DEBRE BREHAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITES

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

HANDOUT FOR THE COURSE EDUCATION OF PERSONS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL
PROBLEMS

BY:-

Teferi Adnew (PhD)

Mohammed Demissie

Sintayehu Ambaye

February, 2013/2021
Course Information

Course Code SNIE2052

Course Title Education of persons with Emotional and Behavioral

Problems

Module Name Inclusive Education III

Module No 05

ECTS Credits(CP) 5

Introduction

Children and adolescents with emotional disturbance exhibit

chronic and diverse emotional and/or behavioral difficulties that
pose significant challenges for their education and treatment in
schools. The main purposes of this course are to:

 Understand the definitions and causes of persons with

emotional disorder

 Know methods of identification and assessment of emotional

and behavioral problems

 Identify the psycho social interventions and ways of

supporting persons with emotional disorder.
Therefore, this material comprises four units.

 Unit one deals with definitions and types of emotional and

behavioral problems

 Unit two describes the causes or aetiologies of emotional

disorder

 Unit three focuses on the identification and assessments of

emotional disorder

 Unit four deals with interventions to support persons with

emotional and behavioral problems.

Course Description

This course will provide essential concepts in the field of behavior and emotional
disorders for students. The course will identify the social, emotional, and learning
characteristics of children having been identified with behavior disorders. A
developmental focus, involving both biological and experiential underpinnings of the
disorders will further be discussed in order to understand the multiplicity of factors which
give rise to the problems children manifest. In addition, the course will consider effective
instructional methods for these students and the school settings in which they appear to
learn well. Goals and objectives, as well as the instructional strategies employed in
teaching will be incorporated in the individual education plan (IEP) process for
individuals demonstrating these problems.
Course Objectives

Upon completion of the course students will be able to

Identify the characteristics of students with behavior and emotional disorders.

Explain historical and legal developments of the field, the role of professional
organization in this development.

Explain etiological factors related to biological and environmental agents.

Describe effects of behavior and emotional disorders in the acquisition of

language, academic skills, and social skills.

Use general instructional methods and strategies that are effective with students
with behavioral and emotional disorders.

Value the involvement of parents in the education and intervention of children

with behavioral and emotional disorders

Assessments

Individual assignment 1 ………………….35%

Individual assignment 2 ………………….35%

Final exam……………………………………..30%
 Table of contents
Unit 1: Definitions, characteristics, causes and co-morbidity of emotional and
behavioral problems/disorders -------------------------------------------------------------------- 6

1.1 Definitions of emotional and behavioral problems/disorders ------------------------6

1.2 Characteristics of students with emotional/behavioral disorders ------------------9
1.3 Co-morbidity/Co-occurrence of Emotional and Behavioral Disorder-------------11
1.4 Causes/Aetiology of emotional and behavioral disorders------------12

Unit 2: Types or classification of emotional and behavioral problems----------------16

 Unit 1: Definitions, characteristics, causes and co-morbidity of
emotional and behavioral problems/disorders

1.1 Definitions of emotional and behavioral problems/disorders

Many different terms have been used to designate children who have extreme social-
interpersonal and/or intrapersonal problems, including emotional disorder, emotional
disturbance, behavioral disorder, social/emotional impairment, having personal and
social adjustment problems, and serious behavioral disability. These terms do not
designate distinctly different types of disorders. They refer to emotional and/or
behavioral disorders. However, there is no universally accepted definition of students
with emotional or behavioral disorder.

There are various reasons for the lack of consensus regarding the definitions of
emotional or behavioral disorder. Defining emotional or behavioral disorder is somewhat
like defining familiar experiences, such as anger, loneliness, unhappiness, etc. But
providing an objective definition is far from simple.

The factors that make it particularly difficult to arrive at a good/common definition of

emotional or behavioral disorder are as follows:

 Lack of an adequate definition of mental health and normal behavior;

 Differences among conceptual models;
 Difficulties in measuring emotions and behavior;
 Relationships between emotional/ behavioral disorders and other handicapping
conditions;
 Differences in the functions of socialization agents who categorize and serve
children.

Many of the terms such as mental illness and psychopathology were used to describe adults with
emotional and behavioral disorders. Mental illness was a label for most people with any type of
disorder and it was common for people with emotional and behavioral disorders to be labeled with a
mental illness. However, those terms were avoided when describing children as it seemed too
stigmatizing. In the late 1900s the term "behaviorally disordered" appeared. Even though various
terms have been used to describe irregular emotional and behavioral disorders, w e have chosen
to use the term “emotional and behavioral disorder or disturbance in this handout
because that is the term used in the nation’s special education law, the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA),(2oo4).Some professionals in the field of special education
accepted the term while others felt it ignored emotional issues. In order to make a more uniformed
terminology, the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition, which consists of over
thirty professional and advocacy groups, coined the term "emotional and behavioral disorders" in
1988.

The term emotional and behavioral disorder has been defined in a number of ways by
different authors. Let us try to see some well known definitions for understanding
exactly about the meanings and nature of children with emotional and behavioral disorders.

According to the federal regulations of the Individuals with Disabilities Education

Improvement Act (IDEA) (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), the term Emotional
and Behavioral disorders means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree:
(A) An inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, and health
factors;

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers

and teachers;

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or

school problems.
Accordingly, children who are schizophrenic or autistic fall under emotional and
behavioral disorder. In other words, emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia. The
term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined
that they are seriously emotionally disturbed (IDEA, 2004). The term emotional and
behavioral disorder recently has been used to describe children with serious, persistent
problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears associated with
personal or school matters, and other inappropriate socio emotional characteristics.

According to the definition of Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (CCBD),
USA, the term “emotional or behavioral disorder” means a disability that is
characterized by emotional or behavioral responses in school programs so different
from appropriate age, cultural, or ethnic norms that the responses adversely affect
educational performance, including academic, social, vocational or personal skills.
Children with emotional or behavioral disorders behave in ways which their teachers
consider undesirable or inappropriate, and their behavior differs from that of the normal
children along with the following critical dimensions:

a) Severity – the extremes to which the behavior goes

b) Chronicity- the period of time over which they exhibit inappropriate behavior
c) Context – when or where they do certain things.

Advantages of this definition:

 it clarifies the educational dimensions of the disability;

 it focuses directly on the child’s behavior in school settings;
 it places behavior in the context of appropriate age, ethnic, and cultural norms;
and increases the possibility of early identification and intervention.

The above mentioned definitions of emotional and behavioral disorders help as to

produce the following common definition:
 ‘‘Children with emotional and behavioral disorders are those children who deviate
markedly/extremely and chronically over time from most of the children of their age and
social groups in terms of their emotional make up and behavior seriously affecting their
adjustment to their self and the social surroundings, including their educational
performance in the schools and adaptability in life situations so much as requiring
special educational measures for their proper development and well-being.‘’

1.2 Characteristics of students with emotional/behavioral disorders

As is evident in IDEA’s definition, emotional and behavioral disturbances can affect an

individual in areas beyond the emotional. Depending on the specific mental disorder
involved, a person’s physical, social, or cognitive skills may also be affected. There are
various characteristics associated with the area of emotional/behavioral disorders. The
general characteristics manifested by most students with emotional/behavioral disorders
include:

 Poor academic achievement;

 Poor interpersonal relationships;
 Aggressive behavior/self injurious behaviors (acting out, fighting);
 Withdrawn and immature behavior (failure to initiate interaction with others;
retreat from exchange of social interaction, excessive fear or anxiety);
 Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness).

Thus all types of emotionally disrupted children are found to suffer from social
maladjustment, socially deviant behavior and social isolation. The emotionally
disturbed children are usually found to exhibit some of the following characteristics
and behaviors.
 Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills).
 Learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level).
 Children with the most serious emotional disturbances (neurosis/ psychosis or
schizophrenia) may also exhibit distorted thinking, excessive anxiety, bizarre
 motor acts and abnormal mood swings in their behavior and actions.

In particular, the following facts are evident about the nature and characteristics of
the emotionally disturbed children.
• They are children who deviate markedly (extremely) and chronically (over
time) from most of the children of their age and social groups in terms of their
emotional make up and behavior.
• They are too much different and deviant from the most of the children of their
age and social groups in terms of their emotional make up. Behavior and
adjustment.
• Demonstrate too much excess or deficit in their behaviors.
• Too different and picking up extreme in their behavior, they are usually
subjected to social maladjustment and isolation in their social settings.
• While those who are violent and aggressive, rude and non-obedient are
neglected by others an account of fear of being harmed or disrespected, the
others who are shy withdrawn remain cut-off from the social relations on
account of their own limitation.
• The behavior of the emotionally disturbed children is quite disruptive and
injurious both to their self and others.
• The acting out or externalization of the emotionally disturbed behavior among
such children may be witnessed through many of the disruptive behaviors like
fighting, hitting, teasing, yelling, crying, arguing excessively, refusing to
comply with requests or commands, destroying property, showing temper
tantrums, rule breaking, resorting to vandalism, extortion and physical attack
of others etc.

To the academic achievements and school performances of the emotionally

disturbed children, it has been experienced that they always lag behind in
comparison to their normal peers. A child of a high IQ rang (even a genius or gifted)
may be found to suffer from the problem of emotional disturbance of disorder.
 1.3 Co-morbidity/Co-occurrence of Emotional and Behavioral Disorder

Co-morbidity refers to the simultaneous presence of two or more conditions in an

individual student. The term includes such a disability that co-exists with other
disabilities. For example, the term includes a schizophrenic disorder, affective disorder,
anxiety disorder, or other sustained disorder of conduct or adjustment, affecting a child
if the disorder affects educational performance.

Co-morbidity with Emotional Disturbance or other health impairment that

simultaneously exist with emotional disturbance are:-

 ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

 Conduct Disorder
 Oppositional Defiant Disorder
 Specific learning disability
 Intellectual disability
 Autism spectrum disorder
 Speech and language disability

According to the National Alliance on Mental Illness of Southern Arizona, the

following characteristics and behaviors seen in children who have an emotional
disturbance:
 Children with the most serious emotional disturbances may exhibit distorted
thinking, excessive anxiety, bizarre motor acts, and abnormal mood swings.
 Many children who do not have emotional disturbance may display some of
these same behaviors at various times during their development. However, when
children have an emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long
periods of time. Their behavior signals that they are not coping with their
environment or peers.
 Mental illnesses are medical conditions that disrupt a person’s thinking, feeling,
mood, ability to relate to others and daily functioning. Just as diabetes is a
 disorder of the pancreas, mental illnesses are medical conditions that often result
in a diminished capacity for coping with the ordinary demands of life.

1.4 Causes/Aetiology of emotional and behavioral disorders

No one knows the actual cause or causes of emotional disturbance, although several
factors:- heredity, brain disorder, diet, stress, and family functioning:- have been
suggested and vigorously researched. A great deal of research goes on every day, but
to date, researchers have not found that any of these factors are the direct cause of
behavioral or emotional problems (IDEA, 2004). Usually several factors join together to
contribute to the development of emotional and behavioral problem.

According to Reddy, Ramer and Kusuma (2000), the causes of emotional/behavioral

disorders can be attributed to four major factors, namely biological disorders and
diseases, pathological family relationship, negative cultural influences and undesirable
experiences at school. Having this in mind, a brief discussion of each of the causative
factors is presented hereafter.
1. Biological/Organic Factors- include genetic disorders, brain damage, and
malnutrition, allergies, temperament and damage to the central nervous system.
2. School factors- Even though some students come to school already with
emotional/behavioral disorders, others develop the disorders during their school
years because of damaging experiences in the classroom itself. A child’s
temperament and social competence may interact with classmates’ and teachers’
behavior in contributing to emotional/behavioral problems. These problems can
be occur as a result of peer pressure, living in impoverished areas, and schooling
practices that are unresponsive to individual needs. Teachers and peers may be
models of misconduct and so the student may misbehave imitating them.
3. Family factors – Mental health specialists blame behavioral difficulties primarily on
parent-child relationship. It is because nuclear family-father, mother and children
has a profound influence on emotional development. So family influences can be
the cause for emotional/behavioral problem to exists. The causes include family
 interactions, family influence, child abuse, neglect, and poor disciplinary
practices at home.
4. Cultural factors- Undoubtedly, the culture in which the children are reared exerts
an influence on their emotional/behavioral development. The cultural conditions,
including some traditional and cultural negative practices, for example watching
violence and sexually oriented movies and TV programs, and the availability of
recreational drugs in the community may influence the emotional/behavioral
development of children negatively.

A large body of scientific evidence suggests that the causes of emotional/behavioral

disorders can be categorized into the following general factors.

Organic or Biological Factors

There is a relationship between body and behavior. Hence it is reasonable to look for a
biological causal factor for certain emotional/behavioral disorders. Behavior is likely to
be influenced by hereditary factors, including genetic factors, neurological or biological
factors, physiological constitution; organic injury or disease or by a combination of
these.

A particular type of neurological and constitutional make up and the related biochemical
composition of one’s physiological or bodily structure can affect the behavior of a child.
Children with difficult temperaments are predisposed to develop emotional/behavioral
disorders. There exists no one to one relationship between the temperamental types
and the resulting emotional behavior. A child having so- called ‘easy’ temperament may
turn in to a hostile aggressive and delinquent character by becoming a victim of
mishandling or hostile environmental surroundings.

There are other biological factors such as disease, malnutrition, and brain trauma that
may predispose children to develop emotional problems like psychotic or schizophrenic.

The children affected with mild or even severe neurological impairment, constitutional
defects, organic injury or diseases are considered as having emotional/behavioral
disorders.

However, genetic, organic or biological factors are not at all supposed to be the major
contributing factors for the germination or perpetuation of the emotional problems. In
fact, there do not exist enough substantial evidences for blaming one’s heredity,
physiological structure, neurological or biochemical balances, organic injury or
diseases, etc,. It is therefore, always advisable to search for the probable causes of
one’s emotional disturbance in one’s interaction with his environment.

Environmental Factors
Behavior of all sorts including the emotionally disturbed or problem behavior should
always be regarded as one of the learned act or life style earned through the interaction
of one’s self with his environment (physical, social and psychological). So it may be best
defined and measured in terms of the degree and amount of the coefficient of friction
between one’s self and his environment.

There is no harm in accepting the big assertion of the environmentalists that a child
becomes what his/her environment is set to make him/her. Such dominating roles of the
environmental forces begin to play its part right from the conception of the child in the
womb of his/her mother. The internal environment available to the child through the
physical and mental health, neurological functioning and body chemistry etc, for
carrying or ruling out the related emotional or behavior problems. Later on after birth,
the child may be subjected to the influences of many external environmental forces for
shaping and molding of his behavior in the negative and positive directions.

The initial negative/positive contributions may begin with the parents and family
influences which may be later on replaced, reinforced or accelerated through the
impacts carried out by the peers, neighborhood, school experiences, social and cultural
influences and other coexisting powerful environmental influences like means of
communication, entertainment, advertisement and mass media, etc. Out of these
unlimited experiences gained by the children as a result of the interaction of the self with
their environment, there are some incidents, happenings and repercussions in their life
which may compel them to acquire unusual ways of behaving and reacting to their
environments. After getting further ignition, these are bound to be aggravated into mild
and serious emotional problems harmful not only to themselves but also to others.
Some of these factors for emotional problems are presented hereafter.

• Early separation of the child from his parents on account of desertion death, etc.

• Hostility of parents, elders, peers and detachers towards the child including
physical abuse, neglect, rejection, substance abuse, etc.

• Partiality, prejudices and unjustice done to the child by the parents, elders and
teachers.

• Imitation of the improper and emotionally disturbed behavior exhibited by the

parents, elders, teachers, and other role models of the mass media like television
serials, movies, etc.

• Inconsistent behavioral responses of the parents, elders and teachers at different

times for the same activities.

• The frustrations or failures suffered by the child on account of the dissatisfaction

of his basic needs, aspirations and motives.

• Social isolation and social maladjustment suffered by the child at his /her home,
school and other social surroundings.

• Insensitivity shown by the parents, elders, teachers and school authorities to the
individuality of the child and their unwise demands for the conformity to the rules
and routines.

• The reinforcement of the inappropriate behavior of the child at the hands of the
parents, elders and teachers through recognition and special attention, including
criticism, punishment, etc.
 • The effect of the bad company and influences of the delinquent peers, gangsters,
mafia, drug and alcohol abusers and sexual deviants on the life style of the
children.

• Recognition and awareness on the part of the children themselves that they are
known as the problem makers and are disliked by the peers, parents, elders and
teachers.

• The effect of mishandling and management in the upbringing, care and education
of the child at home, school and other informal learning places.

• The initiation and continuance of a vicious circle responsible for the birth of the
emotional problems and their activation, such as

 Child gets irritated and refuses to obey the teachers

 Teacher tries to set him right through enforcement of
disciplinary rules
 Child reacts more negatively
 Teachers resort to hard measures
 Child becomes emotionally disturbed and behaves
accordingly and so on.

In general, most of emotional/behavioral problems/disorders suffered by the children are

the result of unfavorable and faulty circumstances available in social and cultural
settings/environments.
 Unit 2: Types or classification of emotional and behavioral
problems

An individual having behavioral or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied types of
behavior. It is reasonable to expect that students with emotional or behavioral disorders
can be grouped into sub-categories according to the types of their problems. Therefore,
different classification systems of behavioral and emotional disorders can be used for
special education. Different professionals have developed different classification
system, which shows some promise for educational practice. Especially, Achenbach
and Kauffman (1993) have classified two broad, pervasive dimensions of disordered
behavior: externalizing and internalizing.
Kauffman (1993) conclude that emotional or behavioral disorders fall into two
broad classifications:
1) Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled disorder, include such
problems disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums,
irresponsibility, jealous, anger, attention seeking etc…
2) Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled disorders, include such
problems anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy
(inferiority), guilt, depression and worries a great deal.
Therefore, students with emotional and behavioral disorders are often categorized as
"internalizers" (e.g., have poor self-esteem, or are diagnosed with an anxiety
disorder or mood disorder) or "externalizers" (e.g., disrupt classroom instruction, or are
diagnosed with disruptive behavior disorders such as oppositional defiant disorder and
conduct disorder).
There are a variety of more specific dimensions found by several researchers. For
example, the following dimensions can be taken as specific classifications of
emotional and behavioral disorders:
Conduct disorder:
 individuals try to seek attention,
 they are disruptive and act out.
 They evince temper tantrum and fight frequently.
 The disorder is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums) versus
covert (with lying, stealing, and/or drug use).
Socialized aggression:
 individuals join subculture group of peers who are openly disrespectful
to their peers, teachers, and parents.
 Common are delinquency and dropping out of school.
 They steal in company with others.
 They freely admit disrespect for moral values and laws. Early
symptoms include stealing, running away from home, habitual lying,
cruelty to animals, and fire setting.
Attention problems and immaturity-
 These individuals may have attention deficit and short attention span,
 They are easily destructible, diverted from the task at hand, and have poor
concentration.
 They are frequently impulsive and may not think the consequence of their
actions.
 They are sluggish and slow moving.
 They tend to answer without thinking.
Anxiety/Withdrawn-
 These individuals are self-conscious, reserved, and unsure of themselves.
 They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate activities.
 They are also fearful, anxious and frequently depressed and sad.
 They are easily embarrassed
 They are usually hypersensitive
 Their feelings are easily hurt.
Psychotic behavior:
 These individuals show more bizarre behavior.
 They may hallucinate, deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in gibberish.
 They are marked for repetitive speech.
Motor excess:
  These students are hyperactive.
 They cannot sit nor listen to others nor keep their attention focused.
 They are tense and unable to relax.
 They are over talkative.

As part of sub classification of emotional and behavioral disorders, anxiety disorders

refer to a group of mental disorders characterized by significant feelings of anxiety and
fear. Anxiety is a worry about feature events, and fear is a reaction to current events.
Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings of nervousness or anxiousness, and
involve excessive fear and anxiety.

The types of anxiety disorders include:

 generalized anxiety disorder (GAD),
 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), OCD is actually considered an anxiety
disorder. Persistent, recurring thoughts (obsessions) that reflect exaggerated anxiety
or fears; typical obsessions include worry about being contaminated, behaving
improperly, or acting violently. The obsessions may lead an individual to perform a
ritual or routine (compulsions); such as washing hands, repeating phrases, or
hoarding:-to relieve the anxiety caused by the obsession (Kirk, & et al, 2009).
 panic disorder,
 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
 social anxiety disorder (also called social phobia),
 and specific phobias.

On the other hand, psychotic disorders are another umbrella term used to refer to
severe mental disorders that cause abnormal thinking and perceptions. Two of the main
symptoms are delusions and hallucinations. Delusions are false beliefs, such as
thinking that someone is plotting against you. Hallucinations are false perceptions,
such as hearing, seeing, or feeling something that is not there. Schizophrenia is one
type of psychotic disorder.
 Unit 3; Identification and assessment of Emotional and behavioral problems

3.1. Identification
What is identification in special needs education?
Identification in special needs education is the process of detecting the presence of a
certain developmental problem in students. It is the initial/first stage in the practice of
inclusive/special needs education. The first signs of serious emotional disturbance are
difficulties with basic biological functions or social responses (eating, sleeping,
eliminating, and responding to parents’ attempts to comfort at infant age. At later ages
slowness in learning to walk or talk is a sign of potential emotional difficulty at toddler
age. In short, failure to pass ordinary developmental milestone within a normal age
range is a danger signal in emotional and cognitive development of children
Stow and Selfe(1989) identified the following as major symptoms of EBDs:
 Nervousness or emotional disturbance -sometimes also referred as neurotic
disorders. This includes children with excessive fears, anxieties as well as quite
and withdrawn children.
 The presence of developmental disorders or habits.
 Conduct disorders-also termed as antisocial or acting out behavior(stealing,
aggression, vandalism or truancy
 Organic disorders: include disorders that have physiological origin such as
temper tantrums which results from some forms of epilepsy/seizure disorder
 Psychotic behavior: includes childhood schizophrenia and may present abnormal
fears, delusion, illusion and hallucination
 Educational and behavioral difficulties
We can identify and help children with emotional disorders by the following behaviors
A. For aggressive maladjustment
 Does not go along gracefully with the decisions of the teacher or the group
 Is quarrelsome: fights often, gets mad easily
 Is bully
 Occasionally is disruptive of property
B. For withdrawn maladjustment:
 Is noticed by other children, is neither actively liked nor disliked-just left out
 Shy, timid/nervous, fearful, anxious, excessively quiet, tense
 Is easily upset, feelings are readily hurt
C. For general maladjustment:
 Needs unusual amount of prodding to get work completed
 Is inattentive or apparently lazy
 Exhibits nervous manners such as nail biting, sucking thumb or fingers,
stuttering, extreme restlessness
 Is actively excluded by most of the children whenever they get a chance
 Is a failure in school for no apparent reason
 Is absent from school frequently or dislikes school intensely
 Seems to be more unhappy than most of the children
 Achieves much less in school than his ability indicates he should
 Is jealous or over competitive

Children with emotional and behavioral difficulties often lack the ability to behave in an
acceptable manner consistently in a social environment such as school. Typically the
reason for a referral for a mental health type of intervention is the student’s behavior,
emotionality and/or social competence. Most children with other primary disability
conditions have needs that can met with the lower level of behavioral, emotional and/or
social interventions while those with more frequency, intensity or duration of difficulties
need more intensive services. Students with the following characteristics can be
identified as emotionally and behaviorally disturbed.
1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health
factors;
2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers
and teachers;
3) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
4) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression;
 5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or
school problems.

Emotional or behavioral disorders can be divided into externalizing behaviors and

internalizing behaviors. Externalizing behaviors constitute acting-out style that could
be described as aggressive, impulsive, coercive, and noncompliant. Internalizing
behaviors are typical of an inhibited style that could be described as withdrawn, lonely,
depressed, and anxious. Students who exhibit externalizing and internalizing behaviors,
respectively, are the two main groups of students with emotional or behavioral
disorders, but they do not account for all of the conditions that result in placement in this
special education category. The following table defines and explains some of the
common externalizing and internalizing behaviors seen in special education students.
Externalizing Behaviors Internalizing Behaviors
Violates basic rights of others Exhibits painful shyness
Violates societal norms or rules Is teased by peers
Has tantrums Is neglected by peers
Steals; causes property loss or damage Is depressed
Is hostile or defiant; argues Is anorexic
Ignores teachers' reprimands Is bulimic
Demonstrates obsessive/compulsive behaviors Is socially withdrawn
Causes or threatens physical harm to people or Tends to be suicidal
animals
Uses lewd or obscene gestures Has unfounded fears and phobias
Is hyperactive Tends to have low self-esteem
Has excessive worries; Panics

Many children who do not have emotional disturbances may display some of these
same behaviors at various times during their development. However, when children
have an emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long periods of time.
Their behavior thus signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers. The
determination of emotional disturbance should not be the result of a temporary
traumatic event in the life of a child. Careful consideration should be given to the
immediate influences that the child is subjected to in his environment. Also
inappropriate behaviors of emotionally disturbed children should be observable in
several settings including home and school and charted to determine the frequency.
Typically emotionally disturbed children may also exhibit a number of other psychiatric
disorders.
The Maine Administrators of Services for Children with Disabilities Behavior Task Force
(1999), North Dakota (2007) and Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (2010)
developed guidelines for the identification of this disability by further clarifying each of
these descriptors as follows.
1. An Inability to Learn That Cannot Be Explained By Intellectual, Physical, or
Health Factors
In essence, the student cannot learn in a general education classroom as
demonstrated by failure to attain a satisfactory rate of educational progress, which
cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, health, cultural, or linguistic factors. This
category requires that a student have so severe an emotional disability that he/she
cannot learn despite appropriate educational interventions. Inability to learn should not
be confused with an unwillingness or disinterest in learning. Basic definitions of inability
to learn may include the following:
 Incapable, unable, cannot, lacks the power or capacity to learn;
 Cannot make academic gains when causes such as learning disability, mental
retardation, and lack of motivation are eliminated.
Aspects of the student's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors should be examined to
determine if they produce incapacity to learn in the normal school environment, under
non-special education interventions. The differential assessment should rule out
social/cultural issues, nonattendance, and motivation (e.g. the student refuses to
complete homework as part of a pattern of disinterest in learning), as primary factors
interfering with the student's ability to learn. A student with emotional disability may
exhibit discrepant achievement due to anxiety, pervasive depression, and/or reality
distortion. These underlying thoughts and feelings may manifest themselves in
behaviors associated with being disorganized, quitting or giving up easily, difficulty
retaining material, learning to some extent but achievement scores significantly different
than potential.
2. An Inability to Build or Maintain Satisfactory Interpersonal Relationships
with Peers and Teachers
Satisfactory interpersonal relationships include, but are not limited to, the ability to
demonstrate sympathy, warmth, and empathy towards others; to establish and maintain
friendships; to be constructively assertive; and to work and play independently. This
characteristic requires documentation that the student is unable to initiate or to maintain
satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and adults in multiple settings, at
least one of which is educational. Examples of unsatisfactory student characteristics
may include behaviors, such as, physical or verbal aggression, lack of affect,
disorganized/distorted emotions toward others, demands for attention, or withdrawal
from social interactions. These should be considered when observing the student’s
interactions with peers and adults. Through an analysis of the information obtained, the
evaluator will need to determine that the student has been unable to establish
meaningful and/or satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. This
inability exists primarily because of the severity of the emotional disability. Inability
should be distinguished from an unwillingness to form relationships that others consider
appropriate. It is not an issue of getting along with others. It is a question of whether the
student has an impairment that negatively affects his/her ability to interact with others
(e.g. demonstrating warmth and sympathy toward others, initiating positive interactions,
enjoying working and playing with others, etc.).
Other disabilities may result in the lack of social skills that could otherwise be
systematically taught to the student. The lack of social skills alone or as the result of
another disabling condition does not make a student eligible under this category. A
differential diagnosis needs to rule out other factors such as social maladjustment or
social immaturity as being responsible for the impairment. A student with emotional
disability may exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:
 Has no friends at home, at school or in the community;
 Does not voluntarily play, socialize, or engage in recreation or structured activities
with others;
  Avoids talking with teachers and peers, or is selectively mute;
 Is excessively physically or verbally aggressive when others approach him/her;
alienates others through consistently hostile or detached (uncaring) behaviors;
 Shows lack of affect, disorganized emotions toward others, or auditory/visual
hallucinations which negatively affect relationships with others;
 Displays consistent anxiety-based or fear-driven avoidance of meaningful school-
based social interactions;
 Exhibits withdrawal, isolation and/or bizarre interactive patterns suggesting
behaviors symptomatic of schizophrenia, social phobic reactions, depression,
obsessivecompulsive disorders, etc.;
 Seeks excessive approval from others through abusive, self-humiliating and/or
immature actions;
 Seeks negative attention by being ostracized, punished, humiliated, and/or hurt by
others.
The following behaviors may be seen in students with emotional disturbance: 
 Excessively controlling  Wants constant attention or approval
 Ignored or rejected by peers  Sees self as a victim
 Is too easily influenced by peers  Difficulty attaching to others
 Is too easily influenced by peers  Difficulty separating from caregivers
 Uses/manipulates others  Exhibits inappropriate sexual
 Excessively dependent behavior
 Lacks trust in others or is fearful of  Overly affectionate
others  Lack of social awareness—may not
 Inability to interact with a group/play understand social conventions or
by the rules behavioral expectations
3. Inappropriate Types of Behaviors or Feelings under Normal Circumstances
Inappropriate behaviors or feelings refer to those behaviors that make the student
appear strange or unusual compared to others in the same situation. Inappropriate
behavior can be withdrawn, deviant, or bizarre behavior, not just aggressive or
acting-out behavior. Some children express their inappropriate behavior or feelings
through confused verbalizations, fantasizing, preoccupation with emotional conflict in
their art work, written expression, or other outlets. Developmental norms and
comparisons with peers in similar circumstances should be used to judge whether
the behaviors are inappropriate or unusual. This category does not include
behaviors that would be described as solely oppositional or conduct disordered in
nature. It also does not include behaviors that are willful and understood by the
student. It does include behaviors that are bizarre or psychotic, such as
compulsions, hallucinations, preoccupations, delusions, ritualistic body movements,
or severe mood swings, as well as exaggerated forms of other problems. A student
in this category may exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:
 Reacts catastrophically to everyday occurrences;
 Lacks appropriate fear reactions;
 Shows flat, blunted, distorted, or excessive affect;
 Engages in bizarre verbalizations, peculiar posturing or ritualistic behavior;
 Engages in self-mutilation;
 Demonstrates manic reactions or manic behaviors, such as unexplained
euphoria, racing thoughts, and excessive activity;
 Has delusions, such as believing that his/her thoughts are controlled by someone
else or having unfounded feelings of persecution, over-exaggeration of ability, or
feeling that situations or discussions always refer to him/her even with evidence
to the contrary;
 Has hallucinations, such as hearing things that are not there or seeing things that
are not there;
 Has obsessions, such as persistent, recurrent, or intrusive thoughts that cannot
be controlled;
 Displays extreme changes or shifts in mood or feelings;
 Displays unexplained rage reactions or violent temper tantrums;
 Dwells in a fantasy life or seems to be out of touch with reality;
 Displays regressive behaviors and/or unacceptable social behaviors under
stress, such as temper tantrums, excessive or uncontrollable crying, wetting
pants or soiling;
  Laughs or cries inappropriately in ordinary or common social or academic
situations;
 Uses disjointed verbal communication in which ideas are not logically related to
the content of the discussion;
 Displays extreme social withdrawal;
 Behaves aggressively in a manner that seems unprovoked or extreme for the
circumstance, such as physically attacking other children for unclear or
unjustified reasons;
 Expresses unusual and unprovoked sexual behaviors, such as public
masturbation or attempts to fondle teachers or peers.
Such characteristics may manifest themselves in the following behaviors:
 Limited or excessive self-control  Appears remorseless
 Rapid changes in behavior or mood  Lack of assertiveness
 Low self-esteem and/or distorted  Lacks empathy
self-concept  Overly perfectionistic or hard on self
 Limited ability to predict  Disorganized or scattered thought
consequences of behavior processes
 Inappropriately laughs or cries  Becomes defensive without
 Lies, cheats, steals provocation
 Overreacts  Wide mood swings
 Refuses to do school work  Excessive emotional responses
 Refuses to respond to others  Low frustration tolerance, emotional
 Non-compliant or passive-aggressive overreactions, and impulsivity
 Inability to make changes or  Extreme responses to changes in
transitions routine or schedule
 Exhibits flat affect
Once it is established that the inappropriate behaviors are significantly deviant, it also
must be determined that they are due to an emotional condition. The evaluator(s) must
determine whether the student’s inappropriate responses are occurring “under normal
circumstances.” When considering “normal circumstances,” one should take into
account whether a student’s home or school situation is disrupted by stress, recent
changes, or unexpected events. However, such evidence does not preclude an
eligibility determination.
4. A General Pervasive Mood of Unhappiness or Depression
To meet this criteria the student must demonstrate actual, symptoms of depression.
Depressive symptomology typically involves changes in four major areas: affective,
motivational, physical and motor functioning, and/or cognition. The student's
manifestation of unhappiness or depression must be pervasive, chronic, and observable
in the school setting. This means that it must have become a protracted state that has
persisted beyond the time usually expected for reactions to a specific traumatic event or
situation. Feelings of unhappiness or depression are considered natural reactions when
they are the response to traumatic events such as parental divorce or the death of a
family member. Such reactions need to be evaluated in the context of the situation in
which they occur with special attention given to the intensity and duration. If the
reactions appear to be of mild or moderate intensity, of short duration and closely tied to
a specific situation, then they should be addressed by utilizing non-special education
interventions, such as individual counseling or referral for mental health services outside
of school.
If the unhappiness or depression seems unusually intense or has generalized to other
situations, then this could indicate an emotional disability. Serious talk about death or a
genuine desire to die or commit suicide would indicate a severe reaction that needs to
be addressed immediately through referral to a mental health professional. If suicidal
thought or depression persists then this could be indicative of an emotional disability. A
student in this category may exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:
 Seems constantly unhappy, sad, depressed and/or hopeless;
 Has lost interest in and/or pleasure in activities, pastimes or social relations;
 Displays major changes in eating patterns and weight level when not dieting;
 Demonstrates loss of energy, is frequently fatigued/over-tired, and/or is
experiencing insomnia or hypersomnia;
 Acts excessively agitated or is unusually over or under-active compared to
previous behavior;
  Manifests feelings of worthlessness or inferiority, through repeated self-
denigration;
 Expresses feelings of excessive or inappropriate guilt;
 Shows prolonged periods of crying and confusion about the reason for crying;
 Seems to feel little or no emotion or is emotionally unresponsive;
 Has recurrent thoughts of death or desires to be dead;
 Engages in suicidal ideation and/or attempts to harm self;
 Displays outbursts of uncontrollable and excessive anger, frustration, or irritability
which are changes from previous behavior;
 Exhibits diminished ability to think or concentrate, such as memory difficulty or
indecisiveness, that is not associated with marked loosening of associations or
incoherence;
 Loss of interest in socialization or preferred activities.
These characteristics may manifest themselves in the following ways:
 Listless or apathetic  Volatile temper or excessive anger
 Thinks/ talks repeatedly of suicide  Blames self; extremely self-critical
 Overly pessimistic  Depressed or irritable mood most of the
 Preoccupied with negative feelings time
 Hides  Unexpected changes in weight or
 Runs away from home appetite
 Anxious habits such as nail biting or  Fatigue or diminished energy nearly
hair pulling every day
 Expresses feelings of worthlessness,  Feelings of excessive or inappropriate
hopelessness guilt
 Preoccupied  Diminished ability to think or
 Obsessive/compulsive concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly
 Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every every day
day
 Lacks or loss of interest in surroundings,
activities, etc.
5. A Tendency to Develop Physical Symptoms or Fears Associated with
Personal or School Problems
This category represents physical symptoms or fears that develop as reactions to
emotional problems that have no known medical cause. Biological or medical
conditions such as allergies, neurological syndromes and effects of medications
should be ruled out. Also, since it is common to manifest physical reactions to stress
and tension, it is important to demonstrate that the physical symptoms and fear are
excessive and chronic. Fears may range from incapacitating feelings of anxiety to
specific and severe phobic reactions and panic attacks. Typically such feelings and
reactions are irrational and persistent to the degree that the student engages in
consistent avoidance behavior in regard to the person or object of his/her fear. The
inability to avoid the object or circumstance will usually result in severe anxiety or
panic attacks. Generally children can describe their fears but cannot give a
meaningful explanation to them. True school phobia [termed Separation Anxiety
Disorder in DSM-IV] may fit under this category. The evaluation must clearly
differentiate between school phobia and truancy. A student in this category may
exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:
 Complains of physical problems without known medical cause, such as aches
and pains, headaches, nausea, problems with eyes, rashes, stomachaches,
cramps or vomiting;
 Displays physical reactions that appear specifically linked to stress or conflict,
such as increased heart rate, sweating palms, or tremors;
 Shows physical reactions or behaviors that are not under voluntary control, such
as tics, eye blinking, or unusual vocalizations that are not related to physical
conditions;
 Has persistent and irrational fear of specific objects, situations, or activities that
result in compulsive and/or avoidance behavior;
 Expresses excessive fear of going to school;
 Has irrational fear that catastrophe or harm will occur to self, parent, or other
important person, or fears a parent/adult will leave home and never return;

30
  Worries excessively about learning or school performance to the point where
somatic complaints are evident and/or result in the inability to function/perform;
 May be preoccupied with morbid beliefs or thoughts;
 Excessively fearful in response to new situations, certain people or groups,
certain classes or activities.

These concerns may manifest themselves in the following behaviors:

 Excessive absences, tardiness,  Auditory or visual hallucinations

truancy  Accident prone
 Self-mutilation and/or eating  Psychosomatic illnesses
disorder  Fearful of getting hurt or rejected
 Refusal to attend school (“school  Constant complaint of being picked
phobic”) on
 Frequent requests to visit the  Flinches or cowers
health office  Neglects self-care and hygiene
 Unusual sleeping or eating patterns

3.2. Assessment of EBDs

Definition of assessment
Assessment in special needs/inclusive education refers to the process of
measuring/determining the degree or severity of a certain problem in students. It is the
second stage in the practice of inclusive/special needs education.

Assessment of EBDs, like assessment of problems in various academic areas, helps to:
 Identify those students who need special support
 Plan programs to address their problems
 Monitor progress towards reaching our goals
 An adequate assessment does not focus exclusively on student’s behavior. An
adequate/effective/inclusive assessment has the following characteristics:
 It considers the student’s social and physical environments

31
  It values the student’s thoughts and feelings about the circumstance
 It should be solution centered. That is, it should not merely/only be descriptive of
what is but also should be a process that leads to suggested interventions
 It should be based on the most accessible and reliable sources of information.
That is, it should not be on the base of speculation that can not be confirmed
 It should yield/produce a picture not only of the student but also of the context in
which his/her behavior is causing concern

Different theoretical approaches lead to different questions being asked. The same
assessment method may be used within different theoretical perspectives to collect
different information. For example, the importance of involving the child’s parents or
caregiver has been highlighted. However, interviews with parents and caregiver
conducted from different theoretical perspectives would seek different information.

Often, because different information is considered relevant in different theories, different

assessment methods will be used. Direct detailed observations in the situation where
the problems occur will be considered very important from a behavioral perspective in
order to identify the specific behavior that causes concern and the environmental events
that control its occurrence. From a cognitive perspective the actual sequence of
environmental events will be considered less important than the pupil’s perception and
interpretation of what happened. So interviewing the pupil is likely to be prioritized over
direct observation.

Outlined below are some of the assessment methods most commonly used to gain an
understanding of EBDS and to guide positive action. The methods are categorized
according to the theoretical framework with which they are most closely associated.

Behaviorally-based methods

Systematic observation is particularly characteristic of behaviorally-based assessment.

It may be carried out by teachers, the pupil or support professionals such as behavior
support teachers or educational psychologists. Information may be collected on:

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  the frequency and/or duration of identified problematic behavior or of the positive
behavior which it is hoped to encourage;
 the events or conditions in the environment that occur prior to and following the
behavior and which may therefore be acting to encourage or reinforce it.

A number of systematic observation techniques are available. A crucial requirement of

all of these is that the observer must define the behavior they are observing clearly
before they start. If an observer is not familiar with the classroom and pupil(s)
concerned they are likely to need to spend some time talking with the teacher and/or
conducting unstructured observations first. Time sampling and interval sampling are two
observational methods that are often considered together. For both you must first
identify one or more target behaviors (e.g. working, sitting, calling out, inappropriate
talking).

Time sampling involves observing, say for 10 seconds, and on the tenth second
recording whether or not the pupil at that moment is engaging in any of the target
behaviors. The observation period might last in total for 20 minutes, with spot
observations being made at the end of each 10-second period. Interval sampling
involves observing, say for 20 seconds, and at the end of that time spending 10
seconds recording whether or not the pupil has engaged in any of the behaviors during
the preceding 20 seconds. The observation period may last in total for 20 minutes, with
observations being made for the first 20 seconds of each half minute and the final 10
seconds of each half minute being spent recording those behaviors which had occurred
at least once during the preceding 20 seconds. Interval sampling makes good use of a
visiting observer’s time in that more time is spent observing than is the case with time
sampling. However, the number of students that can be observed is limited and it is not
really practical for teachers and students to use. With time sampling the use of a quiet
timer can allow teachers and students to sample behaviors such as ‘in seat’ and ‘on
task’ throughout a lesson at longer intervals, such as 1-minute intervals. Both time and
interval sampling are appropriate only for behaviors that occur frequently. If the behavior
occurs less than once in 15 minutes, event sampling (see below) should be selected.

33
Realistic intervention targets can be set by collecting information on the frequency of
key behaviors for comparison students in the same teaching group who are making
satisfactory progress. This recognizes, for example, that it would probably be
unreasonable to expect a pupil never to call out without raising their hand. The
importance of using systematic observation is reinforced by the finding that once
teachers are concerned about the disruptive behavior of particular students they will
tend to overestimate its frequency. By collecting observations on a regular basis it is
possible to obtain an indication of the success of interventions designed to reduce
problem behavior and increase positive behavior. Scherer (1990) provides a clear and
practical account of how this process of ‘assessment by baselines’ can be used by
subject teachers in secondary schools to count and graph the number of disruptive
incidents occurring with particular students while a series of intervention strategies are
tried.

Event sampling involves recording each occurrence of a specified behavior during a

particular time period. For example, you might want a record of each time a pupil
complies or fails to comply with a request from the teacher. This approach can be used
whether or not a behavior occurs frequently, and it is possible to collect information on
other students at the same time. Provided the number of behaviors and students to be
observed is kept to a manageable number (and this will depend on the frequency of
occurrence of the behavior) this is a highly feasible approach for ongoing use by staff
and students. Observations collected across different sessions may help to identify
certain lessons or times of day the students find difficult and inform action planning.
Event sampling may also provide information about the environmental events
surrounding the behavior of concern. An ‘ABC’ outline is frequently used where the
observer records:
A. antecedent events that precede the pupil’s behavior (e.g. ‘teacher asks pupil to
begin work’);
B. behavior engaged in by the pupil on that occasion (e.g pupil shouts and swears
at teacher);
C. Consequences for the pupil that result from the behavior (e.g. pupil is sent out of
class to the head of year).

34
One problem with observational approaches is that both children and the adults
interacting with them may behave differently when being observed or when asked to
carry out self-recording. If only a limited number of lessons are being observed a further
concern is that these may not be representative and conclusions may be drawn that will
not apply more generally.

Documentary sources such as report cards, records of attendance, detentions or other

sanctions can be useful where they are sufficiently specific about the behavior
concerned. These sources can also be useful for monitoring the success of
interventions over longer periods than is usually feasible with direct observations.

A wide variety of questionnaires, checklists and rating scales are available which
provide behavioral descriptors on which key informants can rate a particular child. The
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman 1997) is a measure of adjustment
and EBDS in 3–16 year olds which is increasingly widely used. It consists of five scales
(of five items each): Emotional Symptoms Scale; Conduct Problems Scale;
Hyperactivity Scale; Peer Problems Scale; and Prosocial Scale. Parallel versions are
available for completion by teachers, parents/caregiver and children/young people. The
applicability of items over the last six months to the child in question is rated using a 3-
point scale: ‘not true’, ‘somewhat true’ or ‘certainly true’. The questionnaires and scoring
instructions are available free on the web (http://www.sdqinfo.com) for all these
informants in a large number of languages. The teacher and parent versions have been
found to produce results consistent with established behavior rating scales, such as
Achenbach’s Child Behavior Checklist and Rutter’s Child Behavior Rating Scale, and
with psychiatric diagnoses. Although the self-report version was originally designed for
young people aged 11–16, there is evidence that it is applicable from 8 years.

Cognitively-based methods
A variety of questionnaires and other techniques are available for use with students to
assess particular cognitive constructs, such as self-perception, attributions and
personal. For example, the Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter 1985) is a paper-
and-pencil questionnaire which was developed to assess the self-perception of children

35
aged 8–14 years. It includes 36 items and covers five specific domains of competence:
scholastic competence (assessing how clever the children think they are, how well they
believe they are performing at school); social acceptance (assessing how popular the
children feel they are and if they believe they have a lot of friends); athletic competence
(assessing the children’s perception of their athletic ability); physical appearance
(assessing how attractive the children feel they are); and behavioral conduct (assessing
how well the children feel they behave and if they like the way they behave). In addition,
there is a global self-worth subscale, which assesses the extent to which children like
themselves as people. For each item there are two statements which the child reads, or
which can be read to them, ‘Some children often do not like the way they behave but
other children usually like the way they behave’. The child is first asked to decide which
statement is most like him/her. Then the child is asked to decide if the statement
selected is ‘really true’ or ‘sort of true’ for him/her. These responses are scored from 1
to 4, where a score of 1 indicates low perceived competence and a score of 4 indicates
high perceived competence.

Cultural groups may differ in the value attached to the different characteristics and
abilities that become the sources of self-concept and self-esteem for the child. They
highlight the importance of finding out about these differential values in order to properly
interpret a pupil’s criteria for self-evaluation. In this respect an advantage of the Harter
measure is that an additional questionnaire is provided where the pupil rates the
importance they attach to competence in each of the areas where self-perception is
assessed. Children’s priorities in self-evaluation are likely to change over time. These
developmental changes may occur not only because of increasing psychological
maturity but also when their personal circumstances change. This is perhaps seen most
dramatically with those refugee children who have been exposed to traumatic life events
before their migration.

One problem with self-report scales for children is that there is often a tendency for
children to select the most socially desirable option, even if it is not really true for them.
The structure of the Harter questionnaire attempts to overcome this by suggesting that
each statement is chosen by some children and that both are therefore acceptable.

36
Other questionnaires tackle the problem in a different way by including a ‘social
desirability’ scale containing items such as ‘I always tell the truth’ and ‘I am never
unhappy’. That is a way of checking if the person completing the questionnaire is trying
to give a good impression. The problem is that it does not eliminate the effects of that
distortion from the other scales and the type of approach used by the Harter
questionnaire is usually preferred. Other problems sometimes encountered with pupil
self-report scales relate to the pupil’s understanding of the language used, and their
perceptiveness and capacity for self-analysis. Approaches such as those based on
personal construct psychology generally lack the data on reliability typically provided
with standardized questionnaires. However, they offer some relative advantages in that
they use the child’s own language and ways of categorizing their experience. This may
be of particular value in the case of children whose cultural experience differs from that
of the scale’s authors.

Psycho-dynamically-based methods
An individual interview is central to most psychodynamic approaches, sometimes
deriving support from the use of projective techniques. The projective hypothesis is
based on the assumption that when we respond to something outside ourselves our
reactions are partly a reflection of our private inner world. When interviewers employ a
projective technique they generally seek open-ended responses to stimuli designed to
evoke inner conflicts of interest. For example, the Children’s Apperception Test (Bellak
and Bellak 1949) consists of black and white pictures of ‘adult’ and ‘child’ animals
depicting scenes relating to various aspects of family life, such as food and mealtimes,
toileting and bedtime. The child is asked to tell a story about each picture and their
stories are interpreted as a projection of their inner conflicts. A child’s perceptions of
relationships within their family may be explored using a kinetic family drawing (Burns
and Kaufman 1970). Children are asked to draw a picture showing themselves and
everyone who lives at home with them in their family. Inferences about children’s
perceptions of their role in the family may be drawn on the basis, for example, of where
they locate themselves in the picture or how large they draw themselves in relation to
other family members.

37
One criticism of early uses of projective techniques was that insufficient attention was
given to testing out in other ways the interpretations generated. It has been argued that
the techniques may offer an interesting source of hypotheses but these should not be
accepted at face value. A further criticism is that the assessment information provided
has only very limited applicability in generating practical intervention strategies for use
in schools. On the other hand, these techniques may sometimes highlight an aspect of
a child’s problems that is otherwise likely to be ignored. The case study of Lesley (see
Activity 15.3) illustrates this point. She completed another form of projective technique –
a sentence completion task. In this method the child is presented with a series of
sentence stems and asked to complete each sentence with the first words they think of.
They are encouraged to work quickly and sometimes, if they do not write fluently
themselves, dictate their responses to the interviewer. That is what Lesley did, as she
had difficulty with all forms of literacy.

Systemically-based methods
Systemic assessment methods may be used to collate different perceptions about either
organizational- or individual-level issues (see Chapter 9 for more information about the
use of one such approach – soft systems methodology). At the organizational level,
information about school rules and sanctions will generally be given in the school
brochure. However, interviews with students, teachers and parents will often be
necessary to identify the ways in which these rules and sanctions are perceived to
operate in practice by different individuals. At the individual level, different perceptions
of the behavior of a particular pupil, perhaps collected by means of a round robin of their
secondary school teachers, may be a starting point for identifying combinations of
factors that are especially problematic for the pupil and those factors that are more
successful in supporting appropriate behavior.

The importance of the peer group social system in either supporting or undermining
appropriate behavior has also been recognized. Sociometric assessment
questionnaires collect information from classmates about the child’s level of acceptance
or rejection in the peer group. More recent questionnaires for monitoring bullying
behavior in school collect information from students not just about engagement in

38
bullying or experience of victimization, but also about the range of roles that other
members of the peer group play in relation to bullying incidents, roles such as assistant
of the bully, defender of the victim and outsider. Because of the hidden nature of much
bullying, assessment approaches such as this are very important in assisting head
teachers to discharge their legal duty to introduce measures to prevent all forms of
bullying.

Systemic assessment approaches typically collect information at a number of levels and

may use cognitive or behavioral assessment strategies to do so. Information is also
collected about interactions between different levels and different individuals’
perceptions. Techniques such as ‘circular questioning’ may be used to obtain
information about relationships and differences in the perceptions of students, parents
and teachers. Each person present may be asked to consider the thoughts, feelings and
behavior of the others and ways in which they may interact. For example, each person
might be asked to choose, and give reasons for their choice of, the person who would
be most pleased and the person who would be most disappointed if the pupil suddenly
stopped presenting behavioral difficulties. This style of questioning is ‘intended to
explore connections and effects rather than look for causes of behavior’ and makes ‘it
possible for the participants in the interview to develop a different view of the situation’.

‘Reframing’ involves putting forward an alternative interpretation of a situation. The use

of circular questioning can indirectly lead participants to reframe events. Reframing may
also be used directly to try out different possible interpretations of events that may
enable all involved to shift their positions slightly and agree on action to move the
situation on. For example, more opportunities for constructive action are likely to result if
a parent’s angry refusal to support a school’s homework policy can be reframed as
strong concern for their child’s progress and worry that the child may be disadvantaged
if the parent is unable to help them. It is generally possible to challenge some
constructions of events because they are inconsistent with aspects of the information
that is available.

Usually however, a number of alternative constructions of events are plausible so

several ‘reframes’ are possible. This may be particularly important to acknowledge

39
where different constructions of events relate to cultural differences. Ultimately we can
only evaluate the success of this kind of systems analysis by asking whether it leads to
improved outcomes, and this generally involves collecting data at the behavioral level.

Each of the commonly used assessment methods reviewed above has particular
strengths, weaknesses and potential sources of bias. Greater confidence can be placed
in conclusions reached when the results of different methods point in the same
direction. This may be particularly important for students from certain cultural groups.
We have to stress the importance of checking out the accuracy of all information. For
example, school staff may make inferences about the reasons for frequent family moves
which become accepted within the school as fact. It is important to ask ‘How do we
know this?’, ‘How much reliance can we place on this source of information?’ and ‘Do
we have supporting information from other sources?’ Given the identified importance of
a multi-level systemic approach and an integrative orientation, the IF framework offers a
means of representing assessment information about a particular pupil and their
situation that has been collected using different assessment methods. The framework
can accommodate a wide range of types of assessment information, irrespective of the
theoretical perspectives employed. The framework can also be used to model the
hypothesized effects of intervention strategies. Where problem behavior is thought to be
maintained by a number of interacting factors, it generally follows that a multi-pronged
intervention approach will be required. This is a conclusion which emerges strongly from
the following review of commonly-used intervention approaches for problem behavior in
schools.

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 Unit 4: Intervention to emotional and behavioral disorder
Although not panaceas for all behavioral problems, classroom management systems,
including individual or group behavior plans that provide clear behavioral expectations
and are taught and implemented on a school-wide basis do provide a supportive
structure for students. At a minimum, educators, through concentrating on a limited
number of rules, provide the essential foundation for improving student behavior and
promoting student success. All students, especially students with emotional disturbance
and behavioral problems, need to know what is expected of them.
Teachers can enhance education for all students by establishing a sound classroom
management system, and by clearly articulating expectations and goals. Students may
also need to have positive behavioral supports as part of their IEPs—as Cristina did.
Based upon a careful assessment of the conditions associated with the student’s
troublesome behavior (through tools such as a functional behavioral assessment),
positive behavioral supports can prevent behavior problems by establishing clear
expectations about appropriate behavior and providing the supports necessary for the
student to be successful.
MANAGING THE CLASSROOM
A sound classroom management system can provide exactly the structure students
(especially those with emotional disturbance and behavioral problems) need for
managing their own behaviors. All components of a management system are important,
but the following are most important:
I. Arranging the physical environment;
II. Setting rules and expectations;
III. Helping students comply with rules and expectations;
IV. Scheduling the day;
V. Establishing routines and procedures; and
VI. Building a positive classroom climate that provides all students with a variety of
opportunities for success.
I. ARRANGING THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Educators can discourage challenging behavior by the way they manage space. A
number of suggestions for arranging students’ space include:

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Delineating space. Some students intuitively read the subtle cues that define the
purposes for different spaces and how they should behave in those spaces; however,
others need to be taught how to navigate the classroom. It often helps these students to
have the classroom space divided into places that have clear purposes.
Controlling the degree of stimulation: Teachers have significant influence over the
amount of visual and auditory stimulation students receive within the classroom, and,
therefore, they should be aware that students who are easily distracted may require less
stimulation than is typical. Examples of relatively easy steps to accommodate such
students include covering storage areas, removing unused equipment from sight,
replacing a loud fish-tank motor with a quiet one, and keeping classroom displays
organized.
Monitoring “high traffic areas”: There tends to be a lot of movement in areas such
as the pencil sharpener, water faucet, trashcan, and the teacher’s desk. Students who
are easily distracted should be seated away from such areas while still within the
proximity or at least eyesight of the teacher or paraprofessional. In addition, procedures
for using these areas should be developed and taught.
Establishing a quiet place: Some students may need a quiet “safe” place to sit and
work or to calm down after an emotional outburst. Study carrels, desk blinders (three-
paneled cardboard pieces that students can use at their seats for privacy), or an area
behind a bookcase are examples of such quiet places. It is important to note, however,
that all students should remain in full view of the teacher or paraprofessional at all
times. Also, students benefit from feeling ownership of their belongings, and thus benefit
from having a personal space for storing them.
II. SETTING RULES AND EXPECTATIONS
At the beginning of the year, teachers typically establish rules for classroom behavior.
One technique that may increase compliance with such rules is to express them in
positive, concrete terms that describe the behavior that is expected of them (e.g., “raise
your hand to be called upon to talk”), rather than defining what behavior is not
acceptable (e.g., “no talking”). Similarly, consequences for failing to meet expectations
should be logical, fair, predictable, directed at the inappropriate behavior, and, of
course, explained before an infraction occurs.

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Once five or six rules have been stated clearly, it is important to teach students how to
follow them.
III. HELPING STUDENTS COMPLY WITH RULES AND EXPECTATIONS
Educators sometimes assume that students know how to carry out directives, when, in
fact, they cannot. Students with emotional disturbance and behavioral problems are
especially prone to being punished for rule breaking, even though they sometimes lack
the skills necessary to follow the rules. If, for example, the classroom rule is to “listen
when others are talking,” then some students will need to be taught the skills necessary
for listening.
From the beginning of their educational experience, students should know the
consequences of breaking rules; and the consequences must be fair and consistently
enforced. Typically, students with emotional disturbance and behavioral problems have
difficulty understanding the consequences of their behavior. If a student breaks a rule,
then, it is wise to ask that student to explain the consequence of his or her actions.
The following points may be considered when developing classroom rules:
 Rules need to be stated in clear and explicit behavioral terms, as it is difficult to
abide by rules that must be interpreted. For instance, what does it mean to be
“responsible” or to be “nice”? Children, especially younger children, need
concrete terms and examples they can understand, such as raising a hand to
speak.
 Rules must be concise in order for students to remember them. Reminders also
may be posted in the learning area; and
 Students, themselves, might be encouraged to suggest rules to help create a
sense of ownership and accountability, although good research shows that this is
not essential to good classroom management.
Although educators can prevent many minor behavioral infractions by ensuring that
rules are clearly stated, fairly enforced, and completely understood, there are often
additional issues posed by students with serious behavioral problems. These are
students who, after all, may have difficulty following even the most clearly stated and
fairly enforced rules. For a teacher or paraprofessional to be fair and consistent, then,

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he or she must know whether or not the student has the necessary skills to comply with
the rules.
The next section discusses ways educators can support students’ appropriate behavior.
When all good faith efforts and best-practice procedures do not produce desired results,
however, it may be time to enlist the support of the school psychologist, behavior
specialist, the IEP team, special educator, and/or other support personnel. It may be
that the IEP team needs to be reconvened to modify the existing behavior intervention
plan or academic objectives.
Depending on the effect of the behavior on the safety and learning opportunities for the
student and for other students in the classroom, the IEP team should consider a change
of placement if concerted, documented efforts to modify serious behavior problems
prove to be unsuccessful.
IV. SCHEDULING THE DAY
For students with emotional disturbance or behavioral problems, several considerations
might be useful when scheduling activities throughout the day. For instance, a time for
students to get calmed down while in a state of transition to a more structured activity
can be built into the day’s schedule.
Also, since many students who have behavioral challenges find it difficult to maintain
attention for long periods of physically inactive work time, it can be helpful to break large
tasks into several smaller tasks with short breaks between them.
V. ESTABLISHING ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES
Establishing routines for how things are done and teaching those routines can help
students stay on target in a classroom. For example, it is important to implement
consistent routines for those times when students have to make a transition from one
lesson to another, or for times when they have to get and put away materials, and so
on. Routines can, of course, be taught, and students can be rewarded for following
them.
Educators may want to support students in accomplishing routine tasks by using the
following simple tactics:
Student cue cards- Small, wallet-sized cards on which transition steps are written can
serve as visual cues, which can be taped to the student’s desk, written in a notebook, or

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carried in a pocket. The teacher or paraprofessional may, in practice, direct students’
attention to the card before moving on to a transition period.
Reflection time- Many educators find that having students stop all activity for a
moment and reflect upon what they are going to do next goes a long way in preparing
them for an actual transition.
Advance notice- Because some students find it difficult to cognitively or emotionally
disengage from an activity in which they are immersed, advance notice (such as a five
minute warning prior to the activity’s end) prepares them for disengagement and
movement toward the next activity.
Peer support- When a student is learning a new routine or is having difficulty following
a procedure, many teachers assign a peer buddy to reinforce and guide the student
through the required steps of transition.
Subtle prompts- Pointing to a clock or putting away materials can cue students that it
is time for a change. Praise or encouragement also can be used effectively to prepare
for a transition. For example, saying “Almaz, you have really worked hard on your
paper,” or, “Look how much you have written today,” helps to focus the student’s
attention on “wrapping up” the activity.
VI. BUILDING A POSITIVE CLASSROOM CLIMATE
A teacher rarely spoke in class, and when s/he did, it was in a whisper. Concerned, Ms.
Dawit, the language arts teacher, built a positive rapport with his silent student. Each
day, Ms. Dawit initiated a conversation with his student (as did Ms. Paulos, the
paraprofessional). Patient efforts paid off, and a student gradually began giving more
than one-word answers.
Techniques teachers have used, and recommended, to communicate respect during
nonacademic discussions:
Actively listen- Teachers need to let students know that they are being listened to. Eye
contact and paraphrasing what the student says are two simple ways to demonstrate
that the teacher is, indeed, listening. However, it is important to understand that in many
cultures, it is considered rude for children to make eye contact with adults.
Use non-threatening questions- When students have misbehaved, questions that
focus on “what” (e.g., “What went through your mind just before you kicked your shoes

45
into the hallway?”) and “how” (e.g., “How did your math book end up in the trash?”) are
easier to answer than those that focus on “why” (e.g., “Why did you throw your book in
the trash?”).
Moreover, students with a history of behavioral difficulties have learned that “why
questions” often accompany disciplinary interventions and, as a result, often react to
any such questions as if they are being put on the spot. Tone of voice is also important.
Questions should be asked as a genuine effort to help the student understand the
behavior.
Use open-ended questions- For students with a history of failure, questions that have,
what they perceive as, a “right” or “wrong” answer make them feel uncomfortable (e.g.,
“Did you follow all the directions during the science lab today?”). Open-ended questions
can be used, instead, especially when engaging the student in conversation (e.g., “What
did you do in science class today?”).
Show personal interest in the student- It is important for students to talk about
themselves. Sharing details about likes and dislikes can open the door to broader
achievements in the classroom.

Communicating respect, in addition to setting high but attainable expectations for

academic performance, is central to supporting growth in the classroom. For students
with emotional disturbance and behavioral problems, building a positive rapport through
mutual respect and acceptance is, in fact, the first step toward establishing trust.
Once established, it is vital to work toward maintaining rapport. Oftentimes; rapport
breaks down when teachers need to discipline students; therefore, a teacher should let
a student know that it is his or her behavior that is problematic, not the student as an
individual. Some teachers have found that “I-messages” allow them to maintain rapport
while addressing behavior. An I-message is a statement of the behavior, followed by
the effect that it had, and concludes with the direct, tangible consequences of the
behavior. For example, “When you get out of your seat while I am giving directions (the
behavior), you distract me and other students (the effect), which means we all have to
stop what we are doing until I can get back everyone’s attention (the consequence).”
Behavior Intervention Plan Development Flow Chart

46
STEP 1: Develop a Competing Behavior Pathway

1.1 Transfer Summary Statement from FBA into Competing Behavior Pathway.
1.2 Identify the desired long-term replacement behavior.
1.3 Identify an alternative short-term behavior.
1.4 Identify maintaining consequences for the desired long-term replacement
behavior.
STEP 2: Identify Intervention Strategies

2.1 Identify teaching strategies.

2.2 Identify setting event strategies.
2.3 Identify antecedent strategies.
2.4 Identify consequence strategies to reinforce appropriate behavior.
STEP 3: Identify Consequence Strategies to limit reinforcement of the problem
behavior
STEP 4: Develop a Safety Plan, if needed
STEP 5: Develop Implementation Plan
STEP 6: Develop Monitoring & Evaluation Plan
STEP 7: Identify Generalization & Maintenance Strategies

Example on Competing Behavior Pathway

Desired Replacement Reinforcing Consequences for
(Long Term Objective) Desired Replacement
Work quietly on independent work Suzy will earn time to work with friends
Setting Event Triggering Problem Maintaining Function
When specific Antecedent Behavior Consequenc To get
friends are Asked to work Talking out, es attention

47
around independently joking, Gets peers to
disrupting laugh and
class teacher
attention
Alternative Replacement Behavior
(Short-term Replacement)
Ask appropriately to work with a partner or obtain peer interaction by completing
small parts of independent tasks

Menu of Function-Based Options for Behavior Intervention Planning

Seek Attention Avoid Attention Avoid Tasks

2.1 Setting Events• Check-in with an• Provide a quiet• Provide a structured
Strategies adult immediately space to eat daily schedule for
upon student arrival breakfast, do a on-task activities
to: preferred activity, (visual schedule)
• Provide positive etc.
attention, greeting • Ask the student if
• Organize materials they want to talk
• Practice with an adult they
replacement choose before
behaviors going to class
• Provide food, sleep,
medications,
hygiene, clothing
etc.
2.2 Antecedent• Increase Positive• Teachers assign• Teach Procedures
Strategies Recognition cooperative • Asking for help
• Give student groups (versus• Individualize
leadership students choosing) procedure for use of
responsibility or a• Provide the option resources (e.g.

48
 class “job” that to work individual dictionary,
requires the student independently 100’s chart,
to interact with• Preview upcoming multiplication table,
staff. events and tasks graphic organizers)
• Increase positive• Use a visual• Check to see if
home/school schedule of class student has needed
communication activities materials and if not,
• Increase• Provide preferential provide them before
Opportunities to seating (e.g. they are needed.
Respond separate “office”,• Address Task
• Increase Active desk to the side, Difficulty
Supervision – on the floor, etc.) • Design assignments
Schedule more• Clarify expected to meet student
frequent behavior and instructional/skill
interactions provide specific level.
• Increase precorrects • Pre-teach content.
opportunities for • Modify amount or
peer interaction type of activity.
• Clarify expected • Provide extra
behavior and help/checks for
provide specific understanding.
precorrects • Provide Choice
• Provide choices such
as what to do first or
what tools to use.
• Sequence Tasks
• Provide an
opportunity to
engage in a
preferred activity
first.

49
 • Clarify expected
behavior and provide
specific precorrects

2.3 Teaching• Teach specific ways• Teach self-• Teach how to ask for
Strategies to ask for attention: management a break.
• Differentiate if skills: • Teach how to ask for
strategy changes• Observing & an alternative
across conditions recording own activity/assignment
or settings (large behavior • Teach student how to
group, small group,• Goal setting ask for assistance
independent work,• Evaluating behavior• Teach student how to
cafeteria, hallway• Strategy instruction use resources
etc.) • Participate in social• Teach specific
• Help teach lesson to skill instruction academic skills
other students • Sight words
• Participate in social • Reading fluency
skill instruction • Comprehension
• Math facts
• Participate in social
skill instruction

50
2.4 Consequences• Respond quickly• Acknowledge• Provide opportunity to
to Reinforce when the student student with earn breaks after
Replacement asks for attention nonverbal specified number of
Behavior appropriately reinforcements: completed tasks
• Give frequent• Thumbs up • Provide opportunity to
attention for any• Small note earn time doing self-
appropriate • Provide opportunity selected activity
behavior to earn time doing• Reward student for
• Allow student to self-selected attempting tasks
earn opportunity to activity • Staying focused on
pick activity for the task
group or class
• Provide opportunity
for peer interaction
Consequence to• Provide consistent• Provide consistent• Provide consistent
Make Problem and calm response and calm response and calm response
Behavior • Limit verbal• Teacher gives non-• Offer brief assistance
Ineffective interaction for verbal cue to with task or activity
problem behavior. participate • Offer alternatives
• Create a signal that• Proximity control methods or materials
prompts student to to complete the task
stop and/or return • Schedule standard
to desired activity times to complete
• Teacher ignore unfinished work
problem
• Prompt peers to
ignore problem
behavior
Adapted from Loman, S. & Borgmeier, C.
(2010)

51
 References

Achenback, T.M. (1991). Manual for child behavior checklist.

Albert, L. (1989). A teacher’s guide to cooperative discipline;Circle Pines, Minn.American

Guidance Service.

American Psychiatric Association(1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders

(4thed.) Washington, DC: Author.

Battisch, V.D., Solomon, D., Kim, M., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1995). Schools as communities,
poverty levels of student populations, & student attitudes, motives, & performance: A
multicultural analysis. American Educational Research Journal.

Beare, P.L. (1991). Philosophy, instructional methodology, training, and goals of teachers of the
behaviorally disordered. Behavior Disorders, Bluestein, J. 1998).

Botvin, G.J., Schinke, S., & Orlandi, M.A. (1995). School-based health promotion: Substance
abuse and sexual behavior. Applied and Preventative Psychology, 4, 167-184.

Carpenter, B., & Bovair, K. (1996). Learning with dignity: Educational opportunities for students
with emotional and behavioral difficulties. Canadian Journal of Special Education.

Reddy,A.L.& Rechardson,L.(2006),School-Based Prevention and Intervention Programs

for Children with Emotional Disturbance :Education and Treatment of

Children,Vol.29,No.2: The H.W.Wilson company

Reddy, G. L., Ramer R. & Kusuma A. (2000). Education of children with special needs.

Delhi: Sachin Printers.

Santrock,W.J.(2011),Educational Psychology(5TH Ed).New York,NY;McGrawHill

52
Individual assignment 1 on the course ‘‘Inclusive
Education”
Instruction: Answer the following questions briefly with
readable handwriting.
1. Write different definitions of emotional and behavioral disorders (7
points).
2. Write down the general and specific characteristics associated with the
area of emotional/behavioral disorders (7 points).

3. Discuss other disabilities or disorders that co-exists with emotional and

behavioral disorders (5 points)

4. What are the broad and specific causes of emotional and

behavioral disorders? Provide examples and further explanation
for each cause (7 Points).
5. What types and sub types of emotional and behavioral disorders
are available and write their characteristics? (9 points).

53
Individual assignment 2 on the course ‘‘Inclusive
Education”

1. What are the major symptoms of students with emotional and

behavioral problem? (7 points).
2. Write down the identification guidelines for students with
emotional and behavioral problem (7 points).
3. Discuss the advantages of assessments of students with
emotional and behavioral problems (5 points)
4. Design an individual educational plan for students with
behavioral and emotional challenges with alternative positive
behavior and stable emotions. The design shall have the
necessary steps on how to design the environment and
alternative strategies in managing the problematic behavior and
emotion in the school setting with your own examples (7 points).
5. Take a case in your school about teachers’ strategies in
managing students’ behavioral and emotional challenges and
evaluate their ways of intervention. (not more than two pages)(9
points).

54