Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Assignment No. 1
Q.1 Islam encourages the pursuit of science; discuss giving examples from the Quran and Hadith.
Answer:
That science education in Pakistan is inadequate is saying the obvious. In fact, it is bad enough to scare students
away. There is a long list of problems with science education in the country. Textbooks written for Pakistani
textbook boards and colleges are dreary and uninteresting, and only overload students with facts. Badly printed,
they are terse in their explanations, and care little for graphic presentations. Teachers are either untrained or
poorly trained, and hence uninspiring. Many have poor knowledge of the subject they teach, and hence
discourage questions, and kill curiosity.
Examinations demand memorization, so that students have no reason to understand and internalize the subject
matter. Laboratory facilities are not available except in private elite schools or a few well-looked-after public
schools. In most public schools, where lab equipment exists, students are not allowed to handle it for fear of
causing damage, and the equipment is used by teachers to only demonstrate experiments to the students.
There is no reliable survey data available, but it is safe to say that Pakistani students are in general scared of
studying science in schools and colleges. Most students in the higher classes opt for subjects in the arts and
commerce. All of this is because of the way science is taught.
Teaching science requires special attention and special training of teachers in teaching methods that invoke
reasoning and curiosity. It also requires laboratory equipment to let students explore and verify phenomena and
learn methods of scientific inquiry. It requires textbooks that make scientific phenomena understandable
through systematic exploration. End-chapter exercises in textbooks must not ask recall questions, but demand
thinking, reasoning and analysis. The same is true for examinations.
Sadly none of this is evident in the vast majority of Pakistan’s schools, public or private, except in some
expensive elite schools. So only a small fraction of the total number of students gets to learn science properly;
the rest are left struggling.
The biggest issue in science education in Pakistan, however, is the medium of instruction, an issue on which our
policymakers have been vacillating when it comes to teaching in Urdu or English. Not long ago, it was decided
by the Punjab chief minister that English would be the language in which science and mathematics would be
taught in his province from class I. It transpired that it could not be done because the teachers at that level were
unable to employ English as the medium of instruction.
The issue of the medium of instruction in science education is a complex one. Concepts and their explanations
can be best conveyed and received in an easily understood language. In this respect, texts written in Urdu or
mother tongues should be the best. But the problem arises with terminologies. The latter convey not only
concepts behind phenomena but also interconnections between related phenomena through words that are
derived from the same root.

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
The language of science instruction has to have the capacity to allow the formulation of terminologies that
possess these two qualities. If a language does not have that capacity, it has no recourse but to borrow words
from other languages. In borrowed terminologies, however, that interconnection can be lost, which is not an
insignificant loss.
If we are to teach in Urdu and yet desire that the interconnectedness of terms, for example, oxygen, oxide,
oxidation, oxidization, oxidized, of the English language be preserved, the solution would lie in using Arabic
and Persian vocabulary and grammar, as was done some decades ago. This for students today would be as
unfamiliar as English words. An added problem for students would be to make the transition from Urdu
vocabulary to English upon reaching higher classes.
Coupled with this is the seemingly perennial problem of poor teaching of English in public schools. A vast
majority of students from public schools can hardly understand English. We observe this even at the university
level where we see blank faces when we deliver lectures in English. Students often admit not being able to fully
comprehend lessons in foreign textbooks, or even the questions at the end of the chapter.
No one familiar with this problem can agree with the assertion that science and mathematics be taught in
English from early schooling. Teaching science and mathematics in English to those students who do not
understand the language is tantamount to denying them the means to understand and hence enjoy learning these
subjects. It also amounts to forcing them to memorise the text.
But even more painful is reading those science textbooks in Urdu which retain English terminologies
transcribed in Urdu. It is not hard to imagine the difficulty faced by a class V student reading terms like
‘endangered species’ or names of complex organic molecules in Urdu, and understand why children get scared
of science.
The answer eventually lies in increasing the English language skills of students — of all the students. Teaching
of English in schools is a major unresolved problem of our educational system. One wonders why we cannot
resolve this problem at the national level once and for all.
Science educators have believed that the laboratory is an important means of instruction in science since late in
the 19th century. Laboratory activities were used in high school chemistry in the 1880s (Fay, 1931). In 1886,
Harvard University published a list of physics experiments that were to be included in high school physics
classes for students who wished to enroll at Harvard (Moyer, 1976). Laboratory instruction was considered
essential because it provided training in observation, supplied detailed information, and aroused pupils' interest.
These same reasons are still accepted almost 100 years later.
Shulman and Tamir, in the Second Handbook of Research on Teaching (Travers, ed., 1973), listed five groups
of objectives that may be achieved through the use of the laboratory in science classes:
1. skills - manipulative, inquiry, investigative, organizational, communicative
2. concepts - for example, hypothesis, theoretical model, taxonomic category
3. cognitive abilities - critical thinking, problem solving, application, analysis, synthesis

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
4. understanding the nature of science - scientific enterprise, scientists and how they work, existence of a
multiplicity of scientific methods, interrelationships between science and technology and among the
various disciplines of science
5. attitudes - for example, curiosity, interest, risk taking, objectivity, precision,confidence, perseverance,
satisfaction, responsibility, consensus, collaboration, and liking science.
Writing about laboratory teaching at the college level, McKeachie said:
Laboratory teaching assumes that first-hand experience in observation and manipulation of the materials of
science is superior to other methods of developing understanding and appreciation. Laboratory training is also
frequently used to develop skills necessary for more advanced study or research.

From the standpoint of theory, the activity of the student, the sensorimotor nature of the experience, and the
individualization of laboratory instruction should contribute positively to learning. Information cannot usually
be obtained, however, by direct experience as rapidly as it can from abstractions presented orally or in print...
Thus, one would not expect laboratory teaching to have an advantage over other teaching methods in the
amount of information retention, in ability to apply learning, or in actual skill in observation or manipulation of
materials.
Another writer, identified two misconceptions about the use of the laboratory in college science. One is that
laboratories somehow "illustrate" lecture courses - a function that (in Pickering's opinion) is not possible in a
simple, one-afternoon exercise. Pickering contended that most scientific theories are based on a large number of
very sophisticated experiments. He suggested that, if lecture topics are to be illustrated, this should be done
through the use of audio-visual aids or demonstrations. The second misconception is that laboratories exist to
teach manipulative skills. Pickering argued that the majority of students in science laboratory classes do not
have a career goal of becoming a professional scientist. Further, many of the skills students learn in laboratories
are obsolete in science careers. If these skills are worth teaching, it is as tools to be mastered for basic scientific
inquiry and not as ends in themselves (1980, p. 80).
Q.2 “Arabic civilization contributed much more to the development of science and technology during
the golden period of Islam (7 th to 12th A.D) than passive transmission of ancient knowledge to the
west”
Debate supporting your argument with examples.
Answer:
It is imperative for schools to have the latest and high quality science lab supplies these days. Science is
different from any other subject. In order to understand its concepts, one has to look beyond the books and
conventional classroom teaching. Effective teaching and learning of science involves seeing, handling, and
manipulating real objects and materials. The knowledge that kids attain in classrooms would be ineffectual
unless they actually observe the process and understand the relationship between action and reaction.

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
Effective teaching and learning of science involves a perpetual state of show and tell. Good schools combine
classroom teaching with laboratory experiments to ensure that their students grasp each and every concept
thoroughly. It is also believed that laboratory teaching and experiments that are being conducted there help
encourage deep understanding in children. Children are able to retain the knowledge for longer when they see
the experiments being performed in front of their eyes.
Science lab equipment allows students to interact directly with the data gathered. They get a first-hand learning
experience by performing various experiments on their own. Students are made to use the models and
understand different scientific theories and concepts. It is also found that school science lab equipment and
supplies make teaching and learning easy both for the teachers, as well as for the students. There are several
scientific theories and concepts that are difficult to explain directly from the books. Anatomy models, physics
science kits, and chemistry science kits for instance make it easy to understand the otherwise complex theories
of science.
By virtue of equipping themselves with the latest and the advanced materials and supplies, schools are able to
contribute a lot in the scientific advances yet to come. The advances and developments in the field of medical
science and technology would not take place if schools did not prepare brilliant and dedicated scientists and
researchers. Children develop interest in scientific research in science labs. When they observe various things
and carry out different experiments, their reasoning skills are honed and they start thinking deeply on those
theories and concepts. Schools thus play a vital role in bringing up the next generation of engineers and doctors.
To conclude, schools must have the latest science lab supplies and equipment to make science interesting and
effective for students and to encourage them to make significant contributions in the field of physics, biology,
chemistry, and other streams of science later in life.
The science learning goals of laboratory experiences include enhancing mastery of science subject matter,
developing scientific reasoning abilities, increasing understanding of the complexity and ambiguity of empirical
work, developing practical skills, increasing understanding of the nature of science, cultivating interest in
science and science learning, and improving teamwork abilities.
The research suggests that laboratory experiences will be more likely to achieve these goals if they (1) are
designed with clear learning outcomes in mind, (2) are thoughtfully sequenced into the flow of classroom
science instruction, (3) integrate learning of science content and process, and (4) incorporate ongoing student
reflection and discussion.
Computer-based representations and simulations of natural phenomena and large scientific databases are more
likely to be effective if they are integrated into a thoughtful sequence of classroom science instruction that also
includes laboratory experiences.
Laboratories have been purported to promote a number of goals for students, most of which are also the goals of
science education in general (Lunetta, 1998; Hofstein and Lunetta, 1982). The committee commissioned a paper
to examine the definition and goals of laboratory experiences (Millar, 2004) and also considered research

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
reviews on laboratory education that have identified and discussed learning goals (Anderson, 1976; Hofstein
and Lunetta, 1982; Lazarowitz and Tamir, 1994; Shulman and Tamir, 1973). While these inventories of goals
vary somewhat, a core set remains fairly consistent. Building on these commonly stated goals, the committee
developed a comprehensive list of goals for or desired outcomes of laboratory experiences:
 Enhancing mastery of subject matter. Laboratory experiences may enhance student
understanding of specific scientific facts and concepts and of the way in which these facts and concepts
are organized in the scientific disciplines.
 Developing scientific reasoning. Laboratory experiences may promote a student’s ability to
identify questions and concepts that guide scientific
1
   There is a larger body of research on how students learn science that is not considered in depth here because
the committee’s focus is science learning through laboratory experiences. The larger body of research is
discussed in the National Research Council (2005) report, How Students Learn: Science in the Classroom; it
is also considered in an ongoing National Research Council study of science learning in grades K-8.
investigations; to design and conduct scientific investigations; to develop and revise scientific
explanations and models; to recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models; and to make
and defend a scientific argument. Making a scientific argument includes such abilities as writing,
reviewing information, using scientific language appropriately, constructing a reasoned argument, and
responding to critical comments.
 Understanding the complexity and ambiguity of empirical work. Interacting with the
unconstrained environment of the material world in laboratory experiences may help students concretely
understand the inherent complexity and ambiguity of natural phenomena. Laboratory experiences may
help students learn to address the challenges inherent in directly observing and manipulating the material
world, including troubleshooting equipment used to make observations, understanding measurement
error, and interpreting and aggregating the resulting data.
 Developing practical skills. In laboratory experiences, students may learn to use the tools and
conventions of science. For example, they may develop skills in using scientific equipment correctly and
safely, making observations, taking measurements, and carrying out well-defined scientific procedures.
 Understanding of the nature of science. Laboratory experiences may help students to understand
the values and assumptions inherent in the development and interpretation of scientific knowledge, such
as the idea that science is a human endeavor that seeks to understand the material world and that
scientific theories, models, and explanations change over time on the basis of new evidence.
 Cultivating interest in science and interest in learning science. As a result of laboratory
experiences that make science “come alive,” students may become interested in learning more about
science and see it as relevant to everyday life.

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
 Developing teamwork abilities. Laboratory experiences may also promote a student’s ability to
collaborate effectively with others in carrying out complex tasks, to share the work of the task, to
assume different roles at different times, and to contribute and respond to ideas.
Although most of these goals were derived from previous research on laboratory experiences and student
learning, the committee identified the new goal of “understanding the complexity and ambiguity of empirical
work” to reflect the unique nature of laboratory experiences. Students’ direct encounters with natural
phenomena in laboratory science courses are inherently more ambiguous and messy than the representations of
these phenomena in science lectures, textbooks, and mathematical formulas.
Q.3 a) Define the term “science” and “philosophy” .
b) Describe the origin of philosophy of science and the main tenets of philosophy of science.

Answer:
a) Since laboratories were introduced in the late 1800s, the goals of high school science education have
changed. Today, high school science education aims to provide scientific literacy for all as part of a liberal
education and to prepare students for further study, work, and citizenship.
Educators and researchers do not agree on the definition and goals of high school science laboratories or on
their role in the high school science curriculum.
The committee defines high school science laboratories as follows: laboratory experiences provide
opportunities for students to interact directly with the material world (or with data drawn from the material
world), using the tools, data collection techniques, models, and theories of science.
Science laboratories have been part of high school education for two centuries, yet a clear articulation of their
role in student learning of science remains elusive. This report evaluates the evidence about the role of
laboratories in helping students attain science learning goals and discusses factors that currently limit science
learning in high school laboratories.
In the National Science Foundation (NSF) Authorization Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-368, authorizing funding for
fiscal years 2003-2007), Congress called on NSF to launch a secondary school systemic initiative. The initiative
was to “promote scientific and technological literacy” and to “meet the mathematics and science needs of
students at risk of not achieving State student academic achievement standards.” Congress directed NSF to
provide grants for such activities as “laboratory improvement and provision of instrumentation as part of a
comprehensive program to enhance the quality of mathematics, science, engineering, and technology
instruction” (P.L. 107-368, Section 8-E). In response, NSF turned to the National Research Council (NRC) of
the National Academies. NSF requested that the NRC
nominate a committee to review the status of and future directions for the role of high school science
laboratories in promoting the teaching and learning of science for all students. This committee will guide the
conduct of a study and author a consensus report that will provide guidance on the question of the role and

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
purpose of high school science laboratories with an emphasis on future directions…. Among the questions that
may guide these activities are:
1. What is the current state of science laboratories and what do we know about how they are used in
high schools?
2. What examples or alternatives are there to traditional approaches to labs and what is the evidence
base as to their effectiveness?
3. If labs in high school never existed (i.e., if they were to be planned and designed de novo), what
would that experience look like now, given modern advances in the natural and learning sciences?
4. In what ways can the integration of technologies into the curriculum augment and extend a new
vision of high school science labs? What is known about high school science labs based on principles of
design?
5. How do the structures and policies of high schools (course scheduling, curricular design,
textbook adoption, and resource deployment) influence the organization of science labs? What kinds of
changes might be needed in the infrastructure of high schools to enhance the effectiveness of science
labs?
6. What are the costs (e.g., financial, personnel, space, scheduling) associated with different models
of high school science labs? How might a new vision of laboratory experiences for high school students
influence those costs?
7. In what way does the growing interdisciplinary nature of the work of scientists help to shape
discussions of laboratories as contexts in high school for science learning?
8. How do high school lab experiences align with both middle school and postsecondary
education? How is the role of teaching labs changing in the nation’s colleges and universities? Would a
redesign of high school science labs enhance or limit articulation between high school and college-level
science education?

b) The NRC convened the Committee on High School Science Laboratories: Role and Vision to address this
charge.
The committee carried out its charge through an iterative process of gathering information, deliberating on it,
identifying gaps and questions, gathering further information to fill these gaps, and holding further discussions.
In the search for relevant information, the committee held three public fact-finding meetings, reviewed
published reports and unpublished research, searched the Internet, and commissioned experts to prepare and
present papers. At a fourth, private meeting, the committee intensely analyzed and discussed its findings and
conclusions over the course of three days. Although the committee considered information from a variety of
sources, its final report gives most weight to research published in peer-reviewed journals and books.

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
At an early stage in its deliberations, the committee chose to focus primarily on “the role of high school
laboratories in promoting the teaching and learning of science for all students.” The committee soon became
frustrated by the limited research evidence on the role of laboratories in learning. To address one of many
problems in the research evidence—a lack of agreement about what constitutes a laboratory and about the
purposes of laboratory education—the committee commissioned a paper to analyze the alternative definitions
and goals of laboratories. The committee developed a concept map outlining the main themes of the study
(see Figure 1-1) and organized the three fact-finding meetings to gather information on each of these themes.
For example, reflecting the committee’s focus on student learning (“how students learn science” on the concept
map), all three fact-finding meetings included researchers who had developed innovative approaches to high
school science laboratories. We also commissioned two experts to present papers reviewing available research
on the role of laboratories in students’ learning of science.
Q.4 a) Describe the origin of philosophy of logical positivism.
b) What are the main tenets of concept of logical positivism.
Answer:
a) One of the great assets of this laboratory facility is the ample experience in both fundamental as well as
applied research in which concrete problems in the built environment are addressed. A strong interaction
between fundamental research (in the department’s or related domains) and applied research has been a success
factor for innovative research findings and solutions. The laboratory is equipped for both large and small
projects. Small projects are for example the former innovation vouchers with which the industry gains access to
research laboratories and staff for valorization of their work. Examples of such smaller projects are: CFD
analysis of the Venturi roof for natural ventilation of multi-storey buildings (2009); wind environmental
conditions for LNG carriers in sea canal Ferrol, Galicia, Spain (2009); wind nuisance at residential building
complex Kattendijkdok, Antwerp, Belgium (2009); rain penetration in the residential tower building Uiterdijk,
Pernis, The Netherlands, Hurks Oosthoek Kemper, (2008); sound insulation design of Espero movable wall
systems, Waalwijk, the Netherlands, (2007).
The Laboratory also carries out externally financed research projects in the field of lighting, acoustics and
monitoring museums.
To ensure that laboratory investigations are implemented in schools, administrative support is crucial. NSTA
recommends that the school administration recognize the instructional importance, overarching goals, and
essential activities of laboratory investigations and provide the following:
 An adequate facility where labs can be conducted. At the preschool and elementary levels, this means a
classroom with sufficient work space, including flat moveable desks or tables and chairs, equipment, and
access to water and electricity. At the middle and high school levels, a safe, well-equipped lab space should
be available, with necessary equipment and access to water and electricity. In addition, appropriate facilities
to work with students with special needs should be provided. (Beihle 1999)

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
 Adequate storage space for all materials, including devices and materials in common use that are
considered hazardous. (Beihle 1999)
 Funding for yearly educator training on how to manage materials and guide inquiry-based learning
during labs.
 A budget for regular maintenance of facilities and equipment, as well as annual costs for new or
replacement equipment, supplies, and proper waste management.
 A budget that recognizes additional costs required for field experiences.
 Laboratory occupancy load limits (number of occupants allowed in the laboratory) set at a safe level
b) Based on building and fire safety codes, size and design of the laboratory teaching facility,
chemical/physical/biological hazards, and the needs of the students (Roy 2006; NSTA 2000). Science classes
should have no more than 24 students even if the occupancy load limit might accommodate more. (NSTA 2004)
Research data shows that accidents rise dramatically as class enrollments exceed this level. (West 2001)
Teachers should not be faced with a Hobson's choice—teach in an unsafe environment or sacrifice the quality of
teaching by not doing labs.
The laboratory is well equipped for fundamental research in the calibration of models for simulation of the
physical behavior of building elements or more fundamental physical phenomena. Experiments are carried out
to provide specialist product-testing data for industry.
Many schools have specific laboratories for each different science subject, chemistry, biology and physics, but
another option is for multi-purpose labs which can be used for two or more subjects. Elmia School Supplies has
wide-ranging expertise in the field of school laboratory design and can advise you on how to build a laboratory
with maximum flexibility.
As well as doubling up on different subjects, some schools also prefer to have labs which can be used across the
age range. Designing labs for all age groups, rather than separate facilities for younger and older pupils, can
give additional flexibility and can make it easier to timetable science lessons.
The type of school lab benches chosen and the layout of the lab as a whole will depend both on the type of
subjects being taught and the age groups of the students, as well as various other factors.
In drawing up design solutions for school labs, our team of designers will ensure the lab area does not become
too crowded by trying to fit too much in. We will also ensure full compliance with disability access
requirements, for instance by building in enough space for students in wheelchairs to move around the room.
Q.5 Write brief notes on the following topics:
a) The Quran, Hadith and the modern science.
b) Constructive empiricism and its implications for science education.
Answer:
a) The education system of Pakistan, in terms of quality teaching and learning, stands in the lowest rank in the
world. Numerous reasons can be held responsible for this state of affairs. Teacher is one of these factors.

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
Teacher is an important part of the teaching and learning process, who faces various problems due to which
they cannot play their roles effectively in the education process. This paper, based on a thorough review of the
existing literature, critically analyses the problems faced by school teachers in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa
province of Pakistan. Findings of the study revealed that teachers are less motivated towards teaching
profession, because their appointments, transfers, placements and promotions are decided on nepotism,
corruption and political affiliations rather than on merit. In many cases teachers are posted in remote areas,
faced with accommodation and transportation problems. The study further found that teachers are overburdened
with more classes due to shortage of staff in schools, teachers face shortage of teaching and learning resources
in schools, there are fewer professional development opportunities for teachers, servant-master environment and
a culture of leg-pulling and flattering prevails in schools, and that teachers often rely on other activities such as
property business, shop-keeping etc for living. This has gravely affected the process of teaching and learning in
schools. This study recommends that the problems of teachers could be solved by creating an environment of
trust and strengthening the mechanism of accountability, providing teaching and learning resources to schools,
providing ongoing professional development opportunities and incentives to teachers, making appointments and
promotions on merit, providing enough staff to schools and eradicating the evil of political interference.
Education is development and a key to success. Existing scientific and technological development can only
be attributed to education (Bregman and Muhammad, 1998). The standard of education of a country intertwined
and determines its position among other nations of the world. In this regard countries with high achievements in
the fields of education and research lead the world. Education influences living standard as it turns the
population of a country into useful human capital and works as an agent of positive change (Hoodbhoy, 1998).
However, it is worth noting that teacher(s), as builders of the nation, holds a pivotal role in the process
of education.
b) In this sense the quality and standards of education are strongly associated with the quality and
effectiveness of its teachers. Unfortunately in Pakistan very little attention has been paid to the education sector
in general and the recruitment of quality teachers in particular. Resultantly, Pakistan has one of the lowest
literacy rate and quality education (Farooq, 1990). This study attempts to examine the problems faced by
school teachers such as, academic, recruitment and promotion procedure, administrative and power
structure, financial, training, curriculum, parental relations, and examination in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province
of Pakistan.
The state of science education for adolescents is at an important crossroads. As the first decade of the 21st
century comes to a close, we are faced with enormous scientific challenges that the youth of today will have to
confront. Some of these issues include the expanding HIV/AIDS pandemic, global climate change, world
hunger, space exploration, and the development and implementation of alternative sources of energy. Whereas
the need for scientific advances is at its peak, adolescent learning about science in school is facing critical
challenges. Science educators in the early 21st century are facing a myriad of issues. Indeed, students in the

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 Course: Foundation Of Science Education (695)
Semester: Spring, 2020
United States still lag behind students in other nations in science achievement, particularly European and Asian
countries (National Center for Education Statistics, 2007). Some of the complex issues in the field of science
education include the availability of appropriate textbooks and classroom resources; the preparation and training
of science teachers (including both pre-service training and in-service professional development); political and
religious opposition to cutting-edge science instruction; the need to meet standards and to prepare students for
standardized examinations; and the dramatically increasing use of the internet as a source of information. Given
these and other issues, it is extremely important to understand, acknowledge, and build upon the abilities of
adolescent learners, while at the same time tailoring instruction to address the unique challenges faced by this
age group.
The field of educational psychology has much to contribute to science education. There have been many
important recent developments in the study of adolescent cognition and motivation, and this new knowledge has
much to add to the enhancement of science education. Learning about science requires the coordination of a
complex set of cognitive, affective, and motivational strategies and skills. Specifically, research from
educational psychology can contribute greatly to our understanding of how adolescents acquire and process
scientific knowledge; overcome misconceptions; learn the discourse of scientists; learn to think and reason like
scientists; evaluate sources of scientific information; and reconcile personal beliefs (e.g., religious and political
beliefs) with science content. In 2007, The National Research Council published Taking Science to School:
Learning and Teaching Science in Grades K-8 (National Research Council, 2007). This comprehensive report
documents research-based recommendations for improving science learning for young children and early
adolescents. This excellent resource covers much important information, and serves as an excellent platform
from which to begin considering the unique needs of older adolescent learners.

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