2 Structure and functions in living organisms

The following sub-topics are covered in this section.

1. (a)  Level of organisation

2. (b)  Cell structure
3. (c)  Biological molecules
4. (d)  Movement of substances into and out of cells
5. (e)  Nutrition
6. (f)  Respiration
7. (g)  Gas exchange
8. (h)  Transport
9. (i)  Excretion
10. (j)  Co-ordination and response

(a) Level of organisation

2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs
and systems

Level of organization
 Organelles: highly organized structures of molecules that have a specific function
within a cell
 Cells: made up of organelles, described as a functional unit, they are the basis of
living things
 Tissues: a group of similar specialized cells working together to perform one ore
more types of functions
 System: made up of several organs and some tissues working together to perform
several functions

(b) Cell structure

2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane,
cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole

Cell Structure
Animal cell Plant cell
No chloroplast for photosynthesis Many chloroplast for photosynthesis
Has an irregular shape Has a regular shape
Has small temporary vacuoles Has a large permanent vacuole
Doesn't have a cell wall Has a cellulose cell wall
Nucleus is in the center Nucleus is on the periphery side of the
cell
2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole

Functions of cell structure

 The nucleus – contains all the genetic information of the cell and controls the
activities of the cell
 Cytoplasm – surrounds the nucleus with the cell walls and is where reactions take
place in the cell
 Cell membrane – controls the movement of chemicals in and out of the cell
 Cell wall – maintains the shape of the cell, preventing the cell fro rupturing when
there is an excess of water
 Chloroplasts – contain chlorophyll which is essential for photosynthesis
 Vacuole – keeps the cell turgid and removes unwanted substances from the cell
 Mitochondria -
 Ribosomes -

Animal cell Plant cell

No chloroplast for photosynthesis Many chloroplast for photosynthesis
Has an irregular shape Has a regular shape
Has small temporary vacuoles Has a large permanent vacuole
Doesn't have a cell wall Has a cellulose cell wall
Nucleus is in the center Nucleus is on the periphery side of the
cell

2.5B explain the importance of cell differentiation in the development of

specialised cells

2.6B understand the advantages and disadvantages of using stem cells in

medicine

(c) Biological molecules

2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
(fats and oils)

2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large

molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple
sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates (can only be absorbed when broken down)

Monosaccharaides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Glucose Maltose Starch
Fructose Sucrose Glycogen
Galactose Lactose Cellulose
Simple sugars Made of 2 simple sugars Made of many sugars
joined together joined together
  Glucose is found in naturally sweet tasting foods like fruit and vegetables (glycogen is
a polymer of glucose also)
 Lactose is milk sugar
 Ordinary sugar is sucrose (consits if glucose and fructose)
 Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose and then oxidized to provide energy
(respiration)
 Made of: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Protein
 Proteins provide the fabric for all the soft tissue of the body; skin muscles and organs
 Proteins are vital for growth and repair
 A lack of protein can cause kwashiorkor (a protein deficiency disease)
 A protein is a chain of amino acids
 There are 20 types of amino acids, so an almost limitless variety of different
structures can be made
 Proteins are polymers, with amino acid monomers
 Many compounds in the body are made from protein, including enzymes
 Proteins contain: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
Lipids (fats and oils)
 Fats contain many calories and so can be stored for slow release energy
 The fat layer under the skin also acts as insulation and the fat layer around organs
e.g. the kidneys help protect them from damage
 A fat molecule consists of: 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
 A fat molecule is solid at room temp. and oil is liquid
 Unsaturated fats (usually present in plant oils) are more healthy than saturated fats
(usually found in foods from animals – dairy and meat)
 Lipids contain: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose, starch,
protein and fat

Food tests
 Starch: iodine will turn blue/black in the presence of starch
 Glucose: is called reducing sugar because its test involves chemically reducing an
alkaline of copper sulfate to copper (II) oxide, add water to a small spatula of glucose
shake to dissolve the glucose, add several drops of benedicts solution and heat using
a water bath, it will then yellow/orange/brick red in the presence of glucose
 Protein: biuret reagent will turn in the presence of protein
 Lipids: add ethanol, if the lipid dissolves and if it forms a cloudy white precipitate
lipids are present

2.10 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic

reactions

Enzymes
 They are a biological catalyst
  They are proteins
 They control all chemical reactions in the body
 They are not used up in a reaction, so remain unchanged to catalyze another
reaction
 The temp. inside organisms is low and so without enzymes most reactions would be
too slow to allow life to go on

2.11 understand how temperature changes can affect enzyme function,

including changes to the shape of active site

The lock and key theory

1. Substrate enters active site
2. Substrate binds to active site
3. Reaction takes place
4. Products are formed
 This acts like a ‘lock’ to the substrate ‘key’

Factors affecting enzyme activity

 Temp. – higher temp. gives the molecules more energy so they collide more often
the more collisions, the more frequently reactions take place, therefore rate of
reaction increases
 However enzymes are proteins and so made up by a chain of amino acids, the bonds
between the amino acids break and so the enzyme will change shape and denature if
heat exceeds 40oC
 The pH – either side of neutral, enzyme activity changes, if the pH is too high/low it
can cause permanent change to the shape of the active site
 Some enzymes however, have adapted to working in extreme pH/temp. pepsin, in
the stomach has an optimum pH of 2

2.12 practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in

temperature

Investigating the effect of temp. On enzyme activity

 Amylase breaks down starch into maltose
 If the speed at which the starch disappears is recorded, this reflects the activity of
amylase
 Using a pipette a small sample of the mixture is removed and added o the first drops
of iodine and the color of the iodine is recorded
 This process is repeated for a certain amount of time
 Then change the temp. of the water and conduct the experiment again

2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH

altering the active site

2.14B practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in

pH

(d) Movement of substances into and out of cells

2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by
which substances move into and out of cells

Movement of substances in and out of cells

 Diffusion is the net movement of particles form an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration
 Osmosis is the net movement of water from a dilute solution (high water potential)
to a more concentrated solution (low water potential) across a partially permeable
membrane
 Active transport is the movement of particles from an area of low concentration to
high concentration against the concentration gradient across a selectively permeable
membrane
Diffusion Osmosis Active transport
High concentration to Low solute conc. (high Low conc. to high conc.
low concentration water conc.) to high
solute conc. (low water
conc.)
No energy – passive No energy – passive Requires energy –
process process active process
No membrane Partially permeable Partially permeable
membrane membrane
Movement of solute Movement of water Movement of solute
molecules molecules molecules
Examples
1. Diffusion – in plants, there is a high conc. of CO2 on the outside and a low conc. of
CO2 on the inside of the leaf, CO2 diffuses into the leaf
2. Osmosis – in plant cells, osmosis keeps water equally dispersed throughout the plant
cells allowing the cells to become turgid, turgidity is needed for support, this allows
the plant to grow upwards
3. Active transport – in root hair cells active transport is used to absorb minerals from
the soil
Diffusion
 Occurs in alveoli and will – both are adapted to maxims diffusion
Osmosis
 In osmosis water moves from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution
 Hypotonic solution – high water conc. little solute, dilute solution
 Hypertonic solution – low water conc. (potential), lots of solute, conc. solution
Active transport
 Requires energy from respiration
 Energy is required to make the protein carriers within the cell membrane
 The carriers have a binding site, allowing a specific dissolved substance to bind to
the side of the membrane where it is at a lower conc.
Key words for osmosis
 Partially permeable membrane – membranes that allow only a certain type of
molecules to pass through them, water and small molecules can but large solute
molecules cannot
  Turgid – plants cells where the cell is full of water and the cytoplasm pushes against
the cell wall, exerting turgor pressure
 Plasmolysis – plant cells that have lost lots of water causing the cell membrane to
shrink away from the cell wall making the cell flaccid
 Crenation – animals cells that have lost a lot of water and so shrink
 Flaccid – a plant cell that is limp through reduction of turgor pressure in the cell due
to loss of water
 Haemolysed – animals cells that have taken in so much water they have to burst
 Hypnotic – a solution weaker than another
 Hypertonic – a solution that is stronger than another
 Isotonic – when the concentration of 2 solutions is equal

2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into
and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance,
temperature and concentration gradient

Factors affecting these methods

 SA: VOL (surface area to volume ratio) – with a larger surface area per until volume,
molecules have more surfaces through which to diffuse, increasing the rate of
diffusion/osmosis
 Temperature – Increasing temp. increases kinetic energy, therefore molecules collide
with the cell membrane more often making movement through it more likely
 Concentration gradient (the difference in concentration between 2 areas) – the
greater the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion/osmosis

2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living
systems
Experiments
 Osmosis – potato in water and salt (see change in weight), use risking tube for non
living sugar solution, sugar solution outside and water inside (see change in mass)
 Diffusion – place potassium permanganate crystals in water, let the water equally
disperse, change temp.
 Put agar jelly dyed with potassium permanganate in a beaker of HCl, when HCl reacts
with potassium permanganate, the purple color disappears, place different S.A.: V

(e) Nutrition

Flowering plants

2.18 understand the process of photosynthesis and its importance in the

conversion of light energy to chemical energy

Plant nutrition
 Photosynthesis coverts light energy (absorbed by the green pigment chlorophyll)
into chemical energy
  Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and other organisms use
sunlight to synthesize nutrients from CO2 and water
2.19 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for
photosynthesis

 Carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen

 6CO2 + 6H2O→ C6H13O6 + 6O2

2.20 understand how varying carbon dioxide concentration, light intensity and
temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis

Factors affecting photosynthesis

1. Light
2. Temp.
3. CO2
 There are 3 main limiting factors (a factor in the environment that is present in
limited supply and it limits the rate of chemical reaction)
 When the rate of photosynthesis increases, the factor in that region is the limiting
factor
 But when the rate levels off another factor becomes the limiting factor
 Eventually, the rate levels off as the plant can only photosynthesize at a certain rate
 In a green house knowledge of limited factors is used to maximize crop yield
 A high conc. of CO2 is used (e.g. by burning fossil fuels)
 An optimum light intensity is used
 The optimum temp. is used (e.g. by a heater or burning fossil fuel, which also
releases CO2)
 If the temp. is too high, enzymes can be denatured

2.21 describe the structure of the leaf and explain how it is adapted for
photosynthesis

The leaf
 The upper and lower epidermis have few chloroplasts and are covered by a thin
layer of waxy material called cuticle
 Which reduces water loss by evaporation and acts as a barrier to prevent the entry
of disease causing microorganisms
 The lower epidermis has many pores called stomata
 These allow CO2 to diffuse into the leaf to reach photosynthetic tissue
 This also allows O2 and water vapor to diffuse out
 Each stomata is formed between 2 specialized cells called guard cells that open and
close the stoma
 The palisade layer is made of elongated cells containing many chloroplasts, it is the
main site of photosynthesis
 The palisade cells are clos to the source of light
 And the upper epidermis is fairly transparent allowing light to pass through the
densely packed chloroplasts
  The spongy mesophyll layer is the main gas exchange surface of the leaf
 The cells have fewer chloroplasts than palisade cells but allow O2 and water vapor to
diffuse out and water vapor while allowing CO2 to diffuse in
 They are loosely packed with lots of air spaces
Leaves adaptations for photosynthesis
1. Large surface area allowing lots of photosynthesis
2. Many chloroplast containing chlorophyll
3. Rich supply of water from roots
4. Rich supply of CO2 from air
5. The leaf can be angled to receive maximum sunlight
6. The leaf can release O2 and water vapor from the stomata
7. Waxy cuticle is transparent allowing light to infiltrate the leaf as is the upper
epidermis
8. Spongy mesophyll
9. Guard cells

2.22 understand that plants require mineral ions for growth, and that
magnesium ions are needed for chlorophyll and nitrate ions are needed for
amino acids

Mineral nutrition in plants

Mineral ion Use Deficiency effects
Nitrate Making amino acids, Stunted growth of plant,
proteins, DNA and other older leaves turn yellow
compounds
Phosphate Making DNA and other Poor root growth,
important compounds, younger laves turn purple
part of cell membrane
Potassium Needed for enzymes of Leaves turn yellow and
reparation and dead sprouts
photosynthesis to work
Magnesium Part of chlorophyll Leaves turn yellow

2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, showing the evolution of oxygen

from a water plant, the production of starch and the requirements of light,
carbon dioxide and chlorophyll

Experiments to investigate photosynthesis

1. Effect of light on the rate of photosynthesis
 To investigate the effect of light on the rate of photosynthesis count the number of
bubbles given off in a set amount of time
 This method is inaccurate:
 Bubbles can be different volumes
 Some may not have been oxygen
  Human counting error
 The heat from the lamp could have affected the
rate of photosynthesis
2. Effect of CO2 on the rate of photosynthesis
 Temp. must be kept CONSTANT
 Add bicarbonate of soda to saturate the solution
 Count the number of bubbles given in a specific set amount of time
 Repeat at different CO2 concentrations
3. Testing a leaf for starch
1. Boil the leaf in water to kill the leaf
2. Boil the leaf in ethanol to remove chlorophyll
3. Wash leaf with cold water to soften the leaf
4. Cover the leaf with iodine solution to strain starch
 To prove chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis, get 1 leaf and deprive it of
sunlight exposure for 48 hours, get another leaf and expose it to sunlight for 48
hours
 Test them for starch
 The plant lacking sunlight exposure won’t tests positive for starch
Or
 Use a variegated leaf and areas with green and white patches
 Test for starch
 Previously green patches will tests positive
 Areas with previously white patches will test negative
4. Light is essential for photosynthesis (can test with hydrogen carbonate indicator:
yellow with lots of CO2, purple without CO2)
1. Destarch a plant by keeping it in complete darkness for 48 hours
2. Fix a leaf between 2 strips of thick black paper
3. Place the leaf in light for a few days
4. Remove the cover and test for starch
 Positive testing for starch will only occur in the portion of the leaf exposed to light
 Therefore, light is essential for photosynthesis
5. CO2 is essential for photosynthesis
1. Take 2 destarched plants
2. Cover the plants with bell jars and set up plant A with no soda lime and
plant B with soda lime or sodium hydroxide (CO2 absorb it)
3. Keep both set ups in the sun for 8 hours
4. Perform the starch tests
 Leaf from plant A will tests positive, leaf from plant B tests negative
 Therefore, CO2 is essential for photosynthesis

Humans

2.24 understand that a balanced diet should include appropriate proportions of

carbohydrate, protein, lipid, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre
  A balanced diet must include: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals and vitamins
(as well as water and fibre)
 A diet that provides enough of these food groups in appropriate proportions is called
a balanced diet

2.25 identify the sources and describe the functions of carbohydrate, protein,
lipid (fats and oils), vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and iron,
water and dietary fibre as components of the diet

Vitamins

A Found in milk, eggs, liver and orange fruits

It is necessary for making a light sensitive chemical in the retina,
without this chemical we have blindness
C Found in citrus fruits and guava
It is needed to make connective tissue
It is essential for healthy blood vessels and gums
A deficiency leads to scurvy where wounds fail to heal and bleeding
occurs in the body
D Can be made in the body using sunlight
Sources also include: fish, milk
It is essential for strengthening bones helping bones to absorb bone
building calcium
A deficiency can cause nuckets (like a lack of calcium)
Minerals
 Iron: found in red meat, liver, eggs and vegetables is an essential part of hemoglobin
in red blood cells and helps to carry oxygen
 Calcium: found in dairy products, fish and vegetable makes teeth and bones
 An iron deficiency can cause anemia and a calcium deficiency can cause nickets
Fiber
 Needed to maintain a healthy digestive system
 It is found in fruit, vegetables and oats
 Regulates bowl movement
 Sloughs off old living intestine

2.26 understand how energy requirements vary with activity levels, age and
pregnancy

Nutrition
 Men need approximately 2500 calories per day
 Women need approximately 200
 But this changes if:
1. You exercise
2. You are growing
 3. You are ill
4. You are pregnant
5. You are old

2.27 describe the structure and function of the human alimentary canal,
including the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum and
ileum), large intestine (colon and rectum) and pancreas

Digestion
 Digestion is the chemical and mechanical breakdown of food
 It converts insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules that can be absorbed
into the blood
 Chemical breakdown – chemical breakdown of food using enzymes
 Physical breakdown – mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food
Food alimentary canal
 Food is taken into the body through he buccal cavity (the mouth)
 Here, it is mechanically broken down by the teeth and mixed with salvia
 Salvia contains an enzyme called salivary amylase which catalyzes the breakdown of
starch into maltose (a simple sugar)
 The food is swallowed and pushed down the oesphogous to the stomach by waves
of peristalsis
 Peristalsis is the contraction and relaxation of circular muscles in the wall of the gut
 In the stomach food is churned back and forth by waves of peristalsis to break the
chunks of food up into a mush (large surface area), and mix it with gastric juices
 Gastric juices contain an enzyme called pepsin (a protease) which begins the
digestion of protein to peptides
 It also contains hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria and provides the optimum pH
for this enzyme
 The food is releases a little at a time in the duodenum, which is the first part of the
small intestine
 The control is carried out by sphincter muscles
 The duodenum has two digestive juices poured into it
 One is from the pancreas, the pancreatic juice contains carbohydrase, protease and
lipase
 Lipase is another enzyme which begins the breakdown of lipids (fats and oils) into
glycerol and fatty acids
 The other juice is bile
 Bile emulsifies fats
 This means that fats are made the into smaller globules so that the fat digesting
enzyme has a larger surface area of fat to work on
 This speeds up digestion by lipase
 The food is now semi liquid, and it passes through the second part od the small
intestine called the ileum
 The walls of the ileum male a juice which contains carbohydrase, protease and lipase
 These enzymes complete the digestion of fats to fatty acids and glycerol,
carbohydrates to simple sugars and peptides to amino acids (trypepsin proteins to
peptides)
  The ileum is specially adapted for absorption (passing digested food into the blood):
1. It is very long to allow time for digestion and absorption
2. It has a very large surface area due to the presence of villi (finger
like projections) and microvilli, this allows rapid diffusion of the
products of digestion
3. The villi walls are only 1 cell thick, also to allow rapid diffusion
from the gut to blood
4. Each villus has a blood vessel and a lymph vessel to carry the food
away, this maintains a diffusion gradient
 Digested carbohydrates and proteins pass into the blood vessels and digested fats
into the lymph vessel
 All of the food which cannot be digested passes into the large intestine
 The first part of the large intestine is the colon and here water is reabsorbed into the
blood
 The indigestible remains from the semi-solid feces which is stored in the rectum until
being passed out through the anus
Definitions
 Ingestion – taking food into the digestive system
 Digestion – breaking down food into molecules small enough to be absorbed into the
blood stream
 Absorption – taking molecules into the blood stream (happens mainly in the small
intestine)
 Assimilation – the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used
 Egestion – removing unwanted food from the digestive system

2.28 understand how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis

The digestive system

 When the circular muscle contract, the longitudinal muscles relax and vice versa
 Waves of muscles contraction pass food along the gut
 It is called peristalsis

2.29 understand the role of digestive enzymes, including the digestion of starch
to glucose by amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to amino acids by
proteases and the digestion of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases

Digestive juices Produced Where it Enzyme Substrate Products

in works
Salvia (contains Salivary Mouth Amylase Starch Maltose
water + mucus) gland
Gastric juices Gastric Stomach Protease Protein Amino acids
(contains acid + pits /pepsin
mucus)
Bile (not technically Liver Duodenum Bile salts Fat Fat droplets
an enzyme;
 contains alkali +
pigments)
Pancreatic juices Pancreas Duodenum Amylase Starch Maltose
Protease Protein Amino acids
Lipase Fat Glycerol (and
fatty acids)
Intestinal juices Villi Small Maltase Maltose Glucose
intestine Protease Protein Amino acids

 Bile is stored in the gall bladder

Enzyme type Example Digestive action Source Where

it acts
Carbohydrase Amylase Starch – maltose Salivary glands Mouth
Amylase Starch - maltose Pancreas Small intestine
Maltase Maltose– glucose Villi Small intestine
Protease Pepsin Protein – peptides Stomach wall Stomach
Trypsin Protein – peptides Pancreas Small intestine
Peptidase Peptides – amino Wall of small Small intestine
acids intestine
Lipases Lipase Lipids – glycerol Pancreas Small intestine
and fatty acids

2.30 understand that bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder

 Bile is made by the liver and stored in a bag called the gall bladder
 This is NOT an enzyme, but neutralizes the acid that was added to food in the
stomach, and makes alkaline conditions
 This pH allows the enzymes in the small intestine to work at their optimum rate
 Bile also emulsifies fats
 This means that fats are made the into smaller globules so that the fat digesting
enzyme has a larger surface area of fat to work on
 This speeds up digestion by lipase

2.31 understand the role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and emulsifying
lipids

 This is NOT an enzyme, but neutralizes the acid that was added to food in the
stomach, and makes alkaline conditions
 This pH allows the enzymes in the small intestine to work at their optimum rate
 Bile also emulsifies fats
  This means that fats are made the into smaller globules so that the fat digesting
enzyme has a larger surface area of fat to work on
 This speeds up digestion by lipase

2.32 understand how the small intestine is adapted for absorption, including
the structure of a villus

The villus – adaptations

1. The villus has a large surface area due to the presence of microvilli making it an
efficient organ of absorption/diffusion
2. Blood capillaries are very close to the epithelium to allow rapid diffusion
3. Each villus has a network of capillaries that deliver oxygen to microvilli so they can
respire
4. Microvilli are only 1 cell thick to allow rapid diffusion
5. Each villus has a lacteal which transports fats to the body’s lymphatic system

2.33B practical: investigate the energy content in a food sample

An experiment to investigate the energy content of a food sample

1. Measure 20 cm3 of water into a boiling tube
2. Take the temp. of the water using a thermometer
3. Wight the food sample
4. Set the food on fire whilst holding the boiling tube using a mounted needle
5. When the food will not longer burn, take the new temp. of the water
 Measure the energy in joules:
o (final temp – initial temp) x 200 g x 4.2 / mass of burnt food(g)
 4.2 is the energy required to raise 1 g of water by 1 oC

(f) Respiration

2.34 understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living

organisms

2.35 know that ATP provides energy for cells

 Respiration is the chemical process by which we release energy from glucose

 It occurs in all living cells

2.36 describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

 Aerobic respiration - needs oxygen, occurs in mitochondria

  Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t need oxygen, occurs in cytoplasm
Aerobic Anaerobic
Oxygen No oxygen
Complete breakdown of glucose Incomplete breakdown of glucose
Produces CO2 and water Produces lactic acid in animals and
CO2 and ethanol in plants
Occurs in mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm
Lots of energy released Small amounts of energy released

2.37 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for
aerobic respiration in living organisms

 Aerobic respiration: glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + (energy)

 C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

2.38 know the word equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and in animals

 Anaerobic respiration: (plants) glucose = lactic acid + (little energy)

 (Animals) glucose = ethanol + CO2 (waste products) + (little energy
 The build up of lactic acid in muscles causes cramps

2.39 practical: investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from
respiring seeds or other suitable living organisms

Experiments – demonstration of CO2 and heat produced by Respiration

 Germinating peas (soak in water for 24 hours so they germinate)
 Cotton wool allows CO2 to escape which could kill the peas
 Wash both peas with bleach to remove bacteria, then wash with deionized water
Demonstrating CO2 production
 Hydrogen carbonate indictor turns yellow in the presences of CO 2, indicating high
concentration of CO2

(g) Gas exchange

Flowering plants

2.40B understand the role of diffusion in gas exchange

The role of diffusion in gas exchange
 In the leaf, there is a higher conc. of CO2 outside the leaf because CO2 is used for
photosynthesis
 CO2 diffuses into the leaf, there is a higher conc. of O2 inside the lead as it is
produced by photosynthesis and so O2 diffuses out of the leaf

2.41B understand gas exchange (of carbon dioxide and oxygen) in relation to
respiration and photosynthesis

 In respiration, plants use oxygen and produce CO2 as a waste product

 In photosynthesis, plants use CO2 and produce O2 as a waste product
 Photosynthesis can only occur when light is available
 In the day, plants make more O2 by photosynthesis then they can use for respiration
 Therefore, O2 diffuses from the leaf
 In the day, plants use more CO2 in photosynthesis then they produce during
respiration
 So O2 diffuses from the leaf
 In the day, plants also use more CO2 in photosynthesis than they produce during
respiration
 This means that CO2 must diffuse into the leaf

2.42B understand how the structure of the leaf is adapted for gas exchange

Leaf adaptations for gas exchange

1. It is thin so gases have a short diffusion distance
2. They have a large surface area for diffusion to take place
3. Stomata allow O2 and CO2 to diffuse out
4. Air spaces allow gases to diffuse through the leaf to photosynthetic tissue easily
5. Guard cells open and close the stomata allowing gasses to diffuse in and out

2.43B describe the role of stomata in gas exchange

Guard cells
 Guard cells control the opening and closing of the stomata
 When there is light (photosynthesis occur) the guard cells take up water by osmosis
and become turgid allowing CO2 to enter (they open and the shape changes)
 In darkness, (no photosynthesis occurs) the guard cells loose water to the
surrounding epidermis cells by osmosis
 The guard cells close the stomata as no CO2 needs to enter the leaf anymore


2.44B understand how respiration continues during the day and night, but that
the net exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen depends on the intensity of
light
  At night, plants only respire as there is not enough light for photosynthesis
 Therefore plants take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide by diffusion

2.45B practical: investigate the effect of light on net gas exchange from a leaf,
using hydrogen-carbonate indicator

Investigating the effect of light on gas exchange by a leaf

 Hydrogen – carbonate indicator, turns yellow in high conc. of CO 2, is orange in
normal conc. of CO2, turns purple in low conc. of CO2
 Leave tubes in conditions for 1 hour, and record the color of the indicator
1. Purple as photosynthesis can take place meaning lots of CO2 was taken up
2. Yellow as photosynthesis cannot take place but respiration continues, meaning CO 2
levels in the tube will increase
3. Orange as the leaves respire and photosynthesized at similar rates
4. Orange, the HCO3 indicator was calibrated with atmospheric conc. of CO2

Humans

2.46 describe the structure of the thorax, including the ribs, intercostal
muscles, diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and pleural
membranes

The structure in the lungs

Structure Function
Trachea Carries air from the throat to the lungs, divides into
two smaller tubes called the left and right bronchus
Rings of cartilage To keep structure to the trachea to prevent it from
collapsing when pressure changes C shaped rings
Mucus secreting cells To secret mucus which in turn acts as a barrier to
defense to microorganisms
Cilia Aft the mucus up so we swallow it
Bronchioles The small air tubes that take air to the alveoli
Alveoli Where gas exchange takes place, little sack of air
Blood capillary Cover the alveoli so gas exchange can take place
Pleural membrane Protects the lungs, and stops friction so breathing is
not impeded
Breathing Movements
 The cage formed by the ribs and diaphragm is elastic, it males the pressure in the
lungs change
 It is the change in pressure in the lungs that causes inhaling (breathing IN) and
exhaling (breathing OUT)
 Ventilation
Gas exchange in humans
 Gas exchange is the movement by diffusion of oxygen from the lungs into the blood
and of CO2 from the blood into the lungs
 It takes place in the alveoli
2.47 understand the role of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm in
ventilation

Ventilation
 When we breathe in
1. Intercostal muscles contract
2. Your ribs move up and out
3. You diaphragm contracts and moves down
4. This increases the volume of the lungs, decreasing the pressure
5. Air rushes in to equalize the pressure
 When we breathe out
1. Intercostal muscles relax
2. Ribs move in and down
3. Diaphragm relaxes and moves up (domes upwards)
4. This decreases the volume in the lungs, increasing the pressure
5. Air leaves the lungs to equalize pressure

2.48 explain how alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by diffusion between air
in the lungs and blood in capillaries

Alveoli
 They are adapted to gas exchange
1. The walls are only cell thick, minimize diffuse distance
2. They walls and moist allowing gasses to dissolve and diffuse easily
3. They have a large surface area, allowing lots of gas exchange to occur at once
4. They are covered in a network of capillaries, this maintains a high conc. gradient of
gases

2.49 understand the biological consequences of smoking in relation to the lungs

and the circulatory system, including coronary heart disease

Smoking
 Tar is a carcinogen which can cause cancer
 Carbon monoxide (CO) binds to hemoglobin reducing the ability of the blood to carry
oxygen (O2)
 Nicotine is addictive
 Smoking is linked to:
 Lung cancer
 Bronchitis
 Emphysema
 Coronary heart disease
 Smoking destroys cilia
  Meaning disease causing microorganisms and mucus is not swept away from the
lungs
 But remains to clog the air passages
 This is the source of the smoker laugh
 Irritation of bronchial tree along with infection from bacteria can cause bronchitis
which blocks normal air flow
 Smoking damages the walls of the alveoli
 This reduces the surface area for gas exchange to take place
 The person has less oxygen in their blood and they cannot carry out mild exercise
and must have a supply of oxygen at all times
 Smoking also huders the arteries containing blood flow and putting strain on the
heart in coronary heart disease

2.50 practical: investigate breathing in humans, including the release of carbon

dioxide and the effect of exercise

Investigating the effect of exercise on breathing rate

 During exercise the muscle cells respire more quickly to provide more energy to
muscle for contraction
 Therefore, breathing rate must increase in order to deliver oxygen and glucose to
the muscles more quickly and remove CO2
 Oxygen debt – after anaerobic respiration you must repay the oxygen that didn’t get
to your muscles on time by removing lactic acid by oxidizing it to CO 2 and water, you
have to breathe heavily after exercise to get more O2 in the blood
Experiment
 Measure a persons breath per 20 seconds when stationary run 5 mph for 1 min,
record, repeat for 2 mins and record bpm

(h) Transport

2.51 understand why simple, unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion for
movement of substances in and out of the cell

 Unicellular organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio

 They are also small meaning that the diffusion distance is short and diffusion occurs
quickly

2.52 understand the need for a transport system in multicellular organisms

  Large multicellular organisms need a transport system as they are too big for
diffusion to be effective (diffusion would be too slow and wouldn’t allow life to
continue)
 This is because they have a small surface area to volume ratio
The need of oxygen
 When we sleep all our organs are working more slowly less oxygen is needed
 Heart rate is caused by nerve impulses in the medulla which sends impulses along
the accelerator nerve,
 When the sensors in the carotid artery and aorta detect an increase in CO 2 the CO2
production returns to normal
 The medulla requires less impulse and sends impulses along the decelerator nerve

Flowering plants

2.53 describe the role of phloem in transporting sucrose and amino acids
between the leaves and other parts of the plant

 Phloem transports sugars and amino acids from regions of production (leaves) to
other plants of the plant
Translocation
 The movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem from regions of production
(leaves) to regions of storage or to be used for growth or respiration

2.54 describe the role of xylem in transporting water and mineral ions from the
roots to other parts of the plant

 Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves in the
transpiration stream

2.55B understand how water is absorbed by root hair cells

 Root hair cell have:

1. Large surface area
2. Thin cell wall
3. Permeable membranes
 The water concentration in the root hair cell is much lower than the concentration of
water outside the cell
 Therefore water moves into the cell by osmosis
  Water then moves down the concentration gradient across the cortex where it
moves into the xylem vessels
 In the xylem vessels it is used for photosynthesis or evaporated
 Xylem is made of dead cells arranged end to end with a space in the middle called
the lumen
 Phloem is living
 Vascular bubbles: the combination of xylem and phloem together

2.56B understand that transpiration is the evaporation of water from the

surface of a plant

Transpiration
 It is the loss of water in a plant which causes water to be drawn up the xylem in a
continuous stream called the transpiration stream
Plants uses of water
 To maintain structure
 For photosynthesis
 To keep the plant cool by evaporation
 Solvent used to transport mineral ions around the plant
 Significant part of cytoplasm

2.57B understand how the rate of transpiration is affected by changes in

humidity, wind speed, temperature and light intensity

Factors affecting transpiration

1. Light intensity – increased photosynthesis, therefore more water is needed for
photosynthesis and to evaporate and cool the leaves in light, stomata opens
2. Temperature- increased rate of evaporation from mesophyll causes more
transpiration
3. Wind – moving air sweeps away any water vapor near to surrounding leaf creating a
steep concentration gradient increasing the rate of diffusion from the stomata
4. Humidity – if the air around the leaf i humid, the concentration gradient is small
decreasing the rate of diffusion from inside the leaf to outside

2.58B practical: investigate the role of environmental factors in determining

the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot
Measuring rate of transpiration
Mass patometer
 Measure the rate of transpiration by measuring the rate mass loss over a period of
time
 The polyether bag prevents loss of moisture by evaporation of water from the soil
Volume patometer
 Measures the rate of water uptake by a leaf shoot
 Measure the distance travelled by the air bubble over a period of time
 Precautions:
 Make sure the shoot is in the water
 Cut shoot at slant
 Fix ruler
 To prevent water loss by transpiration apply Vaseline to the leaves
 Use a hair dryer to demonstrate the effect of moving air
 Or a bright light to demonstrate light intensity
 Humidity, use a sealed polyether bag and control room temp.

Humans

2.59 describe the composition of the blood: red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets and plasma

Blood
 Human blood is composed of:
 Plasma
 Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
 White blood cells (lymphocytes and
phagocytes)
 Platelets

2.60 understand the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested
food, urea, hormones and heat energy
 Component of Description Function of component
blood
Plasma Liquid part of blood, Carries blood cells around the body,
mainly water carries dissolved nutrients,
hormones, CO2 and urea also
distributes heat around the body
Red blood cells Biconcave; disk with Transport oxygen loads oxygen in
no nucleus the lungs, unlocks in other bodily
regions
Lymphocytes Large spherical Produce anti bodies to destroy
nucleus same size as microorganisms, some lymphocytes
red blood cells stay in our blood giving us
immunity to specific diseases
Phagocytes Larger cells with a Engulf microorganisms that infect
lobed nucleus our bodies
Platelets Smallest component Release chemicals which makes our
if blood, fragments blood clot when we cut ourselves
of other cells

2.61 understand how adaptations of red blood cells make them suitable for the
transport of oxygen, including shape, the absence of a nucleus and the
presence of haemoglobin

Red blood cell adaptions

 They have hemoglobin (made of iron) therefore it can bond to oxygen
 They are enudeate (have no nucleus) to make more room for hemoglobin
 They have no mitochondria so cells must respire anaerobically using no oxygen
 They are biconcave which increases their surface area and decreases the diffusion
distance, meaning oxygen diffusion occurs more quickly (thin membrane)
 Hemoglobin + oxygen (tissues, low oxygen)= (lungs) (reversible reaction)
oxyhemaglobin

2.62 understand how the immune system responds to disease using white
blood cells, illustrated by phagocytes ingesting pathogens and lymphocytes
releasing antibodies specific to the pathogen

Phagocytes
 Engulf the pathogen and destroys it by secreting a digestive enzyme inside the
vacuole, this is called phagocytosis
Lymphocytes
 The produce chemicals called antibodies,
 The antibodies stick to the surface antigens of foreign microorganisms and destroy
the pathogen by:
 Causing bacteria to stick together so the can be easily ingested by phagocytes
 Causing bacterial cells to burst open
 Neutralizing toxins produces by pathogens
  Each antibody is specific to the antigens of the specific pathogen

2.63B understand how vaccination results in the manufacture of memory cells,

which enable future antibody production to the pathogen to occur sooner,
faster and in greater quantity

Memory cells and vaccinations

1. A person is injected with a small or inactive form a pathogen
2. This stimulates a response from the immune system without putting the body at risk
3. The lymphocytes recognize the antigens and multiply as if they were a pathogen
4. They produce memory cells so if you get the same pathogen in your blood stream
again, the memory cells will respond by producing the appropriate antibodies sooner
and faster

2.64B understand how platelets are involved in blood clotting, which prevents
blood loss and the entry of micro-organisms

Platelets
 When you are cut your are at risk of losing blood
 Plates are made in the bone marrow
 The chemicals in platelets on exposure to air turn fibricigen the soluble plasma
protein into insoluble fibers of fibrin
 The fibrin forms a network across the wound preventing further blood loos and the
entry of pathogens

2.65 describe the structure of the heart and how it functions

The cardiac cycle

1. Blood enters the atria but cannot leave because the bicuspid and tricuspid valves are
closed
2. The walls of the atria contract forcing the blood through the bicuspid and tricuspid
valves (due to increased pressure) and blood passes into the ventricles
3. When the ventricles are full they contract raising the pressure, the bicuspid ant
tricuspid valves close and blood cannot return to the atria
4. The ventricles continue to contract and the pressure increases, forcing the semi-
lunar valves open and ejecting blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery
5. The ventricles empty and the valves close, the cycle begins again as the atria start to
fill with blood
Heart adaptations
 The septum is thicker on the left ventricle side than on the right because the left
ventricle requires more pressure than the right as it has to pump blood around the
whole body (except the lungs)
 Valves ensure the blood only flows in 1 direction
 The heart is made of cardiac muscle which can contract and relax without becoming
fatigues
  The cardiac muscle has its own blood supply (coronary circulation)

2.66 explain how the heart rate changes during exercise and under the
influence of adrenaline

2.67 understand how factors may increase the risk of developing coronary
heart disease

Coronary heart disease

 Coronary arteries are narrow and are easily blocked by a build up of fatty substances
(cholesterol)
 This can cut of the blood supply to an area if cardiac muscle
 The area is unable to contract resulting in a heart attack
Factors increasing likelihood of coronary heart disease
1. Heredity – some people have a tendency
2. High blood pressure – puts more strain on heart
3. Diet – eating more saturated fat is likely to raise cholesterol level
4. Smoking – raises blood pressure and makes clots more likely to form
5. Stress – raises blood pressure
6. Lack of exercised – exercise helps reduce blood pressure and strengthens the heart

2.68 understand how the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries relate to
their function

Blood vessels
Vessel Structural features & Blood type carried Diagram
type other information
Arteries Carry blood from the This blood (arterial
(A Away heart to organs of the blood) has been
from body pumped out the
heart) They must be able to ventricle
‘give’ under pressure and All arteries carry
allow the walls to stretch oxygenated blood
They must also have the except the pulmonary
ability to recoil and help artery
push the blood along High blood pressure
Veins (IN Carry blood from the All veins carry
in to the organs back towards the deoxygenated blood
heart) heart except for the
Veins must be able to pulmonary vein
allow the blood to pass It is also venous blood
through easily and that has been pumped
prevent ut from flowing from organs to the
 in the wrong direction heart
(backflow) Low blood pressure
Veins have valves to do
this
Capillaries Carry blood through the It carries oxygenated
organs, bringing the and deoxygenated
blood close to every cell blood
in the organ It starts oxygenated
Substances can pass and becomes
through the blood in the deoxygenated apart
capillary and cells from in the lungs
Capillaries must be small
enough to be able to fit
between cells and allow
minerals to pass through
their walls

2.69 understand the general structure of the circulation system, including the
blood vessels to and from the heart and lungs, liver and kidneys

(i) Excretion

Flowering plants

2.70 understand the origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as waste products of
metabolism and their loss from the stomata of a leaf

Humans

2.71 know the excretory products of the lungs, kidneys and skin (organs of
excretion)

Excretion – humans
  Lungs – excretes CO2 a waste product of respiration, it is diffuse into the lungs and
then breathed out
 Kidneys – excrete excess water, urea and salts through urine
 Skin – excretes water and salts
 Renal artery – supplies the kidneys with oxygenated blood from the aorta
 Kidney – organ of excretion and osmoregulation
 Renal vein – filtered blood passed through the renal vein to the vena cave
 Ureter – carries urine to the bladder
 Bladder – stored urine ready for excretion
 Urethra – this tube carries urine from the bladder to the outside
 Sphincter muscles – control the release of urine by contracting and relaxing
Homeostasis and excretion
 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body
 It is important because many bodily functions need precise conditions to occur
successfully
 What must be controlled:
1. Water and salt
2. Temperature
3. Sugars
 Water is lost by the body by:
1. Sweating
2. Urinating
3. Exhalation
4. Faces
 Water is consumed by the body by:
1. Drinking
2. Eating
3. Respiration
 Keeping salt and water content constant is known as osmoregulation (the balance of
salt and water concentration in the body)
 Excretion – is the elimination of waste products of metabolism and mainly consists
of CO2, salt and urea
 Egestion – is the removal from the body of undigested or unabsorbed food from the
gut by the process of defecation
 All living things excrete because waste substances must be removed since they are
toxic

2.72B understand how the kidney carries out its roles of excretion and
osmoregulation

The kidneys
 Cross section of a kidney
 The cortex is the darker outer region which protects the organ and insulates it also
containing nephrons
  The medulla (renal medulla) has several sections called pyramids which consist of
nephrons
 The renal pelvis connects the ureter it carries urine to the bladder, it is shaped like a
funnel with c moist 0 muscous membrane
Kidneys
 Excretion – the kidneys filter blood of excess slats and water (urea) and process
them into a form that can be eliminated form the body (urine)
 Osmoregulation – the kidneys maintain the amount of water in the blood at a
constant level be reacting to ADH

2.73B describe the structure of the urinary system, including the kidneys,
ureters, bladder and urethra

2.74B describe the structure of a nephron, including the Bowman’s capsule and
glomerulus, convoluted tubules, loop of Henle and collecting duct

Nephrons
 Nephrons are tubular structures within kidneys that carry out filtration
 There are about 1 million nephrons
1. Blood enters the glomerulus in the bowman's capsule, the blood leading into the
glomerulus is at high pressure as the diameter of the blood vessels leaving the
glomerulus have a smaller diameter causing a resistance to flow
2. Blood is forced through the basement membrane into the bowman's capsule, blood
cells and large molecules cannot pass through as they are too large
3. All the glucose is reabsorbed as the fluid passes into the first coiled tubule, called the
proximal convoluted tubule, along with most of the sodium and chloride ions,
selective reabsorption occurs by active transport in the nephron (of glucose)
4. In the loop of henlé, most of the water is reabsorbed
5. The filtrate then enters the distal convoluted tubule all other useful substances are
reabsorbed back into the blood
6. The remaining fluid travels down the collecting duct where the filtrate travels down
the ureter which leads to the bladder, all the rest of the water is reabsorbed here
7. The fluid is stored, ready for excretion
8. The urine travels down the urethra to the outside

2.75B describe ultrafiltration in the Bowman’s capsule and the composition of

the glomerular filtrate

 Ultrafiltration is the process where a filter separates different sized molecules under
pressure
 The fluid containing water, ions and small molecules enters the capsule space and is
called glomerulus filtrate

2.76B understand how water is reabsorbed into the blood from the collecting
duct
2.77B understand why selective reabsorption of glucose occurs at the proximal
convoluted tubule
 Glucose is needed in the body for respiration therefore it is selectively reabsorbed in
the proximal convoluted tubule
2.78B describe the role of ADH in regulating the water content of the blood
ADH (anti diuretic hormone)
 ADH changes the permeability of the collecting duct
 If there is too much water in the body:
1. The hypothalamus detects an increase in water
2. The pituitary gland slows down the release of ADH
3. Lees ADH enters the kidneys
4. The walls of the collecting duct become impermeable
5. Less water is reabsorbed
6. More urine is produced and the urine is less concentrated
 (Opposite occurs when the body doesn’t have enough water)
 Alcohol suppresses ADH production
 Ecstasy increases ADH production
 Urine – contains water, urea and salts

2.79B understand that urine contains water, urea and ions

 Urine contains:
1. Urea
2. Ammonia
3. Potassium
4. Phosphate
5. Sodium chloride
 Urea is produced in the liver by the breakdown of excess amino acids
 Urea is excreted by the kidneys
 It is also a component of sweat which is released by the sweat glands in the skin

(j) Co-ordination and response

2.80 understand how organisms are able to respond to changes in their

environment

Co-ordination
 A stimulus is a change in an animals surroundings
 A response is a reaction to that change
 A summary of the sequence of events for responding to a stimulus:
 Stimulus = receptor = coordination = effector = response
Receptors
 The role of any receptor is to detect the stimulus by changing its energy into the
electrical energy of the nerve impulses
  The change of energy from one form into another s called transduction
 All receptors are transducers of energy
 E.g.:
 The eye (retina) transduces light
 The ear transduces sounds
 The skin (temp. receptors) transduce heat

2.81 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal

environment, and that body water content and body temperature are both
examples of homeostasis

Homeostasis
 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body
 Osmoregulation is an example of homeostasis – it is the control of salt and water
content in the body
 Thermoregulation is an example of homeostasis – it is the control of temperature
levels in the body
 Sensitivity is one of the 7 life processes
 An organism must be able to respond to its environment
 Living things must be able to detect change and be able to respond to it
 2 different systems control our responses:
1. Hormonal system – chemical, travels through the bloodstream, slowly
2. Nervous system: electric impulses, through neurons quickly

2.82 understand that a co-ordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor

and an effector

Co-ordination
 A stimulus is a change in an animals surroundings
 A response is a reaction to that change
 A summary of the sequence of events for responding to a stimulus:
 Stimulus = receptor = coordination = effector = response

Flowering plants

2.83 understand that plants respond to stimuli

Chemical coordination in plants

 Plants respond to their environment, but these responses are slower than animals
because their movements are due to changes in the plants growth
 Light and gravity are directional stimulus (they act in a particular direction)
  A tropism is directional growth to movement of a plant in response to a stimulus

2.84 describe the geotropic and phototropic responses of roots and stems

 There are 2 types of tropism – positive and negative

 Positive – growing towards a stimulus
 Negative – growing a way from a stimulus
Stimulus Name of Response of shoots Response of roots
response
Light Phototropism Grow towards light Most species show no
source (positive response but some grow
phototropism) away from light (negative
phototropism)
Gravity Geotropism Grow away from Grow towards the
direction of gravity direction of gravity
(negative (positive geotropism)
geotropism)
Water Hydrotropism none Some species may grow
towards the water
(positive hydrotropism)
 Plants shots grow towards light because the ariel part of the shoot needs to carry
out photosynthesis
 Therefore, in most plants positive phototropism is the strongest tropic response of
the shoot
 Plant roots grow downwards into the soil so they can reach water and mineral ions,
and obtain anchorage
 Plant roots grow towards water as water is essential for photosynthesis and to
maintain turgor pressure
Plant hormones and geotropism
 Hormone accumulates on the lower sides of the shoot causing cell elongation
 Hormone accumulates on lower side of shoot, inhibiting growth causing the shoot to
bend downwards
 Clinostats – a piece of apparatus consisting of an electric motor turning cork disk
 Germinating seed cab be attached to the disk where they are constantly moved
around eliminating any directional stimulus acting on the seeds
 DNA is usually found in the nucleus of a cell, in the chromosomes (a thread of DNA is
made up of genes)
 A small section of DNA that determines a particular feature is a gene
 Genes determine features by instructing cells to produce proteins which lead to the
development of a feature
 A DNA molecule consist of two strands coiled to from a double helix bond
 A molecule consist of 2 nucleotides is called a polynucleotide
 Nitrogenous base: Adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G)
 A and Tm G and C are always opposite each other, they are completer bases and
never bind with other bases
 The rule that complementary bases always bind with each other and never with
other bases is know as ‘Base Pairing Rule’
2.85 understand the role of auxin in the phototropic response of stems

 Auxin is a plant hormone that causes the elongation of cells in shoots and is involved
in regulating plant growth
 When a plant is exposed to a light source, the auxin migrates to the shaded side of
the cell by diffusion
 The shaded side of the plants elongates and the shoot bends towards the light
 Auxin can diffuse through minerals such as gelatin (water-soluble materials only)
 Auxin can be collected in a water absorbing material (like agar) and then the agar
can be placed on the shoot, transferring the auxin to the plant
 Auxin is a plant hormone that causes the elongation of cells in shoots and is involved
in regulating plant growth
 When a plant is exposed to a light source, the auxin migrates to the shaded side of
the cell by diffusion
 The shaded side of the plants elongates and the shoot bends towards the light
 Auxin can diffuse through minerals such as gelatin (water-soluble materials only)
 Auxin can be collected in a water absorbing material (like agar) and then the agar
can be placed on the shoot, transferring the auxin to the plant

Humans

2.86 describe how nervous and hormonal communication control responses and
understand the differences between the two systems

 Sensitivity is one of the 7 life processes

 An organism must be able to respond to its environment
 Living things must be able to detect change and be able to respond to it
 2 different systems control our responses:
3. Hormonal system – chemical, travels through the bloodstream, slowly
4. Nervous system: electric impulses, through neurons quickly

2.87 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and
spinal cord and is linked to sense organs by nerves

The central nervous system (CNS)

 The biological name for a nerve cell is a neuron
 The impulses that travel along neurons are caused by the movement of ions
 The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord
  The brain is protected by the cranium, and the spinal cord run down the middle of
the spinal column (as it is protected)
 Motor neurons – transmit impulses to the muscles and glands
 Sensory neurons- impulses from receptors pass through nerves containing sensory
neuron to the CNS
 The middle of the spinal cord consist of mainly cell bodies, giving it a grey color, it is
known as grey matter
 The other part of the spinal cord consists of many axons with their fatty myelin
sheaths giving it a white color, it is known as white matter
 The impulses travel quickly through the reflex arc so they don’t got to the brain

2.88 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends

electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system,
resulting in rapid responses

Receptors
 The role of any receptor is to detect the stimulus by changing its energy into the
electrical energy of the nerve impulses
 The change of energy from one form into another s called transduction
 All receptors are transducers of energy
 E.g.:
 The eye (retina) transduces light
 The ear transduces sounds
 The skin (temp. receptors) transduce heat

2.89 understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses

Synapses
 Nerves are linked together through synapse
 A synapse is actually a gap between 2 nerve cells
 The gap is crossed by chemicals passing through it
 Impulses arriving at a synapse cause the ends of the branches of the axon to secrete
a chemical called a neurotransmitter
 This chemical diffuses across the gap and attaches to the membrane of the second
neuron
 Chemicals can interfere with a synapse by irritating the neurotransmitter

2.90 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by
the withdrawal of a finger from a hot object

Reflex arc
1. Stimulus
2. Receptor
 3. Sensory neuron
4. CNS
5. Relay neuron
6. Motor neuron
7. Effector
8. Response
 Example:
1. A stimulus is detected by temp. /pain receptors in the skin,
this generates impulses in sensory neuron
2. The impulse enters the CNS through the dorsal root ganglion,
the sensory neuron connects synapses with shirt relay
neurons, these in turn connect to the motor neuron
3. The motor neuron emerge from the spinal cord through the
ventral root which sends impulses to the effector organ
4. There is a response (e.g. muscle contracts)

2.91 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor

The eye
 The human eye detects light, forms images and distinguishes color
 The outer part of the eye is called the sclera
 It is tough, whit part of the eye that is visible
 At the front of the eye, the sclera become transparent
 It is called the cornea – this enables light to pass in to the eye
 Behind the cornea is a colored ring of tissue called the iris
 In the middle of the iris is a while called the pupil which lets light through to the eye
 It is black as no light exits the eye
 Underneath the sclera is a darker layer called choroid
 It is dark as it contains pigment cells which stops the reflection of light inside the eye
 The innermost layer of the back of they eye is the retina
 It is light sensitive and is where light energy is transduced in electoral energy (of
nerve signals)
 The retina contains rods and cones that react to light producing impulses in sensory
neurons which pass the impulses through the optic nerve to the brain
 The cones only work in bright light, they detect 3 types of colur:
1. Red
2. Green
3. Blue
 Cones are concentrated in the fovea
 To form an image on the retina, light must be refracted
 This first happens are the air/cornea boundary and again at the lens
 This causes the image to be inverted
 The role of the iris is to control the amount of light entering the eye by changing the
sixe of the pupil
  The iris contains circular muscles, that form a ring shape in the iris and radial muscles
that are luke spokes of a wheel
 In bright light, the pupil constricts as less light needs to enter the eye
 The circular muscles contract and the radial muscles relax.
 When pupils dilate/widen the opposite occurs
 The adjusting of our pupil in different light intensities is an example of a reflex action
1. Stimulus (light intensity)
2. Receptor (retina)
3. Sensory neuron (optic nerve)
4. Brain (unconscious part)
5. Motor neuron (in nerves to iris)
6. Effector organ (iris muscles)
7. Response (change of size of pupil)
 This process happened without the need of conscious thought
 There are no rods or cones in the blind spot

2.92 understand the function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects,
and in responding to changes in light intensity

Accommodation
 The changes that take place in the eye which allow us to see objects at different
distances are called accommodation
 A lens that is more convex will refract light more than a less convex lens
 The lens in the eye can change it shape as it is made of cells congaing elastic
crystalline protein

Close object Far object

Cilliary muscles contract, pull eyeballs Cilliary muscles relax, eyeball becomes
inwards spherical
Suspensory ligaments slack Suspensory ligaments tauten
Lens becomes short and fat Lens becomes long and thin
Light us greatly refracted Light us refracted less

2.93 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to
sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation

Skin
 Vasodilation – increases blood flow through surface capillaries so more heat is
radiated form the skin
 Vasoconstriction – decreases blood flow through surface capillaries so lees heat us
radiated
  Sweating – sweat is produced it must be evaporated, this requires energy, this
energy comes from the skin and cools the body
 Piloerecrtion – occurs on the hairs of the skin, trapping a layer of air next to the skin,
insulating the body
 Sweating occurs when the body gets too hot, sweat is released by glands in the skin,
this sweat must be evaporated which requires energy, this energy comes from the
skin

2.94 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones:
adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen

Adrenaline
 Produced in the adrenal gland
 Increases heart rate which increases flow of blood to muscles
 Therefore, muscles respire more and provide energy for ‘fight or flight’ response
Insulin
 Secreted by the pancreas
 Stimulates cells to convert glucose into glycogen which can be stored in the body
 This prevents you from going hypoglycemic or hypoglycemic (too low)
Testoren
 Produced in tetsi in boys and ovaries in girls
 Sex hormone that plays a key role in puberty
 Progestone
 Produced in ovaries
Oestrogen
 Inhibits production of FSH
 Facilitates production of LH

2.95B understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones:
ADH, FSH and LH