VYSOKÁ ŠKOLA BÁŇSKÁ – TECHNICKÁ UNIVERZITA OSTRAVA

FAKULTA METALURGIE A MATERIÁLOVÉHO INŽENÝRSTVÍ

ROLLING

Study Support

Ivo Schindler, Stanislav Rusz, Tomáš Kubina

Ostrava 2015
Title: Rolling

Code: 633-3003

Author: Ivo Schindler, Stanislav Rusz, Tomáš Kubina

Edition: first, 2015

Number of pages: 166

Academic materials for the Metallurgical Engineering study programme at the Faculty of
Metallurgy and Materials Engineering.

Proofreading has not been performed.

Execution: VŠB - Technical University of Ostrava

 Rolled product assortment

ROLLING
(formerly METALLURGICAL FORMABILITY)
prof. Ing. Ivo Schindler, CSc.,
Ing. Stanislav Rusz, Ph.D.
Ing. Tomáš Kubina, Ph.D.

1. Assortment of rolled products, basic technologies and rolling modes

Time for study: 1 hour

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

 describe assortment of rolled products, their basic dividing into two groups,
describe differences between particular products
 define basic technologies and modes of rolling

Presentation

1.1. Rolled products assortment

It creates a complex of all sorts of products of rolling mills, divided into groups based on
characteristics and production modes. By the characteristics we understand the profile, which means
the cross section geometry, and/or a main decisive dimension that serves for defining dimensional
assortment of the product mix.
As per processing technology the product mix of rolling mills is divided into two main groups, namely
the semi-finished and finished rolled products.

 Semi-finished products
Semi-finished products are products of roughing (breakdown) mills. They are determined mainly for
further processing to final products of rolling mills. All final rolled products are characterized by a
simple geometric shape of the cross section (Figure 1.1). Permissible are wide shape and dimensional
tolerances, coarse and uneven surface. When the rolling process technology from the ingot is applied,
semi-finished products are divided into blooms, slabs, billets and sheet bars. We can replace rolling of
semi-finished products for continuous casting and produce the semi-product, determined for finish
rolling, directly from the liquid metal.
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 Rolled product assortment

Fig. 1.1 Basic shapes of semi-finished products – a) square bloom, b) rectangular bloom, c) slab, d)
sheet bar,
e) round billet, f) square billet, g) flat billet

 blooms - approximately of square section, the ratio of one side to the other up to 1 : 1.4,
range □ > 140 mm
 slabs - rectangular section, the ratio of one side to the other higher than 1 : 1.4,
thicknesses > 80 mm, widths < 2000 mm
 billets - up to 1 : 2, range □ > 40 mm, Ø 90 ÷ 210 mm,
 sheet bars - thicknesses 6 ÷ 36 mm, widths < 300 mm

 Finished rolled products

Finished rolled products are final products of rolling. The initial material for the production of finished
rolled products is semi-finished products, continuously cast semi-products and/or ingots. In
comparison to semi-finished products, the continuously cast semi-products are characterized by a
smaller section area, more accurate shapes and dimensions, closer tolerances, improved surface quality
and better useful (service) properties. Based on their shape the finished rolled products are divided into
bars, sections, flats, special products and tubes (Fig. 1.2).

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 Rolled product assortment

Fig. 1.2 Basic types of finished rolled products – a) bars, b) sections, c) sections for special purposes,
d) rails

Rolled bars are characterized by a simple geometric shape of their cross section. Round bars are
rolled in a wide range of diameters – from 5.5 up to 210 mm. Reinforcing bars (in short rebars) with
longitudinal projections or reinforcing ribs create a special group. Besides, bars with square, hexagon,
octagon, half-round, triangular section, and others are produced. A separate group is created by wire
rod with a small section and simple shape. A most miscellaneous group, as far as shapes, dimensions
and weights per running meter is concerned, is created by rolled sections.
Flat rolled products represent in our economy a very significant group of rolled products. They are
characterized by their thickness and width. They are divided into plates and sheets, thick and thin hot
rolled strips, cold rolled strips and foils. The wheel set (a pair of wheels and axle), grinding balls, and
periodic profiles belong to a group of special rolled products. Tubes are divided, based on their
processing technology, into seamless and welded tubes.

1.2. Basic technologies and rolling modes

By rolling we understand a continuous process, during which the formed material is deformed
between the rotating work rolls. The roll gap (a gap between the work rolls) is smaller than the
material entry height. As per the direction of passing the rolled material between the work rolls, the
position of rolls axes in relation to the rolled material and the course of rolling we divide rolling into
longitudinal, cross and diagonal.

Longitudinal rolling
The functional scheme of the longitudinal rolling is shown in Fig. 1.3. Rolls are driven in accordance
with the sense of rotation (shown by arrows), they draw the metal in-between and press it through the
height; at the same time the rolled material is considerably extended (elongated) and spread to a lesser
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 Basic technologies and modes of rolling

extent. The longitudinal rolling is one of widespread way of metal forming. It is estimated that up to
95 % of all produced steel is subjected to further rolling in the course of its production. As per the type
of rolled products we can differentiate:
Longitudinal rolling in plain rolls – flat rolled products (sheets, plates, strips)
Longitudinal rolling in grooved rolls – shaped rolled products (rails, sheet piles, bars, sections, wire
rod)

Fig. 1.3 Functional scheme of longitudinal

rolling

Cross rolling
The functional scheme of the cross rolling is in Fig. 1.4. This rolling mode is characterized by the fact
that the axis of the rolled product is parallel with the rolls axes. The rolls are rotating in the same
direction. The rolled material is rotating in the direction of acting the resulting friction forces, i.e. in
the opposite direction than is the direction of work rolls. This mode of rolling is used e.g. for the
production of shafts or for rolling of grinding balls (Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.4 Functional scheme of cross rolling Fig. 1.5 Rolling of grinding balls
Diagonal rolling
Diagonal rolling is a special case of cross rolling. The mechanism of plastic deformation is here a
similar one. However, work rolls axes are not parallel, but skew. So, the rolled stock not only rotates,
but also feeds forward in the direction of its longitudinal axis, thanks to skew axes of rolls. This mode
of rolling is used at rolling of seamless tubes (Fig. 1.6). It is one of widespread ways of the production
of hollow semifinished products.

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 Basic technologies and modes of rolling

Fig. 1.6 Rolling in piercing mill (seamless tubes)

(kónické válce - conical rolls, tlustostěnná trubka - thick-walled tube, vstupní polotovar - input
semifinished product, trn - mandrel, tlustostěnná trubka z děrovací stolice - thick-walled tube
from piercing mill, redukce tloušťky stěny trubky - tube wall thickness reduction)

Summary of terms of this chapter

Semi-finished products – finished rolled products – rolled bars – rolled flats – rolled sections – wire
rod – longitudinal rolling – cross rolling – diagonal rolling.

Questions to discussed curriculum

1.1. What is the difference between the semi-finished product and the finished rolled product?
1.2. Are you able to enumerate at least 3 types of semi-finished products and finished rolled
products?
1.3. What is rolling?
1.4. What types of rolling do you know?
1.5. What is the difference between longitudinal and cross rolling?
1.6. Is it possible to produce grinding balls by rolling? If your answer is positive, what way you will
use?
1.7. What does diagonal rolling serve for?

References that may be used for further study

GINZBURG, V. B.: Steel-Rolling Technology : Theory and Practice. New York : Marcel Dekker,
1989.

5
 Rolling mill types

2. Types of rolling mill stands, layout and technological equipment of

rolling mills

Time for study: 8 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

 split up rolling mills according to particular criteria

 describe the rolling mill and its accessories/auxiliary devices (roll housings,
work rolls, bearings, adjustment of rolls, roll counter-balance equipment,
fittings for rolling - e.g. guides, roll changing equipment)

Presentation

2.1. Types of rolling mills

Rolling mills may be divided as per:
 construction of rolling mill stands and number of rolls
 sort of rolled products and work roll diameter
 way of rolls rotation
 layout of mill stands

 Construction of rolling mill stands and number of rolls

Two-high rolling mills
Rolling mills of this type belong to mostly used. They have two horizontally mounted rolls (Fig. 2.1).
The rolling mill motor drives either both rolls (top and bottom) or only one roll (normally the bottom
roll; the top roll rotates due to friction between the roll and the rolled stock). As per the rolls rotation
direction we distinguish the non-reversing (unidirectional) and reversing mills.

Fig. 2.1 Two-high rolling mill

Three-high rolling mills

That is the question of rolling mills with three horizontally mounted rolls. Rolls in these mills rotate
permanently in one direction. They are widespread used as they make it possible rolling with
increased number of grooves than in case of two-high mill stands. The rolled stock is rolled in one
direction between the bottom and intermediate roll and in the opposite direction between the
intermediate and top roll. The fix-fitted intermediate roll is directly driven. The bottom and top roll are

6
 Rolling mill types

driven via the gearbox and they are usually adjustable. They serve for rolling of shaped rolled products
(sections) and billets in grooved rolls.
Lauth three-high plate mill (Fig. 2.2) is used for rolling of plates. This rolling mill differs from normal
three-high rolling mills by the fact that its intermediate roll has smaller diameter than the top and
bottom roll. The intermediate roll is dragged and rotates only by friction effect between the rolled
stock and alternately the top and bottom roll. The advantage of smaller diameter of the intermediate
roll consists in supporting the rolled stock elongation; nevertheless, the disadvantage is more rapid
wear and tear of the intermediate roll.

Fig. 2.2 Lauth mill and a common three-high rolling mill

Four-high rolling mills

This mill has four horizontal rolls, mounted in a single vertical plane (Fig. 2.3). Two rolls (inner) are
work rolls and two rolls (outer) are back-up rolls. Significance of the back-up rolls consists in a chance
of use higher roll forces and decrease in bending (deflection) of work rolls. Small diameters of work
rolls permit - except for greater extension (elongation) of the rolled stock - also a possibility of
achievement more favourable dimensional thickness deviations. The work rolls of the four-high mill
are driven, the back-up rolls dragged. The four-high mill is used for rolling of plates and for hot and
cold rolling of steel strip. It is used as non-reversing or reversing rolling mill.

Fig. 2.3 Four-high rolling mills

Multi-roll mills
These rolling mills consist of six, seven, twelve or twenty horizontally mounted rolls (Fig. 2.4). In
case of all mentioned mills always only two rolls are work rolls, the other are back-up rolls. Usually
work rolls are driven and back-up rolls dragged. The multi-roll mills are used for rolling of very thin
sheets, strips and foils.

Fig. 2.4 Multi-roll mills

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 Rolling mill types

Universal plate mills

These mills have except for horizontally mounted rolls also vertically mounted rolls that are driven via
transmission of bevel gear wheels (Fig. 2.5). The vertical rolls act by edging effect on lateral sides of
the rolled stock, which leads to creating its lateral “walls”, precision angles and sharp edges. The
edging rolls used to be mounted from the front of the mill stand, less frequently from the rear side, but
sometimes also from both sides of the mill. Universal mills are used for rolling of slabs, universal
plates and steel shapes. To enable rolling of wide-flange beams, the vertical rolls are mounted in the
same plane with axes of rolls placed horizontally. Only the horizontal rolls are driven (Fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.5 Universal plate mill Fig. 2.6 Universal mill for rolling of wide-flange
beams

Special structure
They have skew axes of rolls and are used for the production of seamless tubes (Fig. 2.7).

Fig. 2.7 Special structure

Specialities (wheel rolling mills, tyre rolling, thread rolling, rolling of grinding balls...)

 Sorts of rolled products and work roll diameters

Roughing mills (breakdown mills)
• blooming mill
heavy breakdown mills (rolling blooms from ingots)
• slabbing
rolling slabs
• billet mills
mills for rolling of billets and sheet bars

Rolling mills for hot and cold rolling of finished rolled products
a) Section mills for production of rolled bars and sections
 heavy section mills for rolling of rails, heavy beams and sheet piles
(rolls Ø 700 to 950 mm)
 heavy section mills (rolls Ø 500 to 650 mm)
 medium section mills (rolls Ø to 500 mm)
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 Rolling mill types

 small (fine) section mills (rolls Ø to 350 mm)

 wire rod mills
b) Rolling mills for rolling of flat rolled products
 mills for rolling of plates and armours
 mills for rolling of sheets
 mills for rolling of strips
 universal mills for rolling of universal plates with vertical side walls and accurate angles
(equipped with horizontal and vertical rolls)
c) Mills for rolling of tubes (piercing mills, pilger mills/reciprocating rolling process, Stiefel mills/
Stiefel tube-rolling process)
d) Rolling mills of special constructions (producing tyres, grinding balls etc.)

 Rolling mills according to way of rolls rotation

 non-reversing (unidirectional) rolling mills (e.g. rolling of medium and light sections,
strips)
 reversing (reversible) rolling mills (e.g. rolling of semi-products, heavy girders, plates)

 Layout of mill stands

 rolling mills with a single operating stand (Fig. 2.8)
 multi-stand rolling mills with stands operating in one axis (Fig. 2.9)
 rolling mills with the open arrangement of operating stands in three trains (Fig. 2.10)
 rolling mill in the cross-country arrangement (Fig. 2.11)
 semi-continuous rolling mill
 continuous rolling mill (Fig. 2.12)

Fig. 2.8 Rolling mills with Fig. 2.9 Multi-stand Fig. 2.10 Rolling mills with open
a single operating stand rolling mills with arrangement of operating stands in there
arrangement of trains
operating stands in one
axis

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 Rolling mill types

Fig. 2.11
Cross-country mill (“Zick-Zack Strasse”)

Fig. 2.12 Continuous rolling mill

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

2.2. Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

 Rolling mill and its accessories (housings, work rolls, bearings, adjusting equipment, roll
counter-balance equipment, fittings for rolling, roll changing equipment)
 Handling equipment, transportation means
 Reheating aggregates

 Basic equipment of rolling mill stand (roll stand)

The basic equipment of the rolling mill, which directly ensures the origin of plastic deformation, is the
roll stand (Fig. 2.13)

Fig. 2.13 Functional scheme of roll stand main devices

1 – rolls, 2 – housings, 3 – coupling boxes, 4 – pinions, 5 – reduction gear unit, 6 – flexible coupling,
7 – motor, 8 – flywheel, 9 – main coupling, 10 – pinion stand, 11 – spindles, 12 – base plates

Housing
The housing creates a framework of the rolling mill stand and absorbs total metal pressure on rolls in
the course of rolling. The housing must be solid and its structure has to enable easy and fast roll
changing and easy access to all parts of the housing and other details of the roll stand. Every roll stand
has two housings, in which rolls are placed in bearings. In the housing upper part there are adjusting
screws and the roll counterbalancing device and their drives.
From the structural viewpoint we distinguish housings as follows:
a) enclosed housing – the whole housing is made of one piece (more beneficial from the strength
point of view) – Fig. 2.14,
b) open housing – with the separated cap, connected to the housing by screws (easier rolls
changing) – Fig. 2.15,
c) housingless roll stand – rigid chocks connected by solid joints, prestressed – limited stress
relaxation (“spring-back”) of rolls, smaller and lighter structure.

Fig. 2.14 Closed housing Fig. 2.15 Open housing

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Rolls
The roll is a basic part of the roll stand, the metal between the rolls is plastically deformed. They
ensure the required shape, dimension and surface quality of the rolled metal. They transfer the force
and torque load. They are divided into:
 as per function – work rolls and back-up rolls,
 as per material and process technology – cast iron, steel cast, steel forged, compound,
 as per forming technology – for rolling of flat products (plain – Fig. 2.16), grooved (Fig.
2.17) and special,
 as per placing in the roll stand - horizontal and vertical

Fig. 2.16 Plain work roll

Fig. 2.17 Grooved rolls

The work roll consists of three parts:

1) working part - roll body, called roll barrel, characterized by diameter D and length L, which
serves for forming the rolled metal
2) supporting part, i.e. roll neck (journal), which holds the roll in the housing of the roll stand
3) connecting part - wobbler, which connects the roll via further equipment with the main shaft
of the electric motor

The roll body is the most important part of the work roll, because it works on the most difficult
conditions (high temperatures and pressures, it is subjected to shocks, etc.). It must have high strength,
hard surface to resist considerable impacts and pressures from the rolled metal, resistance to wear and
tear and high temperatures of the rolled metal. The roll neck has to be resistant to wear and tear, high
temperature and torsional and bending strain, the wobbler has to be resistant to torsion and impacts.

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Bearings
The bearings serve for accurate mounting of roll necks, in both horizontal and vertical plane. They are
placed in chocks. In rolling mills they are used:
• sliding bearings (Fig. 2.18)
(shells are of plastics/organic fabric and achieve friction coefficient from 0.02 to 0.1)

1-chock,
2-cover,
3-shells

Fig. 2.18 Sliding bearing

• bearings with rolling friction (Obr. 2.19)

(low friction coefficient - from 0.001 to 0.003)
They are characterized by small wear and tear and
hence high accuracy of the rolled material

• bush bearings with fluid friction

similar friction coefficient like antifriction bearings,
their dimensions are smaller, wear and tear only
slight and elastic deformations negligible

Adjusting and balancing equipment

The production process of various rolled products
requires changes of mutual position of rolls, either during
rolling mills adjustment or in the course of actual
adjusting the rolls before individual passes. The mutual Fig. 2.19 Antifriction bearing
rolls position changing can be reached by means of
adjusting and balancing equipment. Various kinds of adjusting the rolls you can see in Figs 2.20 and
2.21.
Adjustment of rolls in the vertical direction determines the gap between rolls and hence also the draft
(thickness reduction in the pass).
- Axial adjustment of rolls – take up the lateral clearance.
- The adjustment has to be accurate, with as small as possible time loss.
- The top roll must not drop after passing the metal between the rolls – that is why it has to be
counterbalanced together with chocks. The balancing is a prerequisite to prevent impacts and
wear and tear of the adjusting screw with the nut.

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Fig. 2.20 Adjustment by counterbalance Fig. 2.21 Hydraulic adjustment

Pinion stand and reducers

Pinion stands transfer torque of the driving shaft to the work roll. Pinions of various kinds of roll
stands differ only in dimensions and sort of teeth. By their shape they remind work rolls. However,
they are not common gears (toothed wheels), they have the journal and the wobbler, like the work rolls
(Fig. 2.22).

Fig. 2.22 Pinions (a – spur teeth, b – spur offset, c – helical, d – herringbone)

Reducers
The reducers change the number of revolutions of the main motor to the required revolutions of rolls
(increase in torque). They may be one-stage, two-stage and three-stage. The gear ratio of each stage
may be from 4 to 6.

Couplings
The couplings serve for transfer of torque of the driving engine to the work rolls. Their function
consists in absorbing roll force impacts (shocks) and prevention of their transfer to the electric motor.
Some kinds of couplings can be seen in Fig. 2.23.

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Coupling Bibbi Main Ortman coupling Main Schloemann coupling

Fig. 2.23 Some kinds of couplings

Drives
The roll stand drive system consists of the main (master) drive with the control system, reduction
gears and connecting elements. Except for this, continuous work of the roll stand is secured by
auxiliary mechanisms, equipped by separate electric motors with appropriate control equipment. With
respect to increase in weight of rolled stocks, rolling speed, demands on accuracy and decrese in
power consumption, it is necessary to choose the electric drives in such manner so that during
operation the automatic control systems with computer control could be utilized.

Spindles and wobblers

The spindles are steel forged shafts which connect work roll necks with journals of pinions, thus
making it possible the transfer of torque (Fig. 2.24). In addition to, they enable the axial misalignment
as per the position of the the live roll.
The wobblers can be either plain or stepped (with shoulders). The wobbler – except for connecting
spindles – functions as a breaking piece in case of extremely high load of the roll stand.

- spindle with a plain wobbler

- spindle with a rounded-off wobbler

- fork joint of universal spindle

Fig. 2.24 Some kinds of spindles

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

 Fittings for rolling

By fittings of the roll stand we understand the auxiliary equipment placed directly at the roll stand,
serving for correct entry the rolled material into the rolls and its exit the rolls, or for automatic rolled
stock guidance in its transfer from one groove to another groove of the same or adjacent roll stand.
 threading fittings for rolling
(guides, guide benches, guide bushing, guide borders, open and closed guide boxes, twisting
guides)
 exit fittings for rolling
(simple and shaped guards)
 repeaters, looping channels
The aim of rolling mill fittings is to ensure guidance and thus make the correct rolled stock entry into
the groove and exit out of the groove easier, and to make it possible using higher rolling speeds.

Guides
The guides serve for correct rolled stock directing into the groove of work rolls at the entry side of the
roll stand and its safe exit to the runout table of the roll stand (Figs 2.25 and 2.26).
To prevent from bending the rolled stock upwards and downwards during its runnig out of the rolls
and/or collaring on the roll, the guards are used. For the guards placement it is decisive, if the mill
stand works with top or bottom pressure, i.e. whether the rolled metal shows a tendency towards
collaring on the bottom or top roll (Fig. 2.27).

open guide box closed guide box

entry guides guides in the laboratory mill Tandem

Fig. 2.25 Guides

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Fig. 2.26 Roller entry guides Fig. 2.27 Ways of fixing the guard

Repeaters, looping channels

The aim of the repeater is to swivel the end of the rolled stock through 180° after leaving the rolls and
thread it into the groove of the adjacent roll stand. Sometimes the repeaters function as twist guides as
well.

 Auxiliary equipment of rolling mills

Handling equipment and tilting devices (manipulators)
 Devices for longitudinal transport/handling (roller tables, feeding rolls, bumpers, stops,
pushers, extractors)
 Devices for cross transport (manipulators, transfer tables (Fig. 2.28), transfers, displacement
and shifting devices, running troughs with stops)

Fig. 2.28 Transfer table

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

 Devices for lifting and lowering - lifting (Fig. 2.29) and tilting tables (Fig. 2.30)

Fig. 2.29 Flowing scheme of lifting table Fig. 2.30 Flowing scheme of tilting table

 Manipulators – serve for rotating the rolled stock at a specific angle around its longitudinal
axis (Figs 2.31 and 2.32)

Fig. 2.31 Grey’s manipulator Fig. 2.32 Roller table + tilting

 Cooling bed – equipment where rolled products are cooled and at the same time item-by-item
transfered to the roller table, on which they are sent to the finishing plant (Fig. 2.33).

Fig. 2.33 Cooling beds

 Device for transport of bundles/packs and coils and cut-offs removal – bundles/packs and
coils are mostly transported by cranes using special suspensions/slings (Fig. 2.34).

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Fig. 2.34 Suspensions/slings for transport of bundles/packs and coils

Finishing banks
- Shears and saws (Fig. 2.35 - 2.39)

Fig. 2.35 Slitting line Fig. 2.36 Slitter with circular knives

Fig. 2.37 Circular saw Fig. 2.38 Pendulum saw

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Fig. 2.39 Flying shears

- Levellers (Fig. 2.40 - 2.42)

Fig. 2.40 Pressure levelling between even plates

Fig. 2.41 Levelling of sheets by rolling

20
 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Fig. 2.42 Roller straightening machines

- Coiling machines (Fig. 2.43 - 2.46)

Fig. 2.43 Wire rod coiler (upcoiler) Fig. 2.44 Functional scheme of strip coiler

Fig. 2.45 Bundling press for wire rod coils

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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

Fig. 2.46 Coilers (cold, hot, furnace coiler)

 Reheating furnaces in rolling mills

 soaking pits – bloomings
 pushing type furnaces (for reheating of slabs, blooms, billets) - Fig. 2.47
 walking beam furnaces (better controlled than pushing-type furnaces)
 rotary-hearth furnaces and roll-over-type furnaces (tube mills – round billets) - Fig. 2.48
 tunnel furnaces (e.g. in front of tube sizing mills)

Fig. 2.47 Pushing-type furnace Fig. 2.48 Rotary-hearth furnace

Summary of terms of this chapter

Division as per construction of rolling mill stands and number of rolls – sort of rolled products and
diameter of work rolls – way of rotation of rolls – arrangement of rolling mill stands, rolling mill –
housings, work rolls, bearings, adjusting equipment, balancing equipment, fittings for rolling, roll
change devices – transport and handling devices – furnaces.

Questions to discussed curriculum

2.1. What are criteria for division of rolling mills?
2.2. What types of rolling mill stands do you know, considering their structure and number of rolls?
2.3. What is the basic difference between non-reversing and reversing rolling?
2.4. What is the difference between continuous rolling mill and rolling mill with cross-country
arrangement?
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 Layout and technological equipment of rolling mills

2.5. What is the basic equipment of the roll stand?

2.6. What types of housings of roll stands do you know?
2.7. What is the difference between work rolls and back-up rolls?
2.8. What material can work rolls be made of?
2.9. What types of work rolls do you know?
2.10. What is the function of adjusting and balancing eqipment?
2.11. What is the reducer as a part of the roll stand complex for?
2.12. Why coupling/wobbler is mounted between the spindle and the shaft of the driving motor?
2.13. What belongs to fittings of rolling mills?
2.14. What is the manipulator determined for?
2.15. Are you able to enumerate at least 3 types of furnaces used for reheating of the material in
rolling mills?

Used references that are recommended for further study

GINZBURG, V. B.: Steel-Rolling Technology : Theory and Practice. New York : Marcel Dekker,
1989.

23
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

3. Theoretical aspects of longitudinal rolling

Time for study: 8 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

define the deformation zone (contact arc length = contact between the rolled stock and
the roll), biting capabilities of rolls, speed relations in the deformation zone, forward
slip, strain rate, spreading, roll force, roll torque, forming factor and roll flattening.

Presentation

 Deformation zone
The longitudinal rolling is a continuous forming process, in the course of which the rotating rolls pull
the rolled stock into the roll gap and press it within. These events are not going on at the given
moment in the whole volume of the formed material, but only in its limited part – in deformation
zone. The deformation zone is defined by contact arc length (the projected roll gap length) and mean
width (see Fig. 3.1.).

Deformation zone
- entry plane AA1
- exit plane BB1
- nip angle AB and A1B1

Contact arc length

We search for the length of leg AC of right-angle triangle ACO, where:

h
OA  R; O C  R  (3.1)
2
h  h h h
2

2 2
l d  AC  R 2   R    R  R  2R 
2 2
  R  h   R  h (3.2)
 2  2 4 4

Mean width of deformation zone

b1  b 0
bs  (3.3)
2

24
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

Fig. 3.1 Scheme of longitudinal rolling

 Biting capability of rolls

The rolling process may be divided into three stages (see Fig. 3.2). In the first stage the rolling starts at
the moment of contact between the rolled stock and rolls at points AA1 and finishes at the entry of the
front end into the exit plane BB1. In the second stage the parameters of the deformation zone remain
without change, we are speaking about steady-state rolling. The third stage starts by the rolled stock
rear end entry into the plane AA1 and finishes by the rolled stock exit from the rolls.

Fig. 3.2 Stages of longitudinal rolling: 1st stage a) to b), 2nd stage c), 3rd stage d) to e)

25
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

A prerequisite for realizing the rolling process is the

metal bite by rolls. At the contact of the rolled stock
with rolls the normal forces N and hence the tangential
forces of friction T (Fig. 3.3) will act in contact
surfaces.
T  N  (3.4)
Friction angle β:
tg   (3.5)
The x component of normal force Nx:
N x  N  sin  (3.6)
Fig. 3.3 Forces acting on the rolled stock at
The x component of tangential force Tx: contact with rolls
Tx  T  cos  (3.7)

Three cases can occur:

    (Fig. 3.4 left)
the bite will not occur N x  Tx ;
 the bite will not occur N x  Tx ;    (balance)
 the bite will occur N x  Tx ;    (Fig. 3.4 right)

bite does not occur bite occurs

Fig. 3.4 Resolution of forces, rolling on plain rolls

This was valid on the equilibrium conditions. Possibilities of positive influencing – e.g. by additional
force or start off moving the rolled stock on the roller table.
After overcoming the inital issues the contact surface between the rolled stock and the rolls will be
enlarged and bite conditions will be improved.

26
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

 Speed relations in deformation zone

In the steady-state rolling the continuity law (for continuous rolling) is fully applied. It can be
expressed by the following continuity equation:

S0  v0  S1  v1  S2  v2  Sn  vn  const (3.8)

where Sn is cross section area in pass n,
S0 and S1 are cross section areas of the rolled stock in the entry and exit plane of the
deformation zone,
vn – mean exit speed in pass n,
v0 and v1 are mean horizontal speeds of the rolled stock in the entry and exit plane.

With regard to the fact that the rolled product cross section is diminishing in the course of rolling, the
rolled product speed has to be increased, which has the following consequences: even at the constant
speed of rolls vv the relation between the speed of the rolled stock and the rolls will be changed. It is
necessary to single out from the circumferential speed of rolls its horizontal component in any place of
the nip angle:

vv, x  vv  cos  (3.9)

The vertical plane where the relation between speeds vp

and vv,x is changed, as well as the direction of the
friction force, is named neutral plane (Fig. 3.5).
Neutral plane – its position is determined by neutral
angle γ. If we denote the horizontal speed of the rolled
stock in the neutral plane vp, γ , then:

v p,  vv  cos  (3.10)

During hot rolling the equalizing of speeds in a wider

zone around the neutral plane occurs – in sticking
area.
At the beginning of bite the mean horizontal speed of
the rolled stock vp,x is smaller than the horizontal
projection of circumferential speed of rolls vv,x

v p, x  vv  cos  (3.11) Fig. 3.5 Areas of deformation zone

(1 - adherence (sticking) area,
So, the rolled stock moves relatively against the 2 - retardation area, 3 - forward slip area,
direction of rolling, whereas the horizontal component 4 - exciting area, 5 - fading deformation
of the friction force acts in the rolling direction. This area, 6 - spread area, Neutrální rovina -
part of deformation zone is called retardation area. neutral plane)

For the exit plane will be valid:

v p, x  vv  cos  (3.12)

So, the rolled stock moves relatively in the direction of rolling, whereas the horizontal
component of the friction force acts against the rolling direction. This part of deformation zone is
named forward slip area.

27
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

The exciting and fading deformation areas affect the unquestionable influence of rigid ends on
deformation phenomena in the deformation zone, which results in a certain extention beyond its
geometric boundaries; then we speak about the real length of deformation zone ld,sk.

 Forward slip in rolling

In the course of rolling the rolled stock exit speed may - on specific conditions - be higher than the
speed of rolls. The knowledge of the forward slip is important for continuous rolling.
v1  vobv
s 100 (3.13)
vobv

where v1 is exit speed of the rolled stock,

vobv – speed of rolls.

 Strain rate
In general, strain rate expresses a change of the relative or actual deformation in time. The
instantaneous strain rate
de
e  (3.14)
dt

Mean strain rate

2 vv h
e    ln 0 (3.15)
3 ld h1

 Spread
The lateral flow of the metal in the roll gap causes enlargement (exceptionally even reduction) of the
rolled stock width and is called spread. In rolling three sorts of spread occur, namely free, limited and
forced.
The spread course and quantity in rolling are influenced in a complex way by mechanical factors (v, e,
ė), geometric factors (h0, h1, b0, ld, D, ) and physical factors (, T, M). The parallel acting of
mechanical, geometric and physical factors has influence on the resulting state of stress and the
character of changes of longitudinal and lateral deformation.
If the rolled stock leaves the roll gap with a general shape of side surfaces, then we usually determine
mean lateral deformation from the relation
b1s S h
ln  ln 1 0 max (3.16)
b0 s S0  h1 max
where S0, S1 are entry and exit cross sections of the rolled stock [mm2],
h0max, h1max – entry, exit maximum height of the rolled stock [mm].

If the rolled stock with a variable shape of side surfaces enters and exits the rolls, then values
b0max, b1max, or b0s, b1s have to be found out experimentally, always for a specific case of rolling.
So, in dependence on rolling type and mode it is possible to calculate all three increments of
width deformations bmax, bs and bstyk :
28
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

bmax  b1max  b0 (increment of maximum width) (3.17)

bs  b1s  b0 (increment of mean width) (3.18)
bstyk  b1styk  b0 (increment of contact surface between roll and rolled stock) (3.19)

In the gap of plain rolls usually a linear width increment of contact surface between roll and
rolled stock is presumed for simplification. The mean value of this width bs is determined from the
relation
b0  b1
bs  (3.20)
2
and hence the horizontal projection of the contact surface
S h  bs  ld (3.21)

For spread calculations in rolling of thick products with free spread on conditions of roughing mills
the following selected formulas are used:
Gubkin’s formula
1 1 1 3
2
b   D  2  h  2 1 h   D  2  h  2 1  h 
              (3.22)
h 2  h0   h0  2 h0 2  h0   h0  2  h0 
Bachtinov’s formula
1 1
b  D  2  h  2 h
 0,407        0,287  (3.23)
h  h0   h0  h0
Smirnov’s formula
1 1 1 3
2
b  D  2  h  2 1 h  D  2  h  2 1  h 
                    (3.24)
h  0  0 
h h 2 h0  0  0 
h h 2  0 
h
Tarnovsky’s formula
1 1
b 0,61  D  2  h  2
      0,05 (3.25)
h 2  h0   h0 
where D is diameter of rolls [mm],
   - friction coefficient (calculation is carried out as per EKELUND’s relation (5)),
b – absolute spread, b  b1  b0 [mm],
h – absolute height reduction [mm].
The spread rate in dependence on chemical composition of the material may be determined for a
specific forming temperature e.g. according to the following formula, which was derived in The
Institute of Modelling and Control of Forming Processes in the Department of Metal Forming:
b
950C   0.5143  0.0561 C  0.0120  Mn  0.0312  Si  0.0192  Cr  0.6931 N  3.4313  P 
h
 0.5912  S  0.1400  Cu  0.0399  Ni  0.2552  Al  0.1234  Mo  17.0206  W  (3.26)
 0.0579  V  0.7188  Ti  4.4571 B  17.8213  Ca  11.3084  Nb

29
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

The content of particular elements in this equation is given in wt%. Equation (3.26) was obtained by
rolling of ca 30 types of steels on plain steel rolls of the laboratory rolling mill K350 in the four-high
arrangement.
Characteristic cases of penetration the plastic deformation through height of the cross section and the
influence of plain work rolls diameter on spread may be seen in Figs 3.6 and 3.7.

Fig. 3.6 Characteristic cases of penetration the plastic deformation through height of cross section:
a) height deformation does not penetrate into the middle of the rolled stock height
b) height deformation strikes central layers of metal
c) in medium layers of the metal the maximum height deformation is achieved

Fig. 3.7 Influence of plain work rolls diameter on spread

a) initial wedge sample of length 150 mm with milled notches (side-view)
b) wedge sample after rolling (roll diameter 140 mm – top-view)
c) wedge sample after rolling (roll diameter 64 mm – top-view)

 Roll force
Roll force is defined as a vertical component of the resulting compression force of the rolled metal on
the work rolls. It is determined as a sum of elementary vertical forces caused by radial and tangential
stress components.
The roll force may be calculated as the product of mean flow stress (SPDO) ps, mean forming factor
QFv and contact surface of the rolled stock with the working part of roll Sh.

FV   ps  QFV  S h (3.27)
where FV is roll force [kN],
  ps - mean flow stress [MPa],
Sh - horizontal projection of rolled stock contact surface with working part of roll [mm2],
QFv - mean forming factor

30
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

In rolling of flat products with a small final thickness it is necessary to consider rolls flattening, and
hence increase of ld value, and spread of the material in roll gap. In rolling on grooved rolls the value
of the contact surface is determined with respect to the used pass sequence, spread value and groove
geometry.

Among main factors influencing the value of roll force rank:

 power-force parameters (except for roll force also roll torque and drive output),
 maximum biting capabilities of rolls – for the reliable bite the following condition has to be
fulfiled:
hmax  Rmin  02,max (3.28)
where Rmin is minimum radius of rolls with consideration of re-turning the rolls [mm],
0,max – maximum nip angle [°],
 hot forming limit,
 achievement of required structural state and properties,
 achievement of minimum thickness differences in the cross and longitudinal section of the
sheet/plate and maximum flatness

On current conditions the check of power-force parameters is decisive and a stress is also laid on
dimensional accuracy of rolled products.
During the calculation and check of power-force parameters the following variables are successively
determined:
 mean flow stress ps,,
 roll force Fv,
 roll torque Mk,
 drive output P

 Forming factor
The forming factor QFv features influence of mean stress acting at the roll/stock interface in the
deformation zone on the roll force value. The value QFv depends on shape and geometry of the rolled
stock in the roll gap, deformation conditions and conditions of friction between the rolled stock and
work rolls. For conditions of flat products rolling the forming factor is expressed as a function
 l b h 
QFv  f1  d ; 0 ; ;   (3.29)
 hs h0 h0 
where ld/hs is geometric factor,
ld - deformation zone length [mm],
hs - rolled stock mean height hs =(h0+h1)/2 [mm],
h0; b0 - initial height and width of the material [mm],
h1; b1 - height and width after rolling [mm],
μ - friction coefficient in rolling,
Δh = h0 – h1 [mm]

The geometric factor (in Anglo-Saxon references the term “aspect ratio” is used) implies the roll
geometry and the roll gap set up and is expressed as follows:
ld 2  R  (h0  h1 )
 (3.30)
hs h0  h1
where R - roll radius [mm].

For conditions of rolling in symmetrical grooves the opinions of functional expression of forming
factor QFv are not unified. Differences are above all in the expression of geometric factors.

31
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

l b h 
QFv  f 2  s ; 0 max ; s ;   (3.31)
 hss h0 s h0 s 

The geometric factor ls/hss may be expressed by relation

ls 2  Rsp  (h0 s  h1s )
 (3.32)
hss h0 s  h1s
Friction conditions in the roll gap are influenced by the work rolls roughness and hardness, the
scaled rolled stock surface and temperature, rolling speed and other factors. In case of the evaluation
for a specific rolling mill stand we suppose that the value of friction coefficient μ is in the course of
rolling constant and may be included directly in the value of forming factor QFv. The aim is to find an
optimum function representing an appropriate dependence of forming factor QFv on forming
conditions.

 Roll torque
Roll torque is a main part of the basic moment Mz and assures the deformation process of the material
in the roll gap. The roll torque is transferred from the twisting moment of the drive via the spindle to
the work rolls. In general, the value of roll torque depends on the deformation resistance value which
the rolled stock puts up during rolling (in the course of its moving in the rolling direction) to the work
rolls. In practice two empirical relations for determination of the value of roll torque MV [kN·m] exist.
The first one is in the form as follows:
M V  Ft  R   s  S h  R   ps  QM  S h  R (3.33)
where R is mean working radius [mm],
Ft - friction force [kN],
  s - mean deformation resistance of the formed metal in direction of the tangent to the work
roll [MPa],
QM – mean forming factor for determination of roll torque.
The second relation may be expressed as follows:
M V  F  a  F  1  ld  F  1  R  h (3.34)
where F is the compression force [kN],
a - arm of the resulting compression force [m],
  1 - coefficient featuring the ratio of the arm of the compression force to the projected roll gap
length  1=a/ld.

 Flattening of rolls
As all rolls are elastic, they are also deformed during forming. A main substance of this deformation is
shown in Fig. 3.8, where the shape of the rigid roll with radius R is compared to the flattened roll with
radius R´.
Main impacts of the roll flattening are:
 contact arc length is extended as compared with the rigid roll
 the entry and exit surfaces are shifted from the rolls centerline

32
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

Fig. 3.8 Geometric relations at elastic flattening of rolls

For radius of flattened roll R´ the following relation is valid:

 F 
R   R  1  e v  (3.35)
 b  h 

R  R  1 

 16  1  2  F 
 v  (3.36)
 E b  h 
where R is roll radius [mm],
Fv - roll force [N]
e - elastic constant [MPa-1]
E - modulus of elasticity in compression [MPa]
b - rolled stock width of [mm]
v – 0.3 (Poisson number)

Solved tasks
Example 3.1
During rolling in blooming with roll diameter D = 1 100 mm a pass with absolute thickness
reduction Δh = 120 mm was carried out. Calculte the nip angle and deformation zone length
using approximate and accurate formula. Express the percentage difference. Make a decision
whether it is possible to use the approximate formula in technological practice.

 Solution
For calculation of nip angle we use the following equation:
 h   120 
  arccos1    arccos1    270044"
 D  1100
The length of the deformation zone we calculate using the approximate and accurate relation:

ld  R  h  550 120  256.9 mm

33
 Theoretical aspects of rolling

h 2 1202
ld  R  h   550 120   249.8 mm
4 4
The error in per cent we determine simply by means of rule of three:
100%............249.8 mm
x% …………256.9 mm
256.9
x 100  102.84%
249.8
The mistake in the case of using the approximate formula represents 2.84 % and this approximate
formula may be applied in the technological practice.

Summary of terms of this chapter

Deformation zone – biting capabilities of rolls – forward slip – strain rate – spread – roll force – roll
torque – forming factor – flattening of rolls.

Questions to discussed curriculum

3.1. What are biting capabilities of rolls?
3.2. What is forward slip in rolling?
3.3. What is strain rate? What is its unit?
3.4. What expresses spread in rolling?
3.5. What are 3 types of spread?
3.6. What factors have essential influence on spread value?
3.7. How is defined roll force?
3.8. What features the forming factor?
3.9. What the forming factor value depends on?
3.10. What is roll torque?
3.11. What are main consequences of roll flattening?

Used references that are recommended for further study

GINZBURG, V. B.: Steel-Rolling Technology : Theory and Practice. New York : Marcel Dekker,
1989.

34
 Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with continuous casting

4. Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with

continuous casting

Time for study: 3 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

describe production of semi-finished rolled products, advantages and disadvantages of

continuously cast semi-products...

Presentation

 Initial material in rolling mills

1) cast – ingots, continuously cast semi-products (CCS), centrifugally cast hollow ingots, die cast
slabs, powder materials and others
2) hot rolled semi-finished products

 Production of semi-finished rolled products

• blooming
blooming mills, they roll blooms of square cross sections or also slabs to ↔ 1200 mm,
reheating in soaking pits, reversing two-high mills (heavy manipulators), plain part + grooves,
tilting. The blooming flow diagram at Třinecké železárny (Třinec Iron and Steel works) is
given in Fig. 4.1

• slabbing
slab rolling, horizontal and vertical rolls, plain rolls, in an upright position to remove bevels,
then in horizontal position (flatwise)
(not used any more – replaced for continuous casting)

• billet mills
mill stands for rolling of billets and sheet bars, up-to-date – continuous, groove designing
(box grooves, diamond – square, oval – square, oval – round)

35
 Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with continuous casting

Fig. 4.1 Blooming at Třinec Iron and Steel Works

(TŽ - ohřívací pece a blokovna I. – soaking pits, reheating furnaces and blooming I
ZPO 1 – CCM No. 1, bramové hospodářství – slab treatment,
vratná trať – reversing rolling mill
1 - transfer car, 2 - finishing line, 3 - protective layer spraying, 4 - transfer set, 5 - walking
beam furnace, 6 -hydraulic scalebreaker No. 1, 7 - old soaking pits, 8 - new soaking pits, 9 -
ingot bogie, 10 - hydraulic scalebreaker No. 2, 11 - ingot tilter, 12 - blooming drive, 13 -
pinion stands, 14 - blooming roll stand (two-high mill), 15 - roller tables, 16 - hydraulic
shear, 17 - bloom and slab stamping machine, shromažďovací místo - gathering places,
kontrolní bod - checking points, hlavní agregáty - key aggregates, pomocná zařízení -
auxiliary equipment)

Roughing mills are with a single roll stand or two roll stands in tandem arrangement – with two-high
roll stands or three-high roll stands (older mills). Currently bloomings are equipped with rolls of
diameters 1200 and 1300 mm, or up to 1350 mm. Ingots are reheated in soaking pits. One soaking pit
has usually 4 chambers for 6 to 8 ingots. The ingot rolling requires using higher reheating
temperatures, which ensure better weldability and achievement of higher finish rolling temperatures.
The ingot rolling procedure show photographs in Fig 4.2.

Ingot stripping Soaking pits

36
 Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with continuous casting

\
Fig. 4.2 Ingot rolling in blooming

The billet rolling mills work usually as single-line mills, located directly behind blooming mills in the
open, semi-continuous or continuous arrangement (e.g. Fig. 4.3).

Fig. 4.3 Layout of billet mill with three trains

 Continuous casting of semi-products (CCS - Continuously Cast Semis)

It is the widespread used mode of production replacement for rolled semi-finished products nowadays.

Benefits of continuous casting in comparison with the ingot technology:

- productivity,
- material savings 10 to 15 %,
- fuel energy savings,
- production and investment costs savings
- labour force savings,
- improvement of surface, internal quality and homogeneity

Disadvantages of continuous casting:

- central segregates and porosity (Figs 4.4 and 4.5), pressure-welding up of which requires an
increased reduction ratio,
- limited CCS assortment as far as dimensions and shapes is concerned
- mostly insufficient casting speed with regard to required entry speeds of continuous rolling
mills

37
 Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with continuous casting

Fig. 4.4 Macrostructure of continuously cast slab with thickness

150 mm (transformer steel with 3 % Si)

axial shrinkage porosities axial crack

Fig. 4.5 Round continuously cast semi-product Ø 535 mm

Currently a very large steel assortment is continuously cast. Except for common sorts of carbon and
slightly alloyed steels also microalloyed, silicon, corrosion-resistant, creep-resistant, etc. steels are
cast.

Continuous casting machines (CCM)

That is the question of direct connection of continuous casting on CCM equipped with stationary
moulds with rolling of finished products. This procedure is limited by considerable differences
between the CCM exit speed and the minimum entry speed of finishing rolling mills.
As on CCM with stationary moulds the increase in casting speed to 6 to 7 m.min-1 is difficult, the high-
reduction forming machines are integrated between CCM and the rolling mill. Some of them, e.g.
planetary mill Sendzimir or Platzer, are able to roll out the finishing rolled product (strip) with the
rolled stock extension in one pass.
In the near future, dimensions and shapes of CCS could be very close to dimensions and shapes of
final products (so-called near-net-shape-casting).

The required smaller dimensions of CCS and at the same time higher casting speeds are ensured by
development and commissioning of the new generation of CCM with movable moulds. Photographs of
the continuously cast semi-product and examples of conventional and new CCM types are shown in
Figs 4.6 - 4.9.

38
Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with continuous casting

Continuously cast slabs Continuously cast semis with round cross

section

Billet continuous casting

Fig. 4.6 Continuously cast semi-finished products

Fig. 4.7 Various technologies of steel and non-ferrous metals continuous casting
39
 Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with continuous casting

Fig. 4.8 Slab continuous casting with bending of CCS

(mezipánev - tundish, voda - water, zakřivený krystalizátor: primární chlazení - curved mold: primary
cooling, vodní sprchy - water sprays, zóna sekundárního chlazení - secondary cooling zone, rovnání-–
straightening, hlavní pnutí: tření, ferostattický tlak, tepelná pnutí, ohybová napětí - main stresses:
friction, ferostatic pressure, thermal stresses, vending stresses)

Fig. 4.9 Thin slabs and strips continuous casting

 Ingots
The ingot dimensions, shape and weight depend on the purpose of its use and chemical composition of
steel. The ingot cross section is:
- square for rolling of semi-finished products, steel sections, narrow and partly wide strips,
universal flats and seamless tubes;
- rectangular for rolling of flat products, i.e. plates and thin sheets, wide strips and universal
mill plates of larger widths;
- round for rolling of seamless tubes
- polygonal, mostly for blanks (rough forgings).

A general rule is valid: the higher qulity and more demanding steels are cast to ingots with smaller
weight and more bevels. Carbon steels with carbon content to 0.3 % are cast to ingots of the biggest
weight.

40
 Production of semi-finished rolled products and tie-in of rolling with continuous casting

Summary of terms of this chapter

Ingots – continuously cast semi-products (CCS) – semi-finished rolled products – blooming – slabbing
– billet mills

Questions to discussed curriculum

4.1. What are roughing mills?
4.2. What furnaces are used for reheating of ingots before rolling?
4.3. What are benefits of continuous casting?
4.4. What are disadvantages of continuous casting?
4.5. How may ingots be divided as per their cross section?
4.6. What do you think - is surface and internal quality of ingot better than of continuously cast semi-
product or vice versa?
4.7. Are currently ingots still used?

Used references recommended for further study

GINZBURG, V. B.: Steel-Rolling Technology : Theory and Practice. New York : Marcel Dekker,
1989.

41
 Plates

5. Flat hot and cold rolled products

Time for study: 8 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

describe production of hot and cold rolled plates and strips

acquire a survey of manufacturing plants in our region and their product mix

Presentation

5.1. Plates
That is the question of flat products with a full cross section along the whole length. A boundary
between plates and sheets is thickness 3 mm. Width is to 5 m, maximum thickness up to 100 mm.

Initial semi-products – slab ingots (up to 100 tons), continuously cast slabs, rolled or forged slabs.
Reheating is carried out in continuous walking beam or pushing-type furnaces (Fig. 5.1).
They are rolled especially in a single roll stand (less often with two roll stands and others) – Figs 5.2
and 5.3, and reversing rolling mills (with four-high or two-high stands). There is a chance to roll the
width in advance, turn the rolled-out stock by 90° and finish-roll the length (reduction of anisotropy).

Slab after reheating in walking beam furnace Rolled-out stock of initial slab in plate four-
high mill

Resulting plate Four-high rolling mill 3.5 (Vítkovice)

Fig. 5.1 Plate production procedures
42
 Plates

Fig. 5.2 Scheme of a single stand plate rolling mill

1-chamber reheating furnaces, 2-pushing-type reheating furnaces, 3-scalebreaker, 4-four-high stand,
5-roller table, 6-heat treatment furnace, 7-straightening machines, 8-cooling bed, 9-shears, 10-transfer

Fig. 5.3 Scheme of two-stand plate rolling mill 5.5 – 4.8

1- pushing-type furnaces, 2- car-hearth furnaces, 3- scalebreaker, 4- 5.5 m four-high mill, 5- transport
devices, 6- 4.8 m four-high mill, 7- hot straightener, 8- cooling bed, 9- inspection bed,
10- roll-turning shop

Rolling mill stands are equipped with two independent adjusting systems: the rough electro-
mechanical adjustment between passes and the fine hydraulic adjustment in the course of the pass. A
prerequisite for a long service life is efficient roll cooling.
The plate rolling is connected with various finishing banks (for accelerated cooling, cooling beds,
dividing devices and heat treatment furnaces). A very suitable is connection with TMRC
(thermomechanical rolling and cooling) → temperature and deformation control → the aim is
control of structural processes → finer grain → better mechanical properties.

 Four-high mill 3.5 in Vítkovice Steel, a.s.

The initial material for the four-high rolling mill 3.5 is mostly slabs coming from the own continuous
casting machine, which are reheated in pushing-type furnaces. Slab dimensions:
 thickness: 100 - 250 mm,
 width: 800 - 1 580 mm,
 length: 1 700 - 3 100 mm

43
 Plates

The slab shortest length is limited by the pitch of bearing skid rails and the maximum by the furnace
inside width.
Each furnace has two rows, but different construction, control system and different output and
technological parameters of reheating.

Charging and reheating slabs in pusher furnaces

There are two chances of slab charging:
 charging from the storage yard of 3.5 Four-high rolling mill (Fig. 5.4) - stored slabs are
charged to furnaces as per the charging schedule prepared in advance,
 direct charging – slabs are transported from the CCM runout section only after
necessary cooling down and charged to pushing-type furnaces. The temperature of slabs
is usually higher, in dependence on cooling time and transport.
Reheating in pusher furnaces is carried out in such a way so that slabs coud not be damaged during
reheating. Slabs are divided into groups as per steel grades, for each group the different strategy of
reheating is chosen. Groups of steels are marked by numerals 1 - 9. Particular steel grades are ranked
to the reheating groups in the production management system. The temperature mode of the furnaces
is controlled by the control computer in dependence on the pace of rolling in such a way so that
reheating to the prescribed temperature and uniform warming-through the slab could be guaranteed.
The common steel grades are reheated to the slab average temperature 1 220 °C (for the rolled product
thickness up to 6.4 mm 1 250 °C - faster cooling in rolling). The alloy, microalloyed and high carbon
steels are reheated to the slab average temperature 1 250 °C (higher resistance characteristics in
forming - more pass reductions and hence faster cooling).

Fig. 5.4 Slab storage yard Fig. 5.5 Sequence of slabs extraction out of
the furnace

Slab extraction out of pusher furnaces

Based on signal from the process computer of the rolling mill or signal from the operator, the reheated
slab is extracted out of a specific row in the furnace by means of the extractor (Fig. 5.5). The slab is
put into the centre line of the roller table section behind the furnace. After putting the slab on the roller
table the slab is transported to the hydraulic scalebreaker.
In conventional or temperature-controlled rolling where an imperceptible decrease in slab temperature
before rolling has no substantial influence, the signal for extraction the slab out of the furnace is sent
in such a way that the slab is transported to the roller table behind the scalebreaker slightly ahead of
time. From the roller table the slab is transported to the front side of the roll stand, as soon as the roll
stand is released.
In controlled rolling (CR, TMR) the signal for extracting the slab out of the furnace is sent in such a
way so that a fix pace of rolling the pertinent group of slabs was maintained and the new slab could be
transported to the roll stand without delay. The slab oscilation on the roller table behind the
44
 Plates

scalebreaker is carried out at speed ±0.15 m.s-1 to prevent the local slab cooling and overheating the
rollers.
Hydraulic scalebreaker of slabs
This device serves for removal the primary scale from top and bottom surface of slabs by water with
pressure 23 MPa (on nozzles). In relation to slab thickness, the corresponding distance of top nozzles
from the slab surface is continuously set up. The bottom nozzles are fixed below the rollers. The slab
thickness is set up by the control system of the scalebreaker either from the furnace control system or
manually from the operator cabin. After passage the scalebreaker the slab:
 is transported by the feeding roller table to the rolling mill stand, or
 is oscillating on the roller table behind the scalebreaker.
Basic technological parameters of the four-high rolling mill 3.5
The rolling mill has four rolls: two are work rolls and two are back-up rolls.
 Work rolls (Fig. 5.6). - max diameter 1 005 mm
- min diameter 940 mm
- roll barrel 3 500 mm
 Back-up rolls (Fig. 5.7). - max diameter 1 900 mm
- min diameter 1 750 mm.

Fig. 5.6 A pair of work rolls with chocks Fig. 5.7 Back-up rolls, front view - “undressed”
prepared for changing roll, rear view - roll with chocks and cooling
nozzles

The roll stand K3.5 is shown in Fig. 5.8. The pressure capability of the stand (roll force maximum
value, including dynamic peeks acting in the roll gap, for which the stand is designed and which must
not be exceeded during normal operation) is 62 MN.

Fig. 5.8 Roll stand K3.5 – side view and control cabin view

45
 Plates

The roll gap adjusting is ensured by the rough (electro-mechanical) and fine (hydraulic) adjustment.
Hydraulic cylinders of the automatic gauge control system (AGC) are hydraulic pistons mounted in
the recess of the bottom cross beams of the housings, below the back-up roll chocks. They compensate
rebounds of rolls (at temperature differences of particular parts of the rolled stock - in spots where the
material is cooler they “push more”) and function as the bottom fine adjustment (Fig. 5.9).

Fig. 5.9 Automatic roll gap adjustment system

Work roll cooling: it is a segment system of cooling, which affects the thermal crown of work rolls at
the same time. The segment cooling is divided into three zones along the roll barrel (edge - centre -
edge). Hydraulic descaling in the roll stand: it is carried out always against the direction of entry the
rolled material inbetween rolls. Top nozzles are set up simultaneously with a lift of the top rolls
assembly, and so no set up of these nozzles through height is needed. Bottom nozzles are stationary.
The counterbending system of work rolls: hydraulic cylinders are used for pushing the work rolls to
the back-up rolls.
Technological measurements
The real thickness of every finish-rolled product is measured after final pass by means of contactless
thickness gauge with three heads. Measurements are carried out during movement of the rolled
product in the middle of plate and simultaneously in the distance ca 150 mm from its both edges; thus
it is ensured that the fluent course of rolling will not be disturbed. During thickness measurements the
influence of the steel temperature and chemical composition is automatically compensated.
Width of the rolled product is measured by rulers or by shapemeter.
Temperature measurements of slabs and rolled-out stocks are carried out by pyrometers before and
after the rolling mill stand.
Shape of the rolled material is measured in an optical way by means of Shape Scanner (Fig. 5.10). It is
located perpendicularly above the turntable at the roll stand rear side above the crane runway. The
rolled material shape is shown optically at the scanner surface. The receiver uses the own thermal
radiation of the material. The following measurements are carried out:
 contours of the rolled material and hence dimensions: length and width,
 the largest inscribed rectangular

46
 Plates

Fig. 5.10 Plate shape measurement

47
 Strips

5.2. Hot rolled strips

Hot rolled strips represent a crucial share of the flat products totally produced quantity. They are
produced in thicknesses from 0.8 to 35 mm, in widths up to 2.3 m and coil weight up to 45 tons.

For hot rolling of steel strips the following rolling mills are mostly used: continuous, semicontinuous
(Figs 5.11 – 5.13), Steckel, reversing compact, planetary.
The issue of so-called temperature wedge in case of continuous mills (the rear end of the strip is
cooler by up to 90°C) is solved by introduction the rolling technology with speed up. This technology
consists in speeding up the finishing train at the moment of gripping the front end of the strip by the
coiler, which leads to warming of faster rolled and cooler rear parts of the strip by the deformation
heat.
Another possibility is installation of coilbox: The rolled-out stock is coiled with the heat preservation
and temperature equalization. The temperature wedge along the mill is reduced to ca 20 °C.

Fig. 5.11 Scheme of continuous (a) and semicontinuous (b) wide strip mill
1-reheating furnaces, 2-vertical scalebreaker, 3-horizontal scalebreaker, 4-continuous universal
four-high mill, 5-reversing universal four-high mill, 6-connecting roller table, 7-flying shears, 8-
scalebreaker, 9-continuous four-high stands of finishing train, 10-runout and cooling section, 11-
coilers

Fig. 5.12 Scheme of up-to-date semicontinuous mill for strip hot rolling

48
 Strips

Fig. 5.13 Continuous mill train

Steckel mill
This rolling mill is equipped with a four-high roll stand with two furnace coilers (the rolled-out
product is alternately coiled on both coilers located in furnace chambers before and after the roll stand,
and it is thus continuously after-heated). This type of rolling mill is used above all for rolling of strip
made of steel grades with deteriorated hot formability, e.g. corrosion-resistant steels. The scheme of
Steckel rolling mill you can see in Fig. 5.14.

Fig. 5.14 Scheme of Steckel mill

 Strip rolling mill P1500 Steckel (Minimill – ArcelorMittla Ostrava a.s.)

The scheme of this rolling mill is shown in Fig. 5.15. The liquid steel in casting ladles is transported
by transfer cars to the area of the Minimill, where it is further processed by secondary steelmaking
(ladle furnace).
In the ladle furnace the following procedures are carried out:
 temperature and chemical homogenization,
 steel deoxidation and its accurate alloying to the required chemical composition,
 steel desulphurization,
 decrease in content of non-metallic inclusions,
 thermal treatment – correction of temperature to the prescribed value for casting

After finishing the steel secondary treatment at the ladle furnace station, the casting ladle with liquid
steel is mounted in the ladle turret of the continuous casting machine from where the steel is cast via
the tundish into the mould. It is possible to cast CCS in width 740 to 1575 mm and thickness 150 mm.
CCS is by flame cutting (cutting torch) divided into particular required lengths (max 18 m).

49
 Strips

The hot CCS is on the roller table transported to the walking beam preheating and soaking furnace.
After reheating to rolling temperature the CCS is transported to the area of the Steckel rolling mill
P1500. After scale removal the CCS enters the two-stand tandem reversing rolling mill with one
vertical edger. The rolling mill is equipped with two furnace coilers, which make temperature of the
rolled stock in the course of rolling more uniform. After the finishing pass through the mill stand the
strip is led on the roller table through 7 sections of laminar cooling to the coiler of final strip. After
coiling, finishing (final treatment) and marking, the coils are transported to the storage area (Fig.
5.16).

Fig. 5.15 Scheme of mill P1500 Steckel, ArcelorMittal Ostrava, a.s

(Tandemová pec - tandem furnace, Pánvová pec - ladle furnace, ZPO č. 2 - CCM No. 2, Brama
- slab, Předvýrobek plochý (brama) - semifinished flat product (slab), Pecní navíječka - furnace coiler,
Kvarto - four-high mill, Vertikál - edger, Válcovací pořadí - rolling mill train, Laminární chlazení -
laminar cooling, Navíječka pásů – strip coiler;
Pás široký válcovaný za tepla (svitky) - hot rolled wide strip (coils), Pás široký válcovaný za tepla
podélně dělený - slit hot rolled wide strip, Plechy válcované za tepla - hot rolled sheets/plates, Profily
ocelové otevřené tvářené za studena - steel cold formed opened sections, Silniční ocelová svodidla -
steel road barriers)

The production plant of the proper Steckel mill was designed for annual capacity ca 1 000 kt/year. By
gradual technological measures the annual capacity was increased to 1 270 kt/year.

Uneually (inhomogeneously) cooled strip Water cooling - detail

50
 Strips

Strip coiler Coil

Fig. 5.16 Two-stand mill P1500

 Continuous casting of steel strips

Fig. 5.17 Steel strip

Fig. 5.18 Continuous casting of strips

51
 Strips

 Strip casting between rolls – non-ferrous metals

Fig. 5.19 Magnesium alloys Fig. 5.20 Aluminium

 “Direct” rolling
That is the question of rolling immediately after the continuous casting machine (it is very
advantageous as far as power and the whole economy is concerned).
Questions: To cast various slab thicknesses or to cast directly the strip?
How to harmonize the casting and rolling speed?

CSP : Compact Strip Production (Fig. 5.21)

continuous process, 160 m long tunnel furnace (for up to 3 slabs of length 50 m)

Fig. 5.21 CSP : Compact Strip Production

52
 Strips

ISP : Inline Strip Production (Fig. 5.22)

continuous process, forming the slab in the course of its bending, after-heating in the coiler

Fig. 5.22 ISP : Inline Strip Production

5.3. Cold rolled strips

A major part of the produced hot rolled strip is determined for further processing in cold rolling mills.
In cold rolling the useful properties of strips are increasing – increase in surface equality,
achievement of required miscellaneous combinations of strength and plastic properties, especially
physical and service properties, etc. are evident.
Thin strips are produced of low and high carbon steels, electrical silicon steels, transformer steel,
deep-drawing steel, austenitic CrNi steels, widespread are strips of non-ferrous metals.

The strip processing technology in cold rolling mills is usually the following:
a) Continuous pickling of strip in solution of HCl or H2SO4.
b) Cold rolling in the continuous tandem mill with four to six roll stands.
c) Continuous annealing or batch (in bell-type furnaces) annealing of strip.
d) Sizing/smoothing (planishing) in a continuous single-stand or two-stand rolling mill.
e) Finishing of sheets dimensions or surface in slitting/cut-to-length lines, or in
galvanizing/coating lines as per requirements of customers.
Used manners of scale removal:
- chemical (pickling in solution of HCl or H2SO4)
- electrolytic pickling
- mechanical (cracking, tensile and pressure strain extension of strips, brushing and grinding)
The strip after pickling is susceptible to corrosion – it has to be protected as soon as possible.

Basic types of strip cold rolling mills:

Two-high mill, classic four-high mill, four-high mill MKW (“Mehrwalzen-Kaltwalzwerk” - Fig. 5.23),
cluster mill [six roll(er) mill] and Sendzimir mill [20 roll(er) mill] - Fig. 5.24.

53
 Strips

Fig. 5.23 Four-high mill MKW Fig. 5.24 20 roller mill

All these stands can work as reversing or continuous. Examples of the rolling mill and production
process of the transformer steel are shown in Figs 5.25 and 5.26. Reversing stands have before and
after the roll stand recoiling and decoiling drums.

Fig. 5.25 Cold strip rolling mill

54
 Strips

Fig. 5.26 Production flow of transformer steel rolling

Specifics of cold rolling

 deformation texture origin – properties anisotropy
 strain hardening cumulation – annealing (intermediate, final annealing – normalizing,
recrystallization, soft annealing, stress relief annealing; heat treatment)
 lubricated hard metal rolls (lowering friction and roll forces, better surface)
 smaller diameter of work rolls – restricted spread (and edge cracking), lower roll forces, lower
effectively rolled minimum thickness
 rolling with tension derived by coilers (front, rear) – increased stability of the rolled semi-
product, possibility of decrease in deformation resistance

Due to intensive strain hardening in cold forming the steels lose gradually their technological
weldability; when the limit of total cold deformation is achieved, their further forming is possible only
after prior recrystallization annealing. Intermediate or final annealing is carried out in protective
atmosphere (hydrogen + nitrogen; lines with bell-type furnaces or continuous lines) – e.g. Fig. 5.27.

55
 Strips

Fig. 5.27 Bell-type (batch) annealing furnace

Further finishing procedures in strip rolling mills

Heat treatment, protective coating with metals [Zn (Fig. 5.28), Sn; hot dip coating with molten metal,
electrolytic galvanizing/coating], painting/varnishing, coating, plating, enamelling, grinding,
polishing, levelling

Fig. 5.28 Rolled strips galvanizing

56
 Strips

Summary of terms of this chapter

Plates – hot rolled strips – cold rolled strips – Steckel rolling mill – direct rolling

Questions to discussed curriculum

5.1. What is the difference between (heavy) plate and thin sheet?
5.2. What are initial semi-products for rolling of plates/sheets and strips?
5.3. What are specifics of the Steckel rolling mill?
5.4. What are reasons for cold rolling of strips?

Used literature recommended for further study

GINZBURG, V. B. Metallurgical design of flat rolled steels. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2005.

57
 Prediction of power-force parameters of rolling

6. Prediction of power-force parameters of rolling and methods of flatness

control of flat rolled product

Time for study: 2 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

define basic requirements laid on up-to-date rolling mills and specify what are
chances for strip dimensions, crown and flatness control

Presentation

The capability of the accurate roll force and power prediction for perfect control of the forming
process is decisive in hot strip rolling.
In the past the prediction models were developed mainly on the basis of OROWAN’s theory and its
variants. However, a range of the process conditions, in the framework of which the accurate
prediction is required, was to a lesser extent limited, above all due to a couple of simplified
assumptions included in OROWAN’s theory. The exact prediction of power-force parameters
carefully formulated by the finite elements method is probably the best choice.
The metal flow is influenced by the heat distribution in strip because yield stress depends strongly on
temperature. On the other side, the temperature distribution in rolls is influenced by the heat
generation, which is caused by plastic deformation and friction, as well as the speed field in the roll;
this results in the relationship between the mechanical and temperature behaviour of the roll. For the
prediction of roll forces lots of procedures, which use e.g. the finite element or neuron network
methods, are available.

 Basic requirements laid on up-to-date rolling mills

- high production capacity,
- capability of managing higher power-force load,
- high roll stand rigidity

The high rigidity of the rolling mill stand ensures minimum thickness deviations along and across
the sheet, and so required flatness and shape (crown) accuracy. It may be reached by increase in work
roll diameter, back-up roll diameter or cross section of the solid web of the housing.
The roll gap shape of is controlled by roll deflection or roll counterbending. Rolls with camber are
such rolls the shape of which is not fully cylindrical. The uniform thickness along the strip is assured
by so-called pressure adjustment during the pass. We speak about the electro-hydraulic system AGC
(Automated Gauge Control).

 Strip dimension, crown and flatness control

The automatic control of important technological variables, mainly dimensions of the rolled stock, has
to be carried out in up-to-date strip mills. That is the question of the width and thickness control along
and across; this control is connected with flatness of the strip section at the same time. If the rolled
stock is less plastic, the bond stresses start to act against non-uniform extension across the width – if

58
 Prediction of power-force parameters of rolling

these stresses surpass critical values, the rolled stock loses its longitudinal stability and this gives rise
to local waves (Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1 Impact of roll gap shape on rolled strip flatness

(středová vlnitost - central waviness, bez vlnitosti - without waviness,
okrajová vlnitost - edge waviness)

Except for various kinds of waviness, the waviness near the strip edge (wavy edges) can come into
existence when the roll gap has the wedge shape. This waviness causes also deviations from
straightness - sable-shaped defect of the rolled strip, called camber as well.
The rolled stock cross section contour and flatness control is possible by the rolls shape change, their
magnitude set up change and controlled bending the rolls. The controlled roll shape changes are
achieved by either the roll crown (roll grinding to the crown shape), which is usual in case of both the
work and the back-up roll of mill stands, or controlled sectional cooling of the work roll surface.
However, these ways are insufficient.
The most efficient ways of automatic control of the rolled stock cross section contour (crown) and
flatness are based on the work roll bending control. The basic mode of this control consists in work
rolls counterbending against the induced roll pressure. This mode is implemented by means of
hydraulic expanding cylinders that are placed between the work rolls chocks, or between the chocks of
work rolls and back-up rolls, or between the work rolls chocks and between the chocks of work rolls
and back-up rolls simultaneously.

A progress in the crown and flatness control represented the introduction of mill stands with axially
shiftable rolls (Fig. 6.3), which are more efficient for crown and flatness control than the hydraulic
“counterbending” of work rolls.

59
 Prediction of power-force parameters of rolling

Fig. 6.2 Schematic illustration of up-to-date six roll mill stand enabling efficient crown and
flatness control of rolled strips

Further improvement of the crown and flatness control of strips brought the introduction of grinding
the work roll surface to a mild shape reminding the S-curve. Differences of roll diameter along its
barrel are usually from 0.3 to 0.8 mm. Both work rolls shape is fully identical, nevertheless - the rolls
are turned to each other (swivelled through) by 180° and mutually shiftable in opposite directions.
Changes of axial shift magnitudes can result in roll gap with neutral, negative and positive crown (Fig.
6.3).

Fig. 6.3 Symbolic scheme of changes the work roll grinding (“S-curve shape”)

60
 Prediction of power-force parameters of rolling

Summary of terms of this chapter

Counterbending of rolls – crowned rolls – AGC – pressure adjustment

Questions to discussed curriculum

6.1. What are requirements for rolling mill stands?
6.2. What are chances of the rolled product dimensions control?

Used references recommended for further study

61
 Rolling of long products

7. Rolling of long products

Time for study: 8 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

describe the production of heavy, medium and fine sections, bars and wire rod.
You will get a survey of manufacturing plants in our region and their product
mix.

Presentation

7.1. Rolling of heavy sections

 Heavy sections assortments:
To a group of heavy sections we rank rails of weight 30 to 75 kg/m, grooved rails, I sections /beams/
(of height 200 to 600 mm), U sections /channels/ (of height 200 to 450 mm), equal and unequal
angles, round bars of diameter up to 300 mm, sheet piles and wide-flange H-beams, designated as WF
beams as well.
They are rolled in heavy rolling mills with two-high or three-high stands (roll diameter up to 950
mm). They are characterized by the continuous arrangement or open arrangement (stands in a
centreline). For rolling of wide-flange beams universal mills are used.
The rolling can be realized
- in a single heat (e.g. from ingots after heating in soaking pits);
- in two heats – reheating of semi-finishing products rolled in blooming mills

 Rolling of I-beams
Initial material is blooms and CCS. Beams may be divided as per the web height and flange width.
The basic shape of I-beam and WF-beam can be seen in Figs 7.1 and 7.2. Except for classic I-beams
also series of light (economical) IE-beams, light IPE-beams with parallel flanges (Fig. 7.3) and WF-
beams (Note: IPB designation corresponds to DIN standard) were developed. They are rolled in
universal rolling mills with specific grooving design. Grooves are created by two pairs of rolls, of
which the horizontal rolls are driven and carry out total deformation work.

Fig. 7.1 I-beam Fig. 7.2 H-beam Fig. 7.3 Comparison of cross sections and
shape indicators of I 200, IPE 200 a IPB
200

62
 Rolling of long products

 Heavy cross-country (HCC) rolling mill (ArcelorMittal Steel Ostrava, a.s)

HCC (Heavy Cross Country) rolling mill covers by its production capacity a major part of the
commodity “long products” of the above mentioned company. It produces by hot rolling heavy and
medium sections, from simple cross sections, via shaped sections I, IPE, U and others, up to special
sections (mine rails and shackle connections). A part of the product mix of HCC mill is also a
“portfolio” of semi-products used for further processing (hot, cold) in another technological equipment
of the following plants in the ArcelorMittal Steel Ostrava, a.s. That is the question of round bars,
sections for steel-arc supports in mines and flats of width 130 to 170 mm.
Layout and arrangement of HCC mill
Currently the material is reheated in the continuous pusher furnaces (Fig. 7.4)

Fig. 7.4 Continuous reheating pusher furnaces of HCC mill

Transport of the charged material and its handling is ensured by feeding roller tables and front
pushers cooled by water. Work surface of the furnace hearth in length 18.5 m enables reheating the
billets with length 4 – 5 m in several successive rows, which assures reheating of CCS in the entire
dimensional range currently produced on CCM. The rolling mill is created by nine stands in cross-
country arrangement in three parallel trains (Fig. 7.5): 1st train - 5 stands, 2nd train - 3 stands and 3rd
train - 1 stand.
Roll stands No. 1 to 4 of the roughing train are horizontal two-high roll stands, mounted in the
cast steel open frame. The stand No. 5 of this train can also work as a reversing two-high stand
realizing three passes. Stands No. 6 to 9 are non-reversing (continuous) horizontal two-high roll stands
with a chance of conversion to universal stands (stand No. 9 see Fig. 7.6). Between stands in particular
trains the rolled-out stocks are transported by roller tables, transfer between trains is ensured by cable
transfers. Cutting-to-lengths is carried out by means of circular slide saws. After cutting-off front ends
the rolled products are transported on the roller table to the chain cooling bed where cooled out. The
whole rolling mill layout is schematically shown in Fig. 7.7.

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.5 View of cross-country arrangement of roll stands in rolling mill HCC

Fig. 7.6 Finishing stand No. 9, left - stand No. 8 and transfer to stand No. 9, right - the detail

Fig. 7.7 Scheme of the rolling mill HCC and finishing plant layout
(Ohřev materiálu - material reheating, Horizontální duo stolice č. 1, 2, 3, 4 - horizontal two-high roll
stands No. 1 to 4, Vratná duo stolice - reversing two-high roll stand, Vlečník - transfer, Universální
(nebo duo) stolice č. 6, 7, 8, 9 - universal (or two-high) roll stands No. 6 to 9, Dělicí pily - cutting
saws, Chladicí lože - cooling beds, Rovnání - straightening, Ukládání a vázání - storage and binding)
The rolling mill is continually followed by the finishing bay. The finishing plant area is oriented
perpendicularly to technological flow of the processed material. The rolled material is taken from the
cooling bed to final processing (cutting to accurate lengths, straightening, drilling, grinding, bundling
64
 Rolling of long products

and weighing) in two identical finishing lines. Each line includes the following technological
equipment: straightener SIMAC, collecting pockets, magnetic pilers, punching presses, cut-to-length
circular saws, mechanical binders of bundles, scales (weighing machine) Metripond and other
equipment. The material handling is carried out by means of overhead travelling cranes. To each
finishing line belongs the roll storage yard.

 Rolling of U sections
The initial semi-product is blooms of square or rectangular cross section. The basic shape of U section
is in Fig 7.8.

Fig. 7.8 Basic shape of U section

(SKLON – INCLINE)

 Rolling of rails
Rails belong among the most important and exacting products of heavy rolling mills. We can divide
them into railway, mine and special (grooved, crane, turnout, tongue/point, crossing frog). Rails are
to be abrasive wear resistant and tough, elastic, but not brittle. The shape of the grooved rail is in Fig.
7.9.

Fig. 7.9 Grooved rail (tramway rail)

Rails are rolled from blooms in heavy rolling mills

- in a single heat (as a rule 4 reversing two-high roll stands, 7 – 9 passes)
- in two heats (assures better quality production, more passes)
In the sequence of preparatory passes the square or rectangular cross section of the rolled stock is
adapted to a shape suitable for rolling in leading shaping passes. Some possibilities of the rail groove
designing are shown in Fig. 7.10.
Maintaining the correct finish rolling temperature, which is lower than in rolling of other shaped
sections, is very important. Heat treatment and straightening of rails: The rail foot is cooled faster,
65
 Rolling of long products

the rail head later and with pertinent shrinkage in length – straightening is therefore necessary! There
is a chance of hardening with self-tempering.

Inspection of rails – internal defects (ultrasound), external defects:

a) cracks and hair cracks, mostly on the rail head
b) shrinkage cavities marks
c) slivers - appear mainly on the rail foot
d) incorrect shape wih deviations outside the tolerance zone
e) rail chamfering, curvature into the spiral shape

Fig. 7.10 Sequences of grooves in rail rolling

a) “beam” mode
b) inclined position of grooves
c) alternation of inclined and horizontal positions

Grooved rails
They are rolled using a higher number of passes. Rolling is more difficult, the groove is created by
means of a special vertical roller in the last two passes (Fig. 7.11).

groove before finish rolling finishing groove

Fig. 7.11 Rolling of the rail groove

 Třinecké železárny (TŽ) – Heavy rail rolling mill

The operational scheme of this mill is in Fig. 7.12. Reheating of continuously cast semis (CCS) with
dimensions 300 x 350 mm and 300 x 385 mm is carried out in the walking beam furnace. That is the
question of the five-zone continuous furnace (the entry zone without reheating), with fully automatic
reheating, charging and extraction of CCS. The motion of CCS in the furnace is possible by the system
of movable and fixed walking beams. The furnace is lined by refractory concrete and heated by a
mixture of blast furnace and natural gas by means of top burners. The heating time of CCS to the
rolling temperature is 5 hours. CCS is then transported on the roller table through two hydraulic
scalebreakers (pos. 6 and 10), which guarantee the perfect primary scale removal, to Blooming I where
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 Rolling of long products

CCS are rolled to dimensions necessary for entrance into the reversing heavy rail rolling mill. These
dimensions are determined by the steel grade and shape of particular rails or sections. The blooming
mill is a roughing two-high roll stand with roll diameter 960 mm. Rolling speed is 3 - 6 m·s-1, roll
barrel 2 250 mm. These rolls have 5 grooves. The initial semi-product for the reversing mill is rolled
in 7 passes with regular tilting. This entry material is different for each rail shape. The reversing rail
rolling mill is composed of 4 roll stands with open arrangement. Roll stands No. 1 and 2 are driven by
a common motor, as well as roll stands No. 3 and 4. In the course of rolling the scale is removed by
high-pressure hydraulic scalebreakers (installed before grooves No. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) and grooves
are lubricated by the environment friendly oil. The high pressure water assures a very good removal of
secondary scale originating during rolling (Fig. 7.13).

Fig. 7.12 Operational scheme of reversing rail rolling mill

(ZPO 1 - CCM No. 1, bramové hospodářství - slab treatment, rovnačka MANNESMANN
DEMAG SACK - straightener MANNESMANN DEMAG SACK, výběh sochory - billets runout,
výběh žebrové podkladnice - ribbed sole-plates runout
1- transfer car, 2 - finishing line, 3 - protective layer spraying, 4 - transfer set, 5 - walking beam
furnace, 6 -hydraulic scalebreaker No. 1, 7 - old soaking pits, 8 - new soaking pits, 9 - ingot bogie, 10
- hydraulic scalebreaker No. 2, 11 - ingot tilter, 12 - blooming drive, 13 - blooming (reversing two-
high roll stand), 14 - hydraulic shear, 15 - bloom and slab stamping machine, 16 - roller tables, 17 -
rolling mill drives, 18 - pinion stands, 19 - reversing roll stands, 20 - manipulators ŽĎAS and
FRIMEL, 21 - hot dimension measurement TBK, 22 - stamping machine 4 pcs (rails), 23 - hot saw
DEMAG, 24 - mechanical stop, 25 - hot saw ŠKODA, 26 -cooling bed, 27 - billet shear DEL, 28 -
stamping machine (billets), Hlavní agregáty - key aggregates, pomocná zařízení - auxiliary equipment)

Fig. 7.13 Rails production at TŽ

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 Rolling of long products

Immediately after rolling the rails are measured by TBK device. It is the on-line equipment for laser
measurements of the rolled material. Two types of TBK device are installed in the rolling mill at TŽ:
TBKh for hot measurements of dimensions (Fig. 7.14) and TBKk for cold measurements of
dimensions. The finish-rolled rail is transported to the cooling bed, which is divided into 3 sections of
cable transfers, electrically interconnected. Rails on the cooling bed are cooled down spontaneously.
In the course of this cooling their temperature decreases from 900°C to 50°C and shrinkage
accompanied by deformation of the rail occurs. After cooling down the rail is straightened in the
Mannesman-Demag-Sack straightening machine (Fig. 7.15). Straightening is carried out in both the
horizontal and vertical axis. The straightening effect is reached by several deflections of the
straightened material in the plastic deformation area.

Fig. 7.14 Equipment for hot rail dimensions Fig. 7.15 Rail straightening
measurements (TBK)

Every straightened rail goes through the measuring centre, where checking of dimensions, surface
defects, straightness and internal homogeneity is carried out. Measurements of the rail straightness and
dimensions are carried out by laser. Checking of surface defects ensures the line Eddytron 4.1,
checking of internal defects is carried out in the line Sonotron 5.1.
The carefully checked rail is transported by the roller table to the Linsinger and Wagner cutting and
drilling machines, which carry out rails cutting to accurate lengths according to customer
requirements. Afterwards, the final measurement of rail ends straightness follows. After-straightening,
as the case may be, is carried out on the Berner presses.

 Sheet piles rolling

Another complicated section rolled in heavy mills is sheet piles. They are used for constructions
associated with water, like dams, bridges, embankments of watercourses, consolidations of artificial
fillings and others. Their rolling by 11 passes starts from the initial semi-product of rectangular cross
section. Their interlock shape has gradually been prepared in five grooves, the final shape by curvature
in special twisting guides (Fig. 7.16).

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.16 Sequence of passes for Larsen type sheet pile rolling,
its shape and detail of interlock

 Equal and unequal angles

Their rolling is performed in 5 to 9 passes with one or two heatings. The grooving design of angles is
distinguished by some specifics. Rolling of thin arms requires higher thickness reductions in particular
grooves. They cool down rather fast during rolling, which results in roll force increase, finish rolling
temperature decrease, and “spring-back” of rolls increase. It means that the rolls are subjected to more
wear and tear.

 Production of heavy sections and bars at Vítkovice Steel, a.s.

The heavy section rolling mill at Vítkovice, consisting of 4 roll stands, is connected with the billet
mill, created by a single-roll stand (No. 5), determined for rolling of billets. The whole complex of two
rolling mills (five roll stands in total) uses a common pusher furnace for reheating of semis, as well as
a common crew. The total production capacity is 170000 tons/year. The shipping (dispatching) and
finishing technologies of both rolling mills are independent ones. The basic technological equipment
and product mix are as follows:

Heavy section rolling mill

Product mix: round and square bars, beams, angles, sheet piles, crane rails, sleepers, rims and special
shaped sections with weight per metre 18 to 141 kg/m. Maximum shipping length of sections is 21 m.
The gas-fired pusher furnace with output 60 t/h is available. The rolling mill is equipped with 4
reversing two-high roll stands (Fig. 7.17), the roll stand No. 4 (Fig. 7.18) may be redesigned/rebuilt to
the universal one with non-driven vertical rolls (edgers) and horizontal upsetting stand for rolling the
beam sections. Two handling cars serve for transfer of rolled products between roll stands. Maximum
roll diameter is 940 mm, roll barrel 2 300 mm.

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.17 View of roll stands No. 4, 3, 2, and 1 Fig. 7.18 Roll adjustment of roll stand No. 4
from left to right

Three hot saws are used for cropping ends and cutting to shipping lengths (Fig. 7.19). Two
cooling beds of length 21 m serve for rolled products cooling down (Fig. 7.20). Straightening is
carried out in the 7-roller straightening machine (Fig. 7.21).In Fig. 7.22 you can see a pair of finishing
rolls prepared for building into roll stand No. 4.

Fig. 7.19 Sheet pile cutting to commercial length Fig. 7.20 Cooling beds

Fig. 7.21 Sheet pile straightening Fig. 7.22 Rolls with two finishing grooves

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 Rolling of long products

Billet mill (stand No. 5 – a part of the heavy section mill)

Product mix: rectangular and square billets of width from 120 to 300 mm and length to 12 m.
Maximum roll diameter is 920 mm, roll barrel 2 200 mm. This roll stand uses the same furnace for
reheating as the section mill. For cutting of billets serve two hot saws and hot shear.
The finishing plant of the heavy section mill is equipped by the following machines:
 7-roller straightener for sections, round and square bars,
 side straightening press for bars,
 hyperbolic straightener for round bars,
 twisting straightener for crane rails and rectangular bars,
 3 cold saws,
 cooling down walking beam furnace – controlled cooling down, annealing against flakes
formation and soft annealing for rolled bars,
 grinding machine for slabs and billets,
 peeling machine for round bar surfaces,
 grinding machine for round bars,
 magnetic surface crack detection line for round bars,
 ultrasonic inspection (purchased service according to customer requirements),
 line for pairing off sheet piles, lock pressing and equipment for tests of bond strength of
locks by pressing

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 Rolling of long products

7.2. Rolling of heavy, medium and fine sections and bars

In the product mix of heavy and medium rolling mills we can find above all shaped sections, in the
product mix of fine mills the rolled products with a cross section of simple shapes, i.e. bars dominate.
Heavy section mills are in the open and/or cross country arrangement, medium and fine mills are in
the open, cross country, semi-continuous and/or continuous arrangement.

Rolling process technology

The initial material for rolling of steel sections and bars is continuously cast blooms and billets. Cross
section dimensions are determined as per the product mix, finish rolling speed and used sort of the
charge. Minimum reduction ratio must be for common steels 5 to 8, for high-grade steels 8 to 10, for
high-alloy steels 10 to 14.

Bars are rolled in various rolling mills, their cross section range is limited by the type, structure and
arrangement of roll stands. In Fig. 7.23 you can see mostly used sequences of grooves (pass
sequences).

oval – square

diamond – square

oval – edging oval

square – rectangle – square

square – hexagon

Fig. 7.23 Set of grooves for round bar rolled in the roughing train

 Třinecké železárny – fine section (bar) rolling mill (so-called rolling mill C)
The continuous bar rolling mill at Třinecké železárny was commissioned in year 1960. In this time the
product mix was mainly reinforced concrete bars (so-called rebars), structural and flat rolled product.
The initial material is billets (squares 150 mm, lengths in the range 8.5 -12 m). The charge reheating to
rolling temperature is ensured by the walking beam furnace with bottom and top heating. The furnace
is fired by mixed gas and billets are charged by the side roller table; they are prepared on fixed beams,
from where they are taken out by movable beams, ensuring the actual operation of the walking beam
mechanism and at the same time heating the charge to the final rolling temperature.
The roughing mill (Fig. 7.24) is created by 4 roll stands S.I.M.A.C. The roll stands are arranged in this
mill with the following sequence: horizontal, vertical, horizontal, vertical. The roll diameter is 620/520
mm, roll barrel 850 mm. The grooving of rolls enables rolling of squares 150 mm to round bars with

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 Rolling of long products

diameter 100 mm. These rolled stocks are transported by the covered (heat-insulated) roller table to
the two-strand rolling train. The heat-insulated roller table ensures temperature homogenization across
in the rolled stock cross section.

Fig. 7.24 Scheme of continuous fine rolling mill

(1.část - 1st part, 2.část- levá žíla - 2nd part - left strand, 3.část- pravá žíla - 3rd part- right strand
Čtyřstolicové pořadí SMS - 4-roll stand train SMS, Předválcovací pořadí 8 stolic - roughing mill
consisting of 8 roll stands, Izolovaný valník - insulated roller table, Ostřik okují - hydraulic
scalebreaker, Kroková pec - walking beam furnace, Nakládací rošt – loading bed
Levé hotovní pořadí - left finishing train, Pravé hotovní pořadí - right finishing train, Chladicí trubice
Thermex – cooling equipment Thermex, Vodní box - Water box, Ostřik okují - hydraulic scalebreaker,
Dvoustolicový blok SMS - 2- roll stand block SMS, Pravé/levé chladicí lože - right/left cooling bed,
Navíječky Garret – coilers Garret)

In the roughing mill the roll stands (8 totally) are in the horizontal arrangement only. From the initial
material of diameter 100 mm rolled products with dimensions 82 to 31 mm may be rolled. After the
roughing mill the right and left finishing train follow.
The right finishing train begins by the looping table and shear N3 for cropping front and rear ends of
the rolled product. It includes eight roll stands in the following arrangement: the early two roll stands
are horizontal, afterwards vertical and horizontal roll stands alternate. Maximum exit speed is 15 m.s-1.
After the last roll stand of this train the material is further processed as per the product mix. Plain
rounds, hexagons, flats and angles are processed without cooling. In case of rebars the method called
slittrolling including cooling section Thermex is used. The last mode represents controlled cooling of
plain rounds in the 6 meters long cooling section SMS Schloemann.
This finishing train is followed by two roll stands in arrangement Vertical – Horizontal, so-called ASC
(Automatic System Control). These roll stands ensure precision finish rolling of the rolled product.
Rolls diameters are 360/295 mm, roll barrel is 160 mm. The system works fully automatically, using
two laser measuring devices, which instantaneously evaluate and control the needed thickness
reduction in the roll stand. Exit roling speed ranges from 1.2 to 15 m.s-1.
ASC roll stands are followed by the controlled cooling section and the switch enabling rolling to coils
in coilers of Garret type. In coils may be rolled the rounds, squares, and hexagons in range from 15 to
50 mm. Before actual coiling the rolled product goes through the feeding rolls, shear N6 and water
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 Rolling of long products

box WB3 with automatic temperature control. After the water box the material is transported to the
switch distributing the material into coiler drums No.1 or 2 – see Fig. 7.25.
In Fig.7.26 you can see that the coil is pushed out of the coiler chamber, seized by the four-arm tongs
suspended on the turret and transferred to the loading pallet. The coil on the pallet is then transported
by the pallet type conveyor up to the place of tipping on the C-hook conveyor. During transport the
material is cooled in the open air or may be subjected to accelerated cooling (6 fans available) or
slowed down cooling in insulated tunnels (2 tunnels with capacity12 coils/tunnel). At the end of the
pallet conveyor is located the hydraulic tipping device which places coils on hooks. The material
suspended on the hooks passes the station of gauging checks and visual surface inspection, test
samples are taken and front and rear ends of coils cut-off. The finished coil is weighed, pressed and
bound by the steel binding strip.
The left finishing train begins by the roller table for transfer to the left strand, the looping table and
the shear. It includes eight roll stands with the same arrangement as the right finishing train. After the
last roll stand two cooling sections Thermex for processing of rebars (reinforcing steel bars with ribs)
with diameter 10, 12, 14 and 16 mm, using slittrolling technology, are located. The rotary shear for
cutting to “cooling bed lengths” follows. Then the cooling sections Thermex for controlled cooling of
rebars with diameters 18 to 32 mm are installed. Subsequently, the rolled product is transported by the
roller table to the left cooling bed. The cooled products are prepared for further processing (cutting to
commercial lengths, binding).

Fig. 7.25. Coiling drums Fig. 7.26 Coils transport

 Rolling mill of special sections (VÚHŽ Dobrá)

VÚHŽ, a.s. produces special rolled sections of structural, tool and corrosion-resistant steels and non-
ferrous metals in small batches 10 - 100 t. The product mix is given in Fig. 7.27. Currently – after
modernizations - the rolling mill annual capacity increases every year; in year 1994 when the first
section for the automotive industry was finish-rolled the production increased from 252 tons/year, via
4000 tons/year, up to 5000 tons/year in year 2006. Sales of produced special sections represented in
year 2006 31% of the VÚHŽ total turnover. A lot of shapes, currently produced by welding,
connecting, machining, forging, casting or other technological processes, can economically be
replaced by using special rolled sections.
The initial material is supplied mostly by Třinecké železárny, a.s. and stored in the storage yard. As
per rolled section the supplied material is cut to required lengths and transported to the gas-fired
walking beam furnace for reheating.
After exit the furnace the reheated semi-product is transported by means of the roller table to the
rolling mill stand. All semi-products handling carry out the rolling mill operators (rollers) by hand by
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 Rolling of long products

means of tongs (Fig. 7.28). Only a single roll stand is available; it has to incorporate the entire
sequence of 5 to 6 grooves. From this results that on the whole roll barrel are cut the roughing,
preparatory, leading and finishing grooves (Fig. 7.29). As an indicator for comparison of roll service
life the total length of the product rolled during the lifetime of one set of rolls (gross production) is
used. This indicator quotes how many kilometres of the rolled section passed a single set of rolls
during its service life. After finishing the rolling campaign, the rolls are changed and renovated. The
total rolled sections length depends not only on the material of rolls, but also on maximum range of
the roll diameters usable for renovations. Maximum pitch diameter of rolls is given by the housings
structure and equals 525 mm. When the roll diameter is higher, the rolls cannot be put in the roll stand
through the housing windows. All the work rolls handling is carried out automatically from the control
cabin.

Fig. 7.27 Product mix of special section rolling mill, for each section the car maker, specific model
and section weight per meter are given
(AKTUÁLNÍ VÝROBNÍ PROGRAM 2008 - TOPICAL PRODUCT MIX 2008
Válcovna speciálních profilů VÚHŽ a.s., Dobrá - Rolling mill of special sections VÚHŽ a.s.,
Dobrá)

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.28 Manual rolled stock handling Fig. 7.29 Grooves

After rolling the section is transported by means of roller table to cooling bed. After cooling the
section is transported to the straightener. After straightening the workers operating this machine cut
both ends and place the section to the packet determined for shipping. In the course of rolling 3 checks
for verification of shape, dimensions and possible surface defects are carried out. The first check is
carried out by the rollers (continuous surface check of every piece after rolling). The second check is
carried out by the foreman and technical supervisor. The sample is cut-off from the rolled section and
put on the profilometer scanner; at magnifying 10 times all dimensions are checked by means of the
foil, on which the exact profile is plotted. The third check used to be carried out after straightening.
Due to wide spectrum of produced sections the grooved rolls inventory has to be large.

 Medium-fine section rolling mill (ArcelorMittal Ostrava, a.s.)

Product mix
This medium-fine section rolling mill is situated within the area of works 14 - Rolling mills of the
company ArcelorMittal Ostrava, a.s.
The rolling mill product mix consists of:
 round bars – dimensions: d = 10 – 65 mm,
 hexagonal bars – dimensions: A20 – A34,
 flats – dimensions: width 20 – 120 mm, thickness 4 - 50 mm,
 equal angles – dimensions: arm width 38 x 38- 90 x 90, thickness 4 –13 mm,
 IPE, IPEA beams – dimensions: 80, 100, 120, 140
 I beams – dimensions: 80, 100, 120, 140
 U, UE channels – dimensions: 50, 65, 80, 100, 120, (UE 100),
 tee-beams – dimensions: T40
 rebars – dimensions: d =10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 39
Rolling mill basic description
The basic layout of the rolling mill is given in Fig. 7.30.

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.30 Basic layout of medium-fine section mill, ArcelorMittal Ostrava, a.s.
(Pec 1 a 2 - Furnaces No. 1 and 2, Směr toku materiálu - material flow direction, I. až IV. pořadí -
train No. I to IV, U - universal roll stands, K – combined roll stands (with possible H-V arrangement),
H - horizontal roll stands, Nůžky – shears)
The rolling mill includes 4 independent continuous trains that may variably be integrated in the rolling
process. Trains I and II may roll can be rebuilt from combined roll stands (with changeable vertical
and horizontal rolls) to horizontal two-strand roll stands. Rolling starts from initial square 115 mm.
Inbetween trains the flying shears are located, which crop front and rear ends or chop the rolled stock
in case of the mill failure. Roll stands of all four trains are constructed as housingless, without
prestressing. As per type these roll stands can be divided into two-high and universal stands.
Cut to lengths, cooling, temperature measurement and rolled products checking
The shear is used as a main dividing aggregate of the rolling mill. Two types of shears are used: the
rotary shear and the crank flying shear. For controlled cooling the pressure water serves; it is a part of
the water treatment system (controlled cooling GOLEM). Temperature measurements are carried out
on particular measuring spots. In all four trains the pyrometer PYROFAST is used, only on the runout
roller table the pyrometer MAUER is used.
Rolled products from trains II and IV are transferred to the walking cooling bed by a system of feeding
roller tables and switches. Individual rolled products are - after cutting in shears (considering from
which train they run out) - decelerated (braked) on feeding roller tables to the cooling bed. After
braking they are stored into slits of steel grids as per the rolling schedule. The cooled down bars may
be transferred, if needed, to the straightening operation. Maximum bar length for transfer on the
coooling bed is 128 m, minimum 80 m.

 Works “Rolling mills” – Fine section mill (ŽDB Group, a.s. Bohumín)
The fine section mill was commissioned in years 1947–48 and the assortment produced
corresponded to a normal product mix of fine rolling mills (rebars, round, square, angles, tee-beams)
with a small portion of special sections. The last reconstruction of this mill was carried out in year
2007. The continuous roughing train Morgan was replaced for a three-high roll stand with tilting
tables. This reconstruction enabled to increase the initial pass section from the original square max 80
mm up to square 130 mm. The fine section mill may be characterized as a semi-continuous rolling mill
with three trains, consisting of:
 the roughing three-high roll stand with tilting tables,
 roughing trains PP1, PP2 with open arrangement,
 finishing train HP of open layout,

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 Rolling of long products

 collecting pockets,
 two straightening machines HRL 40

7.3. Rolling of wire rod

Wire rod is a hot rolled product wound to coils, which has usually in all its length the constant and full
cross section. The cross section is most often round-shaped, but it can also be square, half-round,
polygonal, etc. Wire rod diameter is most often from 5.5 to 20 mm. Wires of diameter below 5 mm are
produced by cold drawing.
The goal of production of hot rolled wire rod is achievement of optimum microstructure of the formed
material and mechanical properties, both across and along the whole length.

Steels for wire rod production

Among steels for production of wire rod can be found mainly reinforcing steels, high-alloy corrosion-
resistant (stainless) and high-speed steels, carbon non-alloy structural steels, carbon alloy steels, with
yield point up to 1400 MPa.

Requirements for wire rod quality

Dimensional tolerances have to be maintained. Ovality shoud not exceed 70 % of the tolerance zone.
Minimum surface decarburization, minimum occurrence frequency and depth of surface defects,
small quantity of easily removed scale and optimum roughness of wire rod surface should be
guaranteed.

Wire rod rolling mills

Wire rod rolling mills can be arranged in
the open (looping), semi-continuous,
continuous with twisting between
horizontal roll stands, continuous with roll
stands in H-V arrangement, and
continuous with finishing blocks
arrangement.
Introduction of finishing blocks in the
finish-rolling train and controlled cooling
from the finish rolling temperature with
the following coil handling equipment
had key importance for development of
wire rod rolling mills. Fig. 7.31 Continuous wire rod mills with finishing blocks
Finishing blocks are mechanically firmly (1-, 2- , 4- žilová trať – 1- , 2- , 4- strand rolling mill)
interlocked small roll stands, driven by a
single drive (costly loop control and
tension rolling are eliminated). Basic types of wire rod mills you can see in Fig. 7.31.
Progressively a series of concepts was developed. Except for original concept of companies Morgan
and Kocks, the finishing blocks are manufactured by companies Danieli, Schloemann, Mannesmann-
Demag-Sack and others (Fig. 7.32).
Benefits of high-speed blocks
• initial billets up to square 150 mm – coil also more than 2500 kg, capacity also more than 800
kt/year
• overhung rolls (disks) with a chance of fast change
• high capacity given by high exit speed (also more than 100 m/s) – attention: influence of
deformation heat!
• space savings, flexibility at change of the product mix
• rolling without twisting
• long service life of roll grooves
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 Rolling of long products

Morgan a) Schloemann, b) Kocks Kocks

Fig. 7.32 Examples of finishing blocks
(POHON – DRIVE)
Technology of wire rod rolling
Reheating of billets in walking beam furnaces to relatively low temperatures (also below 1050°C –
because in the medium and finishing rolling train the temperature increases!). Grooving design is
based especially on sequence oval – square and subsequently oval – round.
Controlled cooling from finish rolling temperatures
• accelerated water cooling from finish rolling temperature (1000 – 1100°C)
• reduces origin of coarse grains and structure heterogeneity
• prevents from scaling and enormous decarburizing
• cooling system Stelmor – the laying head creates wraps, which are laid on the conveyor and
subject to air blowing, or insulating plates are used for prevention from thermal loss
(accelerated or decelerated cooling) – Figs 7.33 - 7.35
• only then creation of the actual coil

Fig. 7.33 Functional chart of coling equipment Stelmor

1 – entry guide equipment, 2 – laying head, 3 – chain conveyor, 4 – air fans, 5 – cooled coils storing

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.34 Insulating plates on conveyor Stelmor

Fig. 7.35 Laying head and cooled wraps of wire rod on Stelmor conveyor (thermal imaging camera)

 Třinecké železárny – Wire rod mill (rolling mill D)

The continuous wire rod mill (KDT mill) at TŽ a.s. currently ranks to the most up-to-date rolling mills
in the world. This high-speed two-strand rolling mill (Fig. 7.36) makes it possible rolling of wire rod
with diameter 5.5 mm to 20 mm, with grading 0.5 mm. The KDT mill production capacity is 820 000
t/year. Maximum ovality amounts to 60 % of the tolerance zone. In KDT mill the wire rods made of
low, medium and high carbon steels are rolled, further wire rods determined for production of ropes
and strands, the steel tyre cord wires, filler welding materials, connecting components and machine
parts, as well as for production of wires made of bearing and free-cutting steel.

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 Rolling of long products

1 Walking beam furnace 10 Water cooling

2 Hydraulic scalebreaker 11 Finishing block
3 Horizontal-Vertical (H-V) train 12 Non-destructive testing
with replaceable cassettes 13 -17 Water cooling
4 Horizontal-Vertical (H-V) train 16 Continuous dimensions measurement
with replaceable cassettes 18 Laying head
5 Insulated roller table 19 Cooling conveyor Stelmor
6 Roughing train 20 Hook conveyor
7 Medium train 21 Pressing and bundling equipment
8 A pair of CL roll stands 22 Spark test
9 Water cooling 23 Quality inspection
Fig. 7.36 Symbolic diagram of continuous wire rod mill

Preparatory train
The reheated bill is after discharging out of the furnace descaled in the high-pressure water
scalebreaker. In front of the first roll stand are located feed rolls that serve for safe entrance the bill
into the roll stand groove. This preparatory train is created by four housingless SHS roll stands with
roll diameter 650 mm. The rolling is carried out in a single strand with H-V roll stand arrangement,
using the pass sequence oval–round and a slight interstand tension. The sliding roll stands enable
symmetrical set up of the rolls, including the axial adjustment, which ensures adjusting the groove axis
into the centreline of the mill. The advantage is very fast replacement of grooves and hence high
utilization of the rolling mill operating time, outstanding rigidity of the roll stand thanks to its
optimum construction and the fact that no test pieces of rolled stocks at the groove replacement are
needed. The preparatory train exits the round semi-product of diameter 120 mm.
Insulated roller table (tunnel furnace)
The insulated roller table follows directly the preparatory train, and starts the two-stranded part of the
rolling mill. Its target is to introduce the rolled stock with a decreased entry speed into the first roll
stand of the roughing train. The whole roller table is covered for maintaining the rolled stock
temperature. Thus the temperature difference between the front and rear part of the rolled stock is
eliminated; thanks to this, thermal losses are diminished in the course of waiting before entrance the
rolled stock into the roughing train. Maximum temperature difference between front and rear part of
the rolled stock is guaranteed 30 °C. Behind the insulated roller table is the shear located, used for
cutting the rolled stock in emergency cases (failures) in the rolling mill. The roller table is designed in
such a way so that false air intake into the furnace and hence origin of the secondary scale were
minimized. Rollers of individual strands of the roller table are driven independently.
Roughing train
That is the question of the old roughing train, composed of six roll stands with horizontal arrangement
and pass sequence oval – round. Diameter of rolls of stands No. 1 to 4 is 540 mm, No. 5 to 7 - 480
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 Rolling of long products

mm. Roll stand No. 2 of the previous four-strand mill was abolished, nevertheless – original
numbering was preserved. All drives of the roughing and medium train are DC motors with power 800
kW. The last roll stand of the roughing train is followed in each strand by the crop shear for cropping
head and tail end of the rolled stock, or these shears can function as the chopping shear for its
scrapping in case of emergency.
Medium train
The medium train is created by totally 8 roll stands in horizontal arrangement with the pass sequence
oval – round. This train prepares rolled stocks for entry into two independent finishing trains. Roll
diameter of stands No. 8 and 9 is 440 mm, No. 10 to 15 - 380 mm. After every odd pass the rolled
stock tilting is introduced.
Looping system before finishing block
The medium train is followed by 2 looping devices (Fig. 7.37), each for one rolling strand. Total
length of the loop is 86 m. This length guarantees a possibility of elimination temperature differences
in the rolled stock section after cooling. To prevent high tension during rolling the looping tables and
looping channels are installed. The looping table is followed by the tearing shear. This shear is
followed by two CL roll stands in H-V arrangement. These roll stands make a significant contribution
to improvement of the rolled stock geometry, mainly in case of low number of passes in the finishing
block (rolling of higher wire rod diameters). CL roll stands are equipped with overhung rolls with
diameter 208 mm, made of sintered carbides. After CL roll stands the material is introduced into two
cooling sections (VS1 and VS2). Each section has 3 optional cooling zones; water is used as a cooling
medium. By means of these sections the rolled stock temperature in front of its entrance into finishing
block is controlled. After leaving the cooling sections the rolled stock is led through the looping
channel to the rotary shear (maximum diameter of cutting is 33 mm), which crops front and rear ends
of the rolled stock, or it may be introduced through the switch into the chopping shear equipped by
pinch rolls.
Finishing block
The KDT rolling mill at Třinec is equipped by finishing block Morgan. This block is created by 10 roll
stands with H-V arrangement. The groove is created with two disks, mounted in such a way that they
form an angle 45° with the horizontal plane. They are made of special, very hard and resistant
materials on the basis of sintered carbides. Rolls are overhung, which enables their easy replacement.
The first three roll stands of the finishing block have diameter of rolls 208/187x72 mm (208 mm –
diameter of new rolls, 187 mm – diameter of worn out rolls). The remaining rolls of the finishing
block have diameter 159/143x62 mm. Within the finishing block is installed interstand cooling of
round rolled stocks with pressure control of the cooling water from 0 to 6 bars. Maximum rolling
speed is 120 m.s-1, the guaranteed speed is 105 m.s-1.
Water cooling sections
Immediately after exit from the finishing block the rolled product enters the controlled water cooling
system. This water cooling system has total length 36.6 m and consists of 4 cooling boxes (VS3 to
VS6). Each of them is 4 m long. The cooling box has three cooling and 3 wiping nozzles (one is air
nozzle). Water pressure for the first two boxes may be controlled in the range of 2 to 6 bars. The last
two cooling boxes work with constant water pressure 6 bars.

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.37 Looping system before finishing block

(H-V CL stolice - H-V CL roll stands, hotovní blok - finishing block, smyčkovac stůl - looping table,
obváděcí stůl - looping channel, ochlazovací sekce - cooling section, 15. stolice - roll stand No. 15)

Laying equipment
In front of the laying head are installed the pinch rolls, made of sintered carbides, with rollers diameter
186 mm. They ensure required speeds of the rolled products rear ends for laying wire rod wraps. In
case of smaller diameters of rolled products they cause decelerating (braking effect), in case of larger
diameters they ensure the acceleration. The laying head is mounted with incline 10°. It forms wire rod
wraps with diameter 1080 mm (see Fig. 7.38).
Stelmor conveyor
That is the question of a roller type conveyor with total length 85 m (see Fig. 7.39). It consists of ten
separate speed control sections (R1 to R10), graded through height. The first entry section is
adjustable in the height direction. The independent speed control of particular sections enables
changing of thermal nodes of overlapping wraps with ensuring uniform speed of wire rod cooling.
Between sections R9 and R10 there is a height difference 0.1 m, which allows to perform a jump
change of feeding speed of the wire rod wraps before entry into the collecting chamber. Speed of the
conveyor is between 0.05 and 1.3 m.s-1. The wire rod cooling modes are set up automatically
according to the rolling mill schedule. Density of distribution the wire rod wraps is given by rolling
speed and speed of the conveyor and depends on the cooling mode.

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 Rolling of long products

Fig. 7.38 Laying head Fig. 7.39 Stelmor conveyors

Collecting chamber
The collecting chamber is designed for maximum coil weight 2 000 kg. Maximum wire rod
temperature at entrance into the collecting chamber is 600 °C. Wire rod wraps are gradually laid on the
coil plate which is continually lowered in the course of filling the coil, sliding on the mandrel located
in the collecting chamber. After the mandrel is filled up, the plate is turned down and the coil is tilted
from vertical to horizontal position, from where it is delivered on the transfer car, located behind the
collecting chamber. From the car the coil is loaded on the hook conveyor. Each strand has its own
independent conveyor, which ensures feeding empty and transfer full hooks to the basic hook
conveyor. The equipment works fully automatically and is controlled by hydraulic slave cylinders.
Measuring equipment
The rolled stock temperature is measured continuously by 5 optical double-spectral pyrometers and 1
single-spectral pyrometers of company Raytek. Positions for temperature measurements are: in front
of entry into the roughing train (T1), behind the medium train (T2), in front of the finishing block
(T3), behind the laying head (T4), on Stelmor conveyor (T5) – double-spectral pyrometer and in front
of the collecting chamber (T6) – single-spectral pyrometer.
Both rolling strands are equipped by two independent measuring devices, which continually provide
information on the rolled stock quality so that the required dimensional tolerances and required surface
defects occurrence might be reached:
“Mesameter”, which works on the basis of shielding the laser sensor. It swivels around the
measured wire rod through 180° and continuously measures its cross section behind the finishing
block.
“Defektomat“, which measures and records surface parameters of the rolled stock in front of the
finishing block by means of electromagnetic radiation. This method makes it possible to find out
defects (their depth and number) on the rolled stock surface and carry out relevant classification of the
final production, or quickly determine products with defects and thus prevent useless complaints about
faulty products.
Transport and handling the coils, shipping
The supplier of transport equipment and coil handling devices is Swedish company Sund Birsta. The
task of the hook conveyor equipment complex is to take the coils out of the collecting chambers places
and transport them by means of the transfer cart to the following equipment (see Fig. 7.40). Every
hook is equipped by the identification plate, including information on the coil.

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 Rolling of long products

After cropping ends the coil is weighed together with the pertinent hook; this information is preserved
in the coil monitoring system VAX. Subsequently, the coil is transported by the hook conveyor to the
area of two baling presses, where it is baled and bound by binding wire with diameter 7 mm in four
places (see Fig. 7.41). In this station the information on the given coil is printed on the plate, which is
then fastened by hand to the coil. After binding, the coil is transported by the hook conveyor to the
unloading cart, which takes the coil off the hook and stores to the interim storage area. Then the empty
hook returns and receives new information from the data bank. From the interim storage area the coils
are taken out either directly for shipping or to the storage yard.

Fig. 7.40 Hook conveyor Fig. 7.41 Baling press for coils SUND BIRSTA

Summary of terms of this chapter

Beams I, H – sections U – rails – sheet piles – angles – sections – steel bars – wire rod

Questions to discussed curriculum

7.1. What products are ranked to the assortment of heavy shaped rolled products?
7.2. What is maximum thickness of hot rolled wire rod?

Used references that may be used for further study

LEE, Y., Rod and Bar Rolling: Theory and Applications. New York : Marcel Dekker, 2004.

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 Groove

8. Groove – its kinds, parts, geometry and dimensional characteristics,

neutral axis

Time for study:1.5 hour

Target After studying this chapter you will be able to

 define basic terms concerning the grooving of rolls

 know the tasks laid on grooving of rolls
 resolve the position of the groove neutral axis

Presentation

8.1. Significance of grooving of rolls and basic terms

Rolling is used for the production of sheets/plates and sections of any dimensions. It is usually carried
out in several passes. A number of passes is determined in dependence on the initial and final cross
section dimensions. In the course of every pass (draft) the cross section area is diminishing, the shape
and dimensions are gradually approaching the required profile.

In rolling the following basic groups of final products may be distinguished as per finish rolled
products:

 Flat products (flats) – in rolling of flat products the plain rolls are used and thickness change
is realized by changing the distance between rolls. The draft (thickness reduction, pass
reduction) is uniform across the whole width of the rolled stock and rolling is accompanied by
free spread.

 Shaped steel (sections) – rolling of sections is carried out in grooved rolls. It is characterized
by a pronounced manifestation of the uneven pass reduction. The thickness reduction in cross
sections across the groove width is considerably different. In lateral direction the deformation
is manifested differently, i.e. restricted or forced spreading occurs.

From the above mentioned text results that grooving of rolls deals with questions of determination/
designing the correct pass schedules, shape and construction of grooves. That is the question of a
summary of knowledge of metal forming theory, rolling process technology, as well as certain
“rules”, acquired in practice, that have to be followed in designing the optimum mode of rolling for
achievement of the required metal shape. The grooving of rolls is the most important part of the
process technology of shaped steel rolling and it occupies an important place in questions of designing
the rolling mills as well.

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 Groove

 Basic tasks of grooving of rolls

The grooving of rolls must lead to fulfilment of following basic requirements:

 achievement of the exact cross section shape, together with correct dimensions
 rolled product surface has to be without defects, i.e. clean and smooth
 respecting minimum consumption of power, rolls and rolling time
 ensuring minimum internal stress in the final shaped product
 ensuring simple operation and minimum effort of roll stand operating personnel, with a chance
of introducing mechanization and automation of the rolling process
 ensuring the required capacity of the rolling mill
 respecting rationalization in handling the rolls, i.e. assembly and replacement the rolls, roll
turning, and so on
In searching the optimum rolling course from the viewpoint of grooving of rolls it has to be taken into
account some technical and technological requirements of the formed metal and terms of rolling,
which may be summarized in three characteristic groups:

Characteristics of final rolled product

• dimensions of final steel sections and permissible dimensional tolerances
• requirements for mechanical properties
• surface quality of steel after rolling

Characteristics of initial semi-product

• dimensions and weight of the semifinished product
• quality of rolled steel
• temperature of steel before rolling
• temperature of steel in rolling in particular passes

Characteristics of rolling mill

• number of roll stands, roll barrel
• roll diameter
• strength of rolls and components of the roll stand
• motor power
• rolling speed
• technological equipment of the rolling mill, and so on

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 Groove

 Basic terms in grooving of rolls

Steel sections – can be rolled on plain rolls or rolls

with slots/grooves. An example of rolling on plain
rolls can be the flat bar. A typical shape for rolling in
grooves represents the rail, see Fig. 8.1, in which
contour of the crane rail is plotted.

Incision (slot) – area in the rolling plane restricted by

cut in the roll body. You cannot roll out anything
using only one roll, you always need two rolls (Fig.
8.2).

Groove – two slots corresponding to a single pair of Fig. 8.1 Crane rail
rolls with the defined roll gap

Roll gap – actual distance between the top and bottom roll, denoted s.

Flanges / Collars are parts of the work roll barrel that are not fully used, if their diameters are higher
than diameters of rolls in the groove. Their number on the roll is always higher by 1 than the number
of grooves. In case of usual construction of collars for steel rolls the flange width corresponds
approximately to half of its height. In case of cast iron rolls the width equals the height. Width at
edges is chosen differently.

Fig. 8.2 Rolls used in billet rolling mill

(příruby - flanges, kalibr - groove, zářez – slot)

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 Groove

Possible types of collars – see Fig. 8.3:

a) edge positive
b) edge negative
c) double
d) lock
e) negative
f) positive

Fig. 8.3 Possible types of collars

 Dividing of grooves/passes
As per a way of use the grooves are basically divided with respect to their function and location in the
rolling mill into roughing, preparatory, leading and finishing. In Fig. 8.4 all basic types of grooves and
their location in technological flow are shown.

Fig. 8.4 Evolution and marking of grooves in pass sequence

(Nápich - initial pass, kalibry pěchující neboli prodlužující - upsetting (extension) passes, přípravné
kalibry - preparatory passes, tvarové kalibry - shaping passes, předhotovní kalibr - leading pass,
hotovní kalibr - finishing (final) pass)

Roughing grooves/passes (also named extension or elongation) are determined only for a progressive
diminishing of the cross section area of the rolled metal. Box, diamond, square, oval and round passes
belong to this group. Examples of particular types of passes are shown in Fig. 8.5. I suppose that you
manage their correct assignment according to their names.

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 Groove

Fig. 8.5 Shapes of roughing passes

Roughing passes are determined for further diminishing of the cross section of the rolled material. At
the same time a primary change in the sense of gradual achievement of the dimension and shape of the
final profile occurs. A special case of the roughing pass can be incisive (pre-shaped) pass.
Leading passes serve for shaping the rolled stock in the last but one pass. By their shapes they are
approaching the finish rolled product.
Finishing passes – in these grooves the final shape is acquired. The shape and dimensions correspond
with shape and dimensions of the final rolled product. The finishing pass is designed with taking into
account the thermal expansivity and permissible tolerances.
Further dividing is carried out as per a way of performance the slots on the roll body. We distinguish
open passes, where in both cooperating rolls the slots are carried out and the pass opening forms an
angle with the rolling axis < 60° (a, b in Fig. 8.6), and closed passes – in one roll there is a slot, in the
other a shoulder, the pass opening is at an angle with the rolling axis > 60°.

Fig. 8.6 Possible situations in carrying out the passes: 1 – positive collar, 2 – negative collar, 3 – open
flange, 4 – closed flange
Further dividing the passes is according to their placing in the rolls. We distinguish the following
passes:
– direct - passes, the vertical symmetrical axis of which is perpendicular to the rolling axis
– diagonal - the vertical symmetrical axis forms a certain angle with the rolling axis, e.g.
intermediate passes for rolling of beams, rails, and so on

 Influence of thermal expansivity

In designing the finishing pass it is necessary to take into account that lateral dimensions of the rolled
material are larger at the finish rolling temperature than at the room temperature, at which
measurement of important parameters of the rolled stock cross section is carried out. In general, the
thermal length (linear) expansivity is a phenomenon, at which the length of the body heated to a
specific temperature is extended in the given direction by a certain value. Isotropic bodies have the
length expansivity in all directions the same, in case of anisotropic bodies, however, the length
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 Groove

expansivity can acquire various values in different directions (e.g. in crystals), therefore the given
direction has to be specified.
An extent of thermal expansivity is determined by linear coefficient of thermal expansion α [K-1],
called also coefficient of proportionality. This physical quantity is exactly (i.e. without necessity of
supposing the linear dependence of length on temperature) defined by the relation:
1 𝜕𝑙
𝛼=𝑙 (8.1)
0 𝜕𝑡

where l0 is initial temperature at given temperature t.

For small temperature differences it is possible to use a simplification and to approximate the relation
between the length change and temperature change to the linear dependence, it means to describe in
the form:
∆𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙0 ∆𝑡 (8.2)
For determination of length at chosen temperature this relation may be expressed as follows
𝑙 = 𝑙0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑡) (8.3)
In the roll grooving practice this relation is simplified to the maximum extent in such a way that l0 is
length at room temperature and for recalculation of length at a specific temperature the technical
coefficient of thermal expansivity kα, corresponding to extension of a specific material, is used. The
relation is then changed to the form
𝑙 = 𝑙0 𝑘𝛼 (8.4)

Values kα, usual for structural steels, are given in Table 8.1
Table 8.1 Values kα in relation to temperature
Tempearature, °C kα Temperature, °C kα
800 1.010 1100 1.013
900 1.011 1200 1.014
1000 1.012 1300 1.015

 Neutral axis of groove

In solution of the appropriate distribution of grooves along the roll barrel the basic characteristics of
the groove geometry have also to be taken into account. It was already mentioned that the groove of
any shape is created by corresponding slots on the top and bottom roll body, together with the roll gap.
For rolling of shaped sections various shaped grooves are used, which can be divided - with regard to
their symmetry - into three groups:
• simple grooves, symmetrical according to axes x and y, among them grooves of simple
geometric shape, e.g. oval, square, round, etc. and e.g. a series of finishing grooves, including
some for shaped sections. These grooves have two axes of symmetry, their point of
intersection passes through the centre of gravity. It means that the horizontal axis (x) is at the
same time the neutral axis
• symmetrical grooves, but according to a single axis of symmetry (horizontal or vertical) only,
among them a great part of preparatory grooves and further also a part of finishing grooves,
e.g. grooves for I and/or U beams, angles, rails, etc.
• grooves that are not symmetrical according to any axis

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The existence of at least one axis of symmetry of shaped grooves is helpful for determination of
neutral axis. The neutral axis is the horizontal axis, to which the statical torques of forces related to the
groove from the side of top and bottom roll are identical.
The neutral axis of the groove goes through the centre of gravity and is identical with its horizontal
axis of symmetry. In case of complicated preparatory grooves with only the vertical axis of symmetry
the neutral axis goes through the centre of gravity as well. In this case the task is simplified to defining
the relevant height coordinate of the centre of gravity.

 Modes of determination of groove neutral axis

Several modes may be used for determination of the position of the groove neutral axis. They are
based on determination of the total groove cross section, its centre of gravity or the position of the
centre of gravity of the groove contour. All used modes aim at determination of such position of the
groove neutral axis that assures equivalent effect from the side of both top and bottom roll. It means
equality of both rolls mean work diameters, speeds, etc.
Grooving designers in their practice tried to use various modes of finding the groove neutral axis –
from the historical empirical rule method, characterized by balancing the groove picture, cut out of
stiff cardboard, on the rule sharp edge, stretched wire or needle, to the planimetric method. This
method was based on determination of surfaces by means of planimeter, most often in case of grooves
with vertical symmetry, where the height position of the groove neutral axis was found and the groove
shape was restricted across width according to the shape of the rolled section and through height
arbitrarily. The resulting difference in surfaces was then divided by the chosen width B and the height
h1 was acquired. Subsequently the sum of heights was divided half, and thus the position of the neutral
plane going through the centre of gravity was obtained.
The method using the effect of statical torques may be used as well. In this case tasks are solved in
such a way that the groove cross section is divided into elementary parts in a geometric way and
coordinates of their centre of gravity are determined separately. Hereinafter an example of the solution
for the U cross section is given. The centre of gravity position is determined from the relation
𝑀1 +2𝑀2 𝑆1 𝑦1 +2𝑆2 𝑦2
𝑦= 𝑆1 +𝑆2
= 𝑆1 +𝑆2
(8.5)

where 𝑆1 = 𝐵𝑘 𝑑 – is web surface of the channel (U section)

𝑆2 = 0,5(𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ – is surface of one flange
𝑎, 𝑏 – sides of trapezoid,
𝑀1 , 𝑀2 – static moments of the areas,
𝑑
𝑦1 = 2 – is coordinate of web centre of gravity
ℎ 2𝑎+𝑏
𝑦2 = ( )– is coordinate of flange centre of gravity
3 𝑎+𝑏

𝑧 = 𝑑 + 𝑦 – is distance between groove outer edge and centre of gravity

This method brings satisfactory results in lots of solutions. However, from the theoretical point of
view it has to be taken into account the magnitude of friction forces and mainly their change on roll
flanges; therefore the optimum appears to be the method based on equality of the effect of mean work
diameter of the top and bottom roll with taking into account friction forces, which solves
consequences of the opening position in the upper and lower part of the groove.

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 Groove

Fig. 8.7 Determination of centre of gravity

Summary of terms of this chapter (subchapters)

From this chapter you should know these terms:
shaped steel; slot; groove (pass); roll gap; collars; preparatory, roughing, leading, finishing
grooves; grooves open and closed; neutral axis of groove

Questions to discussed curriculum

8.1. Explain the difference between shaped and flat steel.

8.2. What are tasks solved by grooving of rolls?
8.3. Which parts is the groove defined by?
8.4. How is defined the groove opening?
8.5. Enumerate and define groove types as per classification into particular sections of the rolling mill.
8.6. What used to be values of extension coefficient?
8.7. Define neutral axis of the groove.

Used references that is recommended for further study

GINZBURG, V. B.: Steel-Rolling Technology : Theory and Practice. New York : Marcel Dekker,
1989.

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 Basic grooves design

9. Basic grooves design, roll diameters characteristics and roll service life

Time for study: 2 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

 define and construct basic shapes of extension passes

 define ideal mean roll diameter and work roll diameter
 describe relations between various roll diameter types

Presentation

9.1. Design of basic extension passes (grooves)

Before featuring particular roll diameters, which the groove designer can come across in practice, it is
necessary to describe basic modes of designing the simplest extension passes. With regard to
procedures used in the groove designing practice, the work starts with groove surface area S, based on
which the groove height H and width B are determined.

 Round groove

From the view point of designing the round groove it has to be distinguished whether we have in mind
extension grooves or finishing grooves. For extension grooves the round groove design with one
rounding-off radius is sufficient. This groove does not assure conditions for achievement of the quality
and accurate round cross section, however, for using in the function of extension groove is suitable.

In case of designing the extension round groove the groove surface S, usually determined by previous
calculations, is known. So, we start from the relation:
𝜋
𝑆 = 4 𝑑2 (9.1)

Groove diameter d and also its width B may be calculated as follows

4
𝑑 = 𝐵 = √𝜋 𝑆 (9.2)

The design of roll gap value s and rounding-off radius r may start from the groove diameter value d,
usual values are 𝑠 ≈ 𝑟 ≈ 0.1𝑑. In case of determination the roll gap value s from roll diameter we
suppose that also the rounding-off value r is similar.

Designing the finishing round groove can be much more complicated, see examples in Fig. 9.1.

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 Basic grooves design

Fig. 9.1 Types of round grooves

(Konstrukce kruhového kalibru – construction of round groove)

 Oval groove

The simplest design is in case of one-arc oval groove, which may be designed as so-called sharp with
a large rounding-off or so-called blunt with a small rounding-off approaching the final round. In its
designing we start from the groove surface S and the ratio of width B to height H, denoted α. For the
groove construction the variable α is assumed: 𝛼 = 𝐵⁄𝐻 = 1.5 ÷ 4.5. For calculation of the oval
groove surface S the following formula is used
2
𝑆 = 𝐵𝐻 (9.3)
3

Without knowledge of variable α calculation of groove width and height from the groove surface is
not possible and the equation cannot be resolved. The example of surface calculation is given in
solved examples. Arc radius R of the oval groove may be calculated from the formula

𝑅 = (𝐵2 + 𝐻 2 )/4𝐻 (9.4)

The roll gap value may be determined from the oval groove height according to the relation

𝑠 = (0.15 ÷ 0.2)𝐻.

Fig. 9.2 Oval groove construction

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 Basic grooves design

 Square groove

If we base our designing of the square groove on the known surface S, then we use the formula (9.5),
where a is square side:

𝑆 = 𝑎2 (9.5)

Relation between square side a, groove height H and groove width B is as follows

𝐵 = 𝐻 = √2𝑎 (9.6)

This relation is valid when we are designing the final groove for rooling of square bars. In case of
designing the extension groove, whether using the pass sequence oval – square or another one, a slight
groove opening is used up to the vertex angle value ca 93°.

In Fig. 9.3 the groove construction with rounding-off can be seen. In case of finishing pass the
construction without rounding-off is possible as well. The actual groove height h respecting rounding-
off will be
ℎ = √2𝑎 − 0,828𝑟 (9.7)

The vertex rounding-off magnitude is usually chosen as

𝑟 ≈ 〈0.1 ÷ 0.2〉𝑎 (9.8)

The rounding-off value r1 in transition from the slot to the collar used to be

𝑟1 ≈ 〈0.1 ÷ 0.15〉𝐻 (9.9)

Fig. 9.3 Square groove construction

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 Basic grooves design

 Diamond groove

In designing of diamond groove we start from the groove surface S (Fig. 9.4). The fundamental
relation between variables S, the groove width without rounding-off B and the groove height without
rounding-off H is as follows

𝑆 = 0.5 𝐵𝐻 (9.10)

The relation between diamond side a and groove dimensions is determined by the equation
𝐻
𝑎= 𝛽 (9.11)
2 sin ⁄2

The proper shape of diamond may be expressed by means of angles α and β as well. The vertex angle
β used to be around 110° in using the diamong groove in the pass sequence square – diamond. The
dependence of the groove width without rounding-off on the groove height without rounding-off is
determined by means of angle β as follows
𝛽
𝐵 = 𝐻 tan ⁄2 (9.12)

Recommended values for radius of rounding-off R at the groove flange are given by the relation

𝑅 = 〈0.2 − 0.4〉 𝐵 (9.13)

Radius of rounding-off at the groove vertex r acquires values

𝑟 = 〈0.0 − 0.2〉𝑎 (9.14)

In case of choice the roll gap s the following dependence on roll diameter D may be used

𝑠 = 〈0.01 − 0.02〉𝐷 (9.15)

Fig. 9.4 Diamond groove construction

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 Basic grooves design

 Box groove

Basic dimensions used in designing box grooves of the rectangular and square shape are shown in Fig.
9.5.

Fig. 9.5 Box groove construction

The slot depth hz (groove height H) is designed in accordance with determination of the groove. It
depends on the draft (height reduction), rounding-off the corners, ratio between the rolled stock sides,
etc. The smaller is ratio between sides H/B at the rolled stock exit from the groove, the smaller slot
depth is carried out. We can approximately choice the slot depth based on the following data:

Rolled stocks with H/B <1.2 → hz = 0

The same H/B with requirement for guidance of the rolled stock in the groove with rounding-off in
corners → hz = (0.2 – 0.3) H.
Rolling of rolled stocks with ratio H/B >1.3 and roll adjustment possibility → hz = (0.35-0.45) Hmin.
Rolled stocks with ratio H/B >2 without roll adjustment possibility → hz = (H-s)/2, where roll gap s =
(0.02-0.08) D.
Groove widths bz and B are determined in dependence on width of the rolled product at the pass
entrance and its spread during rolling. For a good guidance of the rolled stock the width in the groove
bottom bz should be mildly smaller than width of the rolled stock entering the groove. If no rounding-
off the corners in the box groove is considered, the groove has to be designed with respect to occurred
spread bz=(1.00-1.05) b. The groove width in place of its opening B is determined in dependence on
the groove side walls incline and spread value Δb. The value of variable B has to be chosen in such a
way so that no groove overfilling could take place. For blooming mills the following relation is
recommended: B = b + (1.25-1.75) Δb. For box grooves in connection with plain part of rolls the
relation B = bz + 2(0.1-0.2) hz is recommended.

The side walls incline ranges in very wide limits, namely from 10 to 20%, for shallow slots and
upsetting grooves can be even higher (40-50%). The choice respects the spread magnitude and
deformation conditions.

Rounding-off radii r1 and r2 are chosen in relation to width of the rolled stock at the pass entrance.
Based on real experience the following constructive relations are recommended

𝑟1 = 〈0.15 − 0.25〉ℎ𝑧 (9.16)

𝑟2 = 〈0.8 − 1.0〉𝑟1 (9.17)

In some cases the box grooves are designed with respect to prevention overfilling of grooves by the
rolled metal, mainly at higher pass reductions. On these conditions the groove bottoms are designed
with rounding-off. The rounding-off is carried out with as large as possible radius and with depth –
considered from the groove bottom – halfway its width, ranged from 5 to 10 mm. In case of billet
rolling mills the rounding-off (crown) of the box groove bottom is not carried out.

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 Basic grooves design

9.2. Roll diameters

One of the parameters featuring rolling mills is diameter of the used rolls. In the course of rolling,
however, rolls diameters are constantly changing due to their wear and tear. Therefore the mills for
rolling the shaped sections are characterized by rolls diameters of the pinion stand which remain
constant. In case of roll stands with plain rolls they are their rolls diameters as well, unless we consider
the roll gap. In case of grooved rolls, where we take into account the roll gap, such diameter the
magnitude of which is determined by the distance between axes of top and bottom roll (see Fig. 9.6) is
considered. This diameter is called mean ideal roll diameter Di,str. It is a basic roll diameter, which is
used not only for featuring the rolling mill but also in basic calculations of grooving of rolls (pass
sequence).
In case when the roll gap is considered, then nominal roll diameter 𝐷𝑛 is smaller than mean ideal roll
diameter. Nominal roll diameters represent then the actual maximum diameters that the rolls have
when they are placed in the roll stand. In case of grooved rolls these are diameters measured on
flanges. The magnitude of nominal roll diameter is changing due to regrinding the rolls in the course
of their service life from 𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 to 𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 . For the top roll notation 𝐷𝑛,ℎ , for the bottom roll 𝐷𝑛,𝑠𝑝 is
used.
The relation between mean ideal diameter, nominal roll diameters and roll gap is as follows:

2𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑛,ℎ + 𝐷𝑛,𝑠𝑝 + 2𝑠 (9.18)

Fig. 9.6 Relation between particular roll diameters

(osa horního válce - top roll centre line, střední ideální osa válců - mean ideal roll centre line,
neutrální osa - neutral axis, osa válcování - rolling axis, osa spodního válce – bottom roll centre line)

 Work roll diameter

By work roll diameter 𝐷𝑝 we understand the diameter that was measured in places where the formed
metal contacts the roll surface (groove walls). From this results that we can define a whole series of
work roll diameters. It depends only on the cross section shape of the rolled metal or on the roll shape.

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 Basic grooves design

In rolling on plain rolls we have only one work roll diameter – across the whole width of the rolled
stock. The work roll diameter is in this case identical with the nominal diameter.

In case of grooved rolls very many work roll diameters exist. To each place across the groove width
which has a contact with surface of the rolled metal belongs another work roll diameter. Differences in
work roll diameters cause some difficulties in rolling of shaped sections, especially from viewpoint of
kinematics of the rolling process. The speed of the grooved roll changes on the groove contour from
𝐷𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 to 𝐷𝑝,𝑚𝑖𝑛 .

With growing complexity of the groove shape also kinematic issues emerge. With the growing roll slot
depth increases the speed difference in particular parts of the groove contour. A significant
displacement of metallic particles across width occurs. In the formed metal stress is induced which can
finaly lead to waviness of the rolled metal. Further, during the rolling process underfilling of some
groove parts, or vice versa their overfilling, can occur.

Therefore – another roll diameter, mean work diameter 𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 is introduced for alleviation
unfavourable effects of all mentioned influences. It is defined as the roll diameter in a specific place
on the roll contour at which the rolled product speed equals the rolls speed. Knowledge of mean work
diameter of the roll is an important part of solution of a high number of pass design tasks.

𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 may be generally expressed as follows

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝐷𝑝,𝑖
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝑛
(9.19)

In simpler cases, like rolling on plain rolls, mean work diameter is identical with work roll diameter
across the entire width of the rolled metal. In case of box grooves the mean work diameter is
determined in such a way that the diameter in the groove bottom is chosen.

For determination of mean work diameter the best solution is based on the balance of friction forces
acting on slot surfaces in the top and bottom roll in the whole deformation zone. This solution is very
difficult and therefore in practice some simplifications are applied.

Currently, basically three methods for determination 𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 are used; they are based on:

 utilization of contact areas between the metal and the groove

 appropriate mean height of the groove

 peripheral groove data

Using the first method, mean work diameter may be generally expressed by the relation
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝐷𝑝,𝑘 𝑆
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = (9.20)
𝑙𝑘

where ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝐷𝑝,𝑘 𝑆 is a sum of work diameters in every groove place on total contact surface between
the metal and the roll in the deformation zone, 𝑙𝑘 is total contact length. The value of 𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 depends
also on a degree of filling the groove by the metal.

For a single-arc oval groove the mean work diameter is defined according to the following formula

𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷 + 2𝑟 (1 − cos 𝜑𝑠𝑡𝑟 ) (9.21)

where D – roll diameter in groove bottom

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 Basic grooves design

𝐵2 +(𝐻+𝑠)2
r – rounding-off radius of oval groove 𝑅 = 4(𝐻+𝑠)
(9.22)

𝜑𝑠𝑡𝑟 – mean angle of a slot contour part between initial bite of the metal by rolls and final
filling the oval
𝑏 𝑎
𝜑𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 0.25 (sin−1 2𝑟0 + sin−1 2𝑟) (9.23)

b0 – width of the rolled stock at the rolls exit

B, H – width and height of the oval groove

s – roll gap

a – square side at entrance into the groove

For diamond groove at B/K = 1.75 and angle b=120°

𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷 − 𝐻 + 0, 𝐵 = 𝐷 − 𝐻 + 0.35𝐻 = 𝐷 − 0.65𝐻 (9.24)

For square groove

𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷 − 𝐻 + 0.35𝐻 = 𝐷 − 0.65𝐻 (9.25)

For round groove

𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷 − 𝑑 + 0.17𝑑 (9.26)

A very simple method is the second one, which considers in its mathematical expression the
appropriate (mean) groove height
𝑆
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷 − 𝑏 (9.27)

where S – rolled stock cross section in the exit plane from the deformation zone

b – rolled stock width in the exit plane

However, using this method we do not acquire always correct results, especially in cases of rolling in
complicated shaped grooves. The method does not take into account influence of side walls inclines in
the groove. So, it is suitable for extension passes.

In references may be found other relations for determination of mean work roll diameter.

For a sinle-arc oval groove

2
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − 3 𝐻 (9.28)

For diamond groove

0.5𝐵𝐻
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − 𝐵
= 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − 0.5𝐻 (9.29)

For square groove (without rounding-off the corners)

𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − 0.707𝑎 (9.30)

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 Basic grooves design

With rounding-off the corners in vertices of grooves

𝑎 2 −0.86𝑟 2
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − (9.31)
1.41𝑎−0.83𝑟

With rounding-off the corners in vertices of grooves, but considering the roll gap
𝑎 2 −0.86𝑟 2
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − 1.41𝑎−𝑠
(9.32)

For round groove

𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − 0.778𝑑 (9.33)

In determination of mean work roll diameter for complicated shaped grooves (beams, rails, etc.) we
start with using data on contact surfaces between the metal and rolls, provided that we accept some
simplifications. Then for the beam groove is valid
∑ 𝐷𝑝 𝑙 𝐷1 𝑙1 +𝐷2 𝑙2 +𝐷3 𝑙3 +⋯+𝐷𝑛 𝑙𝑛
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = ∑𝑙
= 𝑙1 +𝑙2 +𝑙3 +⋯+𝑙𝑛
(9.34)

where 𝑙𝑖 is length on roll body with the dorresponding diameter 𝐷𝑖 .

 Roll service life

In the course of rolling in grooves the permanent wear of the roll working surface occur. If the roll
wear exceeds a certain limit, rolling has to be interrupted. Rolls have to be reground with the aim to
reach the original groove dimensions again.

By every regrinding of roll surface the actual diameters 𝐷𝑛 are becoming smaller. The roll nominal
diameter value is gradually changing – from 𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the first built-in the new rolls to 𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 at their
last putting in the roll stand. The initial value of nominal roll diameter 𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 has to be chosen with
regard to depth of cut grooves at maximum reducing (weakening) the rolls.

It is recommended that maximum weakening the rolls 𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 should not exceed the value:

 for final grooves with simple and complicated geometric shape

𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (1⁄4 ÷ 1⁄6)𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř (9.35)

 for roughing rolling mills and rolling mills with preparatory trains for shaped sections

𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (1⁄3 ÷ 1⁄6)𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř (9.36)

Mean ideal roll diameter equals

𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř = 2
(9.37)

The allowed range of changes in roll diameter caused by regrinding can be expressed by means of
coefficient k
𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘= 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř
(9.38)

where k – relative decrease in roll diameter in the range of its applicability

From this results

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 Basic grooves design

𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1 + 𝑘⁄2)𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř (9.39)

𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 𝑘⁄2)𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř (9.40)

If the roll gap s, which reaches even high values, is considered, then

𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1 + 𝑘⁄2)𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř − 𝑠 (9.41)

𝐷𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 𝑘⁄2)𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡ř − 𝑠 (9.42)

The value of the regrinding coefficient k has to be chosen with regard to allowable diminishing of the
roll diameter, biting capabilities of rolls, roll strength, etc. The following mean values of coefficient k
are recommended:
 for roughing mills and mills for rolling shaped steel
𝑘 = 0.08 – 0.15 (9.43)
 for wire rod rolling
𝑘 = 0.07 – 0.10 (9.44)
 for hot rolling of sheet/plate and strips
k = 0.04 – 0.07 (9.45)

Summary of terms of this chapter (subchapter)

After studying this chapter you should be able to explain the design of round, oval, square, diamond,
and box groove (pass).
Further to explain relations between ideal mean roll diameter, work roll diameter, mean work roll
diameter and nominal roll diameter.

Questions to discussed curriculum

9.1. Explain the design of a simple round groove

9.2. Explain the design of a single-arc oval groove
9.3. How is designed the square groove?
9.4. Construct (plot) the diamond groove
9.5. Explain basis of designing the box groove
9.6. What is work diameter of the grooved roll?
9.7. What ways can be used for determination of mean work roll diameter?
9.8. What are usual values of maximum nominal roll diameter and minimum nominal roll diameter?

Tasks for solution

9.1. Plot the round groove for rolling of the round bar with diameter 40mm.
9.2. Plot a single-arc oval groove with surface area 160 mm2.
9.3. Plot the square groove for rolling of the bar with side a = 50 mm.

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 Basic grooves design

9.4. Plot the diamond groove with surface area 225 mm2.
9.5. Design and plot the box groove for rolling of the stock with ratio H/B=1.15 and width 245 mm.

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 Rolled stock contact surface

10. Contact surface of rolled stock with groove walls, spread in grooves of
various types and roll service life under load

Time for study: 3 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

 define the top and bottom pressure

 describe calculation of the contact surface between the metal and the groove
 resolve the slot depth in the roll

Presentation

10.1. Top and bottom pressure

From viewpoint of productivity and safety of the technological process it is necessary for the rolled
metal to run out of the groove/rolls in straight direction. Therefore the top and bottom roll must have
identical diameters. It is known from practice that situations occur or conditions originate when the
rolled stock leaving the rolls is bent upwards or downwards. In these cases the runout fittings (guards)
have to be built to both rolls. This random, but unfavourable influence must be excluded. A specific
direction has to be forced to the metal, not later than it leaves the rolls. That is the reason for using the
rolls with different diameters.

If there is in the roll stand the top roll of higher diameter, rolling with so-called top pressure is applied.
If higher diameter has the bottom roll, rolling with bottom pressure is applied. Differences in rolls
diameters cause that the roll with higher diameter has higher speed than the roll with lower diameter.
Differences in exit speeds of rolled stock surface parts are determined according to the relation
𝜋𝑛
𝑣1− 𝑣2 = (𝐷1 − 𝐷2 ) (10.1)
60

In case of identical revolutions of both rolls we get for rolling with top pressure

(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 ) = 𝑚 (10.2)

and for rolling with bottom pressure

(𝐷2 − 𝐷1 ) = 𝑚 (10.3)

So, the magnitude of the top and bottom pressure is determined by the difference between work roll
diameters with consideration of sign + (plus) for top pressure and sign – (minus) for bottom pressure.
In rolling with top pressure the runout guard is placed only to the bottom roll because the external
speed from the top roll side creates conditions for bending the rolled stock downwards. The front end
leaving the rolls slides on the guard and the rolled stock acquires the straightforward direction.

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 Rolled stock contact surface

a) b)

Fig. 10.1 Metal rolling with a) top presssure b) bottom pressure

In technological practice the rolling takes place mostly with top pressure. The rolling with bottom
pressure is used in roughing mills. In rolling of ingots and slabs a probability of their bending or even
reeling up the top roll is only little. The bottom pressure is here used mainly for the reason of reducing
impacts from the bloom or slab leaving the rolls on the housing roller or initial rollers of the roller
table. The bottom pressure magnitude in these rolling mills ranges around 10-20 mm.

On the other hand, different roll diameters show some shortcomings, from which the following may be
mentioned:

 unequal draft (height reduction) – causes different wear of rolls

 different roll speeds – cause sliding between rolls and additional stresses in the formed metal
 impacts origin – the roll with larger diameter tries to increase speed of the roll with smaller
diameter through mediation of the rolled metal

For the reasons mentioned above great differences in roll diameters are not recommended.

Based on knowledge gained in operation it is recommended:

 differences in rolls diameters in roughing mills and in rolling mills with box passes should not
exceed 2-3%, in finishing pass 1% of ideal diameter
 differences in rolls diameters in other rolling mills with the extension grooves and open
arrangement should not be higher than 1%
 in finishing rolling mills it is necessary, if possible, to eliminate differences between rolls
diameters to zero

10.2. Groove placing in roll

The direction of running the metal out of the rolls depends on the position of neutral axis (as well as
rolling axis) to the ideal centreline of rolls. If the neutral axis is placed in the ideal centreline of rolls,
so-called ideal rolling conditions arise. It means identical speeds, straightforward exit the metal from
the rolls, no stresses and/or impacts (shocks) in the roll stand, increase in roll service life and decrease
in power consumption.

If the neutral axis of the groove is placed higher or lower, the rolled stock will be bent upwards or
downwards. At the same time the rolled stock exiting the rolls will influence the rolling fittings. Some
damage of the device can occur, or in case of rolled products with flanges their wedging (jamming) on
the roll will originate. At the given value of pressure m it is possible to precisely determine the
position of the rolling axis CD in relation to the ideal centreline of rolls AB (Fig. 9.6).

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 Rolled stock contact surface

In general it is valid

(𝐷𝑖,ℎ − 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑝 ) = 𝑚 (10.4)

𝑚
(𝑅𝑖,ℎ − 𝑅𝑖,𝑠𝑝 ) = 2
(10.5)

It results from Fig. 9.6 that

𝑅𝑖,ℎ = 𝑅𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 + 𝑥 (10.6)

𝑅𝑖,𝑠𝑝 = 𝑅𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 − 𝑥 (10.7)

(𝑅𝑖,ℎ − 𝑅𝑖,𝑠𝑝 ) = 2𝑥 (10.8)

𝑚
Then it is also valid that 𝑥 = 4

Based on the above mentioned text the following procedure is chosen for correct placing of grooves in
the rolls. At the given Di,str, top or bottom pressure m and groove height hk it has to be performed:

 plotting axes of bottom and top roll with pitch Di,str

 splitting in half the distance between axes of bottom and top roll so that the ideal centreline of
rolling AB could be obtained
𝑚
 plotting the rolling axis CD in the distance 𝑥 = from the ideal rolling axis; at top pressure it
4
is plotted downwards, at bottom pressure upwards
 determination of work roll diameters Dp
2ℎ
𝐷𝑝,ℎ = 𝐷𝑖,ℎ − 𝑘⁄2 (10.9)

2ℎ𝑘⁄
𝐷𝑝,𝑠𝑝 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑝 − 2 (10.10)

 determination of roll gap s and value of nominal roll diameter on flanges Dn

𝐷𝑛,ℎ = 𝐷𝑖,ℎ − 2𝑠⁄2 (10.11)

𝐷𝑛,𝑠𝑝 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑝 − 2𝑠⁄2 (10.12)

 check of particular roll diameters

𝐷𝑝,ℎ 𝐷
⁄ + 𝑝,𝑠𝑝⁄ + ℎ𝑘 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠𝑡𝑟 (10.13)
2 2
The correct shape of grooves and their placing belong to main factors influencing the roll service life.
In placing the grooves we must not forget the loads in particular grooves. The roll strength with
respect to supposed loads in grooves has to be checked. The slot must not interfere with the theoretical
shape of the roll. So, grooves with deeper slots are located nearer the bearing journals.

The theoretical roll shape is determined from the relation between the actual roll shape and its strain –
see Fig. 10.2. It calculates with the shaft of length “A” and two supports located in halfway of the
journal lengths. It is valid:

𝐴 = 𝐿 + 2𝑙 (10.14)

The bending moment acting in the given groove may be expressed by means of the force acting in a
distance from the support, for the first groove will be valid

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 Rolled stock contact surface

𝑀0 = 𝐹1 𝑎 (10.15)

The bending moment, expressed by means of permissible strain, is then

𝑀0 = 0,1𝑦 3 𝑘0 (10.16)

where y – represents radius of theoretical shape of the roll

k0 – corresponds to material constant

From equality of both moments we can get after some modification the following form
10𝐹1 𝑎
𝑦3 = ⁄𝑘 , (10.17)
0
3
and after simplification 𝑦 = √𝑐𝑎, which corresponds to equation of circular paraboloid, where c is
defined by material properties of the roll.

Fig. 10.2 Theoretical shape of roll

10.3. Metal deformation in grooves

In real conditions of the metal forming, as well as in rolling, we can always meet manifestation of non-
uniform deformation. Particularly pronounced is manifestation of inhomogeneous deformation in
rolling in grooved rolls. One of requirements of grooving of rolls is to make this deformation more
uniform, mainly through height of the rolled metal.

Rolling in grooves, unlike rolling on plain rolls, is characterized by two important specialities. The
first one consists in the following:

Rolling of metal with rectangular cross section on plain rolls is characterized by the fact that both
absolute and relative thickness reduction across the whole width of the rolled stock is the same.

Otherwise it is in rolling in grooved rolls; here three different cases can occur:

 The cross section shape of the rolled metal before the pass is from geometric viewpoint
similar to the groove shape and the absolute thickness reduction across the whole width of the
rolled stock is the same, but the relative reduction is different.
 The absolute reduction across the rolled stock width is different, but relative reduction is the
same, e.g. in rolling of the rhombic rolled stock after tilting in the diamond groove.
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 Rolled stock contact surface

 In the most general case, both absolute and relative reduction across the whole rolled stock
width have different values, e.g. in rolling of the rolled stock with square cross section in the
oval groove, or in rolling of the rolled stock with oval cross section after tilting in the square
groove placed diagonally.

From the viewpoint of general classification of the metal rolling and different ways of deformation
manifestation across the groove width, four basic cases of rolling exist (Fig. 10.3). Typical rolling
schemes are characterized by the change of basic parameters:

 initial height 𝐻0
 groove height 𝐻𝑘
 work roll diameter 𝐷𝑝
 bite angle across width of the rolled metal 𝛼
These parameters can be constant or variable and by their combination 4 schemes of rolling originate.
If all parameters are constant, that is the question of scheme I - see Fig. 10.3. In case of rolling in
grooves the most often is scheme IV, where all mentioned parameters are variable.

Fig. 10.3 Distribution of height deformation across rolled metal width

The second speciality consists in the fact that in rolling in grooves the deformation resistance differs in
the lateral direction (spread) from the deformation resistance in rolling on plain rolls. In rolling on
plain rolls the forces preventing the spread are expressed by means of friction forces acting in the
lateral direction. In rolling in grooves except for friction forces also components of the horizontal
projection of side roll forces act in the lateral direction. These forces either strengthen the deformation
resistance in the spread direction or weaken it.

Reductions in particular parts of the groove should enable fulfilment of the mentioned conditions in
every pass. Of course, due to grooves shapes with various extent of complexity, which we come across
in normal practice, this cannot always be fulfilled. Therefore in grooving of rolls it is necessary to
keep to the following:

The more complicated is the shaped steel cross section, the more important is in calculations of
thickness reductions to shift their non-uniformities towards initial rolling passes.

In direction towards final passes we have to try making reductions more uniform across the whole
width of the groove.

Such mode of rolling makes it possible to perfectly utilize formability of the rolled metal, especially in
initial passes, where the steel metal has a sufficiently high forming temperature. In these rolling terms
the future cross section shape may be very easily created, without danger of residual stresses origin.

In grooving of rolls it is desirable to assure that the distribution of both absolute and relative thickness
reduction values across the rolled stock width was chosen in such a way so that the metal flow secured
the creation of particular parts of the rolled metal required shape.

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 Rolled stock contact surface

 Linear coefficient of extension across groove width

That is the question of linear extension

coefficient expressed by formula:
𝐿 𝐻 +𝐵 𝑆
𝜆 = 𝐿1 = 𝐻0 +𝐵0 = 𝑆0 (10.18)
0 1 1 1
(10.18)
where 𝐿0 , 𝐵0 , 𝐻0 , 𝑆0 are length, width,
height and surface of the rolled stock before
deformation in groove. With subscript 1
these values are after deformation in the
groove.

From the formula it is clear that the linear

extension coefficient features the reduction
magnitude of the rolled metal cross section
area. In rolling of complicated shaped
sections also partial extension coefficients
in particular parts of the rolled metal have
to be considered.

Rolling of the rolled stock in complicated

shaped grooves with a pronounced
inhomogeneous distribution of the height
deformation across the grooves width
causes different values of extension
coefficient in particular parts of the rolled
metal. Due to different extension in
particular parts of the rolled metal Fig. 10.4 Determination of mean coefficient of linearity
unfavourable phenomena occur. In places
of small thickness reduction the metal loss,
underfilling of flange parts of the groove, occurs. On the other hand, places with large reductions
cause considerable forced spread.

In calculations of grooving of rolls the unified coefficient of extension, including the entire formed
cross section, has to be considered, above all with regard to existence of rigid ends and mutual
cohesiveness of the rolled metal.

Therefore in calculations so-called mean extension coefficient is introduced, related to the total cross
section area of the rolled metal for a single pass. Knowledge of this coefficient makes the calculation
and correct design of the required groove much easier. It enables to determine the extent of
longitudinal shrinkage or forced spreading, namely with regard to correct filling of the groove by the
rolled metal.

The simplest way of determination the value of coefficient of mean linear extension of the cross
section surface area of the rolled metal assumes that the rolled stock length after exit the rolls is a
mean arithmetical value of actual partial lengths. The coefficient of mean linear extension is then the
mean arithmetical value of partial elongations:
𝐻0,𝑖
∑𝑛
𝑖=1𝐻1,𝑖
𝜆𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝑛
(10.19)

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 Rolled stock contact surface

where n is a number of partial cuts across the groove width. A shortcoming of this relation is that it
does not take into account the existence of spread, the law of constant volume and anyway deals with
this question very simply. An example of solution is outlined in Fig. 10.4.

10.4. Utilization of thickness reduction for pass sequence calculation

Absolute thickness reduction (draft) of the rolled metal is distributed across the groove width very
non-uniformly. Correctly determined reduction in the grooved rolling is a prerequisite for not only the
correct calculation of the pass sequence, but also the calculation of spread, roll force and many other
tasks. Approximate methods are used, the essence of which consists in conversion of complicated
geometric shapes to simpler rectangular shapes at remaining identical cross section areas. The aim is
to gain new equivalent dimensions that can be considered for solution of various cases of the grooved
rolling.

 Method of equivalent cross section and sides ratio

This method utilizes for conversion of an arbitrary cross section shape to a simpler rectangular shape
of corresponding magnitude the following assumptions:
 Surface areas of both cross section shapes are of the same magnitude.
 Ratios of sides or their axes are identical.

From this results

𝑆 = 𝑆́ (10.20)

𝐵⁄ = 𝐵́⁄ (10.21)
𝐻 𝐻́

where 𝑆, 𝐵, 𝐻 - are original cross section and its dimensions

𝑆́, 𝐵́, 𝐻́- are conversed cross section and its equivalent dimensions

Determination of one of equivalent dimensions may be carried out as follows

𝑆 = 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵́𝐻́ (10.22)

𝐵⁄ = 𝐵́⁄ (10.23)
𝐻 𝐻́

𝐻́ = 𝐵́ 𝐵⁄𝐻 (10.24)

By substitution 𝐻́ into the relation for S we receive

𝑆 = 𝐵́𝐵́ 𝐵⁄𝐻 = 𝐵́2 𝐵⁄𝐻 (10.25)

𝐵́ = √𝑆 𝐵⁄𝐻 (10.26)

𝐻́ = 𝑆⁄ ́ (10.27)
𝐵

The mentioned relations can be used for determination of equivalent dimensions of the rolled metal
before and after deformation. In dependence on the rolled stock position at a specific moment of
rolling, equivalent cross sections can have different ratios of sides or ratios of axes. E.g. the rolled
stock with rhombic cross section can take up two positions. The first one corresponds to the case when

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 Rolled stock contact surface

the rolled stock exits the diamond groove. The second one corresponds to the case when the rolled
stock after tilting by 90° is located in front of entrance into the following diamond or square groove.

When this method was created, an assumption was applied that strain coefficients in rolling in
extension passes are not much different compared to coefficients of equivalent cross sections. This
assumption would be correct, if forces acting from the groove side walls against the rolled metal in the
deformation zone did not exist. In reality this fact cannot be neglected and for a more accurate
calculation the correction coefficients have to be taken into account.

 Method of equivalent height

The method of equivalent height consists again in the change of the cross section of an arbitrary shape
to the rectangular shape of equivalent cross section area. The new corresponding cross section has the
same width like the original one. The height of the equivalent rectangular cross section, i.e. a mean
height, is determined by ratio of the relevant shape cross section to its maximum actual width (Fig.
10.5). If we introduce the following notation, where
𝑆0 , 𝐵0 , H0 are original cross section and its dimensions before deformation
𝑆́0 , 𝐵́0 , 𝐻́0 are equivalent cross section and its dimensions before deformation,

then the following relations are valid

𝑆0
𝑆0 = 𝑆́0 , 𝐵0 = 𝐵́0 , 𝐻́0 = ⁄𝐵 (10.28)
0

Similarly it is possible to proceed also in conversion of the cross section shape to the equivalent
deformation. If we consider the above mentioned notation with subscript 1 (after deformation), then
the following relations are valid

𝑆
𝑆1 = 𝑆́1 , 𝐵1 = 𝐵́1 , 𝐻1 = 1⁄ 𝐵 (10.29)
1

Examples of utilization in practice:

The absolute thickness reduction may be determined as

𝑆 𝑆
∆𝐻́ = 𝐻́0 − 𝐻́1 = 0⁄ 𝐵 − 1⁄ 𝐵 (10.30)
0 1

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 Rolled stock contact surface

Fig. 10.5 Scheme of conversion of complicated geometric shapes to equivalent simpler rectangular
shapes

10.5. Contact surface

The successful solution of grooving of rolls requires that attention should also be paid to the
calculation of roll force during passage of the rolled stock through the groove. This task is strongly put
in the foreground especially in association with optimization of forming processes from viewpoint of
the uniform force acting or correct design of roll stands.
In a simple way roll force can be expressed in the form of the product

𝐹 = 𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟 𝑆 (10.31)

where S – is projection of the contact surface to the plane perpendicular to the roll force direction
pstr – is mean average specific pressure in the total deformation zone

Thus, calculation of the roll force can be divided into solution of two tasks:
 Quantification of contact surface between the metal and the roll
 Determination of mean value of total deformation resistance

The quantification of the contact surface between the metal and the roll is relatively easier in
comparison with the determination of mean value of total deformation resistance. So, we leave the
solution of resistance characteristics in grooves to professional references and aim to the contact
surface determination.

The task of the contact surface determination is mostly solved as its projection to the horizontal or
vertical plane. In the most frequent cases the projection of the contact surface to the horizontal plane is
considered. This solution brings under control a number of methods and mathematical relations. Many
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 Rolled stock contact surface

of them are based on application of complex integrals. Some assumptions and simplifications are
accepted in final forms of equations.
To current methods used for determination of the contact surface magnitude belong:
 Analytical mode
 Grapho-analytical mode
 Graphic mode

 Analytical mode

Method of corresponding height

Based on this method the contact surface magnitude is determined from the projection of this surface
to the horizontal plane. That is the question of a certain analogy of the contact surface determination
on conditions of rolling on plain rolls. The difference is that we introduce into calculation the
corresponding cross section dimensions of the shaped rolled stock, transferred to a simpler rectangular
cross section.

In general form we can present the equation for calculation of the contact surface as follows

𝑆 = 𝐵𝑠𝑡𝑟 √𝑅́𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 ∆𝐻́ (10.32)

Further the following relations have to be valid
𝑆0 𝑆1
∆𝐻́ = 𝐻́0 − 𝐻́1; 𝐻́0 = ; 𝐻́1 = (10.33)
𝐵0,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐵1,𝑚𝑎𝑥

2𝑅́𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑠 = 𝐷𝑖 + 𝐻́1 (10.34)

where 𝑆0 , 𝑆1 - are cross section areas of the rolled metal before entrance into and after leaving the
rolls
𝐷𝑖 - is ideal roll diameter
s – is roll gap

After substitution into the relation we receive

𝐵0 +𝐵1 1 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
𝑆= 2
√2 (𝐷𝑛 + 𝑠 − 𝐵1 ) (𝐵0 − 𝐵1 ) (10.35)
1 0 1

The relation in the given form can be used with some approximation for calculation of the contact
surface in rolling in arbitrary shaped grooves.

Method of corresponding cross section and ratio of sides

This method is based on assumptions consisting in a simplification of cross section shapes of the metal
before entrance into the rolls and after exiting the rolls, in accordance with the subchapter for
calculation of the thickness reduction using the method of the corresponding cross section and ratio of
sides. Using equations in this subchapter and by their substitution into the equation for calculation of
the contact area on plain rolls we receive

1 𝐵 𝐵 1 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝑆 = 2 (√𝑆0 𝐻0 + √𝑆1 𝐻1 ) √2 (𝐷𝑛 + 𝑠 − √𝑆1 𝐻1 ) (√𝑆0 𝐻0 + √𝑆1 𝐻1 ) (10.36)
0 1 1 0 1

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 Rolled stock contact surface

The mentioned formulae represent a general solution, for combination of usual shapes of the rolled
stock and extension passes it is possible to find the analytical solution by various authors in references.

 Grapho-analytical mode

According to this method the pertinent groove shape and cross section of the rolled metal is plotted
(Fig. 10.6).
The groove shape is divided by means of auxiliary straight lines into arbitrary partial surface elements
l1, l2…ln. For each element the absolute thickness reduction ∆𝐻 and work roll radius 𝑅𝑝 are
determined. From the gained values the length of deformation zone is calculated for each partial
surface element according to the known relation

𝑙𝑑 = √𝑅𝑝 (𝐻0 − 𝐻1 ) (10.37)

After quantification of individual lengths of the deformation zone across the groove width they are
plotted into a graph. The ends points are connected and the gained curve determines the contact
surface magnitude.

Fig. 10.6 Grapho-analytical mode of contact surface determination

The influence of the rolled stock spread in groove along the deformation zone is determined in such a
way that a curve is led approximately from the vertex of the given rolled stock to the point on the
groove contour which corresponds to maximum spread value in place where the rolled stock leaves the
groove. For this part, ∆𝐻, 𝑅𝑝 , and 𝑙𝑑 are determined in a similar way.

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 Rolled stock contact surface

The total contact surface magnitude is determined by means of CAD system or – in an old way – by
planimetry. This mode of determination the contact area is suitable not only in rolling in extension
grooves, but it may also be used in rolling of more complicated shaped rolled stocks (Fig. 10.7)

Fig. 10.7 Contact surface determination in rolling of special section

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 Rolled stock contact surface

 Graphic mode

The graphic mode of determination the contact surface is carried out in such a way that - based on the
constructed groove contour and cross section of the rolled stock at its entrance into the rolls - the
horizontal and vertical projection of the contact between the metal and rolls is plotted. Currently, this
plotting may be carried out in CAD systems which enable the surface area calculation. In the past this
task was solved by means of planimetry.

Fig. 10.8 Graphic mode of contact surface determination in oval groove rolling
(mittlerer arbeitender Durchmesser - střední pracovní průměr)

Summary of terms of this chapter (subchapter)

From this chapter you should obtain knowledge of terms: top and bottom pressure, theoretical
shape of roll, contact surface.

Questions to discussed curriculum

10.1. What means top pressure and how is it reached?

10.2. How is defined coefficient of linear extension across groove width?
10.3. Define possible combinations of basic parameters influencing non-uniformity of deformation
across groove width.
10.4. Describe theoretical shape of roll.

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 Rolled stock contact surface

10.5. How is defined the method of corresponding height for determination of deformation in the
groove?
10.6. Describe differences in determination of contact surface by means of analytical, grapho-
analytical and graphic method.

Tasks for solution

Calculate and plot circular double-paraboloid in Excel. Start from the following specification of the
equation y3= ca,
where: c = 63250, A = 500 mm, l = 100 mm.

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 General principles of pass sequences

11. General principles of pass sequences and grooving of rolls of steel bars
with simple cross section shapes

Time for study: 3 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

 define what the pass system is

 describe particular pass sequences
 know advantages and disadvantages of particular systems of pass sequences

Presentation

 Grooving of rolls for rolling in extension passes

The extension grooves/passes are grooves/passes, in which diminishing of the rolled metal cross
section during rolling takes place. Shapes of extension grooves/passes are different. In dependence on
the rolled metal cross section, coefficient of extension and roll diameter, the extension passes are
integrated in the rolling process in a certain sequence.

A series of gradually alternating specific shapes of grooves/passes is called system of grooves/passes

of the given sequence (in short “pass sequence”).

From existing systems of the extension passes we can enumerate the following pass sequences:

 Box (rectangular) pass sequence

 Box pass - open box pass sequence (note: by open box pass we understand the plain part of the
roll barrel)
 Square - oval pass sequence
 Square - square pass sequence
 Diamond - square pass sequence
 Diamond - diamond pass sequence
 Oval - upsetting oval pass sequence
 Oval - round pass sequence
 Universal pass sequence

In the following text selected pass sequences will be dealt with separately from viewpoint of their use
in practice – in the area of pass designing in rolling of round and square bars.

 Pass sequence oval – square – oval

This sequence belongs to the most used sequences of extension passes (Fig. 11.1). It is used for rolling
of wire rod and round bars up to 20 mm in fine and up-to-date wire rod mills.

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 General principles of pass sequences

Fig. 11.1 Scheme of oval – square pass sequence

This pass sequence enables rolling of round bars with minimum number of passes. In combination
with a suitable modification of leader oval it enables rolling of round bars even with higher diameters.
It is also used in the function of preparatory passes for rolling of small shaped sections, up to square
side 50 – 75 mm.

Among basic benefits of this pass sequence rank:

 Achievement of considerable extension. In oval passes coefficient of extension used to be in
the range λ = 1.3 – 1.8, in particular cases even 2 and more. In square passes coefficient of
extension acquires values λ = 1.2 – 1.6
 rapid diminishing of the rolled metal cross section causes
o decrease in a number of passes
o lower power consumption
o decrease in a number of roll stands (passes) and a number of auxiliary equipment
 unlike box passes this sequence assures the permanent renewal of edges in places of original
corners
 by tilting by 90° or 45° the rolled stock is formed from not only two sides, but four sides,
which results in a favourable effect on the formed metal structure
 stability of the rolled stock with the square cross section in the oval pass is enormously high,
entry and exit guides/guards are easily adjustable
 shallow slot in the oval groove in rolls

Among shortcomings are ranked:

 Considerable inhomogeneous deformation through height across the rolled stock width, in
both the oval and the square pass. This deformation non-unformity leads to
o increase in stress in the formed metal
o increase in wear and tear of the oval pass
o increase in energy needed for displacement the metal in lateral direction
 With increasing of the cross section area of the rolled stock the non-uniformity across width
increases.
 Deep slot in the square groove in rolling of large cross sections.
 Comparatively great differentiation of extension in oval and squre passes, which leads to non-
uniform wear and tear of rolls. Oval passes are worn more rapidly than square ones.
 Little stability of the oval rolled stock in square pass requires use of more demanding rolling
fittings.
 For rolling of round bars with medium and large dimensions, as well as deteriorated
formability, some modifications of the oval pass has to be used relatively frequently.

 Pass sequence diamond - square

These pass systems (Fig. 11.2), where diamond and square passes are alternated, are used as roughing
and preparatory passes for rolling of round bars and, above all, square bars.

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 General principles of pass sequences

This pass sequence finds use in the fine and medium section and billet rolling mills with the open,
semi-continuous and continuous arrangement. It can also follow the box passes in the rolling process.
This pass sequence is really used in all cases where are required smaller extensions than in the pass
sequence oval – square. Coefficients of extension in both passes (diamond and square) are
approximately the same and range from 1.15 to 1.40. The vertex angle of the diamond groove ranges
usually from 110° to 115°.

Fig. 11.2 Scheme of pass sequence diamond – square

Among basic benefits of this pass sequence rank:

 Possibility of gaining squares with accurate geometry and rounded-off corners
 Possibility of rolling square cross sections
o from intermediate square passes with omitting a pair of passes
o of near dimensions by changing the top roll adjustment
 High stability of the rolled stock for rolling in both diamond and square groove
 Rolling of the rolled stock with effect of pressure on the entire groove contour
 These passes enable to gain rolled stocks without cracks and wrinkles on the rolled metal
edges.

Shortcomings typical for this pass sequence:

 As compared to box passes, passes of the sequence diamond – square have deeper slot in the
roll, which leads to weakening the roll bodies and decrease in their strength
 In case of overfilling the grooves a danger of creating defects - fins (“rolling edges”) and laps
- originates
 Considerable difference in work roll diameters across the groove width leads to different
peripheral speeds.

 Universal pass sequence

The universal pass sequence is characterized by the following system: plain part of the roll barrel or
the rectangular open box pass – rounded-off plain part of the roll barrel or the upsetting square box
pass – leading oval – finishing round. From the scheme in Fig. 11.3 is evident that the rolled stock of
rectangular cross section, rolled on plain part of rolls or in the rectangular box pass, can enter into
upsetting grooves with a mildly rounded-off part of rolls or with the square shape.

The upsetting grooves have a wide use in practice. They allow an appreciable control of cross section
dimensions, compared to square grooves that are cut in the diagonal position.

Among significant advantages of the universal pass sequence rank:

 By a change of the roll adjustment, the rolling of round bars with several dimensions (4 to 5
near dimensions) in the same grooves is possible.
 Possibility of rolling the stocks with free spread, which excludes creation of wrinkles and laps.

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 General principles of pass sequences

 Easy falling-off the scale from side surfaces of the rolled stock during rolling.
 Possibility of rolling round bars with better quality surface (the rolled stock is rolled with
convex side walls). In the course of rolling no wrinkles on the rolled stock surface originate.
 Considerable shortening of a number of roll changes. The rolls are not changed due to
changing the cross section associated with a change of the product mix, but only due to the
groove wear.
 Shortening of time needed for the pass preparation for rolling.
 Assurance of relatively uniform distribution of the height deformation across the groove width
in late three passes.

This pass sequence is used for rolling of round bars with diameter 20 – 100 mm and higher, of both
carbon and alloy steel. The universal pass system is put for rolling in the medium and heavy mills with
the open and continuous arrangement.
The methodology of calculation of particular universal passes is not distinguished by any specialities.
In grooving of rolls the modes of calculation are used which were mentioned for the box pass
sequence or the pass sequence oval – round.

Fig. 11.3 Scheme of universal passes

 Pass sequence oval – upsetting oval

This pass sequence, where normal oval is alternated with upsetting oval (Fig. 11.4), is used above all
in fine continuous rolling mills. Normal oval grooves are cut into vertical rolls and upsetting (egg-
shaped) oval grooves into horizontal rolls of the continuous rolling mill.
A basic advantage of this system is that the rolled stock need not be tilted.

Fig. 11.4 Scheme of pass sequence oval – upsetting oval

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 General principles of pass sequences

 Pass sequence oval - round

This pass sequence, where round and oval passes are alternated (Fig. 11.5), is mostly used in rolling
mills with the open arrangement for rolling of round bars. It is used, above all, in cases where the
product mix is characterized by round diameters very close to each other.

Fig. 11.5 Scheme of pass sequence oval - round

This system is also used in late roll stands of the finishing block in continuous rolling of wire rod. In
this case the intermediate round pass is used as the finishing pass for rolling of wire rod with higher
diameter.

In specific cases the use of the pass sequence oval – round is benefitial for rolling of high-alloy steels,
where achievement of the quality surface of round bars is required. This mode of rolling excludes
wrinkles on oval-shaped rolled stocks.

Among benefits of the pass sequence oval – round rank:

 Rolling of rolled stock in these grooves is carried out without sharp edges and sudden
transitions, which secures more uniform distribution of the height deformation. The more
uniform distribution of the height deformation prevents origin of internal stress in rolled
stocks.
 The groove shapes and mode of rolling contribute to easier falling-off the scale.
 Minimum wear and tear of grooves.

Using this pass sequence we do not avoid some shortcomings, such as

 difficult feeding of the oval-shaped rolled stock in the round pass
 possibility of the rolled stock bevelling in the groove
 relatively low values of the extension coefficient λ = 1.2 – 1.4

 Pass sequence oval – gothic square

Rolling of round bars using the pass sequence oval – gothic square is very similar to the pass sequence
oval – square. It is used for rolling of round bars of all steel grades, approximately from diameters
exceeding 30 - 80 mm.

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 General principles of pass sequences

For this pass sequence is typical the more uniform distribution of the height deformation across the
rolled stock width in its rolling in the rhombic groove. Further, wear and tear of oval passes is smaller.
The cross section of the gothic square is characterized by the fact that its sides are mildly convex. In
calculation of the pass design the side A is determined from the empirical relation. It is always smaller
than in case of the normal square because
the rhombic groove area is larger than in
case of the inscribed square

𝐴 = (0.9 ÷ 1.0)𝑑 (11.1)

The camber convexity of the square is

determined in a constructive way or in
dependence on diameter of the finishing
round steel

𝑎 = (0.05 ÷ 0,1)𝑑 (11.2)

The rounding-off radius of side walls of

the rhombic groove can be equal to the
groove width R = B = Bk, or is
determined in an analytical way from the
segment of a circle

𝐴2 +4𝑎2
𝑅= 8𝑎
(11.3) Fig. 11.6 Construction of gothic square

When rounding-off is chosen, only a continuous transition between R and r is taken into account.

Fig. 11.7 Scheme of rolling in pass sequence oval – gothic square

 Pass sequence diamond - diamond

This system of passes, where only diamond passes of various magnitudes alternate each other, is used
in rolling of square steel with a lowered formability in medium and heavy mills.

Among benefits of this pass sequence the following may be mentioned:

 Possibilities of gaining the geometrically precise square cross section with sharp edges
 Small internal stress in the formed metal
 Relatively little spread manifestation in rolling of rhombic rolled stocks in diamond passes

Among disadvantages of this pass sequence may be ranked that rolling in diamond passes is
limited by extension coefficient in the range 1.1 - 1.3. Further, in the rolling technology a danger of
winding up the rolled stock on the roll is real, with possibility of lap creation.

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 General principles of pass sequences

Summary of terms of this chapter (subchapter)

Basic terms in this chapter are pass sequence in the following combinations: square – oval, diamond
– square, oval – upsetting oval, oval - round, universal pass sequence

Questions to discussed curriculum

11.1. Enumerate advantages and disadvantages of the pass sequence oval – square.
11.2. Depict a way of renewal the edges in places of original corners in the pass sequence oval –
square.
11.3. Depict a way of rolling a family of square dimensions by changing the top roll adjustment in
case of square pass.
11.4. Depict basic scheme of rolling in the pass sequence diamond – square.
11.5. Present benefits of the pas sequence diamond – diamond.
11.6. Explain construction of the groove in the form of gothic square.
11.7. What are benefits and shortcomings of the pass sequence oval – upsetting oval?
11.8. What steel grades are usually used for rolling in the pass sequence oval – round?
11.9. What grooves/passes represent the universal pass sequence?

Tasks for solution

11.1. Plot the pass of gothic square of cross section area S = 120 mm2.
11.2. Construct the square pass, diamond pass and final square pass for rolling of square bars with
side 20 mm. The thickness reduction in the last pass is defined by coefficient of extension
λ=1.15. In the leading pass the coefficient of extension is λ=1.27.

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 Pass design foundations

12. Pass design foundations of selected types of shaped rolled products

Time for study: 3 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

 distinguish between particular types of shaped products

 describe modes of pass design used in production of sections L, I, U and rails

Presentation

 Pass design for rolling of angles

The cros section shape and dimensions of angles are given by the dimensional standard ČSN 42 5541
(equivalents DIN: 1028:1994, EN: 10056-1:1998 (N), 10056-2:1993) and ČSN 42 5545 (equivalents
DIN: 1029:1994, EN: 10056-1:1998 (N), 10056-2:1993).
According to these standards we distinguish two kinds of angles:
a) Equal angles (Fig. 12.1), the arm width ranges from 20 mm to 200 mm and the arm thickness
from 3 to 20 mm, permissible deviations of the arm width are ±1÷±3mm, for the arm
thickness are different: plus form 0.50 to 1.50 mm, minus from -0.40 to -0.70mm.
b) Unequal angles (Fig. 12.2), the larger arm width ranges from 25 mm to 160 mm, the smaller
arm width from 16 to 100 mm, the arm thickness ranges from 3 mm to 14mm.

Fig. 12.1 Equal angle Fig. 12.2 Unequal angle

The historical development of rolling of angles consisted in searching a more economical cross section
shape, which led to rolling of angles with use of minus tolerances up to rolling of thin-walled angles.
Pass design modes of angles

Pass design with equal arms in closed grooves (Fig. 12.3a)

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 Pass design foundations

It is ranked to the oldest pass design of angles. This pass design is characterized by straightness of the
angle mean fibre in all grooves. In the course of rolling the angle arms are created by breakdown of
the rolled stock. Therefore this mode is also named “breakdown mode“.
The angle arms opening angle is gradually changing from the value 135° ÷ 145° in the preparatory
pass to the value 90° in the final pass. The thickness reduction value gradually falls as well, from the
first pass up to the final pass.

One of shortcomings of this pass design is a deep slot into the rolls, which causes considerable
differences in speeds of rolls. A significant wear and tear of grooves occurs. Rolling is realized with
higher power consumption. Deep slots decrease the roll strength and lead to diminishing of the height
deformation and thus growing a number of passes.
Another disadvantage of this pass design is the fact that due to gradual breakdown of the rolled stock
the segregations can have access to its surface, especially in places of the angle arms contact.
The only benefit of the pass design with equal arms in closed grooves consists in a simple construction
of grooves and relatively little sensitivity to the roll adjustment. This angle pass design mode was
maintained up to now in rolling of angles with small dimensions and in rolling mills of older design.

Fig. 12.3 Angles pass design modes

Pass design of angles with opened arms and restricted spread (Fig. 12.3b)
Currently this pass design belongs to widespread pass design modes. It removes disadvantages of the
equal arms pass design. This mode features construction of the leader pass and further shaped passes.

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 Pass design foundations

The mean fibre of the angle arms is bent in the form of a curve – therefore designation “butterfly
design”. Straightening of angle arms is realized just in the last pass.

The arm bending enables to enlarge the roll force vertical component. The opened arms of the groove
create favourable conditions for construction of slight slots in rolls. The roll strength is not decreased.
Rolling is realized with higher thickness reductions. The deformation process is more intensive, a
number of passes is decreased and the rolling mill output increased. The mentioned pass design makes
it possible the angle rolling without laps. If they come to existence, then only as a result of incorrect
adjustment of the roll stand. The aforementioned mode assures the angle rolling with accurate width of
arms. Actual groove shapes restrict spread. The grooves opening alternates regularly and enables a
progressively increased reduction ratio of angle arm ends.

The butterfly design places higher demands on the actual performance and is relatively sensitive to the
roll adjustment. It enables precise rolling with closer dimensional tolerances. The butterfly design of
angles is currently utilized for pass designing and rolling of thin-walled angles as well.

Pass design of angles with opened arms and free spread (Fig. 12.3c)
This mode is the most progressive in the angle pass design. Compared with previous pass designing,
grooves have the least slots in the roll body. The groove shapes are very simple. The roll stress is
lesser. Higher deformations through-thickness may be used.
The great advantage of this pass design consists in a chance of rolling angles of different magnitudes
in the same set of rolls. Grooves with the free spread do not require flanges on rolls. They enable to
use rolls with smaller diameters. The danger of the lap origin is eliminated. Nevertheless, grooves with
the free spread have also some disadvantages. The free spread in preparatory passes is difficult to
control. For achievement of the required angle arms width the leading pass is designed as closed, with
restricted spread, and in such a way so that width of the rolled stock leaving the rolls corresponded
with the calculated width.

The more preparatory passes with free spread precede the leading pass, the worse is keeping the angle
arm width in relevant limits, and the more carefull has to be adjusting of roll stands. To make
adjustment of roll stands easier, the upsetting passes are used.
Their use makes it possible to obtain the required rolled stock dimension for its entrance into the
leading closed pass. Introduction of the upsetting pass contributes to better universality of this pass
design mode. The benefit of the upsetting pass is justifiable in case of angles rolling with larger arms
thickness. Otherwise a danger occurs that instead of thicknesss reduction only arms bending
(deflection) will be achieved. A wide use of the upsetting pass is applied mainly in the angle rolling in
continuous mills.

 Pass design for rolling of I-beams

The general performance and denotation of the I-beam cross section is
given in Fig. 12.4. Beams, even though they are identical as far as their
shape is concerned, differ by their dimensions. Their dimensional
differences are stated in relevant standards. To important characteristics of
the beam cross section shape belongs:
 Cros section area
 Beam weight per running meter
 Cross sectional moments of inertia Wx and Wy
 Radii of inertia, featuring resistivity value related to cross section
area
 Specific web thickness d/h, featuring the beam stability (strength)
and shape; it points in a most substantial way to racionality of the
Fig. 12.4 IPE section
cross section strained to bending
 Specific flange thickness t/b, featuring the flange strength and shape

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 Pass design foundations

 Specific web area Ss/S, featuring the metal distribution between the web and flanges
Beam pass design modes

Pass design of I-beam using horizontal grooves

This mode finds its use in rolling mill of older design. The rolling mode is shown in Fig. 12.5a. It is
applied for rolling of standard beams. The typical pass design mode that uses horizontal grooves is
used for preparatory passes for rolling of channels (U-beams) as well.
In the course of the entire rolling process no tilting of the rolled stock occurs. Compared to inclined
grooves the horizontal grooves occupy less place along the roll barrel. Rolling in horizontal grooves is
benefitial for the beam production with a higher incline of internal flange walls with a small flange
width. This pass design mode may not be used for rolling of wide flange beams. During the
deformation process it is not possible to cause a more pronounced force effect on flanges in the
vertical direction. The side draft (thickness reduction in lateral direction) is more applied.
By rolling in horizontal grooves the required flange width is difficult to reach. A small incline of the
external flange edges in the beam pass (2-4%) causes difficulties at running the rolled metal out of the
rolls. The occurred friction between the metal and the rolls makes filling the flange parts of the groove
more difficult and increases the roll wear and tear. Rolls have to be much more (to a higher depth)
turned in grooves renewal. The roll diameter diminishing occurs markedly more rapidly and so their
utilization is lowered.
Currently, when economical structural beams are rolled, this typical pass design does not comply any
more. Beams with a smaller incline and enlarged width on flanges are difficult to roll. Thickness
reduction in closed flange parts of the groove is diminishing, in open parts does not grow markedly
either. The roll wear and tear and power consumption are increasing.
Rolling of light-weight/economical beams requires higher deformation in grooves, i.e. more pass
reduction. A limiting element for achievement of the required flange width is the flange open part
where no direct draft (thickness reduction) can be realized. The lateral reduction may be applied at the
expense of higher incline of flange external parts. Therefore higher incline was introduced, from
original 2-4% up to 12%. The increased flange incline is often carried out with regard to the web
deflection.
Currently, preparatory passes with the beam web deflection and with incline of the external flange
parts in the range 5-10% are used in practice. Good results were reached also in use of grooves with
the refracted web and refracted flanges. The inclines of external flange edges range between 2 and 3%
in closed parts and up to 10% in open parts of flanges. The pass design with the straight web, but

Fig. 12.5 Modes of beams rolling

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 Pass design foundations

refracted flanges is used as well. In closed external flange parts the bevelling is 2-3%, in open parts up
to 12 %.
Pass design using oblique grooves (with incline)
This mode, which is plotted in Fig. 12.5b, enables rolling of beams with wider flanges and a smaller
incline of the internal flange wall in the beam groove. The oblique (with incline) placing of grooves in
the rolls allows a better (more intensive) work with the vertical component of the height deformation.
This effect manifests itself favourably in the open flange part of the groove, where easier spread of the
beam flange occurs. The pass design with oblique grooves enables to achieve the beam required
dimensions more easily. This pass design enables rolling with a smaller number of passes. Wear and
tear of rolls is lesser compared to the previous mode. The regular alternation of opened and closed
groove parts in the the material flow is applied. On the other hand, distribution of grooves along the
roll barrel requires more place. The oblique grooves in rolls cause axial forces, which have to be
prevented by stepped bearings and/or locks creation. The closed flange parts of the groove using the
oblique grooving of rolls are designed as straight. Wider flanges of grooves require performance of
deeper slots in the rolls. It means that it is necessary to work with larger roll diameters.

Beam pass design using horizontal and oblique passes

That is the question of a combined pass design mode, which is shown in Fig. 12.5c. It uses both
horizontal and oblique passes and serves for rolling of all beam kinds. The mentioned mode eliminates
shortcomings of previous modes in an appropriate way and utilizes their advantages. It enables using
rectangular initial semifinished products of smaller dimensions than it is possible in case of rolling
with horizontal passes.

 Pass design in rolling of wide flange beams

The cross section of wide flange beams is distinguished by wider flanges compared with standard
beams and economical beams. The wide flange beams are produced in wider dimensional ranges. In
countries where beams are produced they are standardized. Each standard indicates certain specialities
– e.g. density (frequency) of beam series, or specifics - e.g. according to the dimensional DIN standard
3 series of wide flange beams with parallel flanges (normal, weakened and strengthened) and one
series of wide flange beams with incline of internal flange edges 8% are standardized. In practice that
is the question of beams with the web height from 100 mm to 1000 mm.
From viewpoint of static values the wide flange beams are characterized by high magnitudes of
moments of resistance and moments of inertia, compared with normal beams.
Wide flange beams may be produced by three manners:
 welding
 rolling in normal beam mills; also using
universal roll stands for medium and higher
dimensions of beams
 rolling in special mills with the main universal
and auxiliary two-high roll stands

By welding it is possible to produce beams of different

shapes and dimensions. The disadvantage of this
method is high labour-intensity and high production
costs. Currently all kinds of wide flange beams are Fig. 12.6 Scheme of wide flange beams
mostly produced in special rolling mills. Such rolling rolling in universal mill
mill consists of two horizonzal and two vertical rolls
with axes placed in the same vertical plane. In immediate proximity of this main roll stand is located
the reversing two-high roll stand, determined only for the web deformation.
Such arrangement enables rolling of beams with wide flanges and high quality. The reason is that in
the rolling process the deformation is realized in all parts of the rolled stock simultaneously.
The pass design for rolling of wide flange beams is characterized by some specialities. As far as the
pre-shaped semifinished products rolled in the roughing mill is concerned, they must have
symmetrical top and bottom flanges or, in general, accurate dimensions (height and width) of the
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 Pass design foundations

rolled stock. The reason is that in deformation in the universal roll stand really the same strain
coefficients are used for both the web and the flanges.
The current trend utilizes the semi-product prepared by continuous casting in the form of “dog bone”;
this shape is already prepared for creation of flanges and a tall web. Rolling then proceeds exclusively
in universal roll stands, completed by horizontal two-high roll stands, as the case may be, see scheme
in Fig. 12.6.

 Pass design for rolling of channel (U-profile, U-iron)

The general performance and denotation of the basic cross section of U-
profile (channel) is given in Fig. 12.7.
To important characteristics of the cross section shape belongs:
 Cros section area
 Beam weight per running meter
 Cross sectional moments of inertia Wx and Wy
 Radii of inertia ix and iy
 Web specific thickness t1/h
 Flange specific thickness t2/b
 Web specific area Sst/S
 Web slenderness ratio h/t1
 Flange slenderness ratio b/t2
 Relative width of beam shape b/h
 Shape cross section economy Wx/C
 Specific moment of resistance against bending Fig. 12.7 U-profile

In the pass design for rolling of channels we distinguish essentially

three basic modes:
“Straight” pass design. The scheme is given in Fig. 12.8a. The
width of flanges (arms) of the channels is larger than in case of I-
beams of the same No. It means that their required length is
created with more difficulty. Therefore this pass design uses the
opposite, i.e. false flanges. Existence of these flanges and the
deformation within contribute to creation of the required length of
channel arms.
“Beam” mode is a variant of the “straight” pass design (Fig.
12.8b). It is characterized by the fact that preparatory passes are
common for rolling of both channels and I-beams of
corresponding dimensions (numbers). This mode features opposite
(false) flanges. The necessity of large thickness reductions in false
flanges causes a considerable displacement of the metal to the web
and true flanges (arms), which may cause difficulties with
maintaining the dimensional accuracy of the cross section shape.
Advantageous is smaller number of required sets of rolls and
hence smaller number of roll changes associated with changing the
rolling schedule for rolling of I-beam. On the other hand,
considerable thickness reductions in false flanges cause higher
power consumption. From viewpoint of the production technology
the requirements for quality parameters of the final rolled product
are deteriorated. Deep slots in rolls decrease the roll strength.
Small inclines of external flange walls cause higher wear and tear
of the grooves; in turning the rolls it is necessary to remove larger Fig. 12.8 “Straight mode” of pass
thickness of the metal from the roll surface, which leads to faster design of the channel
fall in their service life. Rolling with small flanges inclines
requires a higher number of passes.
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 Pass design foundations

The “beam mode” of the pass design currently remains in those rolling mills where there are
conditions (their design, equipment, etc.) for its application. In new rolling mills this pass design mode
is used only very rarely, or by no means.

Pass design with high incline of channel arms (Fig. 12.9). This variant of the “straight” pass design
is used a little bit more frequently. It is distinguished by a high incline of external flanges walls of
grooves, which ranges from 15 to 20 %.
The high incline of flanges creates favourable conditions for better implementation of the lateral
deformation. The required length of the channel arms is achieved more easily in the course of
introduction the rolled stock from the leading pass with the high incline of flanges into the finishing
pass.
To basic benefits of this pass design belongs:
 Possibility of intensive deformation of the
metal rolled in grooves
 Occurrence of the relatively uniform
distribution of the height deformation in
particular parts of the rolled metal
 Smaller number of passes
 Lower wear and tear of rolls due to
decrease in differences of rolls speeds in
particular parts of grooves
 Relatively shallow slots of grooves in
rolls (higher strength and service life of
rolls)
 Perefect grooves renewal in turning the
rolls
Among shortcomings a relatively high width of
grooves may be mentioned, and thus lesser
utilization of the roll barrel. In many cases this
may be compensated by lowering a number of
shaped passes.
Pass design with progressive convergence of
arms. It eliminates basic shortcomings of the
“straight” pass design. The false arms of channels Fig. 12.9 Pass design mode of channels with
are very small. The groove shapes enable to opened arms
realize shallow slots into the rolls and allow
implementation of large thickness reductions.
Existence of opposite (false) flanges creates a strengthened part in places where the web and flanges
are connected. This node with a higher material concentration has a tendency to resist bending the
arms to square (right angle). Therefore a more robust construction of the entry guide for introduction
the rolled stock into the rolls is required. Collars are subjected to more stress. Unfavourable conditions
for the wrinkle formation on the collar external walls, as well as external walls of the rolled metal
arms, are created.
“Butterfly mode” – this pass design came into being by elaboration of the basic idea of the pass
desing with opened arms. This mode is based on considerable reductions in initial passes - when the
channel arms are created, in the following passes then smaller reductions are realized.
The butterfly pass design is characterized by deflection of the channel arms and web in all passes
except for the final and leading pass. Construction of channel grooves is relatively simple. The pass
design creates favourable conditions for designing the auxiliary rolling fittings and for their operating
in the course of rolling.
The butterfly pass design is advantageous also for rolling of economical channels.

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 Pass design foundations

Specialities of groove designing and rolling of channels

The cross section shape of channels may be considered as the I-beam shape, of course with neglecting
flanges on one side. Such view made it possible origin of the straight pass desing based on the beam
mode.
Conditions of the rolled stock deformation in grooves for rolling channels have their specialities, from
which some should be pointed out:
- With regard to the fact that length of the channel flanges is higher than in case of I-beams of
the same No., the pass design respects the existence of false, or even so-called opposite
flanges. False flanges serve for shaping the arms of required lengths and sharp corners in
places of contact between the arm and the web of the channel.
- In the course of rolling the channel stock (in all passes) no alternation of opened and closed
flanges occurs, unlike the pass design of I-beams.
- Groove opening is designed only with respect to true flanges (arms) of channels
- During rolling of channels the relatively considerable deformations in all parts of grooves
occur.
- In rolling of channels the upsetting (checking/master) grooves are used. Their task is to
control dimensions of arms, especially their length, in the course of rolling - whether the
required value has been reached.

 Pass design for rail rolling

In the rail transport different kinds of rails are used. They
differ from each other by dimensions, cross section area
and shape. Rails of all types belong to a family of flange
shaped steels.
With regard to their use in practice the rails are divided
into railway, mine and special. The railway rails are used
for building the railway lines and sidings. The mine rails
serve for building mine and field railways. By their shape
they are similar to railway rails, but they have smaller
dimensions and weight. Their weight reaches up to 25 kg
per running meter of the rolled product. To a group of
special rails belong grooved (tramway), crane, turnout
(points, switch), tongue, and cross frog rails.
In our case that is the question of typical railway rails,
normally used in the railway traffic. The general rail
performance and designation of their parts is given in Fig. Fig. 12.10 General performance and
12.10. From the viewpoint of the pass design the rail designation of rail
belongs to a group of asymmetrical shaped steels. The (hlava - head, úkos - bevel, stojina -
complexity of rails rolling consists in the fact that groove web, patka - foot, spojková komora -
shapes are symmetrical only with respect to the horizontal cross rail bond)
axis. The asymmetry of the gross section shape and
different conditions of deformation in the rail head and foot make the pass design (grooving of rolls)
very complicated. Rolling is carried out using considerable lateral reductions. The flanges are formed
by lateral thickness reductions, the web by the direct-acting thickness reduction, rail head by the
direct-acting and lateral thickness reduction.

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 Pass design foundations

Summary of terms of this chapter

Basic terms you got to know are the following: pass design of angles with opened arms and
restricted spread, pass design of angles with opened arms and free spread, pass design of I-
beams using horizontal grooves, pass design using oblique grooves, direct pass design of
channels, pass design with large incline of channel arms

Questions to discussed curriculum

12.1. Describe the difference between the unequal and equal angle.
12.2. Enumerate and plot basic differences between the pass design of angles with straight arms and
opened arms.
12.3. Explain the difference between the pass design of I-beam in rolling mills with horizontal
stands and universal rolling mills.
12.4. Describe the pass design of I-beam with using horizontal passes.
12.5. Evaluate advantages and disadvantages of straight pass design for rolling of channels.
12.6. Plot a scheme of the pass design with progressive convergence of arms for rolling of channels.

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

13. Bending in rolls and shaping of flat products in production of shaped

sections and welded tubes

Time for study: 2.5 hour

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

 define types of thin-walled sections

 describe different production technologies of thin-walled sections
 resolve the neutral fibre length

Presentation

13.1. Thin-walled sections

Characteristic properties of thin-walled sections are:
 low weight per running meter
 shape variability of sections
 dimensional accuracy
 surface quality
 mechanical and technological properties

To benefits of thin-walled sections belong a low weight and favourable static cross section values
(cross section characteristics). Thickness of hot rolled sections is often given by minimum
dimensions that may actually be produced, not by strength requirements. Smaller thickness in case of
cold formed sections is more suitable not only for manufacturing reasons, but also for the reason of
possibility of the cross section optimum shape selection, which brings considerable savings. The
building construction design performed of thin-walled sections enables to lower the weight of the
construction by 15 to 30%.

Principle of producing thin-walled sections

 by longitudinal forming the required shape of the profile is gained
 mainly the shape is changed
 cross section (thickness) is changed only minimally
 shaping proceeds in cold state, the material in the deformation course is subjected to work-
hardening

Use of thin-walled steel sections

 machinery
o transportation - aircraft, land
 civil engineering
o building constructions
o roof design
o demountable systems of storehouses, etc.

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

o sheet coverings

Basic division
 Open thin-walled sections (Fig. 13.1)
o edges do not touch each other
o edges are in contact, but they are not continuously connected mechanically or by the
metal
 Closed thin-walled sections (Fig. 13.2)
o made of thin-walled tubes
o prepared usually by bending in rolls into shape of the tube with a gap, continually
welded

Thin-walled sections are produced by cold forming of steel. They are formed by bending in rolls, cold
rolling, stretching and pressing.

Fig. 13.1 Open thin-walled sections Fig. 13.2 Closed thin-walled sections

Types of input semi-products:

 hot rolled strip
 cold rolled strip
 thin-walled tubes

Material:
 steels
o commercial grades
o carbon, alloy
o stainless austenitic
o metal-clad, galvanized
 non-ferrous metals
o copper, bronze, brass
o aluminium, zinc, magnesium, and their alloys
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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

Thin-walled sections can be produced almost of all types of steel, which is rolled to strips and sheets.
Using carbon steels is normal, but also alloy steels, stainless steels, steels with higher corrosion-
resistance or steels of type Atmofix are used. By cold forming the sections of high-strength steels are
also produced, however, sufficient elongation is required in this case, which is a prerequisite for
creation the bends. For the production also very small thicknesses (even smaller than 1 mm) are used.
Sections have relatively close tolerances and the mechanical properties improved by cold forming.
Their surface corresponds to surface of the input steel strip and the production technology. Surface of
sections is either dark or lustre. The dark surface with fine scale it typical for sections produced from
hot rolled strips. The lustre (metallic gloss) surface is characteristic for sections produced from cold
rolled strips and/or produced by drawing. The smooth lustre surface enables to ensure good corrosion
prevention. Such surface is provided with paint or coat, in case of sections made of stainless steels the
surface is polished. Wide bent sections are delivered with a zinc layer on both sides of the surface,
aluminium coated or varnished.

The advantage of thin-walled sections is freedom in choice of shape. Shape is possible to be adapted to
functional requirements at simultaneous beneficial static effects. An example of such advantageous
connection may be ceiling and roof gable sheets, hollow sections of columns, C-shaped downstand
beams, etc.

The initial material for the production of thin-walled sections is sheets and wide strips. Sheets are used
for the production on press brakes, whereas strips serve for the production of sections on shaping
(profiling) machines by cold forming. Strips are coiled in coils, strip thickness used to be up to 3 mm.
The strip width is chosen according to the developed section width. In case of more complicated
sections the strip width has to be exactly maintained in the entire strip length, otherwise difficulty in
the production would appear and section edges would be wavy. Therefore in front of the profiling
machine the circular shear is installed, which trims the strip edges to accurate width. Non-trimmed
strips are used only for the production of simple opened sections. The loss by trimming the edges is
diminished when wide strip is slit into several narrower strips with the required width. When hot
rolled strips are used as the input material, the scale is removed from their surface, mostly by pickling
in acids, so that they could not cause galling (abrasion) of profiling rolls. The production in profiling
machines is a continuous production process. Before coiling is finished, the subsequent strip is welded
to the previous one (in the meantime the strip from the looping pit is processed), so the forming
process is fully continuous.

The basic production technology may be divided into three following modes:
 profiling/shaping (bending in rolls)
 drawing
 pressing in press brakes

13.2. Profiling/shaping technology

By cold bending in rolls the open and closed sections are produced in shaping (profiling) machines. In
the course of this process the strip is subjected to successive lateral bending by pairs of rolls, thus
gaining the required cross section shape (Fig. 13.3).
There is a series of roll pairs, usually more than 6,
their number dependes on the cross section shape.

Preparatory procedures are:

 pickling
 blasting
 dividing (cutting)
Fig. 13.3 Schematic illustration of profiling line
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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

The section production by shaping (bending in rolls) proceeds in the profiling machine in successive
steps:
 The steel strip is uncoiled from the storage feed drum, passing through the feeding jaws.
 After grasping by first pair of shaping rolls it is drawn-in by friction effect between the rolls
and is bent in lateral direction.
 The whole profiling (shaping) process is carried out in several pairs of rolls. Profiling
machines are designed and built with 10, 16, and even more shaping rolls.
 The pass number depends on the global shape of section, its dimensions, type of material and
its mechanical properties.
 The basic principle is that the section is shaped in the bottom roll by bending the strip edges
upwards.

The shaping machines are divided into two basic groups:

machines with overhung spindles and machines with
supported spindles. The machines with overhung
spindles have the spindles mounted in bearings only on
one - the driven - side. The overhung spindles are typical
for small and light machines. Changing of roll sets is in
their cases simpler, but for shaping only small pressures
may be used, so they are suitable only for small
thicknesses.
The machines with supported spindles have rolls
mounted in bearings on both sides. Either only bottom or
both spindles are driven. These machines occur much
more often, they work with closer tolerances and are
suitable also for sections of larger thicknesses and more
complex shapes. Rolls service life is higher as well.
In each pair of rolls a partial bend of the cross section is
realized. The shaping procedure for a simple open
section is shown in Fig. 13.4. The main principle in cold
forming is that the bottom roll forms the cross section by
bending the strip edges towards the top roll. This
principle is possible to maintain in case of simpler cross
sections, for more complicated cross sections the bottom
roll bends at least the cross section middle part. In
bending in rolls of hollow sections also side pairs of rolls
are used, so the cross section is shaped on its whole
perimeter. Shaping of the section proceeds relatively fast.
Speed depends on the strip material and the shape Fig. 13.4 Open section shaping procedure
complexity. In case of large sections the speed amounts
10 to 30 m/min, in case of small dimensions 20 to 90 m/min. In forming the formed material is heated
considerably, therefore it is cooled continuously by water emulsion. Non-uniform cooling can lead to
marked internall stress in the product.

The correct shaping requires that the strip entering the machine has to be straight and introduced into
the machine in the correct vertical and horizontal position. That is why the feed rollers are installed in
front of the first pair of shaping rolls. The last pair of rolls is followed by the sizing and straightening
equipment, which ensures accurate dimensions of the produced section, including straightening and
levelling of various local defects of this type.
The worn shaping rolls are reground, which contributes markedly to their service life increase. When
the production of normal sorts of sections with not very complicated cross sections is considered, it is

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

possible to estimate that without regrinding ca 1.2 million meters of sections may be produced on a
single set of shaping rolls.

Procedures after profiling

The shaping (profiling) machine is directly followed by the following procedures:
 straightening and levelling – elimination of curving defects and waviness originated in the
course of bending in rolls
 straightening equipment
– of table type, with replaceable jaws
– with a pair of swivelling rolls, for decrease in friction the rolls are made of another
material than is used for the produced section
 cutting to required lengths, it is carried out by
– flying shear
– circular or band saw
– abrasive grinding carborundum disks
 surface treatment
 perforating of section walls for decreasing the weight or for assembly holes
 roll bending

The profiling machine creates a key element of the line for the production of thin-walled sections, see
Fig. 13.5. In Fig. 13.6 the line for the production of hollow or open sections is schematically shown.
The steel strip is uncoiled (1), levelled in rolls (2), goes through the welder (3) where the strip ends are
welded together by a butt weld, coils on the drum (4) and is stored in the frame (5) which can be put
out of the line; this device finishes the prepartion phase of the strip for its actual shaping. The proper
shaping line begins with drums (6) and then particular machines/equipment in succession follow:
feeding rolls (7), flying shear (8), shaping machine (9) with eight stands, saw (10), welding machine
for hollow sections (11), cooling section (12), drawing rolls (13), sizing equipment (14), flying saw
(15), storage area (16). Instead of recoiling strips on drums the deep looping pit may be installed in
front of the shaping machine, which supplies the shaping machine with strip in time of welding the
subsequent strip and thus ensures the production continuity.

Fig. 13.5 Profiling line for shaping of longitudinally welded tube

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

Fig. 13.6 Schematic layout of the whole technological process of profiling

 Basic principles and procedures of pass design

 Choice the correct section placing in rolls – shaping of the whole cross section, or at least a
substantial part of the basic form, has to be performed in the bottom roll by pressure of the top
roll
– If sections are produced from the strip, one side of which is polished, this surface has
to be placed upstream so that it could be checked in the course of shaping, whether
scratching occurs or not
 Design a number of passes – for the production of simple angles and channels with flat walls 3
to 4 pairs of rolls are sufficient
 Design a correct position of the section centreline in the shaping machine – i.e. the axis in the
middle of rolls, which goes through the centre of the gap between both stands and should be
identical with vertical axis of the section
 Design and calculation of shapes and cross section areas in particular passes
– This step is based on the developed cross section width, determined in the neutral
cross section fibre. Calculation of the developed width has to be carried out very
precisely. The neutral fibre of the cross section is shifted in bends towards the
curvature centroid. In general this phenomenon can be expressed by the relation:

R = r + k·t (13.1)

where: R - radius of curvature of neutral fibre,

r - internal bending radius,
t - strip thickness,
k - coefficient expressing magnitude of the neutral fibre shift ; k ≤ 0.5
 For strip thickness up to 1.5 mm coefficient k can be chosen as per internal bending radius
as follows
– for r > t, k = 0.50
– for r < t, k = 0.33
 For internal bending radius r < 0.5 mm the curvature radius of the neutral zone is
determined from equation R = (0.2÷0.3).t, the lower value is valid for sections of higher
thicknesses and smaller bending radii.
 For material thicknesses higher than 3 mm coefficient k is chosen as follows:
– for r < 1.5·t, k = 0.33
– for r = (1.5÷5)·t, k = 0.40
– for r > 5·t, k = 0.55
 The last step is carrying out working drawings of shaping rolls

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

Solved tasks

 Example of section width

calculation

Without considering the shift of

neutral fibre you calculate the input
strip width for curvature of the
section as per Fig. 13.7.

 Solution

𝑙 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑡⁄2)𝛼1
+ 𝜋(𝑟2 + 𝑡⁄2)𝛼21 Fig. 13.7 Example of open section

13.3. Drawing of sections

By cold drawing mainly closed sections are produced. For drawing of hollow sections the drawing
benches are used. They are usually designed for drawing of one section, but the design of some
benches makes it possible to draw two sections simultaneously. Drawing force achieves up to 400 kN,
the bench length ranges from 8 to 12 m, the drawing speed from 12 to 18 m/min.

Particular production phases for the closed sections:

 production of thin-walled welded tube by shaping
(profiling)
 tube preparation for drawing
 continuous mandrel drawing in dies

Production of thin-walled welded tube by shaping

(profiling):
 The steel strip is slit (trimmed) in the circular
shear for gaining
– the accurate strip dimension
– metal-pure edges, making welding easier
 Individual coils are mutually connected by
transverse welds
 The prepared strip passes the machine with
bending rolls, in which acquires shape of the tube
with a gap
 After bending in rolls further procedures
performed in continual succession follow:
– Electric or flame welding of the tube. Fig. 13.8. Strip bending in rolls into tube
Requirement for as small as possible weld reinforcement - the external can be
removed by planing, the internal is removable very difficult.
– Cutting to required production lengths - carried out mechanically (circular or band
saw, abrasive grinding disks, or breakage after local induction heating).

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

The production of hollow sections by drawing is distinguished by two independent (from viewpoint of
technology) procedures. The first one is the production of the input semifinished product – thin-walled
welded tube, the second one the actual production of the closed section by cold drawing. Welded tubes
are produced from steel flats and strips supplied in coils. The strip first comes to the circular shear,
which trims the strip to accurate width with pure edges, which makes the perfect weld performance
easier. Then the strip passes the shaping machine for bending in rolls, where - after passage the set of
rolls - acquires the shape of a slit tube (tube with a gap). Subsequently the tube is subjected to electric,
resistance or high-frequency pressure welding. The external weld reinforcement is removed by
planing, the internal reinforcement remains as its removal would be difficult. Welded tubes are cut to
required lengths by the circular saw or abrasive grinding disks.

Procedures before actual drawing:

 Pointing – creation of a tip at the
tube end, serving for pulling the
tube through the drawing die and
grasping in jaws of the drawing
cart. Up to the tube diameter 40 mm
it is carried out in the cold state, in
case of higher diameters in the hot
state. Mandrel length is ca 200-400
mm. A single pointing is sufficient.
 Heat treatment – normalizing -
stress relief annealing and carrying
out structural changes in the tube, in
the vicinity of the weld and tip.
 Pickling – scale removal.
 Phosphatizing – friction decrease in
the drawing die in the course of
drawing, or lubrication by Fig. 13.9 Drawing of closed section in three step
emulsification grease. (1.tah, 2.tah, 3.tah - 1st draw, 2nd draw, 3rd draw)
The drawing procedure of closed sections depends on the section complexity:
 simple, square or rectangular shapes are drawn by a single pass
 more complex shapes are drawn successively in several drawing dies, mostly four draws are
used
Due to exhausting of plasticity the recrystallization annealing has to be integrated. By cold drawing
the initial tube length is extended, which is caused mainly by the fact that the perimeter of the hollow
cross section after drawing is smaller than the perimeter of the initial tube. In the course of drawing
also the section thickness is a little bit changed. The internal cross section is defined in each draw by
the drawing mandrel. Final sections are delivered to customers with metallic lustre, i.e. unannealed, or
stress relief annealed or normalized. The final operation is cutting-off the tips and cutting to required
lengths.

13.4. Pressing on press brakes

Press brakes are devices appropriate for the production of both simple and complicated section shapes,
produced in small quantities. Conversion from one section to another is in case of the press brake
markedly simpler than in case of the profiling machine. In case of the profiling machine all rolls have
to be replaced, which is very time-consuming, and only such sections can be formed, for production of
which the forming rolls were already made before. The design and production of new rolls are very
costly. In case of the press brake only the squeezing stroke is adjusted or press tools (dies, rulers) are
replaced when the section is changed, which is not time-consuming. The resulting section length is
limited by the press width. Width of most of presses is 3 to 4.5 m, but in some plants we can find

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

presses of width even 6 to 9 m. Thickness of sheets/plates which can be processed in the press brake
reaches up to 20 mm.
In presses the strips cut to the required length and with the required developed width of the section are
bent. Sections after pressing are straight/flat and do not require additional straightening/levelling. The
dimensional accuracy of sections is lesser that in case of cold formed sections produced in profiling
machines.

The press tools are adapted to shape of the

required section. They are made of two
parts. The bottom half - lower die - is fixed
and fastened in the press frame, the top half
- punch - is movable and deduces the actual
pressure. As far as shape is concerned, the
tools are tailored to the produced section
shape. By each stroke one bend of the
section is carried out. The simple angle is
bent by a single stroke (Fig. 13.10 left). The
dies used to be also rotating around the
horizontal axis and have various recesses
(cavities) on all four sides, so they may be
used for the production of a higher number
of different sections. More complicated
sections are bent consecutively, or they are Fig. 13.10 Bending in press brake (left – bending of
transferred, swivelled and equipped with angle, right – bending of a complex section)
specific punches (Fig. 13.10 right). The
press brake can ensure also bending of the section walls to the arc form. Circular parts of the section
are pressed by rounded-off tools. Sections that are closed to a great extent cannot be pressed in one
stroke. Bending is carried out by several strokes and the appropriate tool is used for each stroke.

Pressure of the press depends on the sheet thickness, opening the die and the section length. Pressures
range from 10 to 100 MPa per running meter of section, as per thickness. Press brakes are of hydraulic
or mechanical design. Service life of hydraulic presses is high; however, more accurate are mechanical
presses. Presses work with pressures up to 1000 MPa. A number of strokes of the press brake
dependes on its size. Some presses work with up to 50 strokes per minute, but big presses can work
with only 2 strokes per minute.

13.5. Production of spiral-seam tubes

• Characteristics of the whole technology from the material preparation to the final tube is that
is fully continuous
– high output, high utilization of the charge material
• Typical feature is weld in the form of helix (spiral) on the tube perimeter
• Initial material is steel strip in coils
• In comparison with longitudinally welded tubes, the input material is - for the same tube
diameter - ca 1.5 times smaller
• For the production of tubes up to diameter 150 mm the cold rolled steel strip is used, for larger
diameters the hot rolled.
• The technological process of automatic submerged-arc welding may be used for tubes with
diameter from 20 mm to 1500 mm.
• Normally strips with thickness 1.5 to 10 mm, or 15mm are welded.
• From the strip of the same width the tubes of different diameters can be welded.

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

 Strip preparation for welding

• The initial steel strip is delivered in coils of big weight, so that its sufficient store for
continuous welding process could be created
• Coils are uncoiled and levelled in 5 or 7-roller levellers
• Then uneven front and rear ends of coils are cropped (ends with camber, inconvenient width)
• Welding the coil ends, most often in the form of perpendicular weld
• In front of the equipment for bending in rolls the storage loop is created, making it possible
the welding process proceeding independently on the strip preparation
• Trimming of strip edges to the accurate strip width and their finish for welding by means of
circular shear or planer tools
• In case of strips with thickness above 8mm the weld bevel is necessary

 Strip bending
• The strip is bent by winding to the tube shape
• The strip is strained by 3D-bending and torsion in the area of elastic-plastic deformations
• Two basic modes of bending are common
– by winding on the cylindrical mandrel, corresponding to inner diameter of the tube
– in twisting guide (roller gauge), corresponding to outer diameter of the tube
• The bending equipment is combined with welding heads, so the tube is welded at the same
time with bending

 Bending principle
Parameters describing the entire process are as
follows:
• outer diameter of bent tube D
• strip width B
• helix angle α
𝐵
• lead of helix 𝑀𝑁 = sin 𝛼
• tube diameter and initial strip width are
𝐵
bound by equation cos 𝛼 = 𝜋𝐷
• for maintaining the same helix angle it is
necessary to use wider strips in case of Fig. 13.11 Principle of production of wound tubes
the tube with higher diameter
For determination of strip width the following relation can be used
𝐵 = 𝜋(𝐷 − 𝑡) cos 𝛼 + 𝑘𝑡 (13.2)

where:
 k expresses influence of melted edges and ranges around 1.5
 t is strip thickness

 Bending by winding on mandrel

The process proceeds as per Fig. 13.12.
• the strip is uncoiled from the coil (1) and passes the leveller (2)
• at feeding it is directed by the guiding rollers (7)
• it is wound on the rotating mandrel (4) at pertinent angle α
• by means of pressure rollers (5)
• in place (3) the welding head is located
• this mode enables welding only from external side

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

Fig. 13.12 Mode of tube production by winding on mandrel

(ŘEZ A - A – SECTION A – A)

 Bending in roller gauge

The process is outlined in Fig. 13.13.
• the strip is uncoiled from the coil (1) and passes the leveller (2)
• the strip is fed in the roller gauge under pressure of pressure rollers (3)
• before entrance into the gauge the strip is guided by two pairs of vertical rolls (4)
• the actual bending proceeds between the pinch rolls (7)
• between the pinch rolls the external and internal welding heads (5) and (6) are placed
• this mode makes it possible welding only from external side

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

Fig. 13.13 Mode of tube production by bending in roller gauge

(ŘEZ A - A – SECTION A – A)

Summary of terms of this chapter (subchapter)

Important terms that you should be able to distinguish are: open section, closed section, profiling
(shaping) technology, drawing of section, pressing of section on press brakes, production of
spiral-seam tube.

Questions to discussed curriculum

13.1. What types of semifinished products for the production of thin-walled sections exist?
13.2. Enumerate materials for the production of thin-walled sections.
13.3. What are preparatory operations in the shaping (profiling) technology?
13.4. Describe particular technological steps during material passage through the profiling line.
13.5. Write a general formula for calculation of curvature of the neutral zone.
13.6. What are values of coefficient of neutral fibre shift in strip profiling up to thickness 1.5 mm?
13.7. Enumerate particular technological procedures in the production of sections by drawing.
13.8. What is dimensional accuracy of cross sections in pressing on press brakes?
13.9. Derive the relation defining the dependence between the spiral-seam tube diameter and the
initial strip width.

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 Bending in rolls and shaping of flat rolled products

Tasks for solution

Calculate the length of the neutral plane of the rafter cross section as per drawing in Fig. 13.14.

Fig. 13.14 Drawing of the rafter cross section

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 Methods of tubes production

14. Methods of tubes production

Time for study: 5 hours

Target After studying this paragraph you will be able to

divide basic sorts of tubes, describe the production of seamless and welded tubes,
specify basic technologies of piercing and elongation of seamless tubes and obtain a
survey on the manufacturing plants in our region dealing with the production of
seamless tubes.

Presentation

14.1. Sorts of tubes

As per the basic steel tubes production modes we distinguish:

a) Seamless tubes (made of solid material and/or hollow semifinished products with compact
walls). As per production technology they can be:
- hot and cold rolled
- extruded
- expanded
- reduced
- drawn
b) Welded tubes (made by winding the steel strip into the tube shape and its welding, or bending
in rolls of the sheet table and welding. The weld proceeds along the tube parallel to its
centreline, or in helix with a high lead – Fig. 14.1)

Fig. 14.1 Welded tubes – A weld parallel to centreline, B spiral seam

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 Methods of tubes production

14.2. Production of seamless tubes

 Initial material:
 round billets – CCS or rolled
 round ingots (also pre-drilled)) – tubes of larger diameters,
 hollow semifinished products produced by centrifugal casting
 semifinished products produced by powder metallurgy

 Reheating:
For the material reheating mainly rotary-hearth furnaces are used (Fig. 14.2). Reheating of the charge
material requires uniform heating with soaking of the metal.

Fig. 14.2 Scheme of rotary-hearth furnace

(Schéma pece s otočnou nístějí – scheme of rotary-hearth furnace, (1) furnace roof, (2) furnace
hearth, (3) hearth travelling wheels, (4) roller table to charging device, (5) charging device, (6)
pulling-out tongs, (7) recuperator)

 Basic production process

For most of seamless tubes production modes the technological process consists of two separate, but
consecutive main production phases:

a) Production of hollow thick-walled semifinished products

The hollow semifinished products are produced either by the cross-rolling process (diagonal
rolling) in two-high or three-high roll stands, or by pressing, or by piercing in combination
with thrust-pressure rolling.

b) Further processing of hollow semi-products into tubes

by longitudinal periodic rolling, or by longitudinal rolling (may be combined with pushing-
through), or by cross-rolling, or by extrusion.

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 Methods of tubes production

With respect to mechanical and plastic properties of steels all the production processes are realized in
the hot state.

 Piercing
The conventional technological procedure, where the hollow semi-product is produced from the solid
charge material and is further processed to the final tube, is the cross (diagonal) rolling. It creates the
basis of the Mannesmann and Stiefel production process and is used as the first technological
procedure also in case of other modes of seamless tubes production. The scheme of piercing by cross
rolling is in Figs 14.3 – 14.6.
Among further piercing modes ranks e.g. piercing realized by pressing Fig. 14.7.

Fig. 14.3 Scheme of piercing by cross (diagonal) rolling

(pracovní válec - work roll, kužel příčného rozválcování - cross-rolling cone, děrovací kužel -
piercing cone, provalek - rolled stock, děrovací trn na tyči - piercing plug bar, šroubovicový pohyb
hmotného bodu provalku -rolled stock mass point spiral movement, šroubovicové nakroucení
provalku vlivem kuželovitosti pracovních válců - rolled stock spiral twisting due to cone-shaped
work rolls)

Fig. 14.4 Scheme of piercing by cross rolling Fig. 14.5 Inhomogeneous penetration of deformation,
origin of tensile stresses in centreline

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 Methods of tubes production

Fig. 14.6 Various modes of piercing by cross / diagonal rolling

(Výroba trubek Stiefel - Tube production by Stiefel mode, Výroba trubek Mannesmann - Tube
production by Mannesmann mode, materiál - rolled material, horní kotouč - top roll (disk), trn - plug, dolní
kotouč-– bottom roll (disk))

Fig. 14.7 Piercing with using press

(čtvercový sochor - square billet, děrovací trn - piercing mandrel, matrice - die,
výlisek – pressing)

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 Methods of tubes production

 Elongation
The pierced thick-walled semi-product (Fig. 14.8) has to be subjected to elongation, this can be
realized in:
- continuous rolling mills,
- pilger rolling mills – Mannesmann mode,
- automatic plug rolling mills – Stiefel mode,
- rolling mills with three-high expanding roll stands – Assel mode,
- rolling mills with expanding roll stands with skew rolls axes and longitudinal driven disks –
Diescher mode

Fig. 14.8 Pierced thick-walled semi-product

Rolling in pilger roll stand

Pilger rolling is periodic longitudinal rolling on the cylindrical plug, diameter of which corresponds to
inner diameter of the rolled tube (Figs 14.9 – 14.11).
The forming process is realized by rolling away the roll grooves on the hollow semi-product, slipped
over the cylindrical plug and mounted in the feeding equipment of the pilger roll stand. This rolling
away results from rotating motion of rolls and the backward longitudinal motion of the plug with the
slipped over hollow semi-product. The pilger rolling features a high elongation of the rolled product.
It is used for tubes with a large wall thickness and materials with worse formability. Disadvantages of
pilger rolling are as follows:
- uncompleted rolling at ends, wavy surface
- slow rolling (cooling of the material threatens)
- higher share of tensile stresses
- imperfect surface

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 Methods of tubes production

Fig. 14.9 Pilger roll shape Fig. 14.10 Scheme of pilger rolling

Fig. 14.11 Pilger roll stand – rolls and elongation process

Rolling in automatic plug mill

That is the question of a widespread production mode of seamless tubes, known in technical practice
as Stiefel mode. The rolling mill is equipped by the piercing roll stand for cross-rolling, the roll stand
automatic for longitudinal rolling, the smoothing machine and the sizing machine. The whole
production process proceeds continuously in all above mentioned machines. Rolling in the automatic
plug mill is a type of longitudinal rolling in the round groove on the taper plug.
In this rolling the tube is rolled in a single groove using two, or sometimes three, passes. Before each
pass the rolled stock is turned around its longitudinal axis through an angle of 90° and the new cool
plug is put in with diameter by 1 to 2 mm higher than the diameter of the previous pass (Fig. 14.12).
As the groove diameter remains the same, the required wall thickness of the tube is modified in such a
way that the plug is utilized for increasing the inner diameter of the tube.
By longitudinal rolling in the automatic plug mill the tube is elongated, whereas the initial diameter
and wall thickness of the hollow semi-product are decreasing. As the plug is mounted in the
supporting bar, fastened in the roll stand frame, the length of the rolled tube is limited by admissible
length of this bar. So, maximum length of the rolled tube is 15 m.

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 Methods of tubes production

Another procedure is smoothing in the smoothing machine (Fig. 14.13), where – except for equalizing
the wall thickness – scribing lines arised by longitudinal rolling on the plug and rests of spiral raised
spots after piercing (not completely smoothed in the plug mill) are removed. The final operation is
sizing of the tube.

Fig. 14.12 Scheme of rolling in automatic plug Fig. 14.13 Smoothing rolls in automatic plug
rolling mill rolling mills
(VÁLCOVÁNÍ - ROLLING, VRÁCENÍ
PROVALKU - ROLLED STOCK RETURN,
pracovní válce – work rolls, vratné kotouče –
reversible rolls (disks))

Rolling of tubes in three-high roll stand

Thick-walled tubes with wall thickness higher than 5 mm are favourably produced in rolling mills
with the piercing three-high roll stand and the finishing three-high roll stand, which serves for finish
rolling of the tube. Rolling of seamless tubes in three-high roll stands is known in the technical
practice as Assel mode. Tubes produced in this way are distinguished by significant dimensional
precision and good excentricity.
That is the question of cross rolling of the hollow semi-product on the cylindrical plug between three
rolls with skew axes (Fig. 14.14).

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 Methods of tubes production

Fig. 14.14 Scheme of cross rolling in three-high roll stand

Continuous rolling of tubes

Main features and advantages of continuous rolling of seamless tubes are the following:
- high rolling speeds
- comparatively simple production technology
- continuous rolling mills with good technological equipment make it possible rolling of tubes
with small wall thickness (to 2 mm)
- quality of produced tubes (surface and dimensional tolerances) is better than tubes produced in
pilger or automatic plug rolling mills
The disadvantage is that a large inventory of relatively costly tools, plugs and rolls has to be
maintained and only tubes with smaller diameters (up to 152 mm) can be rolled. Even though the plug
length limits the possible length of the rolled tube, tubes up to length 30 m can be rolled. The scheme
of continuous rolling is given in Fig. 14. 15.

Fig. 14.15 Continuous rolling in round passes (H – V) on the plug bar

Rolling of tubes in roll stands with cross rotating disks

This mode of rolling of seamless tubes, so-called Discher mode, is based on principle of cross (skew)
rolling. It is used above all for the production of tubes of small and medium diameters, from 50 to 150
mm, with minimum wall thickness 3 to 2.5 mm. Initial billets have the round cross section. In the
finishing rolling mill with cross arranged rotating disks the tubes are rolled on the long cylindrical

155
 Methods of tubes production

plug, the length of which limits the length of rolled tubes to 10 to 15 m (Fig. 14.16). Tubes are
characterized by uniform wall thickness across and along and by good surface quality.

Fig. 14.16 Rolling in stands with cross arranged rotating disks

Rolling of tubes in mills with push bench

The production process is realized by pushing the initial hollow pressing with bottom, put on the long
cylindrical mandrel, through a series of successively located round grooves.

Production of tubes by extrusion

By extrusion the seamless steel tubes of the required dimensions can be produced by a single
technological operation (Fig. 14. 17). The production aggregate is mechanical vertical or hydraulic
horizontal presses.

1 – start,
2 – piercing,
3 – extrusion,
4 – end

Fig. 14.17 Production of

tubes by extrusion

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 Methods of tubes production

Expasion of tubes by hot rolling

Using expansion of seamless tubes by the cross rolling shifts their dimensional range to diameters
which cannot be produced by normally used rolling procedures, i.e. usually from 500 to 600, or even
700 mm. The principle of the tube expansion by cross rolling is shown in Fig. 14.18. Axes of conical
overhung rolls are approximately at angle 60° with centreline of rolling in horizontal plane. Between
the rolls the tapered mandrel is inserted, put on the supporting mandrel bar.

Fig. 14.18 Principle of expansion of tubes by cross rolling

(ŘEZ 1-1 – SECTION 1-1)

Reducing of tubes by hot rolling

This is the process of longitudinal continuous rolling in round grooves, where the internal contour of
the tube is not limited by any tool (Figs 14.19, 14.20). The outer diameter of the tube is diminishing,
which affects its wall thickness change. The grooves are created by two or three, or even 4 rollers.

Fig. 14.19 Scheme of reducing of tubes by rolling

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 Methods of tubes production

Fig. 14.20 Tube reducing mill

Production of tubes by cold drawing

Basic modes of cold drawing of tubes are die drawing on the fixed mandrel, die drawing on the free
(floating) mandrel and drawing on the mandrel bar (Fig. 14.21).

on drawing bar without mandrel on floating mandrel on mandrel fixed at the end of
(wall thickness can be decreased drawing bar
or increased)
Fig. 14.21 Schemes of tube drawing

Cold rolling of tubes

Cold rolling is the technologically and economically advantageous mode of the production of accurate
seamless tubes with small and large diameters, made of carbon and alloy steels. Minimum diameter of
tubes produced in this way is 10 mm, maximum up to 400 mm. By surface quality these tubes rank to
the precision tubes. The initial semifinished product is tubes produced by some of hot formed
technologies. The cold rolling is often combined with cold drawing.
Cold rolling of tubes is the longitudinal periodic rolling, realized by the reciprocating rolling process
(“rolling away”). It is the pilger rolling on the tapered mandrel by two rolls that have the round groove
only on a part of perimeter (Fig. 14.22).

Fig. 14.22 Roll groove for cold rolling of tubes

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 Methods of tubes production

 Třinecké železárny, a.s. – Tube rolling mill

The original production plant came into being in the framework of the former Vítkovické železárny,
where the first tube was produced in December 1883 as in the gas-fired furnace butt welded tube – the
first tube produced at all in the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. Seamless tubes were produced by
Erhardt’s mode from year 1896, in year 1908 the Stiefel rolling mill was commissioned with
participation of inventor of this production mode. In years 1918 to 1919 the rolling mill Velký
Mannesmann was built, jointly with the finishing plant and thread-turning shop for oil tubes. This
rolling mill was commissioned in September 4, 1919. In years 1926 to 1927 the rolling mill Malý
Mannesmann was built and commissioned. Both these rolling mills produce tubes up to these days. In
years 1947 – 1971 also Mannesmann rolling mill created a part of the tube drawing mill Svinov. In
year 1962 non-destructive testing of tubes began operation. The operation of the tube cold drawing
mill was finished, together with shutdown of one of the Stiefel rolling mills, in year 1997. Since year
1999 the company became a joint stock company, independent on the Vítkovice group. The only
shareholder was up to September 2005 the company ASTONIA, a.s., belonging to the SHIRAN
GROUP, currently the owner is the company TŘINECKÉ ŽELEZÁRNY, a.s. from the group
MORAVIA STEEL a.s.
The production symbolic diagram of the tube rolling mill is shown in Fig. 14.23. In Figs 14.24 to
14.29 particular key nodes of the rolling mill Velký Mannesmann are shown.

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 Methods of tubes production

Fig. 14.23 Symbolic diagram of tube mill production

(1 - charge, 2 - charge preparation, 3 - rotary-hearth furnace, 4 - piercing mill, 5 - pilger mill, 6 - hot
circular saw, 7 - walking beam furnace, tunnel furnace, 8 - sizing mill, 9 - cooling bed, 10 -
straightening, 11- heat treatment and pickling, 12 - straightening, 13 - testing/inspection and
measurements, 14 - final cutting, 15 - marking, binding, bundling, 16 – trasport)

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 Methods of tubes production

Fig. 14.24 Rotary-hearth furnace – charging of Fig. 14.25 Transport of the semifinished product
semifinished products in the furnace to the piercing mill

Fig. 14.26 Piercing mill – front view Fig. 14.27 Piercing mill – rear view

Fig. 14.28 Transport of the thick-walled tube to Fig. 14.29 Pilger mill
the pilger mill

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 Methods of tubes production

 ArcelorMittal Tubular Products Ostrava, a.s.

It is the largest producer of tubes in the Czech Republic. The crucial product mix of the works consists
of seamless tubes rolled in two Stiefel mills St 4-10" and St 140 in performance of bare pipes,
threaded pipes, flanged pipes and oil pipes. Tubes in both rolling mills are produced exclusively from
continuously cast semifinished products. The most demanding product is oil pipes – casings, tubings,
drill pipes and line pipes. Since 1957 the works is entitled to use the designation of oil pipes by
monogram API (American Petroleum Institute). Except for normal API threads, the works supplies
also casings and tubings with the gasproof threaded joint.
Production of seamless tubes in rolling mill Stiefel 4-10“
That is the question of the automatic plug rolling mill, the scheme of which is given in Fig. 14.30,
where 1- charging beds, 2- rotary-hearth furnace, 3- piercing machine No.1, 4- piercing machine No.2,
5- automatic plug mill, 6, 7- smoothing machines No.1, No.2, 8- sizing machine, 9- cooling beds, 10-
collecting pocket for defective billets, 11- collecting pocket for cooled billets

Fig. 14.30 Scheme of rolling mill

Reheating of the material for tubes production is carried out in the rotary-hearth furnace with the
annular hearth, onto which the billets are put. Billets are of diameter 160 and 210 mm. The hearth is
rotary, against fixed walls tightened by the flume. The hearth motion is realized on rollers, driven by
electric motors, and can be either continuous or so-called walking, with particular steps by 1° to 3°.
Moving the hearth is possible also in the opposite direction of rotation. The heating space of the
furnace is divided into 4 zones (preheating, heating and soaking). Temperature in the preheating, non-
fired zone amounts 1 050 – 1 100 °C.

Piercing machine No. 1

The piercing machine No. 1 is the first and basic forming aggregate of rolling mill St 4-10“. It is the
stand with the skew in the horizontal plane mounted rolls and fixed guides in the vertical plane. The
piercing rolls have convex contour, their axes are skew due to oblique mounting in the roll stand. The
used plugs are pointed, without cooling water spraying, or two-stepped. The scheme is shown in Fig.
14.31, where: 1 – feeding trough, 2 – feed device, 3 – feed pipe, 4 – proper piercer, 7 – trestle, 8 –
piercing bar, 9 – cart, 10 – bed, 11 – gearbox, 12 – electric motor, 13 – bed, 14 – bed, 15 – centring
units, 16 – extraction rollers, 17 – roller table.
The reheated billet is transported from the main roller table to the feeding trough of the piercing
machine. It is fed by the pneumatic pusher between the rolls of the piercing roll stand; the rolls have
the same direction of rotation. The billet is pierced by diagonal rolling to the thick-walled rolled stock.
Then the cart with the plug bar goes out of the rolled stock and the stock is transported for the next
operation. After going the cart with the plug bar back in between the rolls, the whole procedure is
repeated.

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 Methods of tubes production

Fig. 14.31 Scheme of piercer No. 1

Piercing machine No. 2

It is of the same design like piercer No. 1. It processes the thick-walled semi-products from piercer
No. 1 in such a way that they are rolled out to larger diameter and length and thinner wall. The semi-
products must have such parameters so that they were suitable for further processing in the automatic
plug mill. It means that they must have required dimensions and wall thickness, must be without
defects on the external and internal surface, must be centric with gloss walls and uniform wall
thickness in both longitudinal and cross section, and must be produced sufficiently fast so that they
could not cool down. The semi-product from piercer No. 1 is transported to the feeding trough of the
piercer No. 2 and by diagonal rolling on the dull plug is rolled (elongated) into the rolled stock of
higher length, larger diameter and thinner wall. Then the cart with the plug bar goes out of the rolled
stock and this is transported to the automatic plug mill. After going the cart with the plug bar back in
between the rolls, the whole procedure is repeated.

Automatic plug rolling mill (automatic)

The automatic consists of two robust housings, connected in the upper part, in which two work rolls
are mounted. Rolls rotate in opposite directions and are provided by 4 grooves. The bottom roll is
mounted in a fixed position, the top roll is movable in the vertical direction and it is balanced. The
work rolls are followed by a pair of adjustable reversible rolls, placed always after the groove. In front
of the automatic is the feeding trough with driven rollers, movable along the automatic and hence
adjustable against the groove just in operation. At the end of the feeding trough, turned away from the
automatic, is the pneumatic pressure roll with the piston rod ended with the pusher (so-called ram),
which pushes the rolled stock in the groove. In between the trough rollers is built the device that
swivels the rolled stock by 90° around its axis in pauses between particular passes. Between the trough
and the groove is built the device for changing the plugs. The plugs are self-adjustable and placed
against the plug bar, buit in the supporting frame on the other side of the automatic. The rolls are
driven by DC motor, revolutions are controlled via the pinion stand. Between the motor and the pinion
stand is the flywheel, which absorbs shocks at entrance the rolled stock into the rolls so that they could
not be transmitted to the motor. The automatic scheme is shown in Fig. 14.32, where: 1– pressure roll,
2 – ram, 3 – feeding trough, 4 – ejector, 5 – automatic, 6 – reversible rolls, 7 – plug bar, 8 – guide
bush, 9 – runout trough, 10 – plug bar holder, 11 – bed with stop, 12 – bed to hot saw, 13 – device for
automatic putting on the plugs, 14 – tube tilter.
The rolled stock is transported from piercer No. 2 to the trough of the automatic, put by the pusher into
the clamped work rolls and rolled by 2 passes to the required length and wall thickness in the
automatic plug mill. Returning the tube from the runout side to the feeding trough is carried out by the
reversible rolls. Between passes, the tube swivelling by 90° and automatic changing the plug occur.
Subsequently the whole process is repeated. The tube of the required length and wall thickness is
transported by the rotating ejector to the saw, where cropping the tube ends (up to wall thickness 6.3
mm), its blowing-through (oil/grease from the automatic, chips) and cooling to the required
temperature is carried out.

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Fig. 14.32 Scheme of automatic plug mill

Smoothing machines No. 1, No. 2

The construction of smoothing machines is very similar to the construction of the piercing machine.
They are stands with rolls mounted skew in the horizontal plane. The bottom guide is fixed; the top
guide is replaced for the pressure roller. Shapes of rolls and plugs differ a little from the piercing
machine because the deformation of the rolled stock in smoothing machines is smaller and a cavity is
not created in the solid semi-product, only the diameter enlarges by 4 to 9 % at simultaneous reduction
of the wall thickness by 5 to 4 %. The rolls are convex, plugs conical. The plug is supported free by
the smoothing bar, shiftable in the cart. The scheme of the smoothing machine is shown in Fig. 14.33,
where: 1 – entry pipe, 2 – proper machine, 3 – gearbox, 4 – electric motor, 5 – centring unit, 6 –
trestle, 7 – runout bed, 8 – cart, 9 – smoothing bar, 10 – bed, 11 – extracting rollers.

Fig. 14.33 Scheme of smoothing machines No.1, No. 2

Tubes are transported by roller tables to roll stands. By the skew mounted table rollers the tubes are
swivelled in the direction of the stand rolls. The inner and outer surface of tubes is smoothed by cross-
rolling, simultaneously the tube diameter is enlarged by 6-8 mm. Smoothing is controlled by rolling
mill operators, who control adjustment of one of the work rolls, the second one is set up for the given
dimension before. After the tube is smoothed, the cart with the bar is running out of the tube, the tube
is transferred by the rotating ejector to the roller table leading to the sizing machine and the whole
smoothing process is repeated.

Sizing machine
The sizing machine consists of 5 stands, alternately turned by 90° against each other. The grooves of
the final pass and the leader pass, i.e. of fifth and fourth pair of rolls, are precisely circular. In the
sizing machine the tube is hot sized in such a way that after cooling it acquires the outer diameter
required by the relevant standard.
The hot tube leaves alternately the smoothing machine No. 1 and No. 2 and is led by the roller table to
the sizing machine, where is hot sized to the precise diameter, and further transferred by the roller

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table to cooling beds. From the cooling beds the tube is transported by the roller table to the
straightening machine.

14.3. Welded tubes

The production of steel welded tubes is older than the production of seamless tubes. Due to improved
electric welding the welded tubes currently find widespread use and appropriately complete, or even
replace the seamless tubes. Up-to-date modes of welding enable the production of welded tubes of
miscellaneous sorts of carbon and alloy steels, including high-alloy steels.
Properties of welded tubes are given above all by properties of the initial material and by welding
mode. The advantage of welded tube consists in their smaller weight and simple production, the
disadvantage is the welded seam. The initial material is steel strip, hot rolled or cold rolled, or also
plate in tables in case of tubes with large diameters.

For the production the following welding modes are used:

a) pressure welding – material heated to the welding temperature is connected by effect of
steady pressure or impact
b) fusion welding – the connection takes place by local melting of connected parts of the metal,
or adding the filler metal of the same or similar chemical composition, but without mechanical
pressure or impacts

Of various modes of electric welding the following are used in the production of steel:
- resistance welding by low-frequency current,
- resistance welding by high-frequency current,
- induction welding,
- resistance welding by direct current,
- flash welding (a sort of resistance welding),
- submerged-arc welding (a sort of fusion welding),
- shielded arc welding (a sort of fusion welding)

 Technological process in production of welded tubes with longitudinal seam

The initial material is sheets cut-to-lengths as per lengths of produced tubes, usually up to 8 m. In case
of higher lengths the considerable difficulties with forming the sheet into the shape of the tube with a
gap exist. This forming is carried out in devices separated from the actual welding machine (line). It
takes place by bending in rolls (rounding) in rounding machines with three or four rolls, or in presses
(Figs 14.34 – 14.36), afterwards the rounded tube is transported to the welding machine.

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Fig. 14.34 Rounding the strip into shape of the tube with a gap (longitudinal seam)

Fig. 14.35 Two types of grooving of rolls Fig. 14.36 Rounding of the plate in the machine with
for rounding of strips in continuous line four rolls
((1) - external side pressure rolls, (2) - plate bent in
rolls, (3) - external middle roll,
(4) - internal middle roll)

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Summary of terms of this chapter

Seamless tubes – welded tubes – hollow thick-walled semifinished product – piercing – elongation –
pilger mill – automatic – three-high roll stand – continuous rolling of tubes – extrusion – expansion of
tubes – reduction of tubes – cold drawing – cold rolling of tubes – pressure welding – fusion welding –
tubes with longitudinal seam – tubes with spiral seam

Questions to discussed curriculum

14.1. What is basic division of tubes?
14.2. What are procedures of the production of seamless tubes?
14.3. What are specifics of rolling in the pilger mill and the automatic plug mill?
14.4. Describe some equipment for the production of seamless tubes.
14.5. Note welding modes of the production of welded tubes.

Used references recommended for further study

GINZBURG, V. B., Steel-Rolling Technology : Theory and Practice. New York : Marcel Dekker,
1989.

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