Ch# 1: Introductionto research

Q=Define research? Explain the types of research?

Research: research is defined as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific
inquiry or investigation into a specific problems, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or
solutions to it. In essence, research provides the needed information that guides managers to make
informed decisions to successfully deal with problems. The information provided could be the result of a
careful analysis of data gathered firsthand or of data that are already available. Data can be
quantitative or qualitative in nature.
Types of research:
There two types of research which are given below:
1) Applied research:
Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. This type of research refers to
the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods. This research plays an important
role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans. For example, finding a specific cure
for a disease.
2) Basic/Fundamental/pure research:
Basic research is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge. It covers fundamental aspects of research.
The main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research and
doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example, an experiment is a good example of
basic research.
Other Types of research:
a) Problem Oriented Research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted to
understand the exact nature of the problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem” refers to
having issues or two thoughts while making any decisions.
For e.g Revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following could be the
probable causes: There is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, economic
conditions etc.
b) Problem Solving Research: This type of research is conducted by companies to understand and
resolve their own problems. The problem-solving research uses applied research to find solutions to the
existing problems.
c) Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry, that helps in-depth
understanding of the problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non- statistical research
method.
d) Quantitative Research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analyzing it
to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative research, this research method uses a computational, statistical
and similar method to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
e)Exploratory Research: exploratory research is conducted to explore the research questions and may or may not offer a
final conclusion to the research conducted. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been explored
before. Exploratory research lays the foundation for more conclusive research and data collection. For example, a research
conducted to know the level of customer satisfaction among the patrons of a restaurant.

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f) Descriptive Research: Descriptive research focuses on throwing more light on current issues through a process of data
collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample population. In descriptive research, only one
variable is required to conduct a study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing, explaining and
validating the findings. For example, a research conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century
posses the moral right to receive a huge sum of money from the company profit?

g) Explanatory Research: Explanatory research or causal research, is conducted to understand the impact of certain
changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular form of casual research. For
example, research conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Q= MANAGER AND RESEARCH?

Managers with knowledge of research have an advantage over those without.Though you yourself may not be doing any
major research as a manager, you will have to understand, predict; and control events that are dysfunctional to the
organization.

For example, a new product developed may not be "taking off," or a financial investment may not be "paying off" as
anticipated. Such disturbing phenomena have to be understood and explained. Unless this is done, it will not be possible
to predict the future of that product or the prospects of that investment, and how future catastrophic outcomes can be
controlled. A grasp of research methods will enable managers to understarnd, predict, and control their environment.

A thought that may cross your mind is that, because you will probably be bringing in researchers to solve problems instead
of doing the research yourself, there is no need to bother to study about research. The reasons become clear when one
considers the consequences of failure to do so. With the ever-increasing complexity of modern organizations, and the
uncertainty of the environment they face, the management of organizational systems has become one of constant trouble
shooting in the workplace. It would help if managers could sense, spot, and deal with problems before they get out of
hand. Knowledge of research and problem-solving processes helps managers to identify problem situations before they get
out of control.

Another reason why professional managers today need to know about research methods is that they will become more
discriminating while sifting through the information disseminated in business journals. Some journal articles are more
scientific and objective than others. Even among the scientific articles, some are more appropriate for application
adaptation to particular organizations nd situations than others. This is a function of the sampling design, the types of
organizations studied, and other factors' reported in the journal articles.

In sum. being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps professional managers to:

1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.

2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.

3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple effects of factors impinging on a situation.

4. Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities associated with the different possible
outcomes.

5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence influence in a situation.

6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.

7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.

Q= Define, differentiate and explain the advantages and disadvantages of internal and external
consultants/Researchers?

Internal Consultant/Researcher:

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Internal consultant is considered as an employee of the company who is capable of giving strategic
insights into the company matters, and is available for any advisory role that the company might desire
from them on any specialized domain. Internal consultants are also to resolve any business issues,
organizational restructuring issues, implement changes & supporting the internal clients for a shared
kind of organization.
External consultant/researcher:
External researchers/consultants are the experts of research knowledge to the organization from
outside. They conduct a research and provide an independent solution to a phenomenon occurs in the
organization.
External vs internal consultants/Researchers:
External consultants mainly deals with large scale operations and when deep insights regarding the
situation is to be needed. It can be considered as a neutral and independent solution for the problem.
The main reason of choosing an external advisor is due to the lack of internal details (work culture) and
specializing to tackle risks of the people working in the organization. Though comparatively, external
advisor service is expensive but the service it provides will be exceptional.
On the other hand, internal consultants are the part of the organization wherein they would be familiar
with the working culture and the procedure of the organization very well. Now when coming to the cost,
choosing internal consultancy will be beneficial as it is less expensive when compared to external
consultancy. Moreover, the benefit of choosing internal consultants is that we can shift their tasks as
per the requirement and can use them accordingly.
Advantages of internal consultants/researchers:

》They have a better chance of being readily accepted by the employees in the subunit of an organization.

》They are also available to implement their recommendations after the research findings have been accepted.

》They take less time to understand the structure and the function of the organization.

》They might cost less than the external cost.

Disadvantages of internal consultants/researchers:

》They may quite possibly, fall into stereotyped way of looking at the organization and its problems which inhibit any fresh
ideas and perspectives that might need to correct the problem.

》Sometime, most highly qualified internal research team may not be accepted by the staffs and management due to
which their recommendation may not get the consideration and attention they deserve.

》There is the scope for certain powerful coalitions in the organization to influence the internal team to conceal, distort,
or misrepresent certain facts.

》Certain organizational biases of the internal research team night, in some instances, make the findings less objective and
consequently less scientific.

Advantages of the external consultants/researchers

》The external team has the wealth of experience of work as they have worked in so many different organizations
regarding same type of problems. This helps them to think both divergently and convergently to find the solution.

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》They might have more knowledge about current sophisticated problem-solving models through their periodic training
programs.

Disadvantages of the external consultants/researchers:

》The cost of hiring external consultants is higher as compared to internal researcher.

》The external researchers took more time to understand the structure and the function of an organization.

》The External researchers also charges additional fees for their assistance in the implementation and evaluation phases.

Q=Characteristics of Research?

1. A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and procedures are an integral

part of research that set the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice
ethics and code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.

2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.

3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural
settings.

4. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.

5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can
be generated from existing research.

6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is
no ambiguity in inference.

7. Accuracy is one of the important character of research, the information that is obtained
while conducting the research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example,
research conducted in a controlled environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is
measured of instruments used, calibrations, and the final result of the experiment.
Ch# 2: Scientific investigation
Q= Differentiate scientific and non-scientific?
》Scientific research is a logically stepped process used for investigating and acquiring or expanding our understanding.
The findings of scientific research can be reproduced and demonstrated to be consistent. While in non scientific research,
the research it’s not logically stepped process that used for investigating and acquiring or expanding our understanding

》Scientific research acquiring knowledge and truths about the data or information using techniques that follow the
scientific methods such as identification of a problem, formulation of statement of a problem, formulation of hypothesis,
data analysis data recording, presentation and interpretation, testing hypothesis and recommendation and conclusion.
while Non scientific acquiring knowledge and truths about the world using techniques without follow the scientific
method.

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》Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific
information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications
possible. While non scientific research does not follow systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity.

》Scientific research is a systematic way of analyzing and interpreting new or existing material through experimentation
and observation, While Non scientific research is based upon investigation of natural phenomenon without systematic.

Conclusion:

In general. Scientific research and non scientific research, both are used in collection of data, information and knowledge
that can be added to the existing one. Can be used to solve different disputes such as political conflict economic issues and
social conflict.

Q= The Hallmarks of scientific research(purposes and characteristics)?

Scientific research is the application of scientific method to the investigation of relationships among different variables to
find out solutions of the problems or to develop a new theory.The characteristics of scientific research are as follows:

Purposiveness: Scientific research must have some specific purpose for conducting the research. In conducting further
research process, all the activities to be carried out is directly influenced by the purpose of the research ie; the purpose of
the research forms the basis of your procedures which influences your methods of executing it and affects the
interpretation of your findings.

Therefore, if your research has followed some major purpose, meaningful results can be obtained but if your research is
without purpose it will lead your study nowhere.

Testability: In scientific research, there is an important need to test the hypothesis to understand and find out the
relationship between dependent and independent variables. Therefore, testability is one of the important characteristics
of scientific research.

Replicability: Scientific research must be replicable as the research results which are replicable have more acceptability
and confidence as being scientific. Replicability means that if we use similar methods and procedures of data collection
and analysis as compared to the previous study, the other research studies must also come out with similar results.

Objectivity: Scientific research must be objective in nature.Objectivity is one of the important characteristics of scientific
research.Scientific research must deal with facts rather than interpretations of facts.The data that is collected for research
should be free from all biases and vested interests ie; observation should be unaffected by the observer’s values, beliefs
and preferences to the extent possible and he/she should able to see and accept facts as they are, not as he/she might
wish them to be.

Confidence: confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. It is important that we can confidently
claim that 95% of the times our result would be true and there is only 5% chance of our being wrong.

Rigor: Scientific research must be carried out carefully with proper thought-out methodology.In order to make a
meaningful and worthwhile contribution to the field of knowledge, research must be carried out rigorously. Conducting a
rigorous research requires a good theoretical knowledge and a clearly laid out methodology. This will eliminate the
bias;facilitate proper data collection and analysis, which in turn would lead to sound and reliable research findings.

Parsimony: Scientific research must have the feature of parsimony ie; the research should be
conducted in simple and economic manner.There should be simplicity in explaining the problems and
generalizing solutions for the problems.The vague ideas should be converted into simple concepts.

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 Generalizability: Scientific research must have the characteristics of generalizability. The results
obtained from the research must be applicable and acceptable worldwide. Generalizability refers to the
scope of applying the research findings of one organizational setting to other settings of almost similar
nature. The more generlizable the research, the greater will be its usefulness and value. However it is
not always possible to generalize the research findings to all other settings, situations or organizations.

Deductive approachto research:

A deductive approach is concerned with “developing a hypothesis (or hypotheses) based on existing
theory, and then designing a research strategy to test the hypothesis.
It has been stated that “deductive means reasoning from the particular to the general. If a causal
relationship or link seems to be implied by a particular theory or case example, it might be true in many
cases. A deductive design might test to see if this relationship or link did obtain on more general
circumstances.
Inductive approach to research:
Inductive approach, also known in inductive reasoning, starts with the observations and theories are
proposed towards the end of the research process as a result of observations[1]. Inductive research
“involves the search for pattern from observation and the development of explanations – theories – for
those patterns through series of hypotheses”[2]. No theories or hypotheses would apply in inductive
studies at the beginning of the research and the researcher is free in terms of altering the direction for
the study after the research process had commenced.
Deduction and induction process in research:
Answers to issues can be found either by the process of deduction or the process of induction, or by a combination of the
two.

Deduction is the process by which, we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. For
example, we know that all high performers are highly proficient in their jobs. If John is a highl performer, we then conclude
that he is highly proficient in his job.

Induction, on the other hand, is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions. In
other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts. For instance, we see that
the production processes are the prime features of factories or manufactyring plants. we therefore conclude that factories
exist for production purposes. Both the deductive and the inductive process are applied in scientific investigations.

Theories based on deduction and induction help us to understand, explain and/or predict business phenomena. When
research is designed to test some specific hypothesized outcomes, as for instance, to see if controlling aversive noise in the
environment increases the performance of individuals in solving mental puzzles, the following steps ensue. The
investigator begins with the theory that noise adversely affects mental problem solving. The hypothesis is then generated
that if the noise is controlled, mental puzzles can be solved more quickly and corectly. Based on this a research project is
designed to test the hypothesis. The results of the study help the researcher to deduce or conclude that controlling the
aversive noise does indeed help the participants to improve their performance on mental puzzles. This method of starting
with a theoretical framework, formulating hypotheses, and logically deducing from the results of the study is known as the
hypothetico-deductive method .

Q= Process of hypothetico-Deductive method?

1) Observation:
Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are occurring, or that some
new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are surfacing in one's environment (i.e., the workplace). When

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the observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important consequences, one would proceed to
the next step.
2) Preliminary Information Gatbering:
Preliminary information gathering involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is observed. This
could be done by talking informally to several people in the work setting or to clients, or to other
relevant sources, thereby gathering information on what is happening and why. Through these
unstructured interviews, one gets an idea or a "feel" for what is transpiring in the situation.
3) Theory Formulation:
Theory formulation, the next step, is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manner, so
that the factors responsible for the problem can be conceptualized and tested. The theoretical
framework formulated is often guided by experience and intuition. In this step the critical variables are
examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be
solved.
4) Hypothesizing:
Hypothesizing is the next logical step after theory formulation. From the theorized network of
associations among the variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures can be
generated. For instance, at this point, one might hypothesize that if a sufficient number of items are
stocked on shelves, customer dissatisfaction will be considerably reduced. This is a hypothesis that
can be tested to determine if the statement would be supported.
5) Further Scientific Data Collection:
After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses need to
be obtained. In other words, further scientific data collection is needed to test the hypotheses that are
generated in the study.
6) Data Analysis:
In the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistcally analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported. For instance, to see if stock levels influence customer satisfaction,
one might want to do a correlational analysis and determine the relationship between the two factors.
Similarly, other hypotheses could be tested through appropriate statistical analysis.
7) Deduction:
Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data
analysis. For instance, if it was found from the data analysis that increasing the stocks was positively
correlated to customer satisfaction, then one can deduce that if customer satisfaction is to be
increased, the shelves have to be better stocked.
Ch# 3: The research process

Q=Steps in research process ?

Research process:
The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, and analyzing the information you need
to support your research question, and then developing and expressing your ideas. Research process
includes the following steps:
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1) broad problem area:
refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and problem solving. The
specific issues that need to be researched within this situation may not be identified at this stage. Such
issues might pertain to problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved,
areas that a manger believes need to be improved in the organization, a conceptual or theoretical issue
that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher wants to answer empirically.
2) preliminary data collection:
Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find answers to the
research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.
Data collection methods can be divided into two categories: secondary methods of data collection and
primary methods of data collection.
a) Secondary Data Collection: Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in
books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals etc.
b) primary data collection: the data collected from Experiment, Questionnaire,Observation and Interview is
known as primary data collection

3) Theoretical framework:

The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is based. It is a
logically developed, described, and elaborated network of associations among the variables deemed
relevant to the problem situation and identified through such processes as interviews, observations,
and literature survey. Experience and intuition also guide in developing the theoretical framework.
4) Making Hypothesis

The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher experience. The hypothesis is to draw the
positive & negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis narrows down the area of a research and keep a
researcher on the right path.

5) Preparing the Research Design

After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to prepare by the researcher. It may
draw the conceptual structure of the problem. Any type of research design may be made, depend on the nature and
purpose of the study.

6) Hypothesis Testing:

Research data is then forwarded to test the hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or not? To find the
answer the process of testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.

7) Generalization and Interpretation:

The acceptable hypothesis is possible for researcher to arrival at the process of generalization or to make & theory. Some
types of research has no hypothesis for which researcher depends upon on theory which is known as interpretation.

8) Preparation of Report:

A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done is his work. He must keep in his mind the following points:

9) Report Design in Primary Stages:

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The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the problem and background followed by acknowledgement. There
should be a table of contents, grapes and charts.

10) Closing the Report:

After the preparation of report, the last step in business research process contains of bibliography, references, appendices,
index and maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose the information should more clearer.

Q= What is literature study? How literature study can be conducting?

Literature review:
In essence, a literature review identifies, evaluates and synthesises the relevant literature within a
particular field of research. It illuminates how knowledge has evolved within the field, highlighting what
has already been done, what is generally accepted, what is emerging and what is the current state of
thinking on the topic. In addition, within research-based texts such as a Doctoral thesis, a literature
review identifies a research gap and articulates how a particular research project addresses this gap.
Why write a literature review?

Literature Review Surveys all relevant literature to determine what is known and not known about a particular
topic.

》To discover what has been written about a topic already

》To determine what each source contributes to the topic

》To understand the relationship between the various contributions, identify and (if possible) resolve
contradictions, and determine gaps or unanswered questions

What is involved in writing a literature review?

》Research – to discover what has been written about the topic

》Critical Appraisal – to evaluate the literature, determine the relationship between the sources and ascertain
what has been done already and what still needs to be done

》Writing – to explain what you have found

Steps to writing an effective literature review:

A) Gathering sources

1) Focus your topic: A literature review aims to cover all of the research on a given topic. If the

topic is too large, there will be too much material to cover it adequately.

2)Read with a purpose: Although you will need to briefly summarize sources, a good literature

review requires that you isolate key themes or issues related to your own research interests.
B) Writing a Literature Review

1) Introduction

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The introduction should identify your topic, some discussion of the significance of that topic and a thesis
statement that outlines what conclusion you will draw from your analysis and synthesis of the literature. If your
literature review is part of a larger work, explain the importance of the review to your research question.

2) Body

In the body, discuss and assess the research according to specific organizational principles, rather than addressing
each source separately. Most, if not all, paragraphs should discuss more than one source. Avoid addressing your
sources alphabetically as this does not assist in developing the themes or key issues central to your review.

3) Conclusion
The conclusion should provide a summary of YOUR findings from the literature review. Explain what your
analysis of the material leads you to conclude about the overall state of the literature, what it provides and where
it is lacking. You can also provide suggestions for future research or explain how your future research will fill
the gaps in the existing body of work on that topic.
Q=What is a problem definition? How to formulate your research problem definition?

A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved
upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing
practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not
state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

Steps To Formulate Your Research Problem

STEP 1. SPECIFY THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

A clear statement defining your objectives will help you develop effective research.

It will help the decision makers evaluate the research questions your project should answer as well as the research
methods your project will use to answer those questions. It’s critical that you have manageable objectives. (Two or three
clear goals will help to keep your research project focused and relevant.)

STEP 2. REVIEW THE ENVIRONMENT OR CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team of researchers in defining and testing environmental
variables. This will help you determine whether the findings of your project will produce enough information to be worth
the cost.

In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the research project and begin
formulating different methods to control these variables.

STEP 3. EXPLORE THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables and the nature of their
relationship. Sometimes the relationship between two variables is directly related to a problem or questions, and other
times the relationship is entirely unimportant.

If you understand the nature of the research problem as a researcher, you will be able to better develop a solution to the
problem.

STEP 4. DEFINE THE VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS

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Marketing plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as in the adoption of a new package
design, or the introduction of a new product.

Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern or method in the future.

STEP 5. THE CONSEQUENCES OF ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION

There are always consequences to any course of action used in one or more projects. Anticipating and communicating the
possible outcomes of various courses of action is a primary responsibility in the research process.

Ch# 4: Theoretical framework and Hypothesis development

Q=Theoretical framework? How to write your Theoretical framework correctly?
Theoretical framework:
The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is based. It is a
logically develtoped, described, and elaborated network of associations among the variables deemed
relevant to the problem situation and identified through such processes as interviews, observations,
and literature survey. Experience and intuition also guide in developing the theoretical framework.
Why do you need it?
After making your problem statement and defining research questions, it’s necessary to search for the
ideas and theories that have any relationship to your chosen topic. By presenting such data, you frame
your work and show your knowledge of key theories, models, and concepts in terms of your subject.
Chosen models and definitions provide you with a further direction. Focus on their development at
different stages of this process. A theoretical framework provides you with strong scientific justifications
for your project because it proves that existing theories support your research.
How to Write your Theoretical Framework Correctly?

You should take several steps to end up with the best one, including:

》Writing an introduction to catch readers’ interest;

》Explain a foundation of your chosen problem;

》Describe a case for your study;

》Connect your research, audience, and problem.

Start with writing your introduction to create readers’ interest in your subject. Your theoretical framework must mention
previous research and unstudied areas to identify a purpose of your work and discuss existing knowledge. Describe how
your proposed study can lead to a helpful investigation or gaps in previous research and explain its foundation in broad
terms.

Describe a case for your study and present relevant references. That’s because a literature review is an important section
of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, and your theoretical framework introduces it by mentioning major themes
of your proposed study. Connect all dots between your audience, problem, and project. As you close it, targeted readers
should comprehend its context and content, its future effect on your chosen field, and potential benefits. There are certain
things that you need to make it successful, including:

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》A strong thesis application;

》Your unique research idea;

》Samples of relevant sources of information.

Q=Define variable? Explain the different types of variables?

Variable:

A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The value can differ at various times for the same object
or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons. teeism, and motivation. production units, absen- or
persons.

For examples:

One worker in the manufacturing department may produce one widget per minute, a second might produce two per
minute, a third might produce five per minute. It is also possible that the same member could produce one widget the first
minute, and five the next minute. In both cases, the number of widgets produced has taken on different values, and is
therefore a variable.

Dependent variable(criterion variable):

The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher's goal is to understand and
describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it. In other words, it is the main variable that lends
itself for investigation as a viable factor.

Example:

A scientist is testing the effect of light and dark on the behavior of moths by turning a light ON and OFF. The independent
variable is the amount of light and the moth's reaction is the dependent variable. A change in the independent variable
(amount of light) directly causes a change in the dependent variable (moth behavior).

Independent variable(predictor variable):

An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way. That is, when
the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the
independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in the
dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable.

Example:

Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the stock
market price of the company. That is, the more successful the new product turns out to be, the higher
will be the stock market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the new product is the
independent variable, and stock market price the dependent variable. The degree of perceived
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success of the new product developed will explain the variance in the stock market price of the
company.
Intervening Variable
An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating
to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it. There is thus a temporal
quality or time dimension to the intervening variable. The intervening variable surfaces as a function of
the independent variable operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the
influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
Example

Here we see that the Independent variable workforce diversity influences the dependent variable
organizational effectiveness, the intervening variable that surfaces as a function of the diversity in the
workforce is creative synergy. This creative synergy results from a multiethnic, multiracial, and
multinational (i.e., diverse) workforce interacting and bringing together their multifaceted expertise in
problem solving.
Components of theoretical framework(characteristics)

A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in the situation
that are relevant to the problem defined. It logically describes the inter-connections
among these variables. The relationships among the independent variables, the
dependent variable(s), and if applicable, the moderating and intervening variables are
elaborated. Should there be any moderating variable(s), it is important to explain how and
what specific relationships they would moderate. An explanation of why they operate as
moderators should also be offered. If there are any intervening variables, a discussion on
how or why they are treated as intervening variables would be necessary. Any
interrelationships among the independent variables themselves, or among the dependent
variables themselves (in case there are two or more dependent variables), if any, should
also be clearly spelled out and adequately explained.

The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework thus addresses the issues of
why or how we expect certain relationships to exist, and the nature and direction of the
relationships among the variables of interest.

In sum, there are five basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical
framework.

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled
in the discussions.

2. The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another.
This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the
variables.

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3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of the
findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to
whether the relationships would be positive or negative.

4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to

exist. The arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings

5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader
can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationships.
Define Hypothesis development? Explain Formats/statement of Hypothesis?
Hypothesis development

Once we have identified the important variables in a situation and established the relationships among them through
logical reasoning in the theoretical framework, we are in a position to test whether the relationships that have been
theorized do in fact hold true. By testing these relationships scientifically through appropriate statistical analyses, or
through negative case analysis in qualitative research we are able to obtain reliable information on what kinds of
relationships exist among the'variables operating in the problem situation. The results of these tests offer us some clues as
to what could be changed in the situation to solve the problem. Formulating such testable statements is called hypotheses
development.

Hypothesis definition

Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of
a testable statement. Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the research study.

Statement of Hypothesis: formats

If-then statements:
Hypothesis is a testable statement of the relationship among variables. A hypothesis can also test whether there are
differences between two groups (or among several groups) with respect to any variable or variables. To examine whether
or not the conjectured relationships or differences exist, these hypotheses can be set either as propositions or in the form
of if-then statements.

Directional and Nondirectional Hypotbeses

If, in stating the relationship between two variables or comparing two groups, terms such as positive, negative, more than,
less than, and the like are used, then these hypotheses are directional because the direction of the relationship between
the variables (positive/negative) is indicated, or the nature of the difference between two groups on a variable(more
than/less) is postulated.

On the other hand, Nondirectional hypothesis are those that do postulate a relationship or
differences, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationship or differences.
Null and alternate hypothesis
The null hypothesis is a proposition that state a definite, exact relationship between two variables. That
is, it states that thè population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference
in the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero.
The alternate hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null, is a statement expressing a relationship
between two variables or differences between groups.
Ch# 5: Research design-6th steps
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Research design
A detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design will typically include how
data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be used and the
intended means for analyzing data collected.
Purpose of the study: exploratory study, Descriptive study, Hypothesis testing :
Studies may be either exploratory in nature or descriptive, or may be conducted to test hypotheses.
The case study, which is an examination of studies done in other similar organizational situations, is
also a method of solving problems, or for understanding phenomena of interest and generating further
knowledge in that area.
The nature of the study-whether it is exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis testing-depends on he
stage to which knowledge about the research topic has advanced.
Exploratory study
An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no
information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past. In
such cases, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in the
situation, and understand what is occurring, before we develop a model and set up a rigorous design
for comprehensive investigation.
Descriptive study
A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the
variables of interest in a situation. For instance, a study of a class in terms of the percentage of
members who are in their senior and junior years, sex composition, age groupings, number of
seimesters left until graduation, and number of business courses taken, can be considered as
descriptive in nature.
Hypothesis testing
Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the nature of certain relationships, or
established the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation.
Hypothesis testing is undertaken to explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict
organizational outcomes.
Types of investigations: casual versus correlation
A manager should determine whether a causal or a correlational study is needed to find an answer to
the issue at hand. The former is done when it is necessary to definitive cause-and-effect relationship.
However, if all that the manager wants is a mere identification of the important factors "associated with"
the problem, then a correlational study is called for. In the former case, the researcher is keen on
delineating one or more factors that are undoubtedly causing the problem. In other words, the intention
of the researcher conducting a causal study is to be able to state that variable X causes variable Y. So,
when variable X is removed or altered in some way, problem Y is solved. Quite often, however, it is not
just one or more variable that cause a problem in organizations. Given the fact that most of the time
there are multiple factors that influence one another and the problem in a chainlike fashion, the
researcher might be asked to identify the crucial factors associated with the problem, rather than
establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
The study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems is called a
causal study. When the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated with
the problem, the study is called a correlational study.
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》A casual study question:
Does smoking cause cancer?
》A correlation study question:
Are smoking and cancer are related?
Extent of research interference:
The extent of interference by the researcher with the normal flow of work at the workplace has a direct
bearing on whether the study undertaken is causal or correlational. A correlational study is conducted in
the natural environment of the organization with minimum interference by the researcher with the
normal flow of work. For example, if a researcher wants to study the factors influencing training
effectiveness (a correlational study), all that the individual has to do is develop a theoretical framework,
collect the relevant data, and analyze them to come up with the findings.
Study setting: Contrived and Non-contrived:
As we have just seen, organizational research can be done in the natural environment where work
proceeds normally (that is, in non-contrived setting) or in artificial, contrived setting. Correlational
studies are invariably conducted in non-contrived setting, whereas most rigorous casual studies are
done contrived lab settings.
Field study, Field experiment, Lab experiment:
Correlationa studies done in organizations are called field studies. Studies conducted to establish
cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural environment in which employees normally
function are called field experiments.
Here, as we have seen tha the researcher does interfere with the natural occurrence of events
inasmuch as the independent variable is manipuląted.
Experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt
require the creation of an anificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly
controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These
studies are seferred to as lab experiments.
Unit of analysis: Individual, Dayads, Group
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data
analysis stage. If, for instance, the problem statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of
employees in general, then we are interested in individual employees in the organization and would
have to find out what we can do to raise their motivation. Here the unit of analysis is the individual. We
will be looking at the data gathered from each individual and treating each employee's response as an
individual data source. If the researcher is interested in studying two-person interactions, then several
two-person groups also known as dyads, will become the unit of analysis. Analysis of husband-wife
interactions in families and supervisor-subordinate relationships at the work- place are good example of
dyads as the unit of analysis. however, if the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, then
the unit of analysis would be at the group level. In other words, even though we may gather relevant
data from all individuals comprising, say, six groups, we would aggregate the individual data into group
data so as to. see the difference among the six groups. If we compare different departments in the
organization, then the data analysis will be done at the departmental level that is, the individuals in the
department will be treated as one unit-and comparisons made treating the department as the unit of
analysis.

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Time horizon: Cross-sectional verses longitudinal studies
Cross-sectional studies:
A study can be done in which data are gathered just one, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or
months, in order to answer a research question. Such studies are called one-shot or cross-sectional
studies.
Longitudinal studies
In some cases, however, the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at more than one
point in time in order to answer the research question. For instance, the researcher might want to study
employees' behavior before and after a change in the top management, so as to know what effects the
change accomplished. Here, because data are the study is not cross-sectional or of the one-shot kind,
but is carried longitudinally across a period of time. Such studies, as when data on the dependent
variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question, are called
longitudinal studies.
Measurement of variable: Operational definition
Measurement of the variables in the theoretical framework is an integral part of research and an
important aspect of research design . Unless the variables are measured in some way, we will not be
able to test our hypotheses and find answers to complex research issues.
How variable are measured
Objects that can be physically measured by some calibrated instruments pose no measurement
problems. For example, the length and width of a rectangular office table can be easily measured with a
measuring tape or a ruler. The same is true for measuring the office floor area. Data representing
several demographic characteristics of the office personnel are also easily obtained by asking
employees simple, straightforward questions, as for example:
》How long have you been working in the organization?
》How long have you been working on this particular assignment?
》What is your job title?
》What is your marital status?
Operational definition
Operationalizing, or operationally defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by looking at the
behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept. These are then translated into
observable and measurable elements so as to develop an index of measurement of the concept.
Operationally defining a concept involves a series of steps.
Ch# 6: Data collection method
Q= Sources of data Collection?

Collection of Primary Data

Primary data is collected in the course of doing experimental or descriptive research by doing experiments, performing
surveys or by observation or direct communication with respondents. Several methods for collecting primary data are
given below –

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1.Observation Method

It is commonly used in studies relating to behavioural science. Under this method observation becomes a scientific tool
and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose and is systematically
planned and subjected to checks and controls.

2.Interview Method

This method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses. It
can be achieved by two ways :-

(A) Personal Interview – It requires a person known as interviewer to ask questions generally in a face to face contact to
the other person

(B) Telephonic Interviews – It requires the interviewer to collect information by contacting respondents on telephone and
asking questions or opinions orally.

3.Questionnaire

In this method a questionnaire is sent (mailed) to the concerned respondents who are expected to read, understand and
reply on their own and return the questionnaire. It consists of a number of questions printed on typed in a definite order
on a form on set of forms.

It is advisable to conduct a `Pilot study’ which is the rehearsal of the main survey by experts for testing the questionnaire
for weaknesses of the questions and techniques used.

4.Schedules

This method of data collection is similar to questionnaire method with the difference that schedules are being filled by the
enumerations specially appointed for the purpose. Enumerations explain the aims and objects of the investigation and
may remove any misunderstanding and help the respondents to record answer. Enumerations should be well trained to
perform their job, he/she should be honest hard working and patient. This type of data is helpful in extensive enquiries
however it is very expensive.

Collection of Secondary Data

A researcher can obtain secondary data from various sources. Secondary data may either be published data or
unpublished data. Published data are available in :

a. Publications of government

b. technical and trade journals

c. reports of various businesses, banks etc.

d. public records

e. statistical or historical documents.

Unpublished data may be found in letters, diaries, unpublished biographies or work.

Q= Define Interview? Discuss structure and unstructure interview with Merits and demerits?

Interview:
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An interview is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given. In common parlance, the word
"interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks
questions to which the interviewee responds, usually so information may be transferred from interviewee to interviewer
(and any other audience of the interview). Sometimes, information can be transferred in both directions. It is a
communication, unlike a speech, which produces a one-way flow of information.

Structure interview

A structured interview is one where the interviewer asks each participant the same set of questions in the exact same
order (including probes), in order to gather consistent and comparable data.

Strengths

1. Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this
means it is easy to test for reliability.

2. Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short
amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the
ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

1. Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e. during the interview)
as an interview schedule must be followed.

2. The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which generates quantitative
data. This means a research will won't know why a person behaves in a certain way.

Unstructured interviews:

When the interview does not follow the formal rules or procedures. It is called an unstructured interview. The discussion
will probably be free-flowing and may shift rapidly form on subject to another depending on the interests of the
interviewee and the interviewer.

Strengths

1. Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’
answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule.

2. Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk
in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a
situation.

3. They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding,
ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview etc.

Limitations

1. It can be time consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data (using methods such as
thematic analysis).

2. Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires. For example,
certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport & knowing when to probe.
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Q=Questioning techniques?

Funneling

In the beginning of an unstructured interview, it is advisable to ask openended questions to get a broad idea and form
some impressions about the situation.For example a question that could be asked, would be:

"What are some of your feelings about working for this organization?"

From the responses to this broad question, further questions that are progressively more focused may be asked as the
researcher processes the interviewees responses and notes some possible key issues relevant to the situation. This
transitipn from a broad to narrow themes is called the funneling techniques.

Unbiased Questions

It is important to ask questions in a way that would ensure the least bias in the response. For example, ""Tell me how you
experience your job" is a better question than, "Boy, the work you do must be really boring; let me hear how you
experience it." The later question is "loaded" in terms of the interviewer's own perceptions of the job.

Clarifying Issues

To make sure that the researcher understands issues as the respondent intends to represent them, it is advisable to
restate or rephrase important information given by the respondent. For instance, if the interviewee says, "There is an
unfair promotion policy in this organization; seniority does not count at all. It is the juniors who always get promoted," the
researcher might interject, "So you are saying that juniors always get promoted over the heads of even capable seniors."
Rephrasing in this way clarifies the issue of whether or not the respondent considers ability important. If certain things
that are being said or not clear, the researcher should seek clarification.

Taking Notes

When conducting interviews, it is important that the researcher makes written notes as the interviews are taking place or
as soon as the interview is terminated. The interviewer should not rely on memory, because information recalled from
memory is imprecise and often likely to be incorrect.

Define Questionnaire? Explain the types of Questionnaire?

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from
respondents. Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by
telephone, computer or post.

Types of Questionnaire

Computer questionnaire. Respondents are asked to answer the questionnaire which is sent by mail. The advantages of the
computer questionnaires include their inexpensive price, time-efficiency, and respondents do not feel pressured, therefore
can answer when they have time, giving more accurate answers. However, the main shortcoming of the mail
questionnaires is that sometimes respondents do not bother answering them and they can just ignore the questionnaire.

Telephone questionnaire. Researcher may choose to call potential respondents with the aim of getting them to answer
the questionnaire. The advantage of the telephone questionnaire is that, it can be completed during the short amount of
time. The main disadvantage of the phone questionnaire is that it is expensive most of the time. Moreover, most people

20
do not feel comfortable to answer many questions asked through the phone and it is difficult to get sample group to
answer questionnaire over the phone.

In-house survey. This type of questionnaire involves the researcher visiting respondents in their houses or workplaces. The
advantage of in-house survey is that more focus towards the questions can be gained from respondents. However, in-
house surveys also have a range of disadvantages which include being time consuming, more expensive and respondents
may not wish to have the researcher in their houses or workplaces for various reasons.

Mail Questionnaire. This sort of questionnaires involve the researcher to send the questionnaire list to respondents
through post, often attaching pre-paid envelope. Mail questionnaires have an advantage of providing more accurate
answer, because respondents can answer the questionnaire in their spare time. The disadvantages associated with mail
questionnaires include them being expensive, time consuming and sometimes they end up in the bin put by respondents.

Q= guidelines for questionnaire design?

Principles of Wording

The principles of wording refer to such factors as (1) the appropriateness of the content of the questions, (2) how
questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language used, (3) the type and form of questions asked, (4)
the sequencing of the questions, and (5) the personal data sought from the respondents.

Principles of measurement

Just as there are guidlines to be followed to ensure that the wording of Questionnaire is appropriate to minimize bias, so
also are there some principles of measurement to be followed to ensure that the data collected are appropriate to test our
hypothesis.

General appearance

Not only is it important to address issues of wording and measurement in questionnaire design, but it is also necessary to
pay attention to how the questionnaire looks. An attractive and neat questionnaire with appropriate introduction,
instructions, and well-arrayed set of questions and response alternatives will make it easier for the respondents to answer
them. A good introduction, well organized instructions, and neat alignment of the questions are all important.

Q=Define Observational Study? Explain the structure and unstructured observation survey and their merit and
demerits?

Like experiments, observational studies attempt to understand cause-and-effect relationships. However, unlike
experiments, the researcher is not able to control (1) how subjects are assigned to groups and/or (2) which treatments
each group receives.

For example, a sample survey, does not apply a treatment to survey respondents. The researcher only observes survey
responses. Therefore, a sample survey is an example of an observational study.

Structured and Unstructured observation – Structured observation works according to a plan and involves specific
information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information that is to be recorded. The operations that
are to be observed and the various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such
observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data collection that are also structured in nature.
But in the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically against the structured observation. In such
observation, observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and relevant to the point of study and
also this approach of observation is very suitablein the case of exploratory research.

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Advantages of Observational Studies

The following are among the advantages of observational studies.

1. The data obtained through observation of events as they normally Occur are more reliable and generally more reliable
and free from respondent bias.

2. In observational studies, it is easier to note the effects of environmental influences on specific outcomes.

3. It is easier to observe certain groups of individuals-for example, very young children and extremely busy executives-from
whom it may be otherwise difficult to obtain information.

Drawbacks of Observational Studies

The following drawbacks of observational studies have also to be noted

1. It is necessary for the observer to be physically present (unless a camera or another mechanical system can capture the
events of interest), often for prolonged periods of time.

2. This method of collecting data is not only slow, but also tedious and expensive.

3. Because of the long periods for which subjects are observed, observer fatigue could easily set in, which might bias the
recorded data.

4. Though moods, feelings, and attitudes can be guessed by observing facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviors,
the cognitive thought processes of individuals cannot be captured.

5. Observers have to be trained in what and how to observe, and ways to avoid observer bias.

Q=Ethics in data collection?

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

Data collection is central part of community health improvement efforts. Sometimes, the aim is to learn more about a
problem as it is experienced by a specific group of people; other times it is to see if people are better off after participating
in an intervention. Most data is collected through surveys, interviews, or observation. It’s important to keep in mind the
following when you collect data:

It is good practice to let people know who you are (your name, organization and reason for collecting data when you ask
them if they would like to participate.

You should have permission from participants (people providing the data) and they should be made aware that their
involvement is voluntary. Participants are free to withdraw from any active data collection or intervention program at any
point without pressure or fear of retaliation.

Avoid or minimize anything that will cause physical or emotional harm to participants. Make participants aware of any
potential harms prior to their participation.

Try to remain neutral and unbiased. Don’t let your personal preconceptions or opinions interfere with the data collection
process.

22
 Collecting data (i.e. through surveys) is often done under the assumption that information provided is confidential and
the findings will be anonymous. You should let participants know when you will have to break confidentiality (e.g. in the
case of harm to themselves or someone else) and whether results will be anonymous or not.

When collecting data, try to avoid taking advantage of easy to access groups simply because they are there (this is called
“convenience sampling”). Data should be collected from those that most help us answer our questions.

Be respectful of people’s time and when possible, compensate them for it.

Be sure to protect the data you collect from people. Do not leave anything with personal information in a place that can
easily be accessed by people who do not need to see the data (e.g. the back seat of your car). If possible, keep the
information in a secure, or locked location.

After data are analyzed it is always good to share the results back to the participants.

If anything on these guidelines is new to you, please consult with the NJHC’s Data Committee. They can help

design data collection activities that comply with these guidelines, and set you up to produce meaningful information for
your workgroup.

Problems in data collection

Unit Nonresponse

Certain populations may be less likely to participate in a survey even if invited. For instance, functional limitations may
prevent individuals with autism from participating, and proxy respondents are typically used. Even greater challenges
occur in getting individuals to repeatedly respond to a survey as is needed to study health issues over time, such as
through transition into adulthood.

In addition, most surveys are conducted in English and perhaps Spanish, making it difficult for some non-English speakers
in Asian subpopulations to participate.Some federal surveys, such as National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey,
National Health Information Survey, and Medical Expenditure Survey address this issue by having translation options
available for Asian subpopulations, or allow family members to answer for respondents.

Item Nonresponse

Some members of small populations may be unwilling to answer certain questions around sensitive topics (e.g., citizenship
or immigration status, risky behaviors, cultural norms and mores, where one works and lives) due to privacy and other
concerns. There have been efforts to address this challenge; for example, the National Survey of Family Growth has
adopted the use of audio computer-assisted self-interviewing technology, which allows for respondents to listen to a set of
prerecorded questions through a computer and input their answers to collect sensitive information, such as drug use.

In some cases, sensitive information may be needed to identify the subpopulation in the survey data or to answer the
pressing health and health care questions about it. In terms of using survey data to study health issues, there may also be
health conditions or behaviors that individuals are less willing or able to disclose in a survey. Which survey method is used
may make a difference, with some people more willing to make sensitive disclosures online or in written surveys rather
than in a telephone survey, particularly if interviewer hesitancy or other non-verbal communication creates discomfort.

Instrumentation

Even when individuals are willing to answer each question on a survey, it is often difficult to design questions that collect
the desired information. For instance, the variety of definitions used to understand each of the four small populations

23
discussed in this report make it difficult to design questions that will identify them. Rare characteristics or conditions may
not be included as response options, or may be included in a larger category (such as “Asian” or “conditions on the autism
spectrum”), making more granular analysis of sub-categories impossible. There is also lack of alignment in how key
questions are asked in different national surveys or over time, affecting comparability and ability to combine these data
sources. In addition, there are cognitive limitations in people’s ability to understand, remember and self-report much of
the information needed to study health issues, such as diagnoses and other detailed clinical information, as well as what
services were used and when.

Ch# 7 Sampling

Q=Define sample sampling? Also explain the Sampling Procedures?

Sample:

A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected from it. In
other words, some, but not all, elements of the population would form the sample. If 200
members are drawn from a population of 1,000 blue-collar workers, these 200 members
form the sample for the study. That is, from a study of these 200 members, the
researcher would draw conclusions about the entire population of the 1,000 blue-collar
workers

Sampling:

Sampling is the process of selecing a sufficient number of elements from the population,
so that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics
would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the
population elements.

Sampling procedure (Sampling classification):

Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a sub-group from a population to

participate in the study; it is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in
such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group from which they were
selected (Ogula, 2005). There are two major sampling procedures in research. These
include probability and non probability sampling.

(A) Probability Sampling Procedures:

There are four basic types of sampling procedures associated with probability samples.
These include the following types of sampling.

1) Simple Random Sampling Procedure

A simple random sample is a subset of a population in which each member of the subset
has an equal probability of being chosen. A simple random sample is meant to be an
unbiased representation of a group.

2) Systematic Sampling Procedure

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Systematic sampling procedure often used in place of simple random sampling. In
systematic sampling, the researcher selects every nth member after randomly selecting
the first through nth element as the starting point. For example, if the researcher decides
to sample 20 respondents from a sample of 100, every 5th member of the population will
systematically be selected.

3) Stratified Sampling Procedure

Stratified sampling procedure is the most effective method of sampling when a researcher
wants to get a representative sample of a population. It involves categorizing the
members of the population into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups. An
independent simple random sampling is then drawn from each group.

4) Cluster Sampling Procedure

Cluster sampling is a sampling method where multiple clusters of people are created from
a population where they are indicative of homogeneous characteristics and have an equal
chance of being a part of the sample. In this sampling method, a simple random sample is
created from the different clusters in the population.

(B) Non Probability Sampling Procedures

Non probability includes the following two types of sampling.

1) Purposive/Judgmental Sampling Procedure

A purposive sample is a non-probability sample that is selected based on characteristics of a population and the objective
of the study. Purposive sampling is different from convenience sampling and is also known as judgmental, selective, or
subjective sampling.

This type of sampling can be very useful in situations when you need to reach a targeted sample quickly, and where
sampling for proportionality is not the main concern.

2) Convenience Sampling Procedure

A convenience sample is a non- probability sample in which the researcher uses the
subjects that are nearest and available to participate in the research study. This technique
is also referred to as "accidental sampling," and is commonly used in pilot studies prior to
launching a larger research project.

Q= Sample size and selection of sample/Determining the sample size?

We know of the fact that the sample size is governed by the extent of precision and
confidence' desired, how do we determine the sample size required for our research? The
procedure can be illustrated through an example.

Suppose a manager wants to be 95% confident that the expected monthly withdrawals
in a bank will be within a confidence interval of $500. Let us say that a study of a

25
sample of clients indicates that the average withdrawals made by them have a standard
deviation of $3,500. What would be the sample size needed in this case?

We noted earlier that the population mean can be estimated by using the followinf
formula:

Since the confidence level needed here is 95%, the applicable K value is 1.96. The
interval estimate of $500 will have to encompass a dispersion of (1.96 x Standard error)
that is,

We already know that,

The sample size needed in the above was 188. Let us say that this bank has a total
clientele of only 185. This means we cannot sample 188 clients. We can in this case apply
the correction formula and see what sample size would be needed to have the same level
of precision and confidence given the fact that we have a total of only 185 clients. The
correction formula is as follows:

where N is the total number of elements in the population, n is the sample size to be
estimated, Sx is the standard erTor of estimate of the mean, and S is the standard
deviation of the sample mean.

Applying the correlation formula, we find that:

We would now sample 94 of the total 185 clients.

Ch# 8: The research report

Q= Define Research Report? Also explain the purpose/objectives of Research report?

26
Research Report

Research report is a mannerly written document regarding the findings of any kind of research. It is the final product or
output of any systematic investigation which is prepared to submit to the authentic body or funding agency. Report is a
clear and concise documentation and presentation of envisaged facts. Research report is the final stage of every research
in which research procedure, analysis, findings and so forth aspects of research endeavors are presented in organized and
systematic way.

Purpose of Research Report:

A good research report not only disseminates knowledge, but also presents the findings for expansion of the horizon of
knowledge. That apart, it also checks the validity of the generalization and inspires others to carry on related or allied
problems.

The purpose of the research report may be discussed under the following four heads:

1. Transmission of Knowledge:

The knowledge that has been obtained on the basis of research need transmission for proper utilization of the resources
invested. Because of that reason, it is always advisable to prepare to report in a written manner so that it can also provide
knowledge to layman in understanding various social problems.

2. Presentation of Findings:

Society is more concerned with the finished product in terms of output of research which has the input of immense
money, human resources and precious time. Therefore, the social utility of the research report lies in its exposure to the
laymen as well as its submission to the sponsoring agency of the project.

Whereas people may acquire knowledge about various social problems in the widest possible manner, the sponsoring
agency may take the credit of the conduct of a piece of successful research. Even interesting findings may draw the
attention of the world community through mass media. That apart, it may also result in legislative or ameliorative,
measures.

3. Examining the Validity of the Generalizations:

Submission of the report enables the researchers to examine the validity and the authenticity of the generalizations. For
that purpose the report must be prepared and presented in an organized form. Thereafter it can be checked and the
discrepancy, if any, in generalizations, practical or real can be dispelled and the facts can be re-examined and reorganized.

4. Inspiration for Further Research:

Research report inspires others to undertake further research in the same line or in any other inter-disciplinary fields. If
the report appears to be interesting and a novel one, it is more likely to draw the attention of the social scientists.

Q=Types of Research Reports?

"Research report can vary differently in its length, type and purpose. Kerlinger (2004) states that the results of a research
investigation can be presented in number of ways via a technical report, a popular report, a monograph or at times even in
the form of oral presentation." Some typology of research reports are more popular for business purposes can be as:

》Formal and Informal report

》Written and Oral report

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》Internal and external report

》long and short report

》Descriptive and Analytical report

》Technical and popular report

But, for the academic report like Thesis, GRP or Project reports, only either descriptive or analytical report is prepared. A
short description of each type of description and analytical report is given below:

1. Descriptive Report

In descriptive report, researcher describes the facts, trends or opinions experienced or gathered during the research work.
In such reports, data presentation and analysis are more importantly presented. Such reports are more suitable in case of
describing current situations, etc. It is more popular method of report writing.

2. Analytical report

As name given analytical, such reports are prepared with analyzing and interpretation of the facts or trends or situations.
This means analytical report is one step ahead than descriptive reports. Such reports follow the scientific investigation and
reporting. Analytical reports also recommend some measures to improve the situation with stating different problems on
the situation. Policy research and managerial research which are normally funded by any agencies seeking solution of
prevailing problems demand analytical report.

Q=Audience of report?

The organization of a report, its length, focus on details, data presentation, and illustrations will in part, be a function of
the audience for whom it is intended. The letter of transmittal of the report would clearly indicate to whom the report is
being sent. An Executive Summary placed at the beginning would offer busy executives just the right amount of vital
details---in less than three pages. This will help the busy managers to quickly grasp the essentials of the study and its
findings, and turn to the pages that offer more detailed information on aspects that are of special interest to them. Some
managers are distracted by data presented in the form of tables and feel more comfortable with graphs and charts, while
others want to see "facts and figures". Both tables and figures are visual forms of representation and need to be presented
in reports.

Q=Qualities of a good report?

1. Precision

In a good report, the report writer is very clear about the exact and definite purpose of writing the report. His
investigation, analysis, recommendations and others are directed by this central purpose. Precision of a report provides
the unity to the report and makes it a valuable document for best usage.

2. Accuracy of Facts

Information contained in a report must be based on accurate fact. Since decisions are taken on the basis of report
information, any inaccurate information or statistics will lead to wrong decision. It will hamper to achieve the
organizational goal.

3. Relevancy

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The facts presented in a report should not be only accurate but also be relevant. Irrelevant facts make a report confusing
and likely to be misleading to make proper decision.

4. Reader-Orientation

While drafting any report, it is necessary to keep in mind about the person who is going to read it. That's why a good
report is always reader oriented. Readers knowledge and level of understanding should be considered by the writer of
report. Well reader-oriented information qualify a report to be a good one.

5. Simple Language

This is just another essential features of a good report. A good report is written in a simple language avoiding vague and
unclear words. The language of the report should not be influenced by the writer's emotion or goal. The message of a good
report should be self-explanatory.

6. Conciseness

A good report should be concise but it does not mean that a report can never be long. Rather it means that a good report
or a business report is one that transmits maximum information with minimum words. It avoids unnecessary detail and
includes everything which are significant and necessary to present proper information.

7. Grammatical Accuracy

A good report is free from errors. Any faulty construction of a sentence may make its meaning different to the reader's
mind. And sometimes it may become confusing or ambiguous.

8. Unbiased Recommendation

Recommendation on report usually make effect on the reader mind. So if recommendations are made at the end of a
report, they must be impartial and objective. They should come as logical conclusion for investigation and analysis.

9. Clarity

Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. A good report is absolutely clear. Reporter should make his purpose clear,
define his sources, state his findings and finally make necessary recommendation. To be an effective communication
through report, A report must be clear to understand for making communication success.

10. Attractive Presentation

Report must be attractive in all the important regards like size, colour, paper quality, etc. Similarly, it should use
liberally the charts, diagrams, figures, illustrations, pictures, and multiple colours.
Q=Sections and content of a research report?
A research report ordinarily includes the following sections:
1) Abstract:
The abstract is often required to be no more than a given maximum number of words, usually between 100 and
150. It should describe the most important aspects of the study, including the problem investigated, the type of
subjects (sample) and data collection method involved, the analytical procedures used, and the major results and
conclusions.
2) Itroduction:

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This section includes discussions concerning the practical and/or theoretical importance of the topic as well as a
description of the research problem. It often starts by introducing the reader to the topic and making a case for the
practical significance of the issues being investigated and/or the contribution that the study could make to our
understanding of the phenomenon.
3) Review of the literature and the research model:
Some authors present the material included here as a separate section under its own heading (as it is shown here),
while others present it as part of a longer INTRODUCTION section. In either case, the review of the related
literature describes and analyzes the published studies that are directly related to, and/or have some relevance to,
the topic and research questions at hand. Related literature should be integrated with, and weaved into, the
material in this section and not be simply cataloged.
4) Methodology:
The methodology section includes a description of the research sample (subjects), data collection method,
measurement instruments, and data analysis procedures. The description of sample/subjects includes not only the
sample size and statistics regarding the subjects but also a definition and description of the population from which
the sample was selected.
5) Result and discussion:
Some authors use a single section to both present and discuss the data analysis results. Others deal with the two
issues in two separate sections. In either case, the statistical techniques that were applied to the data must be
mentioned and the results of each analysis summarized, tabulated, and then discussed.
6) Sumary and conclusion:

This section is very similar to the abstract section except that it appears at the end of the report (preceding the REFERENCE
section). It summarizes the study's findings in an easy to understand manner. It also explains the practical implications of
those findings, and points to recommended directions for future research in that area.

7) References.

The references section, or bibliography, lists all the sources, alphabetically by authors' last names, that were directly used
in writing the report. Every source cited in the paper must be included in the references, and every entry listed in the
references must appear in the paper. Style manuals, such as the APA (American Psychological Association) manual, will
give you the correct procedure for all in-text and reference citations. This form is usually different for books, journal
articles, and magazine articles. It is recommended that you use the APA style. It is important that whatever form is used
be followed consistently.

8) Appendixes:

Appendixes include information and data pertinent to the study that either are not important enough to be included in the
main body of the report or are too lengthy. Appendixes contain such entries as materials especially developed for the
study (e.g., tests, questionnaires, and cover letters), coding scheme, print out of raw data, and the computer print-out of
statistical analyses.

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