratic un- means ‘not’ or ‘opposite to’

See also:
 Prefixes

Suffixes
We add suffixes after the base or stem of a word. The main purpose of a suffix is to show what class of word it is
(e.g. noun or adjective).

examples suffixes

terrorism, sexism -ism and -dom are used to form nouns

-er and -or are used to form nouns to describe people who do

employer, actor
things

widen, simplify -en and -ify are used to form verbs

reasonable,
-able is used to form adjectives
unprofitable

unhappily, naturally -ly is a common suffix used to form adverbs

See also:
 Suffixes
 Word classes and phrase classes

Conversion
Conversion involves the change of a word from one word class to another. For example, the verbs to email and to
microwave are formed from the nouns email and microwave:
Can you text her? (verb from noun text, meaning to send a text-message)
They are always jetting somewhere. (verb from noun jet)

475
 If you’re not careful, some downloads can damage your computer. (noun from verb download)
OK, so the meeting’s on Tuesday. That’s a definite. (noun from adjective)
It’s a very big if and I’m not at all sure we can afford it. (noun from conjunction, meaning ‘it’s not at all certain’)
All companies have their ups and downs. (nouns from prepositions)
We also use conversion when we change a proper noun into a common noun:
Has anybody seen my Dickens? (copy of a book by Dickens)

Compounding
When we use compounding, we link together two or more bases to create a new word. Normally, the first item
identifies a key feature of the second word. For example, the two bases back and ache can combine to form the
compound noun backache, and the two bases post and card combine to form the compound noun postcard.
Compounds are found in all word classes. The most common types of compounds are: Nouns: car park, rock band
Adjectives: heartbreaking, sugar-free, airsick
Verbs: oven-bake, baby-sit, chain-smoke
Adverbs: good-naturedly, nevertheless
It is sometimes difficult to know where to put hyphens in words that are compound ed. It is also difficult to know
whether to separate words (e.g. post box) or to join the words (e.g. postbox). In such cases, it is best to check in a
good learner’s dictionary.
See also:
 Compounds
 Compound words
 Compound words
 Hyphens
 Verbs: formation

Abbreviation
Abbreviation involves shortening a word. We do this in three main ways: clipping, acronyms and blends.
We use clipping when we shorten or ‘clip’ one or more syllables from a word. We also commonly clip proper names
for people:
ad: advertisement, advert
lab: laboratory
Matt: Matthew
Acronyms are a type of abbreviation formed when the initial letters of two or more words are combined in a way
that produces consonant and vowel sequences found in words. Acronyms are normally pronounced as words:
RAM: random access memory (RAM is a term used to describe a computer’s memory.)
Initials are similar to acronyms but are pronounced as sets of letters, not as words:
WHO: World Health Organisation, pronounced W–H–O
CD: compact disc, pronounced C–D
We form blends when we combine parts of existing words to form a new word:
blog: blend of web and log
motel: blend of motor and hotel

476
 smog: blend of smoke and fog
See also:
 Abbreviations, initials and acronyms

Back-formation
We form words with back-formation when we remove part of a word, usually something which we think is a suffix
(or occasionally a prefix). We do this commonly when we form verbs from nouns.
For example: to liaise (back-formed from the noun liaison); to intuit (back-formed from the noun intuition), to
enthuse (back-formed from the noun enthusiasm):
Can you liaise with Tim and agree a time for the meeting, please?
She’s always enthusing about her new teacher.

Loan words and new words

Loan words

Loan words are words that are borrowed from other languages. Some recent loan words for food taken from other
languages include: sushi, tapas, chapatti, pizza. When we use loan words, we do not normally change them, though
we do sometimes inflect them if they are singular countable nouns (pizzas, chapattis). We also sometimes
pronounce them more like English words, instead of using their original pronunciation.

New words

Some prefixes are commonly used to create new words. In modern English the prefix e- is used to create new words
that are connected with the Internet and the use of the Internet:
e-bank, e-cards, e-commerce, e-learning
Almost any noun may potentially combine with any other noun to form new noun compounds (e.g. computer
virus, carbon footprint, quality time).

Prefixes
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > Prefixes

from English Grammar Today

Prefixes are letters which we add to the beginning of a word to make a new word with a different meaning. Prefixes
can, for example, create a new word opposite in meaning to the word the prefix is attached to. They can also make a
word negative or express relations of time, place or manner. Here are some examples:

477
base
prefixed word type of meaning
word

possible impossible opposite

able unable opposite/negation

payment non-payment negation

war pre-war time (before)

terrestria extraterrestria
place (outside of/beyond)
l l

cook overcook manner (too much)

I’m sorry I was unable to attend the meeting.

Non-payment of fees could result in a student being asked to leave the course.
Has anyone ever really met an extraterrestrial being? (meaning a being from another planet)
The meat was overcooked and quite tasteless.
The most common prefixes

prefix meaning examples

anti- against/opposed to anti-government, anti-racist, anti-war

auto- self autobiography, automobile

de-classify, decontaminate,
de- reverse or change
demotivate

dis- reverse or remove disagree, displeasure, disqualify

down- reduce or lower downgrade, downhearted

extra- beyond extraordinary, extraterrestrial

hyper- extreme hyperactive, hypertension

il-, im-, in-, not illegal, impossible, insecure, irregular

478
prefix meaning examples

ir-

inter- between interactive, international

mega- very big, important megabyte, mega-deal, megaton

mid- middle midday, midnight, mid-October

mis- incorrectly, badly misaligned, mislead, misspelt

non- not non-payment, non-smoking

over- too much overcook, overcharge, overrate

out- go beyond outdo, out-perform, outrun

post- after post-election, post-war

pre- before prehistoric, pre-war

pro- in favour of pro-communist, pro-democracy

re- again reconsider, redo, rewrite

semi- half semicircle, semi-retired

sub- under, below submarine, sub-Saharan

super- above, beyond super-hero, supermodel

tele- at a distance television, telepathic

trans- across transatlantic, transfer

ultra- extremely ultra-compact, ultrasound

un- remove, reverse, not undo, unpack, unhappy

479
 prefix meaning examples

under- less than, beneath undercook, underestimate

make or move
up- upgrade, uphill
higher

Writing prefixes: hyphens (super-hero or supermodel)

There are no absolute rules for when to use a hyphen or when to write a prefixed word as one whole word (see the
examples in the table). A good learner’s dictionary will tell you how to write a prefixed word.

Suffixes
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > Suffixes

from English Grammar Today

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word which makes a new word.

words suffix new words

forget, use -ful forgetful, useful

- statement,
state, govern
ment government

complicate, complication,
-ion
create creation

The new word is most often a different word class from the original word. In the table above, the suffix -ful has
changed verbs to adjectives, -ment, and -ion have changed verbs to nouns. If you see a word ending in -ment, for
example, it is likely to be a noun (e.g. commitment, contentment).

Suffixes: spelling
Often, the suffix causes a spelling change to the original word. In the table above, the -e ending
of complicate and create disappears when the -ion suffix is added. Other examples of spelling changes include:
1. beauty, duty + -ful → beautiful, dutiful (-y changes to i)
2. heavy, ready + -ness → heaviness, readiness (-y changes to i)
3. able, possible + -ity → ability, possibility (-le changes to il)
4. permit, omit + -ion → permission, omission (-t changes to ss)
A good learner’s dictionary will give you information on the correct spelling of words with suffixes.

480
 See also:
 Spelling

Common suffixes and examples

Noun suffixes

suffix examples of nouns

-age baggage, village, postage

-al arrival, burial, deferral

-ance/-ence reliance, defence, insistence

-dom boredom, freedom, kingdom

-ee employee, payee, trainee

-er/-or driver, writer, director

-hood brotherhood, childhood, neighbourhood

-ism capitalism, Marxism, socialism (philosophies)

capitalist, Marxist, socialist (followers of

-ist
philosophies)

-ity/-ty brutality, equality, cruelty

-ment amazement, disappointment, parliament

-ness happiness, kindness, usefulness

-ry entry, ministry, robbery

-ship friendship, membership, workmanship

-sion/-tion/-
expression, population, complexion
xion

481
Adjective suffixes

suffix examples of adjectives

-able/-
drinkable, portable, flexible
ible

-al brutal, formal, postal

-en broken, golden, wooden

-ese Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese

-ful forgetful, helpful, useful

-i Iraqi, Pakistani, Yemeni

-ic classic, Islamic, poetic

-ish British, childish, Spanish

-ive active, passive, productive

Canadian, Malaysian,
-ian
Peruvian

-less homeless, hopeless, useless

-ly daily, monthly, yearly

-ous cautious, famous, nervous

-y cloudy, rainy, windy

Verb suffixes

suffix examples of verbs

-ate complicate, dominate, irritate

482
 suffix examples of verbs

-en harden, soften, shorten

-ify beautify, clarify, identify

-ise/- economise, realise, industrialize (-ise is most common in British English; -ize is most common in
ize American English)

Adverb suffixes

suffix examples of adverbs

-ly calmly, easily, quickly

- downwards, homeward(s),
ward(s) upwards

anti-clockwise, clockwise,
-wise
edgewise

Compounds
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > Compounds

from English Grammar Today

Compound words
A compound word is two or more words linked together to produce a word with a new meaning:
1. tooth + brush = toothbrush eco + friendly = eco-friendly animal + lover = animal lover
We make compounds in all word classes:

nouns: car park, soap opera pronouns: anyone, everything, nobody

483
 adjectives: environmentally-friendly, fat- numerals: twenty-seven, three-
free quarters

verbs: daydream, dry-clean prepositions: into, onto

adverbs: nevertheless, nowadays conjunctions: although, however

See also:
 Hyphens

Compound nouns

We usually make compound nouns with a noun + noun, with a verb (or a word made from a verb) + noun, or with an
adjective + noun:

verb -ing form + noun: parking
noun + noun: earphones
ticket

verb base form + noun: rescue

adjective + noun: blackboard
team

The usual spoken stress pattern is with stress on the first item (earphones, blackboard).
In a compound noun, we can combine different elements. These include:
1. subject + verb: earache (an ear that aches), rainfall (rain that falls)
2. verb + subject: cleaning products (products that clean)
3. verb + object: know-all (person who thinks they know everything)
4. object + verb: shoe-polish (polishes shoes), dishwasher (washes dishes)
See also:
 Hyphens
 Noun phrases: order

Compound adjectives

Compound adjectives most commonly end in an adjective (e.g. homesick), or in an -ing or -ed adjective form

(e.g. ground-breaking, short-sighted).

Compound verbs

Compound verbs are far less common than compound nouns or adjectives. They can be made by making a verb
from another word class, normally from an already existing compound noun (e.g. a daydream – to daydream).

Writing compound words

Sometimes compound words are written separately (nail polish), sometimes with a hyphen (short-sighted) and
sometimes as one word (eyelashes). Often new compounds are written as two separate words and, as they become
more familiar, they are either connected with a hyphen (-) or made into one word.

484
 There are some general rules and guidelines for when to use hyphens:
 when there is a prefix (e.g. post-war, pre-lunch, self-interest, semi-skilled)
 when a compound adjective comes before a head noun (e.g. a well-known singer, an angry-
sounding email)
 when the pre-head item in a compound is a single capital letter (e.g. U-turn, X-ray, D-day)
 when words are difficult to recognise as compounds and could be confused
The band has decided to re-form. (form again)
The Government promise to reform the health system. (improve)
 when compound adjectives containing numbers appear before a noun
A twenty-two-year-old cyclist won the race.
From here to Tokyo, that’s a twelve-hour flight at least.
If you’re not sure about whether to use a hyphen, a good dictionary will tell you.
See also:
 Hyphens
 Punctuation

Compound sentences
A compound sentence has two or more main clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions, such as and, but:
[main clause 1]She did a nursing degree [main clause 2]and she did really well, [main clause 3]but she’s decided to
study medicine now.

Abbreviations, initials and acronyms

 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > Abbreviations, initials and acronyms

from English Grammar Today

Abbreviations and letters

When we abbreviate a word or phrase, we shorten it. Abbreviations can be formed from the first letters of the word
or phrase. In such cases, we normally say them by spelling out each letter:

PC personal computer

twenty pence (said, informally, as twenty

20p
p)

WH
World Health Organisation
O

485
For some written abbreviations, individual letters or sounds from the word are used, although the word is always
said in full:

full form written abbreviation

Doctor Dr

for example e.g. (from the Latin equivalent: exempli gratia)

Gaze
Gaze Ltd (Limited refers to a company)
Limited

Mister Mr

ounces oz

Street St

page 38 p. 38

5 kilometres 5 km

Abbreviations and clipping

Abbreviations are also formed by omitting one or more syllables from a word. This is sometimes called ‘clipping’,
because we keep the beginning of the word and ‘clip’ the rest of the word. The abbreviations here are written and
spoken in this form:

full form abbreviation

advertisemen
advert; ad
t

decaffeinated decaf

examination exam

memorandum memo

photograph photo

486
Abbreviations and personal names

Clipping is common when we use personal names:

full form abbreviation

Timothy Tim

Frederic
Fred
k

Pamela Pam

Rajiv Raj

Initials
An initial is the first letter of a word. We often use initials to refer to the names of countries and organisations:
USA United States of America
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
Initials also refer to the first letters of people’s first names. When we fill in forms, we are sometimes asked to state
our surname and initials. When we refer to ourselves using initials, it is more formal:
J. Adams, lawyer (formal)
John Adams, lawyer (less formal)
Sometimes first names are in full, and middle names are included as initials. This is also a formal use. It is
particularly common in American English:
Robert B. Davidson

Acronyms
Acronyms are words which are formed from the first letters of other words, and which are pronounced as full words.
Examples of acronyms:
NATO /ˈneɪtəʊ/ North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
scuba /ˈsku:bə/ self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
radar /ˈreɪdɑ(r)/ radio detection and ranging
SATs /sæts/ standard attainment tests (tests taken by schoolchildren in the UK)
Newer acronyms are written with capital letters:
Jodie’s got her SATs next week – she’s a bit nervous.
Where the acronym has existed for a long time and become fully established in the language, it is written with small
letters (or with one capital letter if it is at the beginning of a sentence):
The ship’s radar had been destroyed in battle.
Radar was one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century.
We went scuba-diving in Australia.

487
Some acronyms are pronounced as a combination of letters and syllables:
She sent me a jpeg file with a photo of her wedding. (joint photographic experts group /ˈdʒeɪpeg/)
You can buy the dictionary on CD-ROM. (compact disc read-only memory; pronounced /si: di: ˈrɒm/)
We use some acronyms in the plural or possessive:
Are the pictures on your memory stick jpegs or bitmaps?
NATO’s foreign policy has been criticised recently.

-ish and -y
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > -ish and -y

from English Grammar Today

We can add the suffixes -ish and -y to words in informal contexts to make the reference sound deliberately vague
and approximate.
We commonly use the suffix -ish when we refer to numbers, times and quantities:
Ok, I’ll come and collect you from your house at sevenish.
A:

How old do you think he is?

B:

Fortyish. Possibly older.
We can add -ish to adjectives, adverbs and prepositions:
A:

Is he tall, her new boyfriend?

B:

Well, tallish.
A:

Is it far from the supermarket?

B:

No, but it’s near the cinema, well, nearish to the cinema.
-ish and -y are not normally interchangeable. -ish is more common than -y and -y is principally used with colours
(though not black or white):
What colour tie do you think goes with this shirt? The green one? Or should it be the bluey one?

488
Diminutives (-let, -y and mini-)
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > Diminutives (-let, -y and mini-)

from English Grammar Today

A diminutive creates a meaning of ‘small’ or ‘little’. The most common diminutives are formed with the prefix mini-
and with suffixes such as -let and -y. We often use a diminutive with names or with abbreviated names when we
want to be more informal, or to express affection for someone or something:
There’s a minibus outside waiting to take you all to the station. (minibus = a bus which is smaller than a standard
bus)
Here’s a booklet which gives advice on keep-fit. (booklet = a small book)
I can feel one or two droplets of rain. (droplet = little drops of rain)
Right, Matty, I’ve got some very good news for you. (Matty is formed from the name ‘Matthew’)
I think she’s the perfect kitty for Jennifer. (kitty is formed from ‘kitten’ a young cat)
We sometimes use a diminutive -y when we don’t want or don’t need to be precise:
Her new dress was a sort of bluey colour. (bluey = almost blue)

Hyphens
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word formation > Hyphens

from English Grammar Today

Hyphens are a form of dash (-) which we use between words or parts of words.
We can use hyphens to make compound words, most commonly compound nouns:
French lorry-drivers have blockaded three ports.
Compound nouns formed with prepositions and particles are also usually separated by hyphens:
Come and meet my father-in-law.
Don’t wear too much make-up if you are planning to be in the sun.
We use hyphens with compound verbs and with adverb + adjective compounds:
I’m phoning to ask if you can baby-sit for us this evening.

489
[Labradors are a breed of dog.]
It’s a well-known fact that Labradors have a very nice temperament.
We often use hyphens to separate words and prefixes:
The vice-president will speak to the company on Monday.
She met her ex-husband at a party last week.
We also use hyphens to separate compound modifiers:
The oven was red-hot when she touched it.
A twelve-year-old girl was found alone in the large house.
We also sometimes use hyphens when we write out figures:
There were sixty-eight people who applied for the job.
Three-quarters of the voters did not reply to the questionnaire.
However, hyphens are becoming less common and people often write several of the above words without hyphens
or do not separate compound words at all. A common word with a hyphen such as post-box will also be seen as post
box and postbox.
It is important to check the spelling of compound words in a good learner’s dictionary.

Word order and focus

 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word order and focus > Word order and focus

from English Grammar Today

There are a number of ways in which we can arrange subjects, verbs, objects, complements and adjuncts within a
clause. Depending on how we arrange them, we can focus on certain elements over others, especially if we arrange
them in an unusual way.
Typical word order

Typical word order is what we normally expect. The active voice is generally the typical word order, where we put
the subject (the topic or the theme) first. The subject is the ‘doer’ or agent of the verb and this is usually what is
already known (underlined). This is followed by new information (in bold):
The box was wrapped in gold paper.
The rain lasted all day.
Her mother comes to visit about three times a year.
Most houses have at least one television nowadays.

Untypical word order

In a declarative clause, we expect the order to be subject – verb – object (SVO):

[S]Kelly [V]loved [O]the film.
Sometimes, in order to emphasise a particular part of the clause, we can change the typical order. An untypical word
order in a declarative clause, for example, is object – subject – verb (OSV).

490
 For example, speaker B puts the object (the kitchen) first, to link with A’s question:
A:

Have you decided what colour to paint the kitchen yet?

B:

[O]The kitchen [S]we’[V]ve already painted. We decided on white for now. We still can’t decide on the colour for
the living room.
Especially in speaking, we sometimes change the typical order and use untypical word order as a way of focusing on
or emphasising something.

Word order: simple choices

A simple way in which we can change the focus of a clause is to rearrange the elements (subjects, verbs, objects,
complements and adjuncts) without making any other grammatical changes. Fronting is one example of this kind of
change; headers and tails is another.

Fronting

We can create a focus on objects, complements and adjuncts by moving them to front position in the clause, where
the subject normally is. This is then an untypical order and we call it fronting.

Object fronting

That car we bought at least five years ago. The other one we only bought last year. (By fronting the objects (that
car and the other one) we focus on them and the contrast between them.)

Adjunct fronting

Last thing at night, I’ll go around the house and check that all the doors and windows are locked. (By fronting the
adjunct (last thing at night), we emphasise that it is done last thing every night.)
See also:
 Fronting

Headers and tails

Spoken English:

In speaking, we can create focus and emphasis by using headers and tails. This means that we move elements of the
clause to positions outside the clause, either by putting them immediately before the clause (header) or immediately
after it (tail). We usually use a pronoun (underlined) in the main clause to refer to the element which has moved to
the header or tail:
[header]That light in the porch, we still haven’t fixed it. (The header brings extra focus to the light that is broken.
Compare: We still haven’t fixed the light in the porch.)
He’s so boring, [tail]my accountancy lecturer. (The tail brings extra focus to the lecturer. Compare: My
accountancy lecturer is so boring.)

491
 Word order: structures
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word order and focus > Word order: structures

from English Grammar Today

There are a number of options which we can use to add emphasis or focus within a clause.

Indirect object versus prepositional complement

When we talk about someone receiving something, we can express it using the typical word order: indirect object
(io) + direct object (do).
If we want to bring more emphasis or focus to the recipient, we can use a prepositional complement (pc) instead of
an indirect object.
Compare

I gave [IO]Margaret [DO]a
Typical word order: IO + DO
present.

Untypical word order: DO + PC

I gave [DO]a present [PC]to
Margaret. Putting the prepositional complement at the end brings more emphasis and
focus to the person who received the present.

In formal contexts, we sometimes put prepositional complements in front position so as to bring focus to the new
information given in the direct object:
[PC]For his wife, he wrote [DO = focus]a beautiful poem.
Warning:

We don’t normally put indirect objects in front position:

He passed Williams the ball.
Not: Williams he passed the ball.
See also:
 Complements

Active and passive voice

Active voice is the typical word order. That is when we put the subject (the doer) first, followed by the new
information (which is the focus):
Lesley has written four successful novels.
If we use the passive voice, we can often omit who the doer is:
The cake was cut. (no doer)
Or we can place the doer in a prepositional phrase after the verb. When we do this, we focus on the doer:
The music was played by a local quartet. (doer in prepositional phrase after the verb)
The hotel was run by a quaint couple from Wales.
See also:

492
 Passive: active and passive

Cleft sentences
Cleft means ‘divided’ and in a cleft sentence a single message is divided across two clauses. We use cleft sentences,
especially in speaking, to connect what is already understood to what is new to the listener. By doing this we can
focus on the new information. There are different types of cleft sentence.

It-cleft sentences

In these sentences, the focus is on the it-clause and this is where we put the new information (underlined below). We
use that to connect another clause containing information which is already understood by the listener:
A:

Did you find your MP3 player, Lisa?

B:

It was my phone that I’d lost. I found it under the couch. (Focus: it was my phone (not my MP3 player). Already
understood: I’d lost something.)

Wh-cleft sentences

Wh-cleft sentences are introduced by a wh-word, usually what. The old information is in the wh-clause and the new
information (underlined) is at the end:
What I love about you is your sense of humour.
Where you’ll find great seafood is Molly’s Seafood Restaurant on the quay.
See also:
 Cleft sentences (It was in June we got married.)

The thing, the one thing, something

The thing

We can use the thing in front position plus a form of the verb be to bring attention to an item in the clause. It means
the same as what plus be, but it is more informal (the focus in each sentence is underlined below):
The thing I like most about Italy is the food. (or What I like most about Italy is the food.)
We can use a singular verb even if the item we focus on is plural:
The thing I like most about Scotland is the castles.
When we focus on a that-clause, we can omit that in informal situations:
The thing you need to remember is (that) all of the files from before 2008 are stored in Shona’s office.
When we focus on an infinitive clause, we can omit to in informal situations:
The thing I didn’t want to do was (to) queue all day just for a ticket, so I booked it online.

One thing, the one thing

We can emphasise thing with one. The one thing is even stronger:

You’ll meet a lot people when you’re travelling but one thing you must never do is give your address to a complete
stranger.

493
 The one thing I should never have done was trust Marlene.

Something

We can use something in front position plus a form of the verb be to bring attention to an item in the clause
(underlined). It is less specific and less direct than using the thing, and means ‘one thing among others’:
Something I mustn’t forget is my umbrella. (or What I mustn’t forget is my umbrella.)
Something you need to know is that Kate is not very well at the moment.
See also:
 Thing  and  stuff
 Headers and tails

It to create focus

When we use it at the beginning of a clause, the subject can go at the end of the clause and therefore be in the
position of focus or emphasis (underlined):
It’s great to know that you have passed all of your exams.
It was ridiculous paying for two houses.
To create extra focus on time adjuncts (yesterday, in the morning, at 4 am), we can front them using phrases such
as it is/was not until, it is/was only when. In the case of not until, the negative verb comes in the until-clause, not the
main clause:
It wasn’t until the bill came yesterday that we realised what an expensive hotel it was. (Compare: Until the bill
came yesterday, we didn’t realise what an expensive hotel it was.)
It was only when I woke at 8 am, that I realised the alarm hadn’t gone off!
(Compare: When I woke at 8 am, I realised the alarm hadn’t gone off.)

There to create focus

We can use there at the start of a clause as a type of indefinite subject. This means that we can put the actual subject
at the end of the clause and so give it emphasis or focus (underlined below):
There was a strange smell coming from the room. (Compare: A strange smell was coming from the room.)
There are many people willing to travel to the concert. (Compare: Many people are willing to travel to the concert.)

Noun forms of verbs to create focus

In formal writing, especially academic writing, we can use a noun form of a verb as a subject. By doing this, extra
focus is given to the end of the clause. Noun phrase subjects (topics) are in bold type below; the focus of each
sentence is underlined:
The discovery of oil brought immense wealth to the country. (Compare: Oil was discovered and this brought
immense wealth to the country.)
His emergence as a leader came about after the strikes of the 1980s. (Compare: He emerged as a leader (and this
came about) after the strikes of the 1980s.)

494
Cleft sentences (It was in June we got married.)
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word order and focus > Cleft sentences (It was in June we got
married.)

from English Grammar Today

We use cleft sentences, especially in speaking, to connect what is already understood to what is new to the listener.
In a cleft sentence, a single message is divided (cleft) into two clauses. This allows us to focus on the new
information.

It-cleft sentences
It-clauses are the most common type of cleft clause. The information that comes after it is emphasised for the
listener. The clause which follows the it-clause is connected using that and it contains information that is already
understood. We often omit that in informal situations when it is the object of the verb:
A:

Sharon’s car got broken into yesterday, did it?

B:

No. It was Nina’s car that got broken into!

Focus (new information): it was Nina’s car
Understood already (old information): a car got broken into
A:

You’ve met my mother, haven’t you?

B:

No, it was your sister (that) I met!

Focus (new information): it was your sister
Understood already (old information): I met someone in your family
Is it August that you are going on holiday?
Focus (new information): the month August?
Understood already (old information): you are going on holiday
When a personal subject is the focus, we can use who instead of that. We often omit who in informal situations when
it is the object of the verb:
It was my husband who (or that) you spoke to on the phone. (or It was my husband you spoke to on the phone.)
When a plural subject is the focus, we use a plural verb but It + be remains singular:
It’s the parents who were protesting most.
We can use negative structures in the it-clause:
It wasn’t the Greek student who phoned.

Wh-cleft sentences (What I need is a holiday)

495
Wh-cleft sentences are most often introduced by what, but we can also use why, where, how, etc. The information in
the wh-clause is typically old or understood information, while the information in the following clause is new and in
focus:
A:

I don’t know what to cook for them? I don’t know what they like.
B:

What they like is smoked salmon.

Understood already (old information): we are talking about what they like to eat
Focus (new information): they like smoked salmon
A:

This remote control isn’t working.

B:

What we need to do is get new batteries for it.

Understood already (old information): there is something that we need to do to fix the remote control.
Focus (new information): we need to buy new batteries
Fronting
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word order and focus > Fronting

from English Grammar Today

The most common word order in a declarative clause is subject (s) + verb (v) + object (o) or complement:
[S] [V]I bought [O]a new camera.
Sometimes, particularly in speaking, when we want to focus on something important, we bring it to the front of the
clause. This is called ‘fronting’:
I bought a new camera. And a very expensive camera it was. (Most common word order: It was a very expensive
camera.)
Some elements like adjuncts or complements do not typically belong at the beginning of a clause. When we want to
focus on them, we bring them to the front or beginning of the clause. We often find this in written literary or formal
contexts.
Compare

Carefully, he removed the lid. He removed the lid carefully.

(fronted so as to focus on carefully) (most common word order)

All of a sudden, it started to snow. It started to snow all of a

sudden.
(fronted so as to focus on all of a
sudden) (most common word order)

When the fronting involves a prepositional phrase (on the corner, in front of me) we often change the order of the
subject and the verb.

496
 Compare

fronted prepositional phrase followed by verb + subject most common word order

On the corner stood a little shop. A little shop stood on the corner.

The President of Chile was in front of

In front of me was the President of Chile.
me.

In informal speaking we commonly take the subject or object from within the clause and put it at the front of the
clause. We often do this when the noun phrase is long and we usually use a pronoun to replace it in the clause:
That man over there with the dog, he works in the corner shop. (That man over there with the dog works in the
corner shop.)
That book you told me about, they’ve made it into a film. (They’ve made that book you told me about into a film.)

Inversion
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word order and focus > Inversion

from English Grammar Today

Inversion happens when we reverse (invert) the normal word order of a structure, most commonly the subject-verb
word order. For example, a statement has the subject (s) before the verb (v), but to make question word order, we
invert the subject and the verb, with an auxiliary (aux) or modal verb (m) before the subject (s):
[S]She [V]sings.
[AUX]Does [S]she [V]sing?
[S]They [AUX]are [V]working.
[AUX] [S]Are they [V]working?
[S]Joe [M]can [V]swim.
[M]Can [S]Joe [V]swim?
See also:
 Questions

When does inversion happen?

The most common type of inversion is question word order (see above). Inversion also happens in other situations.

Negative adverbs

In formal styles, when we use an adverb with negative meaning (e.g. never, seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly) in front
position for emphasis, we invert the subject (s) and auxiliary (aux)/modal verb:
Never [AUX]have [S]we witnessed such cruel behaviour by one child to another. (or We have never witnessed …)

497
Seldom does one hear a politician say ‘sorry’. (or One seldom hears …)

Expressions beginning with not

We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or a clause in initial position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.

Here and there

Inversion can happen after here, and after there when it is as an adverb of place. After here and there, we can use a
main verb without an auxiliary verb or modal verb:
Here comes the bus!
Here’s your coffee.
I opened the door and there stood Michael, all covered in mud.
She looked out and there was Pamela, walking along arm in arm with Goldie.

No sooner
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word order and focus > No sooner

from English Grammar Today

No sooner is used to show that one thing happens immediately after another thing. It is often used with the past
perfect, and usually followed by than:
[event 1]They had no sooner arrived than [event 2]they were arguing.
[event 1]We had no sooner started cooking than [event 2]there was a power cut and we had no electricity.
When no sooner is used in front position, we invert the order of the auxiliary verb and subject. This is common in
more formal and literary styles:
[event 1]No sooner had they started their walk than [event 2]it started to rain.
See also:

Not only … but also

 

498
 Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Word order and focus > Not only … but also

from English Grammar Today

We use not only X but also Y in formal contexts:

The war caused not only destruction and death but also generations of hatred between the two communities.
The car not only is economical but also feels good to drive.
This investigation is not only one that is continuing and worldwide but also one that we expect to continue for
quite some time.
We can sometimes leave out also:
I identified with Denzel Washington not only as an actor but as a person.
To add emphasis, we can use not only at the beginning of a clause. When we do this, we invert the subject and the
verb:
Not only was it raining all day at the wedding but also the band was late.
Not only will they paint the outside of the house but also the inside.
When there is no auxiliary verb or main verb be, we use do, does, did:
Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn’t even apologise for forgetting it.

And
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > And

from English Grammar Today

And is a coordinating conjunction. We use and to connect two words, phrases, clauses or prefixes together:
Televisions and computers are dominating our daily life. (noun + noun)
I have to shower and change. (verb + verb)
The photos are black and white. (adjective + adjective)
My best friend and my father’s father both come from Wales. (phrase + phrase)
She got to the door and put the key in the latch. (clause + clause)
The houses were a mix of pre- and post-war build. (prefix + prefix)
See also:
 And, but, either … or, etc. (coordinating conjunctions)

Go and, come and
Spoken English:

In informal speaking we often use and after go and come before verbs like ask, buy, check, collect, do, find, get:

499
Why don’t you go and ask her?
I need to go and buy myself some running shoes.
Can you come and do the washing up?
She should go and find another job.
In informal American English speaking, we often leave out and:
Dad will come collect you on the way back from work.
I was expecting him to go get the keys.

Fixed expressions with and

We often use and in common fixed expressions. The order of the words cannot change: peace and quiet, pick and
choose, come and go, knife and fork, black and white.

And + adjective
Spoken English:

In informal speaking, when we want to emphasise something positive, we often use and after nice or lovely with

another adjective:
The kitchen’s looking nice and clean.
You’re lovely and tanned.

And in numbers
When we speak or write numbers, we use and to separate hundred, thousand, million from numbers smaller than a
hundred:
625: six hundred and twenty-five
1,000,410: one million, four hundred and ten
6,492: six thousand, four hundred and ninety-two
101: one hundred and one
We also use and between whole numbers and fractions:
23½: twenty three and a half

As if and as though
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > As if and as though

from English Grammar Today

As if and as though are conjunctions.

500
We use as if and as though to make comparisons. They have a similar meaning. We use as if and as though to talk
about an imaginary situation or a situation that may not be true but that is likely or possible. As if is more common
than as though:
The floods were rising and it was as if it was the end of the world.
It looks as if they’ve had a shock.
It looks as though you’ve not met before.
We can use both as if and as though followed by a non-finite clause or a prepositional phrase:
She moved her lips as if to smile.
They were shouting as though in panic.
As if and as though commonly follow the verbs feel and look:
She felt as if all her worries had gone.
They felt as though they had been given the wrong information.
I’ve got so much work it looks as if I’ll have to stay at home this evening.
In informal English, like can be used in a similar way to as if, though it is not always considered correct in formal
contexts:
It felt like it could snow at any minute.

As long as and so long as

 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > As long as and so long as

from English Grammar Today

As long as and so long as are conjunctions.

As long as

We use as long as to refer to the intended duration of a plan or idea, most commonly referring to the future. We
always use the present simple to refer to the future after as long as:
We are very happy for you to stay at our house as long as you like.
I’ll remember that film as long as I live.
Not: … as long as I will live.

As long as and so long as

As long as or so long as also means ‘provided that’, ‘providing that’ or ‘on condition that’:
You are allowed to go as long as you let us know when you arrive.
So long as is a little more informal:
You can borrow the car so long as you don’t drive too fast.

501
Because, because of and cos, cos of
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Because, because of and cos, cos

of

from English Grammar Today

Because: meaning and use

Because introduces clauses of cause and reason. It is a subordinating conjunction. This means that the clause it
introduces is a subordinate clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete. We use a comma when the
subordinate clause comes before the main clause:
[main clause]Everyone left early because [subordinate clause]Mark and Helen had an argument.
[subordinate clause]Because they were so tired, [main clause]they went to bed at 9 pm.
Warning:

We don’t use for or why instead of because when we are giving reasons:

I’m going to go to the company’s head office on Monday because there is an emergency meeting there.
Not: … to the company’s head office on Monday for/why there is an emergency …

Before
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Before

from English Grammar Today

Before is a preposition, an adverb and a conjunction. Before means earlier than the time or event mentioned:
Can you call me back before 5 pm, please?
I met her just before she left.
Warning:

In writing, when we refer back to something that we have already written, we use above not before:
As the graph above shows, the rate of inflation has risen by 15%.

Before as a preposition
We use before most commonly with noun phrases to refer to timed events:
I like to go for a run before breakfast.
You can check in online but you have to do it at least four hours before your flight.
We use before to refer to place, especially when it is seen as part of a journey or as part of a sequence of events in
time:
Get off the bus just before Euston Station.

502
Just before the end of the poem, there is a line where the poet expresses his deepest fears.

Before, by, till, until
If you have to do something before a certain point in time, then when that point arrives, the action must already be
completed:
I need to have the letter before Friday. (Friday is too late. I need it in advance of Friday.)
If you have to do something by a certain point in time, then that time is the last moment at which the action can be
completed:
Can we finish this meeting by 5 pm. I have to get to the station by 5.30 pm. (5 pm is the latest that I want the
meeting to finish and 5.30 pm is the latest that I can arrive at the station.)
If something is done or happens till or until a point in time, it happens over a duration of time, starting before that
time and continuing up to that point:
[out-of-office auto-reply message on an email]
I’ll be out of the office until 17th May. I will reply to your email after that date. (I will be back on 17 May, but not
before.)
Compare

I’ll be there until five
I’ll be there up to five o’clock, but not after.
o’clock.

I’ll call you by five o’clock. I may call you before five o’clock but I will call you no later than five o’clock.

I’ll be there before dinner. I’ll be there earlier than dinner time.

Before as an adverb
Before often comes after nouns such as day, morning, night, week, month, year to refer to the previous day, morning,
etc.:
Two people were ill at work yesterday and three people the day before!
A:

Did you graduate in 1989?

B:

No, actually, I finished college the year before.

Warning:

When we refer to a period of time that is completed and goes from a point in the past up to now, we use ago,
not before:
A:

When was your birthday?

B:

It was three weeks ago.

503
 See also:
 Ago

Before as an adjunct
We use before to connect earlier events to the moment of speaking or to a point of time in the past:
I’m so looking forward to the trip. I haven’t been to Latin America before. (up to the moment of speaking)
I introduced Tom to Olivia last night. They hadn’t met before. (up to that point in the past)

Before as a conjunction
We use before as a subordinating conjunction. We commonly use before with the past simple tense. It suggests that
the second event happened soon after the first one. The before clause, which indicates the second action, can be at
the end or at the beginning of the sentence:
Before she left, she gave everyone a present.
She gave everyone a present before she left.

Before with present tenses

When we use before in clauses in the present tense, the clause can refer to the future:
Before I go to work, I jog for at least an hour.
Not: Before I will go to work …

Before with past tenses

We sometimes use before clauses in a variety of tenses to say that the action or event in the before clause did not or
may not happen:
Before I had a chance to thank him, he’d gone.
You’re interrupting her before she has even spoken.
Before he had finished his training, he was sacked.
We should stop shopping now before we spend all our money.

Before with -ing
A non-finite clause with before + ing-form is more formal:
Before bringing the milk to the boil, add the egg. (more formal than Before you bring …)

Just before, immediately before

We can use adverbs such as just, immediately, shortly and long, and expressions involving words such as days,
weeks, months, years in front of before:
We got home just before it rained.
The deadline for the essay was 5 pm. I got mine in shortly before five o’clock but Lily had hers in days before the
deadline.

Beforehand

504
 We can use beforehand as an alternative to before as an adverb, especially when the reference to time is less
specific.
Spoken English:

Beforehand is more common in informal speaking than in writing:

I love singing but I always get so nervous beforehand.
In front of beforehand, we can put adverbs such as immediately, just and shortly, and other time expressions such
as days, weeks, months, years:
Months beforehand, Dominic had bought five tickets for the concert.

Other uses of before

Before meaning ‘in front of’

We use before meaning ‘in front of’ in more formal contexts:

Brian was twenty years old. He had his whole life before him.
The Prime Minister went before the people to tell them that he was going to resign.

Before long meaning ‘after a short time’

Especially in writing, we use before long to mean ‘after a short time’:

They’ll marry before long, and then you’ll have more grandsons than you can count.

Before: typical errors
 We use above not before when we refer back to something we have already written:
As stated above, there are four key findings from the study.
Not: As stated before, there are …
 When we refer to a period of time that is completed and which goes from a point in the past up to now, we
use ago, not before:
A:

When did you first meet?

B:

Ten years ago when we were in college.

Not: Ten years before when …

But
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > But

from English Grammar Today

505
 But is a conjunction.

But as a linking word

We use but to link items which are the same grammatical type (coordinating conjunction). But is used to connect
ideas that contrast.

main idea contrast

bu
I love fruit t I am allergic to strawberries.
They’ve bought a house in they still haven’t sold their house in
Manchester London.

The phrase but not is common:

The room has been painted but not in the colour that I asked for.
I’d love to go for a pizza with you but not tonight.
See also:
 Conjunctions: contrasting

But meaning ‘except’
But means ‘except’ when it is used after words such as all, everything/nothing, everyone/no one, everybody/nobody:
The cleaning is done now, all but the floors. They still have to be washed.
I arrived at the airport and realised that I’d brought everything but my passport!
Everyone but Anna has checked in.
Nobody but the receptionist was left in the lobby of the hotel.
We use object pronouns after but (me, you, him, us, etc.) even in subject position:
Everybody but me has paid.
No one but him would get a job like that.
In formal situations, we can use subject pronouns after but:
Everyone but she knew how the drama was going to end.

But for + reason

But for is used to introduce the reason why something didn’t happen:
But for the traffic, I would have been here an hour ago. (The traffic was very heavy – if it weren’t for the traffic, I’d
have been here an hour ago.)
They would have been badly injured but for the fact that they were wearing seat belts. (They were wearing seat
belts – if it weren’t for the fact that they were wearing seat belts, they would have been badly injured.)

All but meaning ‘almost completely’

I had all but finished the essay when the computer crashed and I lost it all.
His parents had all but given up hope of seeing him again.

506
Conjunctions
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Conjunctions

from English Grammar Today

Conjunctions are linking words like and, or, but, then and because:

They knocked down all the houses and they built a car park.
Are there four or five people living in that house?
My shoes look great but are not very comfortable.

And, but, either … or, etc. (coordinating conjunctions)

Coordinating conjunctions connect items which are the same grammatical type, e.g. words, phrases, clauses. The
most common coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but.

One-word conjunctions

Connecting words

Which do you prefer? [word]Red or [word]blue?

Connecting phrases

The meal was [phrase]very expensive and [phrase]not very nice.

Connecting clauses

[clause]There are seats outside but [clause]some people don’t like sitting outdoors.

Connecting sentences

My grandmother’s name was Wall. But she became Jenkins when she got married to my grandfather. (In very
formal writing, we don’t normally start a sentence with but.)

Connecting prefixes

[prefix]Pro- and [prefix]anti-government supporters waited outside the parliament.

Two-word conjunctions

Some coordinating conjunctions have two parts: either … or …, neither … nor …, both … and …:

You can drink chocolate milk either hot in the winter or cold in the summer.
Neither Lisa nor Helena had been to Italy before. (Lisa hadn’t been to Italy before and Helena hadn’t been to Italy
before.)

507
 Both you and I know what really happened. (You know and I know what happened.)
Warning:

Apart from two-word conjunctions, we only use one conjunction to connect words or phrases:
Because my alarm didn’t go off, I was late for work.
Not: Because my alarm didn’t go off, so I was late for work.

After, although, as soon as, etc. (subordinating conjunctions)

Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, (al)though, as, before, if, since, that, until, when, whereas, while,
once, so, as soon as, provided that. When a clause follows these conjunctions, it becomes a subordinate clause,
which needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.

One-word conjunctions

[subordinate clause]After we had talked on the phone, [main clause]I wrote down what we had decided.
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the fishing trip [subordinate clause]although no one caught any fish!
[subordinate clause]Before we left at four o’clock, [main clause]we had something to eat.
When the subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma at the end of the clause. When
the main clause comes first, we don’t need to use a comma.
See also:
 Although or though?
 As
 As  …  as
 Before
 If
 Once
 Since
 So
 That
 Until
 When
 Whereas
 While  and  whilst

Conjunctions with more than one word

Some subordinating conjunctions consist of more than one word: as long as, as soon as, except that, in order
that, so as to, provided that:
As long as the waves are high enough, we can go surfing.
Provided that he pays a fine, he will not have to go to jail. (formal)

508
Conjunctions that can be modified by adverbs

Some subordinating conjunctions may be modified by adverbs (underlined). For example just when, ever since, only
if, just as, simply because, right before:
The phone rang just when I’d gone to bed.
I have been afraid to swim in the sea ever since I was young.

Position of subordinating conjunctions

Words and phrases such as above all, anyway, as a result, as
well, eventually, firstly, however, overall, rather, then, therefore, though, on the contrary (linking adjuncts) can
create similar meanings to conjunctions (e.g. adding, cause and effect). These words are adverb phrases and can
come in any position which an adverb can occupy:
He left home late. (As a result) he (as a result) didn’t arrive until 8 pm (as a result).
We cannot do this with subordinating conjunctions, which must come at the beginning of the clause. Subordinating
conjunctions create a grammatical connection between two clauses, making one dependent on the other.
Compare

These two sentences mean the same thing but they are connected differently:
Subordinating conjunction so:
 So makes a subordinating link between the cause/reason (He
He couldn’t get money from the
couldn’t get money from the bank) and the result (he couldn’t buy a house).
bank so he couldn’t buy a house.
This is a grammatical link. The position of so cannot change.

Linking adjunct as a result:

 As a result creates a link between two clauses based on meaning.
He couldn’t get money from the We can move as a result (He couldn’t get money from the bank. He
bank. As a result he couldn’t buy a couldn’t buy a house as a result).
house.

Conjunctions: adding
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Conjunctions: adding

from English Grammar Today

Adding with and
One of the main uses of conjunctions is to add phrases and clauses together. The most common conjunction for
adding is and:

Adding words

I love pictures of [word]puppies and [word]kittens.

509
 Adding phrases

It was not a very nice walk because of [phrase]the wind and [phrase]the rain.

Adding clauses

[clause]Some of the rooms have one big bed and [clause]some of them have two smaller beds.

Adding sentences

[sentence]They worked together for more than twenty years. And [sentence]made a lot of money, too.
In formal writing we don’t normally start a sentence with and.

Adding prefixes

Tell me how much it will cost [prefix]pre- and [prefix]post-tax.

Warning:

When and is used in a list, it is normally only used between the last two items in the list:
We had pasta, roasted peppers and salad.
Not: We had pasta, and roasted peppers, and salad.
In British English, a comma is optional before and in lists. In American English, we usually do put a comma
before and:
I need envelopes, paper clips, pens and printer ink. (BrE)
I need envelopes, paper clips, pens, and printer ink. (AmE)
See also:
 And
 Punctuation
 British and American English

Adding with and … too

Spoken English:

In speaking, we can also use and … too to connect words, phrases and clauses. Too focuses on the addition:
We bought lots of ice cream for the party, and sweets too.
We went to the circus, and Hilda came too.
See also:
 And
 Conjunctions
 Too

Adding with as well as and in addition to

As well as is more common than in addition to. In addition to is more formal and used more in writing than in
speaking:
As well as offering a 15% discount on the furniture, Smith’s Furniture delivered it free to our house.

510
In addition to cutting jobs, the company has announced that its profits are down for this year.
Warning:

When they are followed by clauses as well as or in addition to can only be followed by a verb in the -ing form (non-
finite clauses):
You become less selfish as well as learning how to interact with other people.
Not: You become less selfish as well as you learn how to interact.…
If we worked in this shop, I think we would get good work experience in addition to practising our English.
In addition to doing an exam, applicants also had to do an interview.
Not: In addition to they did an exam …

Conjunctions: causes, reasons, results and purpose

 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Conjunctions: causes, reasons,
results and purpose

from English Grammar Today

Conjunctions describing causes, reasons, results and purpose are subordinating conjunctions.

Conjunctions: causes, reasons and results

The following conjunctions are commonly used to connect causes/reasons and results. Because, as and since are
very similar in meaning.

conjunctio
cause/reason result
n

Because
our local shop has I have to go a supermarket two miles away to get my
Since
closed, groceries.
As

Or

result conjunction cause/reason

I don’t buy the paper every morning any because our local shop has
more closed.
since
as

511
 result conjunction cause/reason

now (that)

See also:
 As, because or since?
Or

cause/reason conjunction result

Our local shop has I don’t buy the paper every morning any
so
closed more.

Warning:

When we use a so-clause to connect a cause or reason to a result, the so-clause must come second:
I’m on a diet so I have stopped eating chocolate.

Conjunctions: purpose
We use the following conjunctions to talk about purposes or goals. So and so that are more common than so
as and in order that. So as is rather informal. In order that is more formal than the others.

action conjunction purpose/goal

so
I asked him to so that I could see the screen
move so as better.
in order that (formal)

We don’t usually put the subordinating clause first. When we do, it is more formal.

conjunction purpose/goal action

So
So that I could see the
scree
In order
that

512
 Conjunctions: contrasting
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Conjunctions: contrasting

from English Grammar Today

The conjunctions but and although/though connect ideas that contrast. Whereas is also used but it is not as common:
The new city hall is amazing but it’s going to cost a lot.
He’s quite short, whereas his sister is tall.

But
But is a coordinating conjunction used to connect ideas that contrast. Coordinating conjunctions connect items
which are the same grammatical type.

main idea contrast

The meal was good

expensive.
I want to lose weight
bu I hate diets.
Lara cooked roast beef for me t I don’t eat meat.
Edinburgh is an interesting
it takes a long time to get there.
place

Warning:

We can’t use however as a conjunction instead of but to connect words and phrases:

My teacher is very nice but a bit strict.
Not: My teacher is very nice however a bit strict.
See also:
 But

Although/though
Although/though can be used to contrast ideas. Although/though are subordinating conjunctions used to connect a
subordinate clause to a main clause, like after, as, before, if, since, that, even though, even if.

main idea contrast

althoug
Grace is an excellent h she injured her leg recently.
athlete
though

Harry is a great friend we don’t see each other often.

The although/though clause can come first.

Althoug contrast main idea

513
 h the car was destroyed, no one was injured in the crash.
Though
people say it’s
I think it’s an amazing country.
dangerous,

See also:
 Conjunctions
 Position of subordinating conjunctions
 Although or though?
 But  or  although?

But or although?
But cannot be used in the same way as although/though. We use but to connect items which are the same
grammatical type (coordinating conjunction).
Warning:

The order of clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions cannot be reversed:

Although it rained a lot, we’ve still enjoyed our holiday.
We’ve still enjoyed our holiday, although it rained a lot.
It rained a lot but we’ve still enjoyed our holiday.
Not: But it rained a lot, we’ve still enjoyed our holiday.
Although can sound more formal than but. Though is much more common in speaking than in writing. Although is
much more common in writing than in speaking.

Even though, even if
Even though and even if are also used as subordinating conjunctions in the same way as although/though. Even
though is similar to although but it makes a stronger contrast:
Even though I cycle to work, I don’t feel very fit.
Even if means ‘whether or not’:
Even if you run, you’ll still be late. (You’ll be late whether you run or not.)
I feel tired even if I go to bed early. (I feel tired whether I go to bed early or not.)
See also:
 Whether

Conjunctions: typical errors

 We use and to connect words in a list and to connect phrases and clauses in a sentence:
He loves cycling, hiking and ball games.
Not: He loves cycling, hiking, ball games.

514
 See also:
 And
 Adding with  and
 After conjunctions referring to time, such as when, once and as soon as, we use the present simple when we
refer to the future:
It will be summer when we see you again.
Not: … when we will see you again.
They’ll leave once the lecture finishes.
Not: … once the lecture will finish.
As soon as I hear any news, I’ll call you.
Not: As soon as I’ll hear any news …
 During is a preposition, not a conjunction, so it must be followed by a noun or a pronoun:
She studies while she is on the train.
Not: She studies during she is on the train.
See also:
 Conjunctions: time
 When we use a so-clause to connect a cause/reason to a result, the so-clause must come second:
I bought a new computer game so I have no money left.
Not: So I have no money left I bought a new computer game.
See also:
 Conjunctions: causes, reasons and results
 Because
 Since
 As
 We use although/though, not but, to connect a subordinate clause to a main clause:
Although I’m tall, I’m not as tall as Bill.
Not: But I’m tall, I’m not as tall as Bill.
See also:
 But  or  although?
 When as well as or in addition to are followed by clauses, the verb is in the -ing form:
[from a brochure advertising an English course in London]
As well as living with a family, you practise your English.
Not: As well as you live with a family …
In addition to being a wonderful seafood restaurant, it had an amazing view.
Not: In addition to it was a wonderful seafood restaurant …
See also:
 Adding with  as well as  and  in addition to
 We cannot use however to connect words and phrases:
The area around Cannes has small but nice beaches.

515
 Not: … has small however nice beaches.
See also:
 Conjunctions: causes, reasons and results
 Position of subordinating conjunctions
 When or if?
 We only use one conjunction to connect words or phrases:
Since she had the day off work, she went out for lunch with some friends.
Not: Since she had the day off work, so she went out for lunch …

Conjunctions: time
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Conjunctions: time

from English Grammar Today

When, after, before, until, since, while, once, as and as soon as are subordinating conjunctions which can be used to
connect an action or an event to a point in time.

action/event conjunction time

She was in a bad car

when she was young.
accident

everyone has gone to

We can’t play loud music after
bed.

Brush your teeth before you go to bed!

I’ll wait with you until the bus comes.

I’ve been very busy since I started my new job.

No one left the cinema while the movie was on.

I’ll call you once I arrive.

We always have an ice cream as soon as we get to the beach.

516
 action/event conjunction time

I bumped into her as I came out of the bank.

Many of these time conjunctions can be followed by -ing or -ed forms instead of subject + verb.
See also:
 Non-finite clauses
Warning:

We don’t use will after conjunctions referring to future time:

When people walk into the room, they will feel something special.
Not: When people will walk into the room…
I will call you as soon as I get to the office.
Not: … as soon as I will get to the office.

When, once, as soon as
We can use when, once, as and as soon as to talk about a specific point in time when something happened or will
happen:
When we were in Greece, we went to as many islands as possible.
They always close their curtains once they get home in the evening.
As soon as we hear any news, we’ll call you.

Before, after and until
We use before and after to talk about the order of events in the past or future. With before and after, either the main
clause or the subordinate clause can come first:
[event 1]She’ll pick you up before [event 2]she comes here.
After [event 1]she comes here, [event 2]she’ll pick you up.
Until as a time conjunction means up to a time in the past or future. In the case of until, the main clause usually
comes first:
I’m going to wait until the January sales start to buy a new jacket.
Until he mentioned his name was Doug, I thought he was called Damien! (less common order)
We spell until with one l. (Not: untill)

While
We use while to show that actions or events happen at the same time in the past, present or future:
Can you wait in the car while I run into the shop?
They were talking while the teacher was explaining the activity.
Warning:

We don’t use during instead of while. During is a preposition, not a conjunction, and it must be followed by a noun
or a pronoun:

517
I like to have the radio on while I study.
Not: I like to have the radio on during I study.

Either … or…
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Either … or…

from English Grammar Today

Either… or… connects two choices:

I’ve saved some money to buy either [choice 1]a DVD player or [choice 2]an MP3 player.
We use either… or… to connect items which are the same grammatical type, e.g. words, phrases, clauses:
We can either pre- or post-date the document. I don’t mind. (connecting prefixes)
It’s either black or grey. I can’t remember. (connecting words)
You can stay either with me or with Janet. (connecting phrases)
Either I drive to the airport or I get a taxi. (connecting clauses)
The opposite of either… or… is neither… nor…. We use it to make negative statements connecting items:
We got so wet. We had neither umbrellas nor raincoats with us!
Neither our families nor our friends know that we are getting married!

If
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > If

from English Grammar Today

If is a conjunction.

If: conditions
We often use if to introduce possible or impossible situations or conditions and their results. The situations or
conditions can be real, imagined or uncertain:
I usually make a sandwich to take to work if I have enough time. (real)
If you don’t book now, you won’t get good tickets. (real)
They’d have got the job done quicker if they’d had more people working on it. (imagined)
Will you bring my glasses down if you go upstairs? (uncertain)

518
 See also:
 Conditionals:  if

If possible, if necessary
We can sometimes leave words out after if to form fixed expressions:
Check the temperature of your meat with a meat thermometer if possible. (if it’s possible or if that’s possible)
Interest rates would have to rise if necessary to protect the pound, Mr John Smith, Shadow Chancellor, indicated
yesterday on BBC TV’s Money Programme.

If so, if not
We use so or not after if when it is obvious what we are referring to:
[from a job advertisement]
Are you looking for part-time work? Do you want to work from home? If so, read on. (if you are looking for part-
time work or if you want to work from home)
You should all have received your booklist for the course by now. If not, please email the office. (if you haven’t
received your booklist for the course by now)
I’ll see you soon, definitely at the wedding, if not before. (if I don’t see you before the wedding)

Even if
We can use even if to mean if when talking about surprising or extreme situations:
You’re still going to be cold even if you put on two or three jumpers.
See also:
 Even

If: reporting questions

We use if to introduce reported yes-no questions and questions with or.
Compare

direct question indirect question

Do you like dogs? I asked if she liked dogs.

Are you leaving now or are you staying for a bit He asked if I was leaving now or staying for a bit
longer? longer.

See also:
 Conditionals
 If or when?
 If or whether?
 Reported speech

519
 Even if
We use only if to express a strong condition, often an order or command, to mean ‘on the condition that’. It has an
opposite meaning to ‘except if’:
Payment will be made only if the work is completed on time.
Alright I’ll come but only if I can bring a friend with me.
We often separate only and if, using only in the main clause:
He’ll only take the job if they offer him more money.
We’ll only achieve our targets if everyone works together.

If and politeness
In speaking, we often use if to introduce a polite request. If is usually followed by modal verbs will, would,
can or could when it is used to be polite:
If you’ll just tell Julie that her next client is here. (Can you tell Julie that …)
If you would like to follow me. (Please follow me.)

In order to
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > In order to

from English Grammar Today

In order to is a subordinating conjunction.

We use in order to with an infinitive form of a verb to express the purpose of something. It introduces a subordinate
clause. It is more common in writing than in speaking:
[main clause]Mrs Weaver had to work full-time [subordinate clause]in order to earn a living for herself and her
family of five children.
We all need stress in order to achieve and do our best work.
The negative of in order to is in order not to:
They never parked the big van in front of the house in order not to upset the neighbours.

Or
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Or

from English Grammar Today

520
 Or is a conjunction that connects two or more possibilities or alternatives. It connects words, phrases and clauses
which are the same grammatical type:
Which do you prefer? Leather or suede?
You can have some freshly baked scones or some chocolate cake or both.
We use or after the negative form of a verb, instead of and.
Compare

I like tea and coffee. I like both tea and coffee.

I don’t like I don’t like tea and I don’t like

tea or coffee. coffee.

When we connect two or more nouns using or, we use a singular verb with singular nouns, and a plural verb with
plural countable nouns:
A banjo or a mandolin is what we need. (singular nouns)
I think more pictures or ornaments are needed in this room. (plural nouns)
See also:
 Conjunctions
Either … or

For emphasis, we can use either … or:

You can pay either by cash or by credit card. (the same as: You can pay by cash or by credit card.)
Warning:

The negative form of either … or is neither … nor:

Neither Joe nor Maria will be at the wedding.
In more formal language we sometimes use nor instead of or, even when neither is not used. It sometimes comes
after a pause when someone adds another option:
No one knew from where they came – nor to where they went.
See also:
 Conjunctions
 Neither, neither … nor  and  not … either

Typical errors

 We use or, not and, after the negative form of a verb:

There weren’t any facilities at all. There were no bathrooms, telephones or even pillows.
Not: There were no bathrooms, telephones and even pillows.
 We only use or to connect alternative possibilities. We use and when we mean ‘in addition to’:
In this essay, I will discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of killing animals for food.
Not: I will discuss both the advantages or disadvantages …

521
 Since
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Since

from English Grammar Today

We use since as a preposition, a conjunction and an adverb to refer to a time, and as a conjunction to introduce a
reason.

Since: time
We use since to refer back to a previous point in time. We use since as a preposition with a date, a time or a noun
phrase:
It was the band’s first live performance since May 1990. (since + date)
I have been happily married for 26 years, since the age of 21. (since + noun phrase)
We also use since as a conjunction to introduce a subordinate clause:
It’s so long since I saw them. (since + clause)
Lenny had slept most of the way since leaving Texas. (since + clause)
He’s been back to the office a few times since he retired. (since + clause)

Since and tenses
When since introduces an action or event at a point of time in the past, we can use the past simple or present perfect
after since and the present perfect in the main clause:
They haven’t received any junk mail since they moved house.
They haven’t received any junk mail since they’ve moved house.
We can use the past simple, present perfect or past perfect after since with the expression it + be + time + since:
It’s been years since I rode a bike. (it’s = it has)
It’s been years since I’ve ridden a bike. (it’s = it has)
It’s years since I rode a bike. (it’s = it is)
It’s years since I’ve ridden a bike. (it’s = it is)
It’d been years since I’d ridden a bike. (it’d = it had)
It’s been years since … is more common in American English than It’s years since ….
When since introduces a state in the past that is still continuing in the present, we use a present perfect form of the
verb after since and a present perfect form of the verb in the main clause:
Since I’ve been back at work, I’ve been feeling great.
See also:
 For or since?
 Present perfect continuous (I have been working)
 Past perfect continuous (I had been working)

522
 Since + -ing
We can use since + -ing form to refer to time when the subject of the verb is the same in the main clause and the
subordinate clause:
Since leaving school, he has had three or four temporary jobs. (Since he left school, he has …)
Since moving from a Chicago suburb to southern California a few months ago, I’ve learned how to play a new
game called Lanesmanship. (Since I moved …, I’ve learned …)

Since, since then
We can use since or since then as an adverb of time when the time reference is understood from the context:
His father doesn’t talk to him. They had an argument a couple of years ago and they haven’t spoken since. (since
they had the argument)
They bought the house in 2006 and they’ve done a lot of work on it since then. (since 2006)
We use ever since as a stronger form of since or since then:
When I was young, I had a little collie dog, but one day he bit me really badly. I’ve hated dogs ever since.

Since: reason
We use since as a subordinating conjunction to introduce a subordinate clause. We use it to give a reason for
something:
Sean had no reason to take a taxi since his flat was near enough to walk to.
Since her husband hated holidays so much, she decided to go on her own.
They couldn’t deliver the parcel since no one was there to answer the door.
See also:
 As
 Because

Since: typical errors

 We don’t use since with extended periods of time. We use for:
She was waiting for four hours.
Not: She was waiting since four hours.
 We use since, not from, with a clause referring back to a point in time:
I’ve been swimming since I was three years old.
I’ve been swimming from the age of three.
Not: I’ve been swimming from I was three years old.
 We use since, not once, to introduce a reason:
I think I should have my money back since I didn’t have what was promised in the brochure.
Not: I think I should have my money back once I didn’t have …
 We use since, not ago, after ‘it’s a long time’ when we refer back to a point in time:
It’s a long time since your last letter.
Not: It’s a long time ago your last letter.

523
 Unless
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Unless

from English Grammar Today

We use the conjunction unless to mean ‘except if’. The clause which follows unless is a subordinate clause (sc): it
needs a main clause (mc) to make a complete sentence.
When unless comes before the main clause, we use a comma:
Unless [SC]it rains, [MC]we’ll go for a picnic by the river tomorrow. (We’ll go for a picnic by the river tomorrow
if it doesn’t rain.)
When the main clause comes first, we don’t need a comma:
[MC]They won’t come unless [SC]you invite them.
Unless is a conditional word (like if), so we don’t use will or would in the subordinate clause:
Unless I hear from you, I’ll see you at two o’clock.
Not: Unless I’ll hear from you …
See also:
 If
 Conditionals
Unless and if … not

Unless and if … not both mean ‘except if’:

We could eat at Siam Smile unless they’re closed on a Monday. (or We could eat at Siam Smile if they’re not closed
on a Monday.)
I’ll make dinner unless somebody else wants to. (or I’ll make dinner if nobody else wants to.)
Can you turn the radio off unless you’re listening to it? (or Can you turn the radio off if you’re not listening to it?)
We don’t use unless for things that we know to be true:
You won’t be able to get a ticket for the match unless you’re prepared to pay a lot of money for it. (The speaker
doesn’t know if you’re prepared to pay a lot of money for a ticket.)
I don’t know what we would have done if we hadn’t seen you. (We did see you.)
Not: I don’t know what we would have done unless we’d seen you.
Warning:

In speaking, we use unless to introduce an extra thought or piece of information:

He didn’t even know about the crash – unless he’d heard about it on the radio.
A:

Oh look. Neil next door’s got a new car.

B:

Unless they’ve got a visitor.

524
 Typical errors

 We don’t use unless when we mean if:

Pete will drive if Alex can’t.
Not: Pete will drive unless Alex can’t.
 We don’t use will or would in the clause after unless:
Unless you pay now, we can’t guarantee you a ticket.
Not: Unless you’ll pay now …

Whereas
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Whereas

from English Grammar Today

We use the conjunction whereas to indicate a contrast between two facts or ideas:

He loves foreign holidays, whereas his wife prefers to stay at home.
Whereas most new PCs have several USB slots, older ones often only had one.
Warning:

Whereas means the same as while in sentences expressing contrasts. It does not mean the same
as while when while refers to time:
The south has a hot, dry climate, whereas/while the north has a milder, wetter climate.
The secretary took care of my appointments while I was away from the office.
Not: … whereas I was away from the office.

Whether
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Whether

from English Grammar Today

Whether is a conjunction.

Whether in indirect questions

525
We use whether in indirect yes-no questions and questions with or. We can’t leave out whether (or if):
They asked me whether (if) I was tired. (original question: Are you tired?)
Not: They asked me I was tired.
I want to find out whether (if) the rooms have a shower or not.
Not: I want to find out the rooms have a shower or not. (original question: Do the rooms have a shower or not?)
We don’t use either in indirect questions:
We can’t say whether tourism is harmful or beneficial.
Not: We can’t say either tourism is harmful or beneficial.

Whether … or
We use whether … or to introduce a clause giving two options or alternatives:
I can’t decide whether to paint the wall green or blue. (or to paint the wall blue)
She didn’t know whether he was laughing or crying.
When the subject of the main clause is the same as the subject of the whether-clause(s), we can use whether to +
infinitive or whether + a finite clause. When the subject of the main clause is different from the subject of the
subordinate clause, we have to use a finite clause.
Compare

same subject different subject

We’re not sure whether to stay here for dinner or go

somewhere else.
(whether + to + infinitive) We’re not sure whether he’ll stay here for dinner or go
somewhere else.
We’re not sure whether we’ll stay here for dinner or go (whether + finite clause)
somewhere else.
(whether + finite clause)

Whether … or not
We use whether … or not or whether or not to give an opposite alternative:
We use the title Ms rather than Mrs (married woman) or Miss (unmarried woman) when we don’t know whether a
woman is married or not.
I’m not sure whether or not to go to camping this weekend.
We often use whether … or not to mean ‘it’s not important if’ or ‘it doesn’t matter if’. We don’t use either in this
way:
He always said what he thought, whether it was polite or not.
Not: … either it was polite or not.
We can use whether … or not in front or end position with this meaning. We use it in orders or commands:
Whether you like it or not, you’re going to have to look after your sister.
(or You’re going to have to look after your sister, whether you like it or not.)

526
 See also:
 If or whether?
 Ellipsis
 If: reporting questions

Typical errors

 We use whether, not if, before a to-infinitive:

I’m not sure whether to get a new laptop.
Not: I’m not sure if to get a new laptop.
 We use whether … or not, not either, to mean ‘it’s not important that’:
We have to accept that they are part of our lives, whether we like it or not.
Not: … either we like it or not.
 We use whether, not either, in indirect questions:
She has to decide whether she is going to accept the job or not.
Not: She has to decide either …
 We can’t leave out whether (or if) in indirect questions:
I want to find out whether/if the rooms have a shower or not.
Not: I want to find out the rooms have a shower or not.
 Take care to spell whether correctly: not ‘weather’, ‘wheter’, ‘wheather’ or ‘wether’.

While and whilst
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > While and whilst

from English Grammar Today

While or whilst?

While and whilst mean the same when we use them as conjunctions. They both mean ‘during the time that
something else happens’, or ‘in contrast with something else’. While is much more common than whilst,
and whilst sounds more formal:
Would you like something to eat while we’re waiting? (less common: … whilst we’re waiting?) (during the time
we’re waiting)
British English prefers an ‘s’ for words like realise, organise and industrialise, while American English prefers ‘z’
(realize, organize, industrialize). (less common: … whilst American English prefers ‘z’ …) (expressing a contrast
between British and American English)
See also:
 Whereas

527
 While or when?

While (or whilst) means ‘during the time when something else happens’. When can mean the same as while,
but when can also refer to a point in time.
Compare

during the time something happens a point in time

When the phone rang, she answered it

The phone rang while/when we were having immediately.
dinner.
Not: While the phone rang …

While as a noun

A while means ‘an unspecified period of time’:

We spent a while looking at the boats in the harbour before going for lunch.
I haven’t seen Andrew for a while. I wonder if he’s okay.
It’s a long while since anyone lived in that house – maybe ten years. It’s a ruin now.

Typical error

 While does not mean the same as when:

Always keep some change with you. It’s useful when buying a bus ticket.
Not: … while buying a bus ticket.
When I came home, I made some dinner then watched TV.
Not: While I came home …

et
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words > Yet

from English Grammar Today

Yet is an adverb or conjunction.

Yet as an adverb

528
We use yet as an adverb to refer to a time which starts in the past and continues up to the present. We use it mostly
in negative statements or questions in the present perfect. It usually comes in end position:
Kevin hasn’t registered for class yet.
I haven’t finished my breakfast yet.
Has she emailed you yet?
Warning:

We don’t use yet to refer to something that has happened. We use already:

She’s booked the flights already.
Not: She’s booked the flights yet.
We don’t use yet to talk about events that are continuing:
Elizabeth is still living in Manchester. She’s not moving to London till next month.
Not: Elizabeth is living yet … or Elizabeth is yet living …

Yet with negative statements

When we use yet in negative statements, it shows that an event is expected to happen in the future:
Jason hasn’t phoned yet. (I am expecting him to phone.)
I haven’t seen ‘Who Framed Roger Rabbit’ yet. (I am expecting to see this film.)

Yet with questions

When we use yet in an affirmative question, it shows that the speaker is expecting something to happen:
Is he home yet? (I expect that he will be home at some point.)
Has your passport arrived yet? (I expect that your passport will arrive in the post.)
Negative questions with yet can express an even stronger expectation that something will happen. When we ask this
type of question, we expect a negative answer:
Hasn’t Richard arrived yet? (I strongly expect that he should have arrived.)
Haven’t you done your driving test yet? (I feel you should have done your driving test by now.)

Yet with affirmative statements

When we use yet in affirmative statements, it shows that a situation is continuing, even when we might expect it not
to continue:
There’s plenty of time yet. (even though you don’t think so)
We’ve got a lot more work to do yet. (even though you think we have finished)

Yet with superlatives

We often use yet after superlatives:

His latest film is his best yet. (The film is the best one he has made up to now.)
Two hours and 15 minutes – that’s Jones’s fastest marathon yet!

Yet as a conjunction
Yet as a conjunction means ‘but’ or ‘nevertheless’. We use it to show contrast. It often occurs after and:

529
So many questions and yet so few answers.
It felt strange and yet so wonderful to ski in the summer!

Yet for emphasis
We use yet for emphasis, with a meaning similar to ‘even’, especially before more, another and again:
The cook arrived with yet another plate of cake.
The printer’s broken down yet again! (It has broken down many times before.)

As yet
As yet means ‘up to now, but the situation will definitely change’. We only use it in negative contexts:
The film shows you the most typical places, as yet untouched by tourism, and how to get there.

Have yet to and be yet to

We use have yet to and be yet to in more formal contexts. We use them to refer to events which are necessary or
which must happen at some time, but which have not happened at the time of speaking:
The price of the tickets for the concert has yet to be decided. (The price will be decided.)
The President and her husband are yet to arrive. (The President and her husband will arrive.)

Negation
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Negation > Negation

from English Grammar Today

When we want to say that something is not true or is not the case, we can use negative words, phrases or clauses.
Negation can happen in a number of ways, most commonly, when we use a negative word such as no, not, never,
none, nobody, etc:
A:

Is there a bus at ten o’clock?

B:

No. The last one goes at nine forty-five. (No = There isn’t a bus at ten o’clock.)
Kieran doesn’t play the piano. (It is not true that Kieran plays the piano.)
The most common negative words are no and not. Other negative words include:
neither, never, no one, nobody, none, nor, nothing, nowhere:
She’s never been abroad.
There were no newspapers left in the shop by one o’clock.
Nobody came to the house for several days.
None of my cousins live near us.

530
 Most children don’t walk to school any more.
See also:
 Neither, neither … nor  and  not … either
 So am I,  so do I,  Neither do I
 Never or not … ever?
 No one,  nobody,  nothing,  nowhere
 No,  none  and  none of
 Not any  and  no
We can also make negative meanings using prefixes (e.g. de-, dis-, un-) and suffixes (-less):
He was very disrespectful to the teacher.
This new printer is useless; it’s always breaking down.
We can also use the following words to make negative or negative-like statements:
few, hardly, little, rarely, scarcely, seldom.
There are rarely ducks in this pond.
We seldom hear any noise at night.
See also:
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom
 Scarcely
Negation is more common in spoken than in written language because negative forms can be used in face-to-face
interactions to make what we say less direct:
I’m not sure if this is the right desk. I’m looking for information on the train times to Liverpool. (less direct than Is
this the right desk?)
See also:
 Hedges (just)
 Politeness

Forming negative statements, questions and imperatives

Negative statements

We form negative statements with not or n’t after be, modal and auxiliary verbs. n’t is the contracted form of not. In
informal language we can add n’t, without a space, to be, to modal verbs (except may) and to auxiliary verbs
(do and have). The negative contracted form of will is won’t. The uncontracted form of can + not is cannot.
Jan isn’t coming. She’s not feeling very well.
She might not be joking. It could be true.
They don’t go to school on Wednesday afternoons.
Living in a small flat does not make it easy to have pets.
I hadn’t decided whether to take the train or go in the car.
They can’t be hungry again. They’ve only just eaten.

531
 Negative questions

We use not or n’t to form negative questions. When there is no modal verb or be, we use auxiliary
verb do + n’t (don’t, do not, doesn’t, does not, didn’t):
Why didn’t you ask Linda?
What don’t you understand?
Won’t we able to see the film?
Isn’t that Mike’s brother?

Negative imperatives

We use do + not or don’t + the base form of a verb to form negative orders or commands:
Do not open until instructed.
Don’t take the car. Go on your bike.
See also:
 Declarative clauses
 Not and n’t in questions (Did you not …? Wasn’t she …?)
 Don’t, Do not: orders and instructions
 Let’s, let: suggestions, offers, imperatives

Negation: two negatives

Standard English does not have two negatives in the same clause (double negatives). Words such as never, nobody,
no one, none, nothing, nowhere, etc. already have a negative meaning, so we don’t need another negative with the
verb:
There was no one in the office so I left a message.
Not: There wasn’t no one …
Nobody likes to think they are worthless.
Not: Nobody doesn’t like to think …
If we use not with the verb, we use words such as ever, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, instead
of never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere:
I haven’t seen Ken anywhere today. In fact I don’t think anyone’s seen him for the last couple of days.
Not: I haven’t seen Ken nowhere … or I don’t think no one’s seen him …
You may hear some speakers using two negatives in the same clause, but many people consider this to be incorrect.

Not … I don’t think

There are some cases where we can use reporting verbs such as imagine, suppose and think in end position, after the
reported clause. In such cases, both clauses may have a negative verb:
He’s not a teacher, I don’t think. (or I don’t think he’s a teacher.)
Not: I don’t think he’s not a teacher.
I won’t be very late tonight, I shouldn’t imagine. (or I shouldn’t imagine I’ll be very late tonight.)
Not: I shouldn’t imagine I won’t be late.
Sometimes we use not in front position where a following reduced clause (a clause with something omitted but
which is understood) also has a negative form:

532
 A:

Have you seen Leila?

B:

Not today, I haven’t. (I haven’t seen Leila/her.)

A:

Is Tony working at the university?

B:

Not now, he isn’t. He used to.

Negative clauses with any, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere

We don’t use not with some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere in statements. We
use any, anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere:
There aren’t any seats left. You’ll have to stand.
Not: There aren’t some seats left.
Tell them I don’t want to see anyone.
Not: Tell them I don’t want to see someone.
After verbs with a negative meaning like decline or refuse, we use anything rather than something:
They refused to tell us anything about it. (preferred to They refused to tell us something about it.)
See also:
 Any
 Anyone, anybody or anything?

Negation in non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses are clauses without a subject, where the main verb is in the to-infinitive form, the -ing form or
the -ed form. To make the negative of a non-finite clause, we can use not.
Compare (non-finite clauses are underlined)

affirmative non-finite clause negative non-finite clause

To have given up  such a good job would Not to have invited  James to our little party would have been
have been foolish. impolite.

Thinking  of my own situation, I decided it

She left the house very quietly, not wishing  to alarm anyone.
was time to talk to Dennis.

Cooked  in a slow oven, this dish is delicious Not funded  by any government grants, the research team have to
with baked potatoes. raise money from companies and individuals.

In non-finite clauses with a to-infinitive verb, we can use not after to. However, many speakers consider such ‘split
infinitives’ (where something comes between to and the verb) to be bad style:

533
 To not realise what was happening was stupid. She should have noticed something was wrong. (or Not to
realise what was happening …)
I was thinking it would be nice to not have to go out and just stay in and watch TV. (or … it would be nice not to
have to go out …)

Negative prefixes and suffixes

We use these prefixes most commonly in negation: de-, dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir-, mis-, non-, un-:
What he said was very impolite.
There was a misunderstanding about who should sign the contract.
The refugees also need non-food items such as tents and blankets. (items which are not food)
-less is the most common suffix for negation:
Too many people are homeless in this city.
We just have endless meetings at work – they’re so boring.
See also:
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

Some adverbs (e.g. hardly, little, never, only, scarcely and seldom) have a negative meaning. When we use these at
the beginning of the clause, we invert the subject and verb:
Hardly had we left the hotel when it started to pour with rain.
Not: Hardly we had left the hotel …
Little did we know that we would never meet again.
Only in spring do we see these lovely little flowers.
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or not + a clause in front position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.
See also:
 Inversion
 Word order and focus
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom

Negation: emphasising
When we want to emphasise something negative, we often use at all. We normally use at all immediately after the
word or phrase we are emphasising:
There’s nothing at all left in the fridge.
I’d rather not be here at all.
We had no rain at all this summer and now we have floods!

534
 Not at all can come before an adjective:
She was not at all happy with the result.
See also:
 All
We can also use whatsoever for emphasis after no + noun, nobody, no one, none and nothing. Its meaning is similar
to at all, but it is stronger. We can use whatsoever to add emphasis to any negative noun phrase:
No food or drink whatsoever must be brought into the classroom.
A:

Did any of her family go to the wedding?

B:

No. None whatsoever.
We can also use not a bit, a little bit, one bit, in the least, the least bit to emphasise negatives:
Setting off the alarm was supposed to be a joke but no one found it one bit funny.
We suggested going to the cinema but they didn’t seem the least bit interested, so we just took them shopping
instead.
See also:
 A bit
We often add emphasis to negation to make what we say more polite. When someone makes a request using the
phrase Do you mind if or Would you mind if, instead of replying with No (I don’t mind) we often say not at all or not
in the least when we reply:
A:

Do you mind if I sit here?

B:

Not at all.
A:

Would you mind if I check my emails on your computer?

B:

Not in the least.

When someone says thanks or thank you, we often reply not at all:
A:

Thanks so much for lunch, Rachel.

B:

Not at all. It was my pleasure.

See also:
 Politeness
 Requests
 Please  and  thank you

535
Negation of think, believe, suppose, hope
When we use verbs like think, believe, suppose (mental process verbs) to express uncertainty about something, we
usually use not with the mental process verb rather than with the verb in the following clause:
I don’t think I’m going to pass my exams. (preferred to I think I’m not going to pass my exams.)
However, we don’t normally use a negative with hope and wish:
I hope I’m not going to fail.
Not: I don’t hope I’m going to fail.
I wish I hadn’t sent that email to Joan.
Not: I don’t wish I had sent …

Neither, neither … nor and not … either

 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Negation > Neither, neither … nor and not … either

from English Grammar Today

Neither as a determiner
Neither allows us to make a negative statement about two people or things at the same time. Neither goes before
singular countable nouns. We use it to say ‘not either’ in relation to two things. Neither can
be pronounced /ˈnaɪðə(r)/ or /ˈni:ðə(r)/.
Neither parent came to meet the teacher. (The mother didn’t come and the father didn’t come.)
Neither dress fitted her. (There were two dresses and not one of them fitted her.)
We use neither of before pronouns and plural countable nouns which have a determiner (my, his, the) before them:
Neither of us went to the concert.
Neither of the birthday cards was suitable.
Spoken English:

In formal styles, we use neither of with a singular verb when it is the subject. However, in informal speaking, people
often use plural verbs:
Neither of my best friends was around.
Neither of them were interested in going to university.
In speaking, we can use neither on its own in replies when we are referring to two things that have already been
mentioned:
A:

Mike, which would you prefer, tea or coffee?

B:

Neither thanks. I’ve just had a coffee.

536
 Neither … nor
We can use neither as a conjunction with nor. It connects two or more negative alternatives. This can sound formal
in speaking:
Neither Brian nor his wife mentioned anything about moving house. (Brian didn’t mention that they were moving
house and his wife didn’t mention that they were moving house.)
Neither Italy nor France got to the quarter finals last year.
The less formal alternative is to use and … not … either:
Italy didn’t get to the quarter finals last year and France didn’t either.
See also:
 Not … either

Not with neither and nor
When a clause with neither or nor is used after a negative clause, we invert the subject and the verb
after neither and nor:
He hadn’t done any homework, neither had he brought any of his books to class.
We didn’t get to see the castle, nor did we see the cathedral.
See also:
 Conjunctions

Neither do I, Nor can she

We use neither and nor + auxiliary/modal verb + subject to mean ‘also not’:
A:

I hate snakes. I can’t even look at a picture of a snake.

B:

Neither can I.
Not: I can’t also.
A:

Jacqueline doesn’t drive.

B:

Nor does Gina.
Not: Gina doesn’t also.
See also:
 So am I,  so do I,  Neither do I

Not … either
We can use not … either to mean ‘also not’, but we do not change the word order of the auxiliary or modal verb and
subject:
A:

537
 I haven’t ever tasted caviar.
B:

I haven’t either. (or Neither have I./Nor have I.)

A:

I didn’t see Lesley at the concert.

B:

I didn’t either. (or Neither did I./Nor did I.)

In informal speaking, we often say me neither:
A:

I can’t smell anything.

B:

Me neither. (or I can’t either.)

Neither: typical errors

 We use neither, not none, when we are talking about two people or things:
Books and television are different. Neither of them should replace the other.
Not: None of them …
 We don’t normally use both (of) + not to make a negative statement about two people or things:
Neither of these shirts is/are dry yet.
Not: Both of these shirts aren’t dry yet.
 Take care to spell neither correctly: not ‘niether’ or ‘neighter’.
Not
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Negation > Not

from English Grammar Today

Not is one of the most common words we use to indicate negation. It is often shortened to n’t and joined to an
auxiliary verb or modal verb:
She’s not coming with us.
I didn’t see what happened. (did not)
I can’t swim. (cannot)
She won’t change her mind. (will not)
It’s at eight o’clock, not nine.
A:

Is that true?
B:

538
Certainly not.
A:

Are you ready?

B:

Not quite.

Not in negative statements (She hasn’t …, I did not …)

We form negative declarative clauses with not after be (she is not talking), after modal verbs (they must not go) and
after auxiliary verbs do and have (we did not like it; they have not eaten).
In informal situations, we add n’t to be, modal verbs and auxiliary verbs do and have. There is no space between the
verb and n’t:
She isn’t worried about it, is she?
We can’t walk. It’s too far. I’ll take the car.
Although he doesn’t know much Chinese, he is fluent in French, German, and Italian.
I haven’t seen Peter for ages.
We don’t use n’t with am and may:
I’m not allowed to go out this evening.
Not: I amn’t allowed to … (amn’t is common in Irish and Scots English, however.)
We may not see you later. We have to leave early.
Not: We mayn’t see you later.
With is and are there are two possible negative statements, ’s not or isn’t and ’re not or aren’t. The forms ’s
not and ’re not are more common after pronouns; isn’t and aren’t are more common after noun phrases:
The girls aren’t here yet. They’re not coming until later.
The programme isn’t ready. It’s not printed yet. (or The programme’s not ready yet.)
In questions and question tags we use aren’t with I:
Aren’t I lucky?
I’m right, aren’t I?
We use the full form not for more formal writing or for emphasis:
It had not been an easy year.
He was not sorry and he is not ashamed.
The Lady Jinneth went out riding alone this afternoon, and she has not yet come back.

Not and n’t in questions (Did you not …? Wasn’t she …?)

We use not or n’t to form negative questions:
Why haven’t you eaten anything?
Couldn’t he pay someone to help him with the garden?
Wasn’t it Cath’s party last night?
Weren’t you listening?

539
 When there is no modal verb or auxiliary verb or be, we use auxiliary verb do + n’t or do + not (don’t, do not,
doesn’t, does not, didn’t, did not):
Why didn’t you go?
Don’t those two go to school together?
Questions with not instead of n’t sound more formal or give more emphasis. We put not after the subject.
Compare

More formal/emphatic Everyday situations

Why did she not phone and tell

Why didn’t she phone and tell us?
us?

Does Ellen not like you very Doesn’t Ellen like you very

much? much?

Don’t, Do not: orders and instructions

We use don’t + the base form of the verb or do + not + the base form of the verb to make negative imperatives. We
use these to give orders, instructions or commands. Do not is stronger and much more formal:
Don’t be an idiot!
Don’t open the oven door until the cake is cooked.
[on an envelope containing photos]
PHOTOS: DO NOT BEND
Do not turn off your computer without shutting down properly.
We use don’t + you in informal speaking to make the order stronger:
We’re getting divorced. Don’t you dare tell anyone!
We can use don’t let’s or let’s not for first person plural imperatives (us) to make suggestions:
Don’t let’s go out. (or Let’s not go out.)
We can use the short form don’t as an imperative answer or reaction to something:
A:

Shall I ask Mum to help?

B:

No, don’t. She’s too tired. (No, don’t ask Mum to help us.)
See also:
 Imperative clauses (Be quiet!)
 Let,  let’s

Not: short replies

We use not in negative short replies with mental process verbs (e.g. be afraid, guess, hope):
A:

540
 Will I see you tomorrow, Harry?
B:

Oh, Alice, I’m afraid not.

A:

Will he have to go back into hospital?

B:

I hope not.
A:

Aren’t you coming with us?

B:

I guess not. Rosie’s not keen.

With think, we usually use I don’t think so rather than I think not, which is much more formal and rare:
A:

Is it going to rain?
B:

I don’t think so.

In short replies to yes-no questions, we use not after adverbs like probably, maybe, certainly to express degrees of
certainty:
A:

Do you think she’ll remember to come at five instead of six?

B:

Probably not.
See also:
 So and not with expect, hope, think, etc.

Not: contrast
We often use not after but to express a contrast. We often leave out the verb phrase or part of it in the second clause:
You can look but not touch. (You can look but you can’t touch.)
Write the instructions in capitals but not in bold. (Write the instructions in capitals but don’t write them in bold.)
There were a few problems but not too many. (There were a few problems but there weren’t too many problems.)

Not + -ing and not + to
We use not before an -ing clause in more formal styles:
Not knowing what to say, she started to walk towards the door.
Not being heard or listened to is something that elderly people can find frightening.

541
 She didn’t want to admit to not knowing what the Emerald Isle was. (‘The Emerald Isle’ is another name for
Ireland.)
We use not to negate a to-infinitive clause. We can use not before or after to, but some people consider ‘split
infinitives’ (when not comes between to and the verb) to be incorrect:
She tried not to offend people.
… she wanted to stay for a long time, to not think, to not be afraid, to not be so, so lonely.
See also:
 Negation in non-finite clauses

Or not
We can use or not in questions to ask about a range of possibilities:
Are they coming today or not?
We sometimes use it to force someone to make a decision:
Are you going to apologise to me or not? (Are you going to apologise to me or are you not going to apologise to
me?)
Do you want to hear this story or not?
We often use or not after if or whether to express a contrast in expectation:
He always spoke the truth whether it was popular or not.

Forming negative statements, questions and imperatives

Negative statements

We form negative statements with not or n’t after be, modal and auxiliary verbs. n’t is the contracted form of not. In
informal language we can add n’t, without a space, to be, to modal verbs (except may) and to auxiliary verbs
(do and have). The negative contracted form of will is won’t. The uncontracted form of can + not is cannot.
Jan isn’t coming. She’s not feeling very well.
She might not be joking. It could be true.
They don’t go to school on Wednesday afternoons.
Living in a small flat does not make it easy to have pets.
I hadn’t decided whether to take the train or go in the car.
They can’t be hungry again. They’ve only just eaten.

Negative questions

We use not or n’t to form negative questions. When there is no modal verb or be, we use auxiliary
verb do + n’t (don’t, do not, doesn’t, does not, didn’t):
Why didn’t you ask Linda?
What don’t you understand?
Won’t we able to see the film?
Isn’t that Mike’s brother?

542
 Negative imperatives

We use do + not or don’t + the base form of a verb to form negative orders or commands:
Do not open until instructed.
Don’t take the car. Go on your bike.
See also:
 Declarative clauses
 Not and n’t in questions (Did you not …? Wasn’t she …?)
 Don’t, Do not: orders and instructions
 Let’s, let: suggestions, offers, imperatives

Negation: two negatives

Standard English does not have two negatives in the same clause (double negatives). Words such as never, nobody,
no one, none, nothing, nowhere, etc. already have a negative meaning, so we don’t need another negative with the
verb:
There was no one in the office so I left a message.
Not: There wasn’t no one …
Nobody likes to think they are worthless.
Not: Nobody doesn’t like to think …
If we use not with the verb, we use words such as ever, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, instead
of never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere:
I haven’t seen Ken anywhere today. In fact I don’t think anyone’s seen him for the last couple of days.
Not: I haven’t seen Ken nowhere … or I don’t think no one’s seen him …
You may hear some speakers using two negatives in the same clause, but many people consider this to be incorrect.

Not … I don’t think

There are some cases where we can use reporting verbs such as imagine, suppose and think in end position, after the
reported clause. In such cases, both clauses may have a negative verb:
He’s not a teacher, I don’t think. (or I don’t think he’s a teacher.)
Not: I don’t think he’s not a teacher.
I won’t be very late tonight, I shouldn’t imagine. (or I shouldn’t imagine I’ll be very late tonight.)
Not: I shouldn’t imagine I won’t be late.
Sometimes we use not in front position where a following reduced clause (a clause with something omitted but
which is understood) also has a negative form:
A:

Have you seen Leila?

B:

Not today, I haven’t. (I haven’t seen Leila/her.)

A:

Is Tony working at the university?

543
 B:

Not now, he isn’t. He used to.

Negative clauses with any, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere

We don’t use not with some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere in statements. We
use any, anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere:
There aren’t any seats left. You’ll have to stand.
Not: There aren’t some seats left.
Tell them I don’t want to see anyone.
Not: Tell them I don’t want to see someone.
After verbs with a negative meaning like decline or refuse, we use anything rather than something:
They refused to tell us anything about it. (preferred to They refused to tell us something about it.)
See also:
 Any
 Anyone, anybody or anything?

Negation in non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses are clauses without a subject, where the main verb is in the to-infinitive form, the -ing form or
the -ed form. To make the negative of a non-finite clause, we can use not.
Compare (non-finite clauses are underlined)

affirmative non-finite clause negative non-finite clause

To have given up  such a good job would Not to have invited  James to our little party would have been
have been foolish. impolite.

Thinking  of my own situation, I decided it

She left the house very quietly, not wishing  to alarm anyone.
was time to talk to Dennis.

Cooked  in a slow oven, this dish is delicious Not funded  by any government grants, the research team have to
with baked potatoes. raise money from companies and individuals.

In non-finite clauses with a to-infinitive verb, we can use not after to. However, many speakers consider such ‘split
infinitives’ (where something comes between to and the verb) to be bad style:
To not realise what was happening was stupid. She should have noticed something was wrong. (or Not to
realise what was happening …)
I was thinking it would be nice to not have to go out and just stay in and watch TV. (or … it would be nice not to
have to go out …)

Negative prefixes and suffixes

We use these prefixes most commonly in negation: de-, dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir-, mis-, non-, un-:

544
 What he said was very impolite.
There was a misunderstanding about who should sign the contract.
The refugees also need non-food items such as tents and blankets. (items which are not food)
-less is the most common suffix for negation:
Too many people are homeless in this city.
We just have endless meetings at work – they’re so boring.
See also:
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

Some adverbs (e.g. hardly, little, never, only, scarcely and seldom) have a negative meaning. When we use these at
the beginning of the clause, we invert the subject and verb:
Hardly had we left the hotel when it started to pour with rain.
Not: Hardly we had left the hotel …
Little did we know that we would never meet again.
Only in spring do we see these lovely little flowers.
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or not + a clause in front position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.
See also:
 Inversion
 Word order and focus
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom

Negation: emphasising
When we want to emphasise something negative, we often use at all. We normally use at all immediately after the
word or phrase we are emphasising:
There’s nothing at all left in the fridge.
I’d rather not be here at all.
We had no rain at all this summer and now we have floods!
Not at all can come before an adjective:
She was not at all happy with the result.
See also:
 All
We can also use whatsoever for emphasis after no + noun, nobody, no one, none and nothing. Its meaning is similar
to at all, but it is stronger. We can use whatsoever to add emphasis to any negative noun phrase:
No food or drink whatsoever must be brought into the classroom.

545
 A:

Did any of her family go to the wedding?

B:

No. None whatsoever.
We can also use not a bit, a little bit, one bit, in the least, the least bit to emphasise negatives:
Setting off the alarm was supposed to be a joke but no one found it one bit funny.
We suggested going to the cinema but they didn’t seem the least bit interested, so we just took them shopping
instead.
See also:
 A bit
We often add emphasis to negation to make what we say more polite. When someone makes a request using the
phrase Do you mind if or Would you mind if, instead of replying with No (I don’t mind) we often say not at all or not
in the least when we reply:
A:

Do you mind if I sit here?

B:

Not at all.
A:

Would you mind if I check my emails on your computer?

B:

Not in the least.

When someone says thanks or thank you, we often reply not at all:
A:

Thanks so much for lunch, Rachel.

B:

Not at all. It was my pleasure.

See also:
 Politeness
 Requests
 Please  and  thank you

Negation of think, believe, suppose, hope
When we use verbs like think, believe, suppose (mental process verbs) to express uncertainty about something, we
usually use not with the mental process verb rather than with the verb in the following clause:
I don’t think I’m going to pass my exams. (preferred to I think I’m not going to pass my exams.)
However, we don’t normally use a negative with hope and wish:
I hope I’m not going to fail.

546
Not: I don’t hope I’m going to fail.
I wish I hadn’t sent that email to Joan.
Not: I don’t wish I had sent …

Negation: two negatives

 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Negation > Negation: two negatives

from English Grammar Today

Standard English does not have two negatives in the same clause (double negatives). Words such as never, nobody,
no one, none, nothing, nowhere, etc. already have a negative meaning, so we don’t need another negative with the
verb:
There was no one in the office so I left a message.
Not: There wasn’t no one …
Nobody likes to think they are worthless.
Not: Nobody doesn’t like to think …
If we use not with the verb, we use words such as ever, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, instead
of never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere:
I haven’t seen Ken anywhere today. In fact I don’t think anyone’s seen him for the last couple of days.
Not: I haven’t seen Ken nowhere … or I don’t think no one’s seen him …
You may hear some speakers using two negatives in the same clause, but many people consider this to be incorrect.

Not … I don’t think

There are some cases where we can use reporting verbs such as imagine, suppose and think in end position, after the
reported clause. In such cases, both clauses may have a negative verb:
He’s not a teacher, I don’t think. (or I don’t think he’s a teacher.)
Not: I don’t think he’s not a teacher.
I won’t be very late tonight, I shouldn’t imagine. (or I shouldn’t imagine I’ll be very late tonight.)
Not: I shouldn’t imagine I won’t be late.
Sometimes we use not in front position where a following reduced clause (a clause with something omitted but
which is understood) also has a negative form:
A:

Have you seen Leila?

B:

Not today, I haven’t. (I haven’t seen Leila/her.)

A:

547
 Is Tony working at the university?
B:

Not now, he isn’t. He used to.

Negative clauses with any, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere

We don’t use not with some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere in statements. We
use any, anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere:
There aren’t any seats left. You’ll have to stand.
Not: There aren’t some seats left.
Tell them I don’t want to see anyone.
Not: Tell them I don’t want to see someone.
After verbs with a negative meaning like decline or refuse, we use anything rather than something:
They refused to tell us anything about it. (preferred to They refused to tell us something about it.)
See also:
 Any
 Anyone, anybody or anything?

Negation in non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses are clauses without a subject, where the main verb is in the to-infinitive form, the -ing form or
the -ed form. To make the negative of a non-finite clause, we can use not.
Compare (non-finite clauses are underlined)

affirmative non-finite clause negative non-finite clause

To have given up  such a good job would Not to have invited  James to our little party would have been
have been foolish. impolite.

Thinking  of my own situation, I decided it

She left the house very quietly, not wishing  to alarm anyone.
was time to talk to Dennis.

Cooked  in a slow oven, this dish is delicious Not funded  by any government grants, the research team have to
with baked potatoes. raise money from companies and individuals.

In non-finite clauses with a to-infinitive verb, we can use not after to. However, many speakers consider such ‘split
infinitives’ (where something comes between to and the verb) to be bad style:
To not realise what was happening was stupid. She should have noticed something was wrong. (or Not to
realise what was happening …)
I was thinking it would be nice to not have to go out and just stay in and watch TV. (or … it would be nice not to
have to go out …)

548
 Negative prefixes and suffixes
We use these prefixes most commonly in negation: de-, dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir-, mis-, non-, un-:
What he said was very impolite.
There was a misunderstanding about who should sign the contract.
The refugees also need non-food items such as tents and blankets. (items which are not food)
-less is the most common suffix for negation:
Too many people are homeless in this city.
We just have endless meetings at work – they’re so boring.
See also:
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

Some adverbs (e.g. hardly, little, never, only, scarcely and seldom) have a negative meaning. When we use these at
the beginning of the clause, we invert the subject and verb:
Hardly had we left the hotel when it started to pour with rain.
Not: Hardly we had left the hotel …
Little did we know that we would never meet again.
Only in spring do we see these lovely little flowers.
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or not + a clause in front position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.
See also:
 Inversion
 Word order and focus
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom

Negation: emphasising
When we want to emphasise something negative, we often use at all. We normally use at all immediately after the
word or phrase we are emphasising:
There’s nothing at all left in the fridge.
I’d rather not be here at all.
We had no rain at all this summer and now we have floods!
Not at all can come before an adjective:
She was not at all happy with the result.
See also:
 All

549
 We can also use whatsoever for emphasis after no + noun, nobody, no one, none and nothing. Its meaning is similar
to at all, but it is stronger. We can use whatsoever to add emphasis to any negative noun phrase:
No food or drink whatsoever must be brought into the classroom.
A:

Did any of her family go to the wedding?

B:

No. None whatsoever.
We can also use not a bit, a little bit, one bit, in the least, the least bit to emphasise negatives:
Setting off the alarm was supposed to be a joke but no one found it one bit funny.
We suggested going to the cinema but they didn’t seem the least bit interested, so we just took them shopping
instead.
See also:
 A bit
We often add emphasis to negation to make what we say more polite. When someone makes a request using the
phrase Do you mind if or Would you mind if, instead of replying with No (I don’t mind) we often say not at all or not
in the least when we reply:
A:

Do you mind if I sit here?

B:

Not at all.
A:

Would you mind if I check my emails on your computer?

B:

Not in the least.

When someone says thanks or thank you, we often reply not at all:
A:

Thanks so much for lunch, Rachel.

B:

Not at all. It was my pleasure.

See also:
 Politeness
 Requests
 Please  and  thank you

Negation of think, believe, suppose, hope
When we use verbs like think, believe, suppose (mental process verbs) to express uncertainty about something, we
usually use not with the mental process verb rather than with the verb in the following clause:

550
 I don’t think I’m going to pass my exams. (preferred to I think I’m not going to pass my exams.)
However, we don’t normally use a negative with hope and wish:
I hope I’m not going to fail.
Not: I don’t hope I’m going to fail.
I wish I hadn’t sent that email to Joan.
Not: I don’t wish I had sent …
See also:
 So and not with expect, hope, think, etc.
 No or not?

Negation in non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses are clauses without a subject, where the main verb is in the to-infinitive form, the -ing form or
the -ed form. To make the negative of a non-finite clause, we can use not.
Compare (non-finite clauses are underlined)

affirmative non-finite clause negative non-finite clause

To have given up  such a good job would Not to have invited  James to our little party would have been
have been foolish. impolite.

Thinking  of my own situation, I decided it

She left the house very quietly, not wishing  to alarm anyone.
was time to talk to Dennis.

Cooked  in a slow oven, this dish is delicious Not funded  by any government grants, the research team have to
with baked potatoes. raise money from companies and individuals.

In non-finite clauses with a to-infinitive verb, we can use not after to. However, many speakers consider such ‘split
infinitives’ (where something comes between to and the verb) to be bad style:
To not realise what was happening was stupid. She should have noticed something was wrong. (or Not to
realise what was happening …)
I was thinking it would be nice to not have to go out and just stay in and watch TV. (or … it would be nice not to
have to go out …)

Negative prefixes and suffixes

We use these prefixes most commonly in negation: de-, dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir-, mis-, non-, un-:
What he said was very impolite.
There was a misunderstanding about who should sign the contract.
The refugees also need non-food items such as tents and blankets. (items which are not food)

551
 -less is the most common suffix for negation:
Too many people are homeless in this city.
We just have endless meetings at work – they’re so boring.
See also:
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

Some adverbs (e.g. hardly, little, never, only, scarcely and seldom) have a negative meaning. When we use these at
the beginning of the clause, we invert the subject and verb:
Hardly had we left the hotel when it started to pour with rain.
Not: Hardly we had left the hotel …
Little did we know that we would never meet again.
Only in spring do we see these lovely little flowers.
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or not + a clause in front position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.
See also:
 Inversion
 Word order and focus
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom

Negation: emphasising
When we want to emphasise something negative, we often use at all. We normally use at all immediately after the
word or phrase we are emphasising:
There’s nothing at all left in the fridge.
I’d rather not be here at all.
We had no rain at all this summer and now we have floods!
Not at all can come before an adjective:
She was not at all happy with the result.
See also:
 All
We can also use whatsoever for emphasis after no + noun, nobody, no one, none and nothing. Its meaning is similar
to at all, but it is stronger. We can use whatsoever to add emphasis to any negative noun phrase:
No food or drink whatsoever must be brought into the classroom.
A:

Did any of her family go to the wedding?

552
 B:

No. None whatsoever.
We can also use not a bit, a little bit, one bit, in the least, the least bit to emphasise negatives:
Setting off the alarm was supposed to be a joke but no one found it one bit funny.
We suggested going to the cinema but they didn’t seem the least bit interested, so we just took them shopping
instead.
See also:
 A bit
We often add emphasis to negation to make what we say more polite. When someone makes a request using the
phrase Do you mind if or Would you mind if, instead of replying with No (I don’t mind) we often say not at all or not
in the least when we reply:
A:

Do you mind if I sit here?

B:

Not at all.
A:

Would you mind if I check my emails on your computer?

B:

Not in the least.

When someone says thanks or thank you, we often reply not at all:
A:

Thanks so much for lunch, Rachel.

B:

Not at all. It was my pleasure.

See also:
 Politeness
 Requests
 Please  and  thank you

Negation of think, believe, suppose, hope
When we use verbs like think, believe, suppose (mental process verbs) to express uncertainty about something, we
usually use not with the mental process verb rather than with the verb in the following clause:
I don’t think I’m going to pass my exams. (preferred to I think I’m not going to pass my exams.)
However, we don’t normally use a negative with hope and wish:
I hope I’m not going to fail.
Not: I don’t hope I’m going to fail.
I wish I hadn’t sent that email to Joan.

553
 Not: I don’t wish I had sent …

Negation
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Negation > Negation

from English Grammar Today

When we want to say that something is not true or is not the case, we can use negative words, phrases or clauses.
Negation can happen in a number of ways, most commonly, when we use a negative word such as no, not, never,
none, nobody, etc:
A:

Is there a bus at ten o’clock?

B:

No. The last one goes at nine forty-five. (No = There isn’t a bus at ten o’clock.)
Kieran doesn’t play the piano. (It is not true that Kieran plays the piano.)
The most common negative words are no and not. Other negative words include:
neither, never, no one, nobody, none, nor, nothing, nowhere:
She’s never been abroad.
There were no newspapers left in the shop by one o’clock.
Nobody came to the house for several days.
None of my cousins live near us.
Most children don’t walk to school any more.
See also:
 Neither, neither … nor  and  not … either
 So am I,  so do I,  Neither do I
 Never or not … ever?
 No one,  nobody,  nothing,  nowhere
 No,  none  and  none of
 Not any  and  no
We can also make negative meanings using prefixes (e.g. de-, dis-, un-) and suffixes (-less):
He was very disrespectful to the teacher.
This new printer is useless; it’s always breaking down.
We can also use the following words to make negative or negative-like statements:
few, hardly, little, rarely, scarcely, seldom.
There are rarely ducks in this pond.

554
 We seldom hear any noise at night.
See also:
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom
 Scarcely
Negation is more common in spoken than in written language because negative forms can be used in face-to-face
interactions to make what we say less direct:
I’m not sure if this is the right desk. I’m looking for information on the train times to Liverpool. (less direct than Is
this the right desk?)
See also:
 Hedges (just)
 Politeness

Forming negative statements, questions and imperatives

Negative statements

We form negative statements with not or n’t after be, modal and auxiliary verbs. n’t is the contracted form of not. In
informal language we can add n’t, without a space, to be, to modal verbs (except may) and to auxiliary verbs
(do and have). The negative contracted form of will is won’t. The uncontracted form of can + not is cannot.
Jan isn’t coming. She’s not feeling very well.
She might not be joking. It could be true.
They don’t go to school on Wednesday afternoons.
Living in a small flat does not make it easy to have pets.
I hadn’t decided whether to take the train or go in the car.
They can’t be hungry again. They’ve only just eaten.

Negative questions

We use not or n’t to form negative questions. When there is no modal verb or be, we use auxiliary
verb do + n’t (don’t, do not, doesn’t, does not, didn’t):
Why didn’t you ask Linda?
What don’t you understand?
Won’t we able to see the film?
Isn’t that Mike’s brother?

Negative imperatives

We use do + not or don’t + the base form of a verb to form negative orders or commands:
Do not open until instructed.
Don’t take the car. Go on your bike.
See also:
 Declarative clauses

555
 Not and n’t in questions (Did you not …? Wasn’t she …?)
 Don’t, Do not: orders and instructions
 Let’s, let: suggestions, offers, imperatives

Negation: two negatives

Standard English does not have two negatives in the same clause (double negatives). Words such as never, nobody,
no one, none, nothing, nowhere, etc. already have a negative meaning, so we don’t need another negative with the
verb:
There was no one in the office so I left a message.
Not: There wasn’t no one …
Nobody likes to think they are worthless.
Not: Nobody doesn’t like to think …
If we use not with the verb, we use words such as ever, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, instead
of never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere:
I haven’t seen Ken anywhere today. In fact I don’t think anyone’s seen him for the last couple of days.
Not: I haven’t seen Ken nowhere … or I don’t think no one’s seen him …
You may hear some speakers using two negatives in the same clause, but many people consider this to be incorrect.

Not … I don’t think

There are some cases where we can use reporting verbs such as imagine, suppose and think in end position, after the
reported clause. In such cases, both clauses may have a negative verb:
He’s not a teacher, I don’t think. (or I don’t think he’s a teacher.)
Not: I don’t think he’s not a teacher.
I won’t be very late tonight, I shouldn’t imagine. (or I shouldn’t imagine I’ll be very late tonight.)
Not: I shouldn’t imagine I won’t be late.
Sometimes we use not in front position where a following reduced clause (a clause with something omitted but
which is understood) also has a negative form:
A:

Have you seen Leila?

B:

Not today, I haven’t. (I haven’t seen Leila/her.)

A:

Is Tony working at the university?

B:

Not now, he isn’t. He used to.

Negative clauses with any, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere

We don’t use not with some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere in statements. We
use any, anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere:

556
 There aren’t any seats left. You’ll have to stand.
Not: There aren’t some seats left.
Tell them I don’t want to see anyone.
Not: Tell them I don’t want to see someone.
After verbs with a negative meaning like decline or refuse, we use anything rather than something:
They refused to tell us anything about it. (preferred to They refused to tell us something about it.)
See also:
 Any
 Anyone, anybody or anything?

Negation in non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses are clauses without a subject, where the main verb is in the to-infinitive form, the -ing form or
the -ed form. To make the negative of a non-finite clause, we can use not.
Compare (non-finite clauses are underlined)

affirmative non-finite clause negative non-finite clause

To have given up  such a good job would Not to have invited  James to our little party would have been
have been foolish. impolite.

Thinking  of my own situation, I decided it

She left the house very quietly, not wishing  to alarm anyone.
was time to talk to Dennis.

Cooked  in a slow oven, this dish is delicious Not funded  by any government grants, the research team have to
with baked potatoes. raise money from companies and individuals.

In non-finite clauses with a to-infinitive verb, we can use not after to. However, many speakers consider such ‘split
infinitives’ (where something comes between to and the verb) to be bad style:
To not realise what was happening was stupid. She should have noticed something was wrong. (or Not to
realise what was happening …)
I was thinking it would be nice to not have to go out and just stay in and watch TV. (or … it would be nice not to
have to go out …)

Negative prefixes and suffixes

We use these prefixes most commonly in negation: de-, dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir-, mis-, non-, un-:
What he said was very impolite.
There was a misunderstanding about who should sign the contract.
The refugees also need non-food items such as tents and blankets. (items which are not food)
-less is the most common suffix for negation:
Too many people are homeless in this city.
We just have endless meetings at work – they’re so boring.
See also:

557
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

Some adverbs (e.g. hardly, little, never, only, scarcely and seldom) have a negative meaning. When we use these at
the beginning of the clause, we invert the subject and verb:
Hardly had we left the hotel when it started to pour with rain.
Not: Hardly we had left the hotel …
Little did we know that we would never meet again.
Only in spring do we see these lovely little flowers.
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or not + a clause in front position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.
See also:
 Inversion
 Word order and focus
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom

Negation: emphasising
When we want to emphasise something negative, we often use at all. We normally use at all immediately after the
word or phrase we are emphasising:
There’s nothing at all left in the fridge.
I’d rather not be here at all.
We had no rain at all this summer and now we have floods!
Not at all can come before an adjective:
She was not at all happy with the result.
See also:
 All
We can also use whatsoever for emphasis after no + noun, nobody, no one, none and nothing. Its meaning is similar
to at all, but it is stronger. We can use whatsoever to add emphasis to any negative noun phrase:
No food or drink whatsoever must be brought into the classroom.
A:

Did any of her family go to the wedding?

B:

No. None whatsoever.
We can also use not a bit, a little bit, one bit, in the least, the least bit to emphasise negatives:
Setting off the alarm was supposed to be a joke but no one found it one bit funny.

558
 We suggested going to the cinema but they didn’t seem the least bit interested, so we just took them shopping
instead.
See also:
 A bit
We often add emphasis to negation to make what we say more polite. When someone makes a request using the
phrase Do you mind if or Would you mind if, instead of replying with No (I don’t mind) we often say not at all or not
in the least when we reply:
A:

Do you mind if I sit here?

B:

Not at all.
A:

Would you mind if I check my emails on your computer?

B:

Not in the least.

When someone says thanks or thank you, we often reply not at all:
A:

Thanks so much for lunch, Rachel.

B:

Not at all. It was my pleasure.

See also:
 Politeness
 Requests
 Please  and  thank you

Negation of think, believe, suppose, hope
When we use verbs like think, believe, suppose (mental process verbs) to express uncertainty about something, we
usually use not with the mental process verb rather than with the verb in the following clause:
I don’t think I’m going to pass my exams. (preferred to I think I’m not going to pass my exams.)
However, we don’t normally use a negative with hope and wish:
I hope I’m not going to fail.
Not: I don’t hope I’m going to fail.
I wish I hadn’t sent that email to Joan.
Not: I don’t wish I had sent …
See also:
 So and not with expect, hope, think, etc.
 No or not?

559
 Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Negation > Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

from English Grammar Today

Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

Some adverbs (e.g. hardly, little, never, only, scarcely and seldom) have a negative meaning. When we use these at
the beginning of the clause, we invert the subject and verb:
Hardly had we left the hotel when it started to pour with rain.
Not: Hardly we had left the hotel …
Little did we know that we would never meet again.
Only in spring do we see these lovely little flowers.
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or not + a clause in front position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.
See also:
 Inversion
 Word order and focus
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom

Hardly ever, rarely, scarcely, seldom
 

Grammar > Adjectives and adverbs > Adverbs > Time adverbs > Hardly ever, rarely, scarcely, seldom

from English Grammar Today

Frequency adverbs meaning ‘not very often’

Hardly ever, rarely, scarcely and seldom are frequency adverbs. We can use them to refer to things that almost
never happen, or do not happen very often. They have a negative meaning. We use them
without not. Rarely, scarcely and seldom are more common in writing than in speaking:
He hardly ever smiles.

560
 [a trout is a type of fish]
Providing fresh trout for dinner was rarely a problem.
She scarcely saw her grandchildren.
Griffin, the physics teacher, seldom shouted.

Hardly and scarcely meaning ‘almost not at all’

Hardly and scarcely can mean ‘almost not at all’ or ‘only just’. Hardly is much more common than scarcely,
and scarcely is more formal:
Jen was so tired. She could scarcely keep her eyes open.
I hardly know them. I’ve only met them once.

Word order

We usually put these adverbs in mid position, between the subject and main verb, after the modal verb or first
auxiliary verb, or after main verb be. In more formal styles, we put them in front position and invert the subject and
verb. If there is no auxiliary or modal verb, we use do/does/did.
Compare

neutral formal

She hardly ever went on holiday. Hardly ever did she go on holiday.

I had seldom seen so many people out on the streets. Seldom had I seen so many people out on the streets.

Things are rarely as bad as you think they’re going to Rarely are things as bad as you think they’re going to
be. be.

See also:
 Often
 Sometimes or sometime?
 Never or not … ever?
In more formal styles, to refer to something happening immediately after something else, we use scarcely/hardly …
when. We move hardly and scarcely to front position and invert the subject and verb:
Scarcely [V]had [S]I got myself comfortable and closed my eyes when I heard the sound of the alarm.

Negation
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Negation > Negation

from English Grammar Today

561
 When we want to say that something is not true or is not the case, we can use negative words, phrases or clauses.
Negation can happen in a number of ways, most commonly, when we use a negative word such as no, not, never,
none, nobody, etc:
A:

Is there a bus at ten o’clock?

B:

No. The last one goes at nine forty-five. (No = There isn’t a bus at ten o’clock.)
Kieran doesn’t play the piano. (It is not true that Kieran plays the piano.)
The most common negative words are no and not. Other negative words include:
neither, never, no one, nobody, none, nor, nothing, nowhere:
She’s never been abroad.
There were no newspapers left in the shop by one o’clock.
Nobody came to the house for several days.
None of my cousins live near us.
Most children don’t walk to school any more.
See also:
 Neither, neither … nor  and  not … either
 So am I,  so do I,  Neither do I
 Never or not … ever?
 No one,  nobody,  nothing,  nowhere
 No,  none  and  none of
 Not any  and  no
We can also make negative meanings using prefixes (e.g. de-, dis-, un-) and suffixes (-less):
He was very disrespectful to the teacher.
This new printer is useless; it’s always breaking down.
We can also use the following words to make negative or negative-like statements:
few, hardly, little, rarely, scarcely, seldom.
There are rarely ducks in this pond.
We seldom hear any noise at night.
See also:
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom
 Scarcely
Negation is more common in spoken than in written language because negative forms can be used in face-to-face
interactions to make what we say less direct:
I’m not sure if this is the right desk. I’m looking for information on the train times to Liverpool. (less direct than Is
this the right desk?)
See also:

562
 Hedges (just)
 Politeness

Forming negative statements, questions and imperatives

Negative statements

We form negative statements with not or n’t after be, modal and auxiliary verbs. n’t is the contracted form of not. In
informal language we can add n’t, without a space, to be, to modal verbs (except may) and to auxiliary verbs
(do and have). The negative contracted form of will is won’t. The uncontracted form of can + not is cannot.
Jan isn’t coming. She’s not feeling very well.
She might not be joking. It could be true.
They don’t go to school on Wednesday afternoons.
Living in a small flat does not make it easy to have pets.
I hadn’t decided whether to take the train or go in the car.
They can’t be hungry again. They’ve only just eaten.

Negative questions

We use not or n’t to form negative questions. When there is no modal verb or be, we use auxiliary
verb do + n’t (don’t, do not, doesn’t, does not, didn’t):
Why didn’t you ask Linda?
What don’t you understand?
Won’t we able to see the film?
Isn’t that Mike’s brother?

Negative imperatives

We use do + not or don’t + the base form of a verb to form negative orders or commands:
Do not open until instructed.
Don’t take the car. Go on your bike.
See also:
 Declarative clauses
 Not and n’t in questions (Did you not …? Wasn’t she …?)
 Don’t, Do not: orders and instructions
 Let’s, let: suggestions, offers, imperatives

Negation: two negatives

Standard English does not have two negatives in the same clause (double negatives). Words such as never, nobody,
no one, none, nothing, nowhere, etc. already have a negative meaning, so we don’t need another negative with the
verb:
There was no one in the office so I left a message.
Not: There wasn’t no one …
Nobody likes to think they are worthless.

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 Not: Nobody doesn’t like to think …
If we use not with the verb, we use words such as ever, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, instead
of never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere:
I haven’t seen Ken anywhere today. In fact I don’t think anyone’s seen him for the last couple of days.
Not: I haven’t seen Ken nowhere … or I don’t think no one’s seen him …
You may hear some speakers using two negatives in the same clause, but many people consider this to be incorrect.

Not … I don’t think

There are some cases where we can use reporting verbs such as imagine, suppose and think in end position, after the
reported clause. In such cases, both clauses may have a negative verb:
He’s not a teacher, I don’t think. (or I don’t think he’s a teacher.)
Not: I don’t think he’s not a teacher.
I won’t be very late tonight, I shouldn’t imagine. (or I shouldn’t imagine I’ll be very late tonight.)
Not: I shouldn’t imagine I won’t be late.
Sometimes we use not in front position where a following reduced clause (a clause with something omitted but
which is understood) also has a negative form:
A:

Have you seen Leila?

B:

Not today, I haven’t. (I haven’t seen Leila/her.)

A:

Is Tony working at the university?

B:

Not now, he isn’t. He used to.

Negative clauses with any, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere

We don’t use not with some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere in statements. We
use any, anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere:
There aren’t any seats left. You’ll have to stand.
Not: There aren’t some seats left.
Tell them I don’t want to see anyone.
Not: Tell them I don’t want to see someone.
After verbs with a negative meaning like decline or refuse, we use anything rather than something:
They refused to tell us anything about it. (preferred to They refused to tell us something about it.)
See also:
 Any
 Anyone, anybody or anything?

Negation in non-finite clauses

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 Non-finite clauses are clauses without a subject, where the main verb is in the to-infinitive form, the -ing form or
the -ed form. To make the negative of a non-finite clause, we can use not.
Compare (non-finite clauses are underlined)

affirmative non-finite clause negative non-finite clause

To have given up  such a good job would Not to have invited  James to our little party would have been
have been foolish. impolite.

Thinking  of my own situation, I decided it

She left the house very quietly, not wishing  to alarm anyone.
was time to talk to Dennis.

Cooked  in a slow oven, this dish is delicious Not funded  by any government grants, the research team have to
with baked potatoes. raise money from companies and individuals.

In non-finite clauses with a to-infinitive verb, we can use not after to. However, many speakers consider such ‘split
infinitives’ (where something comes between to and the verb) to be bad style:
To not realise what was happening was stupid. She should have noticed something was wrong. (or Not to
realise what was happening …)
I was thinking it would be nice to not have to go out and just stay in and watch TV. (or … it would be nice not to
have to go out …)

Negative prefixes and suffixes

We use these prefixes most commonly in negation: de-, dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir-, mis-, non-, un-:
What he said was very impolite.
There was a misunderstanding about who should sign the contract.
The refugees also need non-food items such as tents and blankets. (items which are not food)
-less is the most common suffix for negation:
Too many people are homeless in this city.
We just have endless meetings at work – they’re so boring.
See also:
 Prefixes
 Suffixes

Negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, etc.

Some adverbs (e.g. hardly, little, never, only, scarcely and seldom) have a negative meaning. When we use these at
the beginning of the clause, we invert the subject and verb:
Hardly had we left the hotel when it started to pour with rain.
Not: Hardly we had left the hotel …
Little did we know that we would never meet again.
Only in spring do we see these lovely little flowers.
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional phrase or not + a clause in front position:

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 Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realise my wallet was missing.
See also:
 Inversion
 Word order and focus
 Little,  a little,  few,  a few
 Hardly
 Hardly ever,  rarely,  scarcely,  seldom

Negation: emphasising
When we want to emphasise something negative, we often use at all. We normally use at all immediately after the
word or phrase we are emphasising:
There’s nothing at all left in the fridge.
I’d rather not be here at all.
We had no rain at all this summer and now we have floods!
Not at all can come before an adjective:
She was not at all happy with the result.
See also:
 All
We can also use whatsoever for emphasis after no + noun, nobody, no one, none and nothing. Its meaning is similar
to at all, but it is stronger. We can use whatsoever to add emphasis to any negative noun phrase:
No food or drink whatsoever must be brought into the classroom.
A:

Did any of her family go to the wedding?

B:

No. None whatsoever.
We can also use not a bit, a little bit, one bit, in the least, the least bit to emphasise negatives:
Setting off the alarm was supposed to be a joke but no one found it one bit funny.
We suggested going to the cinema but they didn’t seem the least bit interested, so we just took them shopping
instead.
See also:
 A bit
We often add emphasis to negation to make what we say more polite. When someone makes a request using the
phrase Do you mind if or Would you mind if, instead of replying with No (I don’t mind) we often say not at all or not
in the least when we reply:
A:

Do you mind if I sit here?

B:

Not at all.

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 A:

Would you mind if I check my emails on your computer?

B:

Not in the least.

When someone says thanks or thank you, we often reply not at all:
A:

Thanks so much for lunch, Rachel.

B:

Not at all. It was my pleasure.

See also:
 Politeness
 Requests
 Please  and  thank you

Negation of think, believe, suppose, hope
When we use verbs like think, believe, suppose (mental process verbs) to express uncertainty about something, we
usually use not with the mental process verb rather than with the verb in the following clause:
I don’t think I’m going to pass my exams. (preferred to I think I’m not going to pass my exams.)
However, we don’t normally use a negative with hope and wish:
I hope I’m not going to fail.
Not: I don’t hope I’m going to fail.
I wish I hadn’t sent that email to Joan.
Not: I don’t wish I had sent …
See also:
 So and not with expect, hope, think, etc.
 No or not?

Negation of think, believe, suppose, hope
When we use verbs like think, believe, suppose (mental process verbs) to express uncertainty about something, we
usually use not with the mental process verb rather than with the verb in the following clause:
I don’t think I’m going to pass my exams. (preferred to I think I’m not going to pass my exams.)

However, we don’t normally use a negative with hope and wish:

I hope I’m not going to fail.
Not: I don’t hope I’m going to fail.

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 I wish I hadn’t sent that email to Joan.
Not: I don’t wish I had sent …

Questions
 

Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Questions

from English Grammar Today

A question is anything we write or say which requires a response. In writing, questions are usually followed by a
question mark:
A:

Where do you live?

B:

Near the station, number 41 Station Road, to be exact.

A:

Would anyone like to go for lunch now?

B:

Yeah, me for sure.

C:

Me too.
Typical question clauses are called interrogatives and the normal word order is auxiliary/modal verb (aux/mod) +
subject (s) + main verb (v) + x, where x is any other element present (e.g. object/predicative complement):
[AUX][S]Do you [V]like [X]my new hairstyle?
[MOD]Must [S]you [V]make [X]that noise?
Questions can be affirmative or negative:
Are you ready yet? Aren’t you ready yet?
Why did you leave? Why didn’t you leave?
In speaking, questions usually have a particular type of intonation that tells the listener that they are questions.
See also:
 Intonation
 Questions: statement questions (you’re over 18?)
 Tags
 Imperative tags
 Question tags
 Statement tags

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 Universal tags:  right, yeah
Questions that don’t need an answer (rhetorical questions)

In speaking and writing, we sometimes ask questions which do not require a spoken or written response, but they
usually require a mental response. The listener or reader thinks about the answer but does not say or write it; the
speaker or writer answers the question in their mind. We often use these questions in academic lectures and texts:
Knowing taxation laws is important. Why is that? These laws help us …
Why was Freud so influential? This is an interesting question which this essay will explore in detail.
See also:
 Questions: echo and checking questions
Questions: alternative questions (Is it black or grey?)Questions: statement questions (you’re over 18?)Questions:
two-step questionsQuestions: typical errorsQuestions: wh-questionsQuestions: yes-no questions (Are you feeling
cold?)Questions: follow-up questionsQuestions: echo and checking questionsQuestions: short forms

verbele

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