Unit 1: What is Research?

Unit 1: What is Research?

(1 Lecture Hour)
Definition of Research

1. Definition of Health Research.

According to the National Academy Sciences in 2009, cited the Health Insurance Portability
and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and the Common Rule as stating that “research” is defined
as “a systematic investigation, including research development, testing and evaluation,
designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.” This broad definition that
may include biomedical research, epidemiological studies, and health services research, as
well as studies of behavioral, social, and economic factors that affect health. The most
familiar form of health research is the clinical trial. A large portion of health research is now
information based. Secondary data like the analysis of data and biological samples that were
initially collected for diagnostic, treatment, or billing purposes, or that were collected as part
of other research projects are now being used for new research purposes. This is a common
research approach in fields such as epidemiology, health services research, and public health
research, and includes analysis of patterns of occurrences, determinants, and natural history
of disease; evaluation of health care interventions and services; drug safety surveillance;
and some genetic and social studies.

2. Definition of Research in Social Science

Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing
knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the
extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes. This definition of research is consistent
with a broad notion of research and experimental development (R&D) as comprising of
creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of
knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society, and the use of this
stock of knowledge to devise new applications. This definition of research encompasses
pure and strategic basic research, applied research and experimental development. Applied
research is original investigation undertaken to acquire new knowledge but directed
towards a specific, practical aim or objective (including a client-driven purpose). (Western
Sydney University, 2020)

Purposes of Research

1. Purpose of Health Research

Health research has high value to society. It can provide important information about disease
trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatment or public health interventions, functional
abilities, patterns of care, and health care costs and use. The different approaches to research
provide complementary insights. Clinical trials can provide important information about the
efficacy and adverse effects of medical interventions by controlling the variables that could
impact the results of the study, but feedback from real-world clinical experience is also
crucial for comparing and improving the use of drugs, vaccines, medical devices, and
diagnostics. It is also vital to record and assess experience in clinical practice in order to

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develop guidelines for best practices and to ensure high-quality patient care. Collectively,
these forms of health research have led to significant discoveries, the development of new
therapies, and a remarkable improvement in health care and public health. Economists have
found that medical research can have an enormous impact on human health and longevity,
and that the resulting increased productivity of the population contributes greatly to the
national economy in addition to the individual benefits of improved health. If the research
enterprise is impeded, or if it is less robust, important societal interests are affected.
(National Academy of Sciences, 2009)

2. Purposes of Research According to Other Authors

a. Research is simply a detailed and focused study, using scientific methods, to

understand why something happens and/or what are its applications. (Tanner, L. 2020)

b. The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to
developing knowledge in a field or study. It is the following: a) A Tool for Building
Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning; b) Means to Understand Various Issues and
Increase Public Awareness; c) An Aid to Business Success; d) A Way to Prove Lies and
to Support Truths; e) Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities; f) A Seed to Love
Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information; and Nourishment and
Exercise for the Mind (Zarah, L. 2020)

c. According to Bhat in 2020, There are three purposes of research, namely: a)

Exploratory: This process lays the foundation for more conclusive research and data
collection, b) Descriptive: This process focuses on expanding knowledge on current
issues through a process of data collection, and Explanatory: This process is conducted
to understand the impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures.

Characteristics of Research

The characteristics of research according to Reading Craze, 2015 and Singh N., 2020 are as
follows:

1. Reliability is the repeatability of any research, research instrument, tool or procedure.

2. Validity is the strength with which we can make research conclusions, assumptions or
propositions true or false. It determines the applicability of the research.

3. Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process, instrument, and tool is related
to each other. Accuracy also measures whether research tools have been selected in best
possible manner and research procedures suits the research problem or not.

4. Credibility comes with the use of the best source of information and best procedures in
research. When researcher gives accurate references in the research the credibility of the
research increases but fake references also decrease the credibility of the research.

5. Generalization is the extent to which research findings can be applied to larger population.
If research findings can be applied to any sample from the population, the results of the
research are said to be generalizable.

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6. Empirical nature of research means that the research has been conducted following rigorous
scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been tested for accuracy
and is based on real life experiences.

7. Systematic approach is the only approach to carry on a research. No research can be

conducted haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set of procedures that have
been tested over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research. Each research,
therefore, should follow a procedure.

8. Controlled in real life experience there are many factors that affect an outcome. A single
event is often a result of several factors. When similar event is tested in research, due to the
broader nature of factors that effect that event, some factors are taken as controlled factors
while others are tested for a possible effect. The controlled factors or variables should have
to be controlled rigorously.

Research Versus Problem Solving

Main differences between research and problem-solving.

Research Problem Solving

There may not be a problem, only interest in There is always a problem to be solved.
answering a question or query.
A research problem is more rigorous and A problem to be solved is less rigorous and
broader in scope. less broad.
The research problem is not necessarily The problem to be solved has to be clearly
defined specifically. defined and specified
All research is intended to solve some kind of Problem-solving does not always involve
a problem but this is not the primary aim. research.
Research is conducted not primarily to solve Problem-solving is always intended to solve
a problem but to make a contribution to a problem.
general knowledge.
Research is concerned with broad problems, Problem-solving is concerned with a
recurrent phenomena, and wide application specified problem and once the problem is
through generalizations. solved that is the end of it.

Differences between research and problem-solving based on characteristics.

Characteristic Research Problem Solving

Purpose Develop new knowledge for use Remove/reduce difference
of the community between current and desired
situation
Goal State Acceptance of new knowledge by Agreement or validation that the
peers situation is resolved
Starting Point Inconsistencies/incompleteness Undesirable or uncomfortable
of current community knowledge situation requiring change

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End Product Theory, model, or answer to Remedial action plan that can
research question submitted for often be generalized
peer review
Time Scale Months – years Days – weeks
Knowledge Base Disipline(s) expertise Situational expertise
Resources Archival literature, computer Journals, newspapers, personal
modeling, data analysis, theory networking
Common Discover a gap in knowledge Identify a problem
Implementation literature search Engage/motivate
Steps Research questions Define problem
Develop method Explore ideas
Perform study Plan solution’
Peer review Execute plan
Validate

Types of Health Research

1. According to the American Heart Association

a. Applied Research seeks the specific knowledge necessary to improve the treatment of a
particular disease.

b. Basic Biomedical Research is conducted to increase understanding of fundamental life

processes, such as discovering the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) — one-half of the genetic code of life — or investigating the genetics of lipid
disease.

c. Basic Research is a synonym for fundamental research, which is the study of life
processes that are universal in their application to scientific knowledge.

d. Clinical Research addresses important questions of normal function and disease using
human subjects.

e. Directed Research is conducted by an investigator in response to an outside request to

explore a specific scientific area or question.

f. Fundamental Research studies life processes that are universal in their application to
scientific knowledge.

g. Investigator-Initiated Research investigates a question or hypothesis that the researcher

has defined.

h. Outcomes Research focuses upon the end results of health care, the tangible and
quantifiable manifestations of disease upon patients and society and the determinants of
these outcomes.

i. Population Health Research is the science and art of studying the distribution and
determinants of health status as influenced by social, economic and physical

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environments, human biology, health policy and services and of preventing disease,
prolonging life and promoting health at the population levels.

j. Strategically Focused Research focuses on science areas that the association has
determined are important to achieving its mission and strategic objectives.

k. Targeted Research is a synonym for directed research.

l. Translational Research takes a result from basic or fundamental science and studies its
applicability in the clinical or human situation. Another type of translational research
addresses the adoption of prevention and treatment strategies that have been
demonstrated to be effective through clinical research in the care of patients and in
population-based prevention of conditions such as heart disease and stroke.

2. According to Harvard Countway Library

a. Behavioral studies. These are studies that test how people act in different ways.

b. Clinical Trials. These are studies of a drug, surgery, or medical device in healthy
volunteers or people who have a specific disease.

c. Community – Based Participatory Research (CBPR). This is research that engages

community partners as equal participants in the research.

d. Genetic Studies. These are studies to find the role of genes in different diseases.

e. Observational Studies. These are studies in which a group of people is observed for many
years.

f. Physiological Studies. These are studies to better understand how the human body
functions.

g. Prevention Studies. These are studies that test ways to prevent specific conditions or
diseases.

h. Public Health Research. This type of research can be one or a combination of the types
of research mentioned above. Public health research tries to improve the health and well
– being of people from a population – level perspective.

The Research Process

According to the North Hennepin Community College in 2019, the following steps outline a
simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with
the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these
steps.

1. Identify and develop your topic.

2. Do a preliminary search for information.

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3. Locate materials

4. Evaluate your sources

5. Make notes

6. Write your paper

7. Cite your sources properly

8. Proofread

According to Research, Evaluation, and Library Services of Fraser Health lists the following
steps in health research.

1. Generate idea

2. Conduct literature review

3. Refine the research question

4. Plan the research methodology

5. Create research proposal

6. Apply for funding

7. Apply for ethics approval

8. Collect and analyze data

9. Draw conclusions and relate findings

Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry

There are eleven hindrances to Scientific Inquiry. They include: Tradition, authority, inaccurate
observation, overgeneralization, selective observation, made up information, illogical
reasoning, ego involvement in understanding, human error, mystification, and dogmatism.
Read more on Brainly.ph - https://brainly.ph/question/1812296#readmore

1. Tradition. This is accepting that customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitions are true and
are parts of the daily lives of persons.

2. Authority. This is accepting without question, an opinion about a certain subject which is
given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject.

3. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is actually observed.

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4. Over-generalization. This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances.

5. Selective observation. This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an

overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns.

6. Made-up information. This is making up information to explain away confusion.

7. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing something to another without any logical basis.

8. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving an explanation when one finds himself

in an unfavorable situation.

9. Mystification. This is attributing to supernatural power, the phenomena that cannot be

understood.

10. To err is human. This is an attitude that admits the fallibility of man.

11. Dogmatism. This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and governments

prohibiting the study of topics that are believed to run counter to the established doctrines
of such institutions or governments.

Qualities of a Good Researcher

Choudhury shared the top seventeen qualities of a good researcher and they are as follows:

1. He should be a votary of truth. Truth should be his goal.

2. He should be able to dispel prejudice. He should not conceive any pre-conceived notion;
rather he should maintain objectivity while gathering information.

3. The researcher should be capable of gathering accurate and in-depth information

from the respondents.

4. The researcher should be a keen observer of the phenomena and should not be
complacent with approximates.

5. He should always maintain precision and must try to avoid unnecessary details.

6. He must analyze and interpret the collected information with a positive spirit and in
the proper sense, notwithstanding his personal requirement or benefit.

7. As a scientific genius, the research investigator must be adequately sensitive to

difficulties. “Where less gifted people pass by untroubled by doubt.”

8. He should be in possession of sufficient moral courage to face the difficult situation

and should not be discouraged due to non-cooperation of the respondents or nature
of the research problem under investigation.

9. The researcher should be able to utilize his time properly in a balanced manner.

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10. While making generalizations, the researcher must cautiously bear in mind that there
is no short cut to truth. Therefore, he must wait to obtain complete data and always
eschew hasty statement. As a scientific man, says Karl Pearson, he should strive at self –
elimination in his judgment to provide an argument which is true for each individual mind
as for his own.

11. A good researcher is always apathetic to the approval or disapproval of society.

Rather, he should be bold enough to present his findings of research to the society,
notwithstanding its disapproval.

12. The researcher should be conceptually clear. He should use the terms uniformly and
appropriately. Otherwise, his whole exercise will be defective.

13. The researcher should not only be careful in selecting the research tools but also
properly trained so as to use these tools to procure reliable and valid data.

14. The researcher should also develop proper communicative skill and the ability to
establish rapport with the respondents so as to elicit proper response.

15. Knowledge in the language of the respondents will be of immense help for the
researcher. This will enable him not only to communicate the questions properly but also
to cognize the responses properly.

16. Awareness of the possible drawbacks and shortcomings of research is very essential
on the part of a good researcher. By knowing it before, the researcher may try to
minimize such problems, although it is well high impossible to claim complete perfection
of a research work.

17. A good researcher will always be well behaved and well clad. These qualities will
attract the respondents towards him; sufficiently motivate them to produce necessary
information required for the purpose of research.

References:

Text Book

1. Ramirez Jr., R.B., Capili, J.T., & Ramirez, R.S.C. (2017). Research Guide for Thesis.
ISBN No. 987-621-95444-9-8. Northern Forum, Tuguegarao City.

References

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Education.
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Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
3. Mishra SB & Alok S. Handbook on Research Methodology: A Compendium for Scholars
and Researchers. New Delhi; Educreation Publishing, 2017. Retrieved from

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