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Learning styles
Learning styles and online and online
education education
Alina Zapalska
Department of Management, US Coast Guard Academy, 325
New London, Connecticut, USA, and
Dallas Brozik
Division of Finance and Economics, Marshall University,
Huntington, West Virginia, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to recognize that individual learning styles must be taken
into account in the instructional design template used in online education. The paper argues that when
students’ learning styles are identified, it is possible to define an appropriate context of learning.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper identifies a set of instructional principles for online
learning environments that are derived from multiple theories of learning with a consideration of
different learning styles. The VARK questionnaire was used to determine learning styles of students
who participated in two online courses. The VARK instrument identifies four distinct learning styles:
visual (V); aural (A); reading/writing (R) and kinesthetic (K). These four dimensions are used to
analyze the appropriateness of online learning structures.
Findings – The paper identifies teaching strategies in online courses while recognizing the four
learning styles. The paper concludes that the achievement of online learning can be improved by
providing instruction in a manner consistent with each student’s learning style. However, it is
important to keep in mind that, even if a specific student learns best in a certain way, he or she should
be exposed to a variety of learning experiences to become a more versatile online learner.
Originality/value – The new result indicates that students with the auditory learning preference do
not select online education as their first choice for learning. The combination of different techniques
can make it possible for students with all types of learning styles to be successful in an online course.
Keywords Learning styles, Teaching methods, Computer based learning, Distance learning
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Distance education is an instructional delivery system that allows students to
participate in an educational opportunity without being physically present in the same
location as the instructor. The rapid growth in the number of distance education
courses and programs has had a profound impact on the ideas and beliefs about
teaching and learning. The use of the internet with web-based coursework has become
a core method of instruction in distance education, particularly in higher education.
The increasing number of students enrolled, the course offerings, and the availability
of distance education all speak to the importance of this method of instruction.
The growth in distance education programs in recent years has been fueled by the
development of the internet and technologies that support online learning. Online Campus-Wide Information Systems
Vol. 23 No. 5, 2006
education appears to have the power to change the education landscape. But while pp. 325-335
technological innovation is necessary to the development of distance education, it is not q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1065-0741
sufficient to assure that distance education is effective. DOI 10.1108/10650740610714080
CWIS Students have different learning styles, and some students may learn best by
23,5 watching and listening, others by reading, and others by doing and moving or by a
hands-on environment. Therefore, it is important to consider students’ learning styles
while developing a distance-learning course. This paper describes an assessment
instrument that can be used to identify students’ learning styles. The information
generated by the instrument can identify the general cognitive and motivational
326 characteristics of the students. This information in turn can be used in course planning
and teaching strategies for online education.

Literature review
Research in learning style has its roots in the late nineteenth century. Initial work
documented that there were style differences among learners. Instruments were
developed to measure those differences in both adults and children (Dunn et al., 1981).
Most of that early research concerned the relationship between memory and oral or
visual teaching methods. The findings were conflicting, possibly due to differences in
the populations, learning materials, and tests (Keefe, 1987).
Later researchers recognized that different learners had different cognitive styles
and habitual information-processing strategies that determine a learner’s typical mode
of perceiving, remembering, thinking, and problem solving (Messick, 1976). This wave
of research has shown how to use diagnostic capability to match instruction to the
style of individual students (Galloway, 1984). When students have a strong preference
for the manner in which new material is presented, it is difficult or even impossible for
them to learn when educators fail to present material in their preferred way (Gregoric,
1985a, b). Other efforts to explain the underlying processes of learning recognize not
only cognitive styles but also affective and physiological aspects. Researchers have
attempted to identify and isolate specific traits of learners in each of these areas to
describe the unique processes of learning (Keefe, 1987; Messick, 1976). This research
reinforces the central theme that variations in student learning style have important
implications for the instructional process.
Many of the learning style theories have spawned assessment tools that can be used
to categorize learners and match students with teachers and approaches that are suited
to their learning styles (Keefe, 1987). Research on the learning styles of college students
in various disciplines has also been reported in literature. Canfield (1988) reports
significant differences among groups of students enrolled in various majors in
collegiate settings.
Biberman and Buchanan (1986) examine learning styles within the area of business
and find that the styles of majors in accounting and economics/finance vary from
majors in marketing and management. Dunn et al. (1981, 1989) indicates that the
achievement of college students could be improved by providing instruction in a
manner consistent with each student’s learning style.
It is critical that online education considers the learning styles of students. In order
to teach more effectively in online courses, instructors need to know more about
differences in learning and how to address the variety of learning styles found in their
students. Instructors who know about differences in learning styles are better able to
modify their teaching strategies and techniques in online education. This can help
ensure that their methods, materials, and resources fit the ways in which their students
learn and create a learning environment that will maximize the learning potential of Learning styles
each student. and online
education
Defining learning styles
The concept of learning style has been studied in various ways. Learning style has
been defined as:
327
.
a certain specified pattern of behavior according to which the individual
approaches learning experience (Campbell et al., 1996);
.
a way in which the individual takes in new information and develops new skills
(Dunn et al., 1981); and
. the process by which the individual retains new information or new skills (Kolb,
1984). Table I summarizes different learning styles frequently discussed in
literature (Sims and Sims, 1995).

For the purposes of this paper, a learning style is defined as the preference or
predisposition of an individual to perceive and process information in a particular way
or combination of ways.

Identifying learning styles in online education: the VARK

In the traditional classroom setting, there are techniques the instructor can use to
identify a student’s specific learning style. The first step is to do a preliminary analysis
through brief personal interviews with students and formal observation of their
specific behaviors in the classroom. Another step for evaluating a student’s learning
style is an in-depth personal interview with the student. The next step in defining
learning styles is to use checklists and the VARK questionnaire (Appendices 1 and 2).
In online courses, it is impossible to conduct observation and in-depth personal
interviews, however, the VARK questionnaire can be used to determine learning styles
of students who participate in online course. It is important to keep in mind that even if
a specific student learns best in a certain way, he or she should be exposed to a variety
of learning experiences to become a more versatile learner. As students’ learning styles
are identified, it is possible to define an appropriate context of learning.
The VARK questionnaire presented in the appendices was developed at Lincoln
University, Canterbury, New Zealand, in 1995. It focuses on the modal preferences for
learners and teachers. According to Neil D. Fleming, the author of the VARK
questionnaire, the use of this tool allows teachers to reach more students because of
better match that can be made between teaching and learning styles (Canfield, 1988).

Theorist Characteristics of learners

Celli/Sarasin Auditory Visual Tactile/kinesthetic

Gregoric/Butler Abstract/sequential Random/concrete Concrete
Harb Abstract/reflective Concrete Active/concrete Table I.
McCarthy Analytic Imaginative Dynamic Characteristics of
Sims & Sims Cognitive Perceptual Behavioral affective learners
CWIS Fleming identifies the most common mode for information exchange as speech that
23,5 arrives at the learner’s ear and therefore is coded as aural (A) in the questionnaire.
Some students reveal preferences for accessing information from printed words. This
group of learners is coded as read/writers (R) since reading and writing are their
preferred modes for receiving in information.
A third group of students is coded as visual (V) since those students like
328 information to arrive in the form of graphs, charts, and flow diagrams. They prefer to
learn by picturing information or enhancing it via colors and layout. The last group of
students likes to experience learning by using all their senses, including touch, hearing,
taste, smell, and sight. This group is coded as kinesthetic (K). Learners from this group
like concrete, multi-sensory experiences in their learning. Learning by doing is strongly
preferable, and abstract material must be presented to them via suitable analogies, real
life examples, or metaphors.
No student or teacher is restricted to only one of the four modes: V, A, R, or K. Both
students and teachers usually exhibit a strong preference for one particular mode, and
at the same time they may have a relative weakness or strength in some other modes.

Application and analysis

At the beginning of the summer semester 2004 and the fall semester 2004 academic
year, online Principles of Macroeconomics students in the Lewis College of Business at
Marshall University answered the VARK questionnaire. Table II summarizes the
learning preferences for online students.
Tri-modal learning preferences prevail in both courses. Only two students (one
female and one male student) in each class indicated preference for auditory learning,
giving these two a multi-modal learning style. This result may indicate that it is
possible that students with prevailing auditory learning preferences may not be
selecting online education as an option. The total sample for both courses showed no
gender difference in learning preferences. The types of learners, teaching strategies,
and behaviors for the four learning styles are presented in Table III.

Teaching strategies to be used in online education

Online courses tend to be text-based forms of instruction. This may be preferable to
some students, but it must be recognized that students have different learning styles.
These differences among students within a learning context can appear in areas of
general skills, aptitude, information processing, and application of information to new
situations. The following three strategies are recommended for the use in an online
course to address individual differences in learning styles:

Number of Unimodal Bimodal Trimodal Multimodal

students number number number number
Table II.
Learning styles of online Summer online course 10 0 2 6 2
students Fall online course 15 0 3 10 2
Type of learner Teaching strategies Behaviors

Auditory learners: Lecture, oral directions, discussions, independent Need ample process time, interact with
Abstract and concrete, analytic, sequential, tasks, oral and objective presentations and information orally, request oral repetitions,
reflective, independent, achievement-oriented, practice, programmed instruction, tasks with rephrase, and expand on topics, request
memory-oriented, competitive, perceptual, specific answers, memorization, verbal sorting, additional information, first must understand the
conceptual, skill-oriented sequential presentation, thinking time, verbal facts and then understand the whole concept
questioning, focusing/directive questions,
continued verbal sharing, verbal rewording
Visual learners: Visual formats, environmental influences, group Prefer to learn about a concept before trying to
Abstract and concrete random, concrete, active, learning, graphic organizers, modeling, understand its parts, repetition, visual imaging,
effective, field-sensitive, field-dependent, demonstrations, role-playing, student not paying attention, wait time, outlining, require
concept-oriented holistic, perceptual and presentations, filed trips, motivational accounts visual aids (charts, diagrams, drawings and
imaginative or stories, computer-aided instruction, activities outlines) in order to make sense of something new
that allow freedom and emphasize creativity,
open-ended questions, teaching to senses
Kinesthetic learners: Supplementing commercial materials with Like learning by doing, need for something to
Dependent and independent, concrete sequential, manipulative components, focusing techniques understand and master, rely on physical
concrete random, creative, behavioral, need for that include interaction with objects, questioning interaction during learning process, like to be
interaction, hands-on, physical by nature, based on physical interactions with objects; active and dynamic participants in order to fully
sensory, learns by doing, active, concrete Internship, field trips, direct contact, experiential understand and learn, require exploration and
learning, simulation, games demonstrations experimentation time, interaction with resources
and materials, preparation in advance,
application of concept, first-hand experience,
participation
Read/write learners: Focusing techniques in writing, focus questions Prefer to take information most efficiently from
Abstract & concrete random, concrete, active in writing, visual stimuli, diagrams and charts; reading headings, lists, definition, lecture-notes
effective, field-sensitive Visual formats, modeling, demonstrations, and textbook, like to write ideas and principles
field-dependent, concept-oriented role-playing, computer-aided instruction, into other words, write out the words again and
activities that allow freedom and emphasize again, organize and turn any diagram, chart, and
creativity, open-ended questions, teaching to graph, game and simulation into words
senses

characteristics,
instructional strategies
education

and behavior
and online

Types of learners, their

Learning styles

Table III.
329
CWIS Provide content in multiple formats
23,5 This can be accomplished through the use of various communication techniques.
Lectures can be audio-streamed and synchronized with the applicable PowerPoint
presentation. These lectures can be transcribed and posted in the course WebCT Vista.
Content can also be presented through WebCT chat room discussion groups where
students are required to share and discuss information with each other. Each course
330 also has links to outside web sites that provide supplemental material on the current
topic.

Allow for individual locus of control

All courses provide various means of navigation. Content can be accessed through
links or a graphical organizer. Students should be able to access course material in
several ways. The course can be built and presented in a hierarchical sequence, but
students should be able to move through the course topics in random order.

Encourage active and collaborative interaction

Each course should be designed with activities that are both individual and
group-based. Within virtual teams, students work together to solve problems, analyze
cases, and develop group deliverables. These assignments allow individual ideas,
perspectives, and experiences to be heard and collectively considered. The idea of
agreeing to disagree is taught through these experiences.

Techniques for online learning

Active and collaborative learning can occur in many forms in an online environment.
Discovery learning, project-based learning, and cooperative learning are common
techniques for engaging students in activities that involve creativity, decision-making,
and problem solving. Each of these instructional approaches emphasizes the
importance of learning from goal-driven and activity-based experience. The following
examples show how active learning can be applied in an online environment where
students demonstrate multi-modal learning styles defined by the VARK method.

Online course projects

Application-rich courses can be designed around major projects and specific activities
to be completed in order to create a final product. For example, in an instructional
design course where students are expected to create a complete training module, they
complete many tasks, such as conducting a needs assessment, developing training
plans, and creating instructional media. By adopting a project-based approach, the
online instructor can easily incorporate the concept of active learning into a virtual
environment instead of providing the typical read-and-write online course.

Online work in groups

Working in groups of two or three students is an active learning technique frequently
used in many face-to-face classes, though it can also be successfully used in online
courses. This strategy can be used in both synchronous and asynchronous situations.
Small-group discussion during synchronous sessions Learning styles
Few online programs rely on synchronous sessions, but synchronous sessions can and online
provide powerful opportunities for student interaction. These sessions can be provided
weekly in which the instructor performs a live audio broadcast to the students over the education
web while the students interact with the instructor and the other students in a group
chat space. Although this in itself encourages active learning, incorporating
small-group interactions into the large-group discussions can further enhance 331
learning. This is accomplishment by having the instructor describe a discussion
activity to the class and then asking them to enter their private virtual team chat space
to discuss and complete the assignment. A specific time is given when the students are
expected to return to the class chat space and discuss their findings with the rest of the
class. This technique is commonly used in many face-to-face classes, but it is
underused in an online learning environment.

Virtual field trips and videos

An alternative to bringing an online lecturer might be for the class to go on a virtual
field trip. It is suggested that students be sent to web sites that take them to places of
interest relevant to the course. For example, the Federal Reserve provides an excellent
online tour that addresses the various issues related to the central bank and monetary
policy in the context of stabilizing the economy. There are web sites that offer many
exciting possibilities for these types of virtual visits in online economics education.
Textbook publishers provide e-packs that include special short videos or short films.
Providing students with virtual trips will allow students to be able to comprehend
what they are learning (comprehension level) and apply what they have learned in new
ways (application level). Students learn at the speed comfortable to them, and this
affords them with more opportunities to feel in control. They take personal
responsibility as active learners for the analysis and synthesis of the information with
what they have already learned:
.
online faculty can also use the following techniques to promote successful online
learning process:
.
use short-term and long-term, individually written assignments;
.
combine individual assignments with group assignments;
.
provide step-by-step instructions and directions whenever they are needed;
.
provide written comments on homework assignments;
.
allow students to work in groups and help each other to discuss, analyze, and
solve problems;
.
use games, simulations, and/or active learning in combination with lecturing;
.
allow students to gain extra credit points from their oral presentations and active
participation in class discussion or group learning;
.
provide oral assignments; and
.
use video and computer assignments in combination with other teaching
techniques.
CWIS The combination of different techniques can make it possible for students with all type
23,5 of learning styles to be successful in an online course.

Conclusions
In order to help students succeed in online education, instructors must understand how
332 they learn, how they perceive, and how they process information. Learning styles of
online students must be identified so that the instructor can plan appropriate teaching
strategies to accommodate individual strengths and needs. It is very important for
instructors to share information with students about their learning styles and the
preferred teaching strategies to accommodate those styles. By sharing information
about learning styles, instructors help their students gain power and control over their
personal learning styles and the learning process.
Each online course should accommodate all types of learners. It is necessary to
provide a number of different learning options that take into account different
learning styles. Combining a mixture of approaches and teaching methods allows
online students to choose the instructional style that best fits their individual learning
styles. Effective teaching arises when teachers reach those students who are
mismatched with their own learning/teaching style. The VARK instrument allows
teachers to overcome this problem. Effective use of the VARK instrument and proper
online course design can result in a learning experience that can be appropriate to all
types of students.

References
Biberman, G. and Buchanan, J. (1986), “Learning style and study skills differences across
business and other academic majors”, Journal of Education for Business, Vol. 61, pp. 303-7.
Campbell, L., Campbell, B. and Dickinson, D. (1996), Teaching and Learning through Multiple
Intelligence, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA.
Canfield, A. (1988), Learning Styles Inventory Manual, Western Psychological Services, Los
Angeles, CA.
Dunn, R., Beautry, J. and Klavas, A. (1989), “Survey of research on learning styles”, Educational
Leadership, Vol. 47 No. 7.
Dunn, R., DeBello, T., Brennan, P., Krimsky, J. and Murrain, P. (1981), “Learning style
researchers define differences differently”, Educational Leadership, Vol. 38 No. 5, pp. 372-5.
Galloway, C. (Ed.) (1984), “Theme issue: matching teaching and learning styles”, Theory and
Practice, Vol. 23 No. 1.
Gregoric, A. (1985a), Inside Styles, Beyond the Basics, Gregoric Associates, Columbia, CT.
Gregoric, A. (1985b), Style Delineator: A Self-Assessment Instrument for Adults, Gregoric
Associates, Columbia, CT.
Keefe, J. (1987), Student Learning Styles and Brain Behavior, NASSP, Reston, VA.
Kolb, D. (1984), Experiential Learning, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Messick, S. (Ed.) (1976), Individuality in Learning, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Sims, R. and Sims, S. (1995), The Importance of Learning Styles: Understanding the Implications
for Learning Course Design and Education, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.
Appendix 1. Administering the VARK Questionnaire Learning styles
Developed by Neil D. Fleming, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
When you are instructing others to fill the questionnaire, they should be advised to make a and online
selection (V, A, R or K) for each question. If necessary they may omit a question or choose two or education
three options. Those who are strongly read/write in preference will probably read the
instructions. Some academics may fasten onto the word meanings in the questionnaire and
contest them because of their orientation towards word meanings. Others with a kinesthetic
preference might ask for additional contextual or situational information before they choose their
333
answers, especially to the first two questions. Avoid giving further information as it may
prejudice their choices in those questions.
You should indicate the use to which the data will be put and whether it remains confidential
to the individual or the group. Posting the results (preferences) for each person in a group usually
leads to following outcomes. For example (Table AI).

Analyzing the results

It is not expected that any one perception mode will be dominant or that people are unimodal.
What will become apparent in a group is that some individuals may have weak preferences for
some modes and strong preferences for others. A major group will have several equally strong
preferences that we refer to as bi-modal or multi-modal. In the table above, Steve is multi-modal
(V, A and R). Allen has a very strong visual preference (V). Mary is bi-modal (V and R).
A score for a mode that stands out from the others will indicate a strong or very strong
preference. The Table below indicates a “rule of thumb” and should not be rigidly applied.
Remember that the questionnaire is not intended to “box” the respondent into a mindset that
he/she has been “diagnosed” (Table AII)
Scores less than two will indicate a weak preference. Pay particular attention to zero scores on
any mode and even more attention to them if the total number of responses is high. Zero scores
are unusual and the respondent will often have an interesting story to tell.

V A R K

Allen 10 0 3 1
Steve 6 7 4 5
Mary 7 1 8 0 Table AI.

Very strong preference Strong preference Mild preference

indicated by a score indicated by a score indicated by a score
Total number of that exceeds any that exceeds any that exceeds any
responses other by other by other by

Up to 16 4þ 3 2
17-22 5þ 4 3
23-30 6þ 5 4
31 þ 7þ 6 5 Table AII.
CWIS Appendix 2.
23,5

334

Figure A1.
The VARK Questionnaire
 Learning styles
and online
education

335

Figure A1.

Corresponding author
Alina Zapalska can be contacted at: [email protected]

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