Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:

Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components MCP No. 226

Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research

Lot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral,
43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Tel: 603-89249200 Faks: 603-87332005
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.miros.gov.my
Guideline of Safe Driver and
Rider Performance Evaluation:
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH

ASEAN ROAD SAFETY CENTRE

Focusing on Cognitive and
Psychomotor Components

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH

ASEAN ROAD SAFETY CENTRE



MCP No. 226

Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider

Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and
Psychomotor Components

Mohd Firdaus Mohd Siam
Ahmad Azad Ab Rashid
Mohd Khairul Alhapiz Ibrahim
Nurulhana Borhan
Sharina Shariff
Low Suet Fin
Wong Shaw Voon

____________________________________________________________________________________
© MIROS, 2017. All Rights Reserved.

Published by:
Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS)
Lot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral,
43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Tata

Mohd Firdaus Mohd Siam

Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation :
Focusing on Cognitive and Psycomotor Components /
Mohd Firdaus Mohd Siam, Ahmad Azad Ab Rashid, Mohd Khairul
Alhapiz Ibrahim, Nurulhana Borhan, Sharina Shariff, Low Suet Fin,
Wong Shaw Voon.
ISBN 978-967-2078-15-9
1. Motorcyclists--Evaluation.
2. Transportation--Security measures.
3. Traffic safety. I . Ahmad Azad Ab Rashid.
II. Mohd Khairul Alhapiz Ibrahim. III. Nurulhana Borhan.
IV. Sharinan Shariff. V. Low, Suet Fin. VI. Wong, Shaw Voon.
VII. Title.
796.750289

Printed by:

Typeface: Calibri
Size: 11 pt.

DISCLAIMER
None of the materials provided in this report may be used, reproduced or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including recording or the use of any information
storage and retrieval system, without written permission from MIROS. Any conclusion and opinions
in this report may be subject to re-evaluation in the event of any forthcoming additional
information or investigations.
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Contents

Page

List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Acknowledgements vii
Abstract ix

1. Background 1

2. Purpose 5

3. Conceptual Framework & Methodology 6
3.1 Preliminary Screening Evaluation 7
3.2 Actual Evaluation 8
3.2.1 Safe Gap Acceptance 8
3.2.2 Motorcyclist Conspicuity 11
3.2.3 Speed Management 12
3.2.4 Distraction Assessment 16
3.2.5 Hazard Perception 17
3.2.6 Crash Avoidance Motor Skill and Time Efficiency 22
3.2.7 Vehicle Inspection 27

4. Marking Scheme 30

5. Evaluation Validity 32

6. Benefits of the Evaluation 33

iii
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

7. Conclusion 34

References 35

iv
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

List of Tables

Page

Table 1 Marking scheme for driver performance evaluation 30

Table 2 Marking scheme for rider performance evaluation 31

v
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

List of Figures

Page

Figure 1 Conceptual framework of the driver and rider performance 7

evaluation
Figure 2 Driving route for the assessment (Credit: Google Maps) 14
Figure 3 Riding route for the assessment (Credit: Google Maps) 15
Figure 4 A screen shot of baseline stage – left image shows the screen 20
before the dot appears
Figure 5 A screen shot of video shown to participants during data 21
collection
Figure 6 Flow of hazard perception test 22
Figure 7 Overall flow chart of crash avoidance motor skill and time 25
efficiency of driver evaluation
Figure 8 Number 8 Procedure 27
Figure 9 Overall flow chart of crash avoidance motor skill and time 27
efficiency of rider evaluation

vi
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the following
individuals, who were directly and indirectly, involved in this project and making the
project a success.

MIROS Personnel:
Encik Safuan Nazari
Encik Mohd Shafiq Bahar
Encik Mohd Hanif Mohamad Razali

Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC):
Encik Mohamed Zaidi Abdul Karim
Puan Siti Zulaiha Zolkifli

Pos Malaysia:
Encik Jookaplee Shaaibon

vii

 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Abstract

The objective of the guideline is to provide a method that evaluates driver and rider
performance that focuses on the safety and time efficiency elements. Safety
element focuses on aiming for accident-free trips which on the other words
reflecting what a defensive driving or riding is. The scopes of this guideline are
converging on two measurable components which are cognitive and psychomotor.
It intends to evaluate the driver and rider in which at the end aims to produce good
drivers and riders who would be able to properly balance between safety and time
efficiency elements without compromising each other. In this guideline, seven
attributes will be assessed which are a distraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist
conspicuity, speed management, hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and
time efficiency and vehicle inspection. The guideline covers two evaluation stages
that shall be completed by each driver or rider including preliminary screening
evaluation and actual evaluation. The evaluation locations are specifically designed
in the MIROS driving simulator lab, controlled driving track and actual driving road.
The guideline is suitable to be implemented by any government agency, public and
commercial transport fleet operator to assess the performance of their drivers and
riders and to continually improve their drivers’ and rider’s competency level and
services.

ix

 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

1. Background

The road transportation sector had tremendously contributed to the development
of a country’s economy. Drivers of commercial vehicles which include public service
vehicles and goods vehicles played an important key role by moving through this
road network daily carrying passengers and loads to their respective destinations. In
addition, drivers for other categories of the vehicle who travel on the road to
achieve their own objectives also formed part of the country’s economy.

These competent drivers, who had acquired their driving licenses complying with
Sections 29, 56 and 57 of the Road Transport Act 1987, may have further gained
enough experience being on the road throughout their career. However, it is
important to note that their skills, driving performance and safety element should
not be compromised and should be consistently monitored. It should be evaluated
periodically and timely in order to keep the equilibrium of interaction on the road
between human, vehicle and environment interaction on the road.

The performance of a driver and rider depends on their knowledge, motor skills,
perceptual and cognitive abilities (Evans, 2004). Driver and rider performance is
initially constrained by characteristics of the driver such as information processing
capacity or sensation seeking level, speed, reaction time and motor coordination.
Built upon these characteristics are knowledge and skills arising out of training and
experience. This highlights that driving performance can be categorised into a range
of competencies (Fuller, 2005). McKnight and McKnight (1999) classified abilities
related to driving and riding performance into five domains which are sensory (e.g.
visual acuity and contrast sensitivity), attentional (e.g. general and selective
attention), perceptual (e.g. speed of perception and motion detection, cognitive
(e.g. short-term memory), and psychomotor (e.g. reaction time, coordination and
tracking).

1
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

In a study by Jensen, Wagner, and Alexander (2011), they have proposed a general
framework to evaluate driver performance based on in-vehicle behaviour data. Six
different driver classifications were instituted ranging from ‘timid’ to ‘aggressive’.
Definitions of aggressive driving and differentiation on timid or cautious drivers
from aggressive drivers were based on previous studies by Miles and Johnson (2003)
and Knapper and Cropley (2008). The targeted area for a driver lies in the
conservative and neutral zones. Both extreme classifications, timid and aggressive,
may constitute dangerous behaviour. Furthermore, unsafe driving may also occur in
the cautious and assertive classifications. For example, assertive driving may be
classified as unsafe owing to behaviours such as tailgating, speeding above the
traffic flow and rapidly changing lanes. Similarly, cautious driving may be classified
as unsafe owing to such characteristics as travelling below the speed of traffic to
maintain the minimum posted the speed limit, over-scanning before making turns
or lane changes and not anticipating traffic patterns while maintaining vehicle
speed.

Cognitive Processes Associated with Driving Performance

Driving is a complex and dynamic activity requiring several cognitive processes to
perform safely. The cognitive processes associated with driving include executive
functions, specifically, the ability to inhibit distractions, update information, and
shift attention from one task to another. (Anstey, Wood, Lord, & Walker, 2005;
Rizzo, 2011; Trick, Enns, Mills, & Vavrik, 2004). Working memory, that is, holding
information while updating from both stored information and incoming information
is sometimes considered separately from executive function (Miyake, Emerson, &
Friedman, 2000) and is also crucial for safe driving (Anstey, Horswill, Wood, &
Hatherly, 2012). Attention such as the ability to focus, divide, and sustain attention
is also often considered executive functions, and is necessary for driving safety.
Lastly, the adequate speed of information processing is essential to receive,
interpret, and respond to ever-changing driving-related stimuli. In some individuals,
age-related declines in the cognitive processes of executive function, working
memory, attention, and speed of information processing may lead to driving
cessation or increased crash risk. (Anstey, Wood, Lord, & Walker, 2005; Trick et al.,

2
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

2004; Anstey et al., 2012). The attributes that will focus on this project are a
distraction, hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency, and
vehicle inspection.

Psychomotor Processes Associated with Driving Performance

The term psychomotor denotes a combination of physical and psychological
activities (Plug, Meyer, Louw, & Gouws, 1989) and involves the process of receiving
sensory messages from the environment and then producing a response thereto
(Jacobs, MacKenzie, & Botma, 2013). To be proficient, sensory information needs to
be organised and processed (Ackerman, 1988) to enable a person to produce an
appropriate motor, or movement response (Gregory, 2007; Hergenhahn, 2009).
According to Sullivan (2009), psychomotor ability refers to the capacity to physically
manipulate objects in the environment by making use of available perceptual
information. Psychomotor performance abilities typically include two types of
component skills: production of motor actions and recognition of environmental
conditions that trigger these actions (Hergenhahn, 2009; Sullivan, 2009). Production
and recognition skills are often intertwined in a seamless cycle of adaptive action
that appears effortless when observed in an expert performer (Fadde, 2007). The
cognitive processes associated with driving include speed of reaction in which quick
and adequate response to simple and complex visual and acoustic stimuli and the
associated quality of performance. Besides, gestured coordination in which
appropriate and controlled movements in response to any complex stimuli (Amore,
Declercq, Ehman, Elatri, Evans, Froeschl, Fuchs, Giger, Holder, Kallevik, Kralova,
Petursson, Roels, Signoretti, Soini, Stevovic, Valchev, Vernelen, Vernez, & Witpas,
2009). In this project, we will focus on the attributes such as distraction, safe gap
acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity, speed management, hazard perception, crash
avoidance motor skill and time efficiency, and vehicle inspection.

Evaluation of driver and rider performance provides an essential insight into the
driver’s/rider’s manager in keeping a tab on the performance of their drivers/riders.
These drivers/riders carry a huge responsibility as they have to ensure the safety of
themselves, their passengers and goods until they reach their destinations. All

3
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

motor drivers/riders must be fit to drive and have an optimum skill and
performance despite their age and experience, as the safety of the public is at stake
while using the service. These motor drivers/riders should hold a driving license
authorising him to drive a motor vehicle of that class or description. It is a healthy
indication for fleet operators if all their drivers/riders satisfy the benchmark of good
driving performance level. It is vital these competencies are continuously being
monitored, assessed and evaluated to ensure the drivers and riders are capable of
operating the motor vehicles safely in various traffic situations and conditions on
public roads and not becoming a victim in the road accidents statistics throughout
the entire working career. The scope of this guideline is to be made available to the
government, public, commercial transport operators, couriers companies and
related stakeholders in order to evaluate their respective drivers’ or riders’
performance. The guideline may be considered as a stepping stone to develop a
new approach to the driver performance evaluation standard.

4
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

2. Purpose

The main purpose of the guideline is to provide an essential method which
objectively evaluates driver and rider performance specifically on cognitive and
psychomotor components that focus on the safety and time efficiency elements.
The guideline is generic for any government agency, public and commercial
transport fleet operator, couriers’ companies and relevant organisation to assess
the performance of respective drivers/riders and to improve their competency level
and services continually.

5
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

3. Conceptual Framework & Methodology

The framework of driver and rider performance evaluation is categorised into seven
major components which distraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity,
speed management, hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and time
efficiency, and vehicle inspection with the integration of cognitive and psychomotor
elements. In any journey, safety and time efficiency to be compromising each other.
When the main focus is time efficiency, one usually would think that safety will be
undermined. However, a good driver defined as a driver who would be able to
balance between these two aspects properly.

6
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the driver and rider performance
evaluation.

Evaluation of driver and rider performance

Preliminary screening evaluation

Actual evaluation

Motorcyclist Distraction Crash avoidance

conspicuity motor skill &
time efficiency

Safe gap Speed Hazard Vehicle

acceptance management perception inspection

Psychomotor Cognitive & Psychomotor

Figure 1 Conceptual framework of the driver and rider performance evaluation

Evaluation of driver performance would be performed for government agencies,
land public transport, couriers’ companies and commercial fleet operators upon
their voluntary request through formal letter/application or e-mail.

3.1 Preliminary Screening Evaluation

As a prerequisite, all drivers and riders to be assessed shall possess a valid driving
license according to the class of vehicle being driven. Drivers shall have a good

7
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

health and very fit to drive. They shall have undergone a medical examination by a
certified medical doctor.

3.2 Actual Evaluation

Actual evaluation focuses on aiming for accident-free trips and time efficiency which
on the other words reflecting what a defensive driving or riding is. Defensive driving
is a set of driving skills that allows a motor driver to protect own self against
potential collisions caused by ruthless and inconsiderate drivers, poorly maintained
vehicles and due to road environment conditions. With such skill, potential hazards
would be identified easily and assist the driver to decide and acts accordingly and
appropriately without endangering own self and other road users (Driver’s
Education Curriculum Handbook, 2004). In this guideline, seven attributes will be
assessed on each participant to observe their respective defensive driving which are
a distraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity, speed management,
hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency and vehicle
inspection.

3.2.1 Safe Gap Acceptance

Turning across the path of oncoming traffic demands a time-critical decision making
because any miscalculation during gap acceptance increases the likelihood of
collisions. The risk of an accident is even higher if the turn is to be performed at
unsignalised and uncontrolled junctions. Recent development shows an increase in
numbers of new research focusing on motorcycle crashes that occur at junctions
(Crundall, Humphrey, & Clarke, 2008; Pai & Saleh, 2008; Pai, Hwang, & Saleh, 2009;
Pai, 2009; Crundall, Crundall, Clarke, & Shahar, 2012). Particular focuses of these
studies were the issues of right of way violation, injury severity of motorcyclists; and
hazard perception skills. Li, Doong, Huang, Lai, and Jeng (2009) for instance,
compared the likelihood of survival of motor-vehicle occupants and motorcycle
riders after accidents. They found a relatively higher prevalence of death for

8
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

motorcycle riders at intersections compared to motor-vehicle occupants.

Unsignalised junctions are one of the more frequent types used in road and highway
design. Unsignalised junctions can be classified into three categories based on types
of traffic control; namely intersections with stop control, yield control, and no traffic
control. The non-automated control means the safety of road users at unsignalised
junctions will be influenced by driving skills such as gap acceptance and hazard
perception. Death and injuries from accidents at junctions are indeed a growing
concern for traffic safety and operation in Malaysia. As the most vulnerable group in
traffic, motorcyclists in Malaysia are strongly affected by these skills. Deciding safe
gaps at unsignalised and uncontrolled junctions is very critical to avoid collisions
with oncoming vehicles.

Unsafe gap acceptance decisions made by drivers or motorcyclists increase the
likelihood of accidents at unsignalised junctions. Accidents resulting from turning
during unsafe gaps are normally severe ones such as angle accident. As such, gap
acceptance analysis is used by transport engineers to determine intersection sight
distance and as one of the design elements in road construction. Taking this into
account, MIROS has included safe gap acceptance as a measure of defensive riding
skills in the evaluation. The evaluation will be included as a part of naturalistic riding
evaluation in which participants will ride a motorcycle on the actual road. The safe
gap challenge aims to assess the proficiency to perform the following operational
vehicle tasks:

a. Hazard Perception and Responding: Rider utilises hazard perception and

responding skills to select safe gaps and thus manoeuvre the vehicle safely
during turns at junctions.
b. Visualisation of the Intended Travel Path: Rider utilises critical thinking,
decision-making, and problem-solving skills to operate the vehicle and
perform the manoeuvres in controlled risk, low risk, moderate risk, and
complex risk environments.
c. Searching of the Intended Travel Path: Rider utilises critical thinking,
decision-making, and problem-solving skills to operate the vehicle and
perform the manoeuvres in controlled risk environments.

9
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

d. Speed Control and Management: Rider utilises critical thinking, decision-

making, and problem-solving skills to operate the vehicle and perform the
manoeuvres in controlled risk, low risk, moderate risk, and complex risk
environments including vehicle control, space management and lane
changing.
e. Safe Lane Positioning: Rider utilises critical thinking, decision-making, and
problem-solving skills to operate the vehicle and perform basic manoeuvres
in controlled risk, low risk, moderate risk, and complex risk environments
especially lane changing manoeuvre, vehicle control and space
management.
f. Handling of Vehicle Blind-Spot: Rider utilises critical thinking, decision-
making, and problem-solving skills to drive and ride defensively which
includes blind-spot checking prior to manoeuvring.
g. Communication for Safe Driving: Rider utilises defensive driving or riding
skills to communicate with other road users for safe manoeuvring,
especially at unsignalised junctions.

Procedure
In order to present a circumstance whereby a participant encounters a situation
that requires critical decision-making to accept or reject a gap, a controlled junction
manoeuvring riding event is required. Since the riding assessment involves actual
traffic environment, a less risky route will be chosen. A controlled riding event will
be executed by a team of experts at an unsignalised junction. The gap acceptance
skill of participants will be assessed using footage recorded by instrumented
motorcycle.

Literature defined a ‘gap’ as the time interval between two successive vehicles and a
‘lag’ as the time interval between the arrival of turning vehicle at an intersection
and the arrival of the next approaching vehicle. In this assessment, it was nearly
impossible to control for the availability of gaps between two successive oncoming
vehicles. Hence, the gap acceptance analysis and assessment will use lags as a
similar variable as gaps.

10
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Participants are expected to demonstrate defensive riding skills to manoeuvre their

motorcycle across unsignalised junctions safely. Thus, the assessment will focus on
the size of gaps/lags (in seconds) accepted by participants. The size of gaps/lags
presented to participants will be timed and controlled by the assessment team. The
scores will be given according to the level of safety as far as the size of gaps (the
larger the better).

3.2.2 Motorcyclist Conspicuity

Perceptual errors are one of the contributing factors of road crashes. In a complex
and dynamic driving or riding task, drivers and motorcycle riders are prone to
commit the perceptual errors. In car-motorcycle crashes, low conspicuity of
motorcycles is one of the common reasons of traffic conflict whereby car drivers
failed to see and safely respond to motorcyclists. These motorcycle-conspicuity
related crashes can be contributed to the fact that motorcycles are less discernible
in traffic.

Niewoehner and Berg (2005) reported that direct and indirect field of view are the
key factors affecting the safety of pedestrians and bicyclists for the situation
involving right-turning truck at intersections. Insufficient view to the right and in
front is one of the well-known reasons for the problems facing the truck driver in
this situation. Perception failures of other vehicle drivers were reported as potential
crash factors in previous in-depth motorcycle crash studies (ACEM, 2009; Van
Elslande & Jaffard, 2010; Hurt, Ouellet, & Thom, 1981). The reports also identified
that these failures are most often resulting from no or late detection of the
motorcycle in traffics. Intuitively, pedestrians and bicyclists need to be more
discernible in traffic, especially at intersections to reduce the risk of accidents with
heavy vehicles.

Thus, one of the elements included in the evaluation is motorcyclist conspicuity.
This element is aimed at assessing riders in terms of awareness to be more
detectable in traffic.

11
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Procedure
One of the objectives of this evaluation is to instil safe driving and riding culture and
to make safety as part of routine procedures adopted by drivers during their daily
commuting and travelling. Participants will be graded based on their efforts to be
more detectable during naturalistic riding task. During the task, opportunities will be
given for participants to prove themselves as defensive motorcyclists who pay
attention to the conspicuity issues. The assessment will be conducted once during
the task.

3.2.3 Speed Management

Speed has been identified as a key risk factor in road traffic injuries, influencing both
the risk of road traffic crashes and the severity of the injuries that result from them
(Gibson, 1967). Speeding is exceeding the posted speed limit or driving too fast for
conditions. Excessive and inappropriate speed is the most important factor
contributing to the road injury problem faced by many countries. The higher the
speed the greater the stopping distance required, and hence the increased risk of a
crash. As more kinetic energy must be absorbed during a high-speed impact, there is
a higher risk of injury should a crash occur. Small increases in speed result in large
increases in crash risk. Studies provide direct evidence that speeds just 5 km/h
above average in 60 km/h urban areas, and 10 km/h above average in rural areas,
are sufficient to double the risk of a casualty crash.

Speed limits are widely used to define acceptable speeds. They provide a basic
indicator to road users of the maximum speed allowed under the law. Had Laju
Kebangsaan (National Speed Limits) is a set of speed limits applicable on Malaysian
expressways, federal roads, state roads and municipal roads. The National Speed
Limits was enforced on 1 February 1989 following the National Speed Limit Orders
1989. Like any other countries in the world, failing to obey the speed limit on
Malaysian roads and expressways is an offence as subject to Malaysian Road Safety
Act 1987, which can be fined up to RM300, depending on the difference between
the speed limit and the driven speed.

12
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Speed management encompasses a range of measures aimed at balancing safety

and efficiency of vehicle speeds on a road network (OECD, 2006). It aims to reduce
the incidence of driving too fast for the prevailing conditions, and to maximise
compliance with speed limits. Speed management also aims to reduce the number
of road traffic crashes and the serious injury and death that can result from them.
Speed management techniques aimed at persuading drivers to adopt safe speeds
include police enforcement, driver education, speed limits and engineering
treatments.

For both driving and riding, MIROS will prepare special vehicles for this task.
Participants, however, will have to bring their valid driving/riding licenses. There is a
different route for each category.

Procedure
Speed management during driving and riding in a complex traffic situation will be
assessed among drivers during the on-road driving test. This comprehensive
evaluation is aimed at assessing participants’ behaviour and habit before, during
and after driving; as well as participant’s ability to demonstrate defensive driving
skills and obeying traffic rules in a real traffic setting.

Participant needs to complete about 6.5 km in this assessment. The route selected
for driving assessment includes a residential area, shop lots, and highway around
Kajang (see Figure 2 & 3).

13
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Figure 2 Driving route for the assessment (Credit: Google Maps)

14
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Figure 3 Riding route for the assessment (Credit: Google Maps)

The driving and riding will take approximately 20 to 30 minutes to complete the
route. Further details of the route will be given directly to the participants during
the assessment. The speed management skills of participants will be accessing for
every junction, raised platforms, speed in expressway and residential area. Points

15
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

will be deducted (demerit) if the participant is speeding over the speed limit or
driving too fast for conditions.

3.2.4 Distraction Assessment

Driving distraction has become one of the main causes of road crashes (Treat,
Tumbas, McDonald, Shinar, Hume, Mayer, Stanisfer, & Castellan, 1977; Wang,
Knipling, & Goodman, 1996; Dingus, Klauer, Neale, Petersen, Lee, Sudweeks, Perez,
Hankey, Ramsey, Gupta, Bucher, Doerzaph, Jermeland, & Knipling, 2006; Liang &
Lee, 2010). According to a 100 car naturalistic driving study by Dingus et al. (2006),
the two main reasons for drivers’ inattention in cases of crashes and near-crashes
are drivers communicating with other passengers and the use of in-vehicle
information systems.

Driving performance vitiates when drivers fail to allocate sufficient attention to the
driving task at critical moments because they are engaged in another task that leads
to the impairment of the ability to drive safely and effectively (Young & Salmon,
2012). This task, hence, measures driver’s level of distraction. Specifically, this task
assesses attentional effects of cognitive load in driving or riding involving interaction
with the voice-based interface.

Procedure
Participants will receive instructions, guidelines and safety briefing before the
training process and actual assessment. Participants will undergo simulator sickness
screening prior to the assessment. The purpose of the screening is to ensure
participants are well, fit and capable of driving the driving simulator. Then, they will
begin with a training session for the familiarisation purposes to familiarise with the
driving simulator and assessment devices.

During the actual assessment, participants need to complete all assessment
activities, which are a response and task assessment. Both activities are conducted
simultaneously. For the response assessment, it is based on a simple task whereby

16
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

participants respond to frequent stimuli. The assessment involves tactile stimuli that
are presented by means of small vibrators attached to the shoulder. The participant
responds by pressing a microswitch attached to the right index finger (ISO DIS
17488, 2015).

The recall number will be used for task assessment. It consists of auditory stimuli
that the driver listens to and repeats following specific rules. The participants have
to repeat a number of randomly ordered auditory stimuli (single digits zero to 9).
The task involves aural and memory attention that resembles actual driving
activities such as responding to a mobile phone or walkie-talkie and having a
conversation with passengers.

The evaluation is conducted on a curvy and off-ramp road. The evaluation route
must be in a controlled environment, where there is no interference from other
vehicles. Participants will be subjected to post-simulator sickness screening after
they have completed the actual assessment.

For response assessment, the participants will be evaluated based on their reaction
time and miss rate. The reaction time is the time from stimulus inception until the
response from the microswitch is recorded. The mean reaction time will be
measured and ranking system will be applied during the assessment. Whereas for
the miss rate, it is defined as the rate of failure to press/respond the microswitch
when the stimulus is given. Marks will be deducted when there is a miss. For the
task assessment, marks will be given if participants recall the number correctly.

3.2.5 Hazard Perception

Many researchers have been working on identifying predictors of the crash. From a
driver point of view, hazard perception skill is one of them. Hazard perception refers
to the ability of drivers to read the road and its environment to identify any
potential danger or harm that may compromise his or her safety.

17
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Researches have shown links between the ability to perceive hazards with crash
involvement: Congdon (1999) reported a significant association between hazard
perception test score with police reported crashes; Wells, Tong, Sexton, Grayson,
and Jones (2008) showed a significant association between hazard perception test
score during licensing with self-reported “non-low-speed” crashes within the first
year of driving; Darby, Murray, and Raeside (2009) outlined that besides attitude,
behaviour and knowledge, hazard perception is also highly correlated with self-
reported collisions; Horswill, Anstey, Hatherly, and Wood (2010), reported an
empirical association between hazard perception and crash involvement; Boufous,
Ivers, Senserrick, and Stevenson (2011) demonstrated that, relative to drivers who
passed hazard perception test on the first attempt, drivers who failed the test at
least twice had an increased risk of crash; further, in contrast to accident-free riders,
Cheng, Ng, and Lee (2011) reported that accident-involved riders involved with
higher driving violation and took longer to identify hazardous situations; and the
latest, Horsewill et al. (2015) demonstrated that drivers who failed hazard
perception test were more likely to be involved in crash within the first year after
the test.

Scientists are yet to understand the cognitive mechanism behind this test fully.
Some researchers explored the possibility of using Situational Awareness framework
in explaining the cognition behind hazard perception test. While the evidence is
supporting this view, it is subjected to further investigation, especially to the
influence of other cognitive processes such as sensation, attention, and judgment,
inter alia.

Nonetheless, its diagnostic ability of whether a driver is competent is well accepted
in countries who have adopted it as national driver licensing systems such as United
Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. Usually, the hazard perception test employed
reaction time as the proxy measure of one’s ability in recognising and judging the
degree of hazardous of a stimulus that comes to his or her perception system. The
underlying concept of this test is that, the shorter the reaction time between a
stimulus appearance and one’s response (usually using mouse clicking), the better
his or her judgment of the stimulus’ degree of hazardous.

18
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

The in-house developed hazard perception test software employed reaction time
paradigm, similar to other studies (Chapman & Underwood, 1998; Horswill &
McKenna, 2004; McKenna, Horswill, & Alexander, 2006; Sagberg & Bjørnskau, 2006;
Wetton, Hill, & Horswill, 2011). The test included 23 hazards for drivers presented in
15 short clips accumulating to 415 seconds short video. Similarly, the riders
observed 395 seconds short video consisted of 31 hazards in also 15 short clips.
These clips were recorded in high-definition mode on local vicinity during daylight
hours, generally under a clear sky, using a car and a motorcycle for their respective
category.

Procedure
Participants came to the testing station, and made themselves comfortable in from
of the testing computer screen. Before the test begins, participants need to
familiarise themselves with the apparatus for the test, specifically the mouse.

The test comprises two stages, which are baseline and actual data collection. The
first stage of the test is to measure the default reaction time of the participant when
perceiving a stimulus. This is to ensure that variability across participants is taken
into account when doing the final analysis. For a baseline, participants are told to
get ready in front of a black screen by fixating at a cross sign, and when a red dot
appear in the centre of the screen, they are required to click on the dot as soon as
possible (see Figure 4).

19
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Ÿ
+

Figure 4 A screen shot of baseline stage – left image shows the screen before the dot
appears

After the baseline stage, participants will go thru the actual data collection of the
test. While replaying the videos, participants will need to point and click using the
mouse on any element on the screen that they perceive to be hazardous. The
software then captures both the location of the mouse as well as the clicking time
before superimposing this information on top of the captured frame of the video.
Figure 5 shows the overview of the video shown to participants during data
collection.

20
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Figure 5 A screen shot of video shown to participants during data collection

21
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

After completing both stages, participants will then be debriefed before ending the
testing procedure. Figure 6 below summarises the flow of testing procedure.

Figure 6 Flow of hazard perception test

The overall duration of the test is dependent on the number of stimuli used in the
video. For current test, the duration could vary from 18 to 30 minutes. Because of
the nature of this test, i.e. computer based, only one tester is required to conduct
the test. The tester, preferably, is computer literate to smoothen the process in case
simple glitches occur during the testing procedure. The tester needs to conduct the
briefing, execute the test, as well as debrief participants at the end of the
procedure.

3.2.6 Crash Avoidance Motor Skill and Time Efficiency

Crash avoidance skill is a part of the defensive driving skill. It is mostly about the
vehicle control skill in a certain emergency situation such as skidding or colliding.
Mainly the important part is to manoeuvre with steering or braking. Crash

22
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

avoidance skill involves taking the driver through a series of manoeuvres, at various
speeds using precision steering and braking techniques, controlling the vehicle
through hazards and practising skid prevention tactics. According to Lisa (1994),
there were two possible strategies exist in crash avoidance – accelerating or braking
to control speed and steering to control lateral position. The study found subjects'
tendencies to steer were greater when their vehicle was at a shorter distance from
the obstacle, when they had certainty about the obstacle's trajectory, and under
conditions with good visibility. Travelling at speeds of 40 - 120 km/h and at a varying
time to collisions (all under four seconds), subjects reported that lateral
manoeuvres could be attempted closer to the obstacle than braking manoeuvres.

There are many crash avoidance system and technologies were developed and
testing in the market. The automakers are competing to produce crash-worthiness
passenger vehicles. However, the effectiveness of the system is determined to on
how drivers interact with the system (Jessica, 2010). It is basically going back to the
driver skill to control and knowledge to react to the situation in the occurrence of a
collision.

In the evaluation, crash avoidance is a vital part to consider in order determining the
driver skill when controlling their vehicle. A series of tests to evaluate the crash
avoidance skill are including driving in slalom motion, braking test, reverse parking
test and also parallel parking test. Overall time spends in all of the tests will
accumulate to the time efficiency performance marks. This will measure the skill
that they have to correlate with the time spent to complete the driving task. There
will be one evaluator and one time-keeper at each of the evaluation set. The
completion time will be taken only when the honk is sound after the task is
completely done at each set. Mandatory driving rules are basic routine to be
complying. Any non-conformance will cause points to demerit. Good practise driving
will be giving bonus points.

23
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Procedure
Assessment for drivers consists of slalom, reverse and parallel parking. The details of
assessment explanation as follows:

a) Slalom
The purposes of slalom assessment are as follows:
• To familiarise the participant with the location of the corners of the
vehicle for manoeuvrability purposes;
• To familiarise the participant with the turning radius of the vehicle while
proceeding forward and backwards
• To require the participant to utilise both mirrors of the vehicle during one
continuous exercise; and
• To increase the participant confidence in the use of mirrors for vehicle
manoeuvring.
Participants will enter the slalom on the right side of the first cone. After
passing the last cone, participants will have to reverse his vehicle until it
reaches the first cone. Then participants will drive straight along the right
side of the cones and stop by the edge of the fifth cone. This marks the end
of this task. Upon completion of this task, the drivers will have to push the
horn. The timekeeper will record the time of completion.
b) Reverse and parallel parking
The purposes of the parking manoeuvre are as follows:
• To allow the participant to understand the importance of vehicle
positioning prior to starting a movement that requires an exact parking
side placement;
• To familiarise the participant with the turning radius of the vehicle as it
impacts restricted space placement;
• To enable the participant to place the vehicle at a specific parking point
utilising the vehicle’s mirrors.
• To optimise the time efficiency to make necessary parking position.
The procedure for reverse park task is to have the participant brings the
vehicle past the parking space and proceeds to reverse parking the vehicle in
the designated space. The procedure for parallel park task is to have the

24
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

participant brings the vehicle past the parking space and proceeds to parallel
parking the vehicle in the designated space.
c) 3-point turn
The purposes of the 3-point turn are as follows:
• To familiarise the participant with the turning radius of the vehicle as it
impacts restricted space placement;
• To optimise the time efficiency, in which to make necessary turn of a
vehicle that moves the opposite direction in a limited space using forward
and reverses gears;
• To require the participant to utilise both mirrors of the vehicle during the
assessment.
Participant is required to conduct the 3-point assessment at the designated
space without a hit the cone.
d) Sharp bend
The sharp bend will assess the rider’s ability to coordinate multiple controls
while driving at sharp bend route. Difficulty in completing a sharp bend is
often the result of drivers that are poor in control of throttle, vehicle
manoeuvre and stability. Upon completion of this task, the drivers will have
to push the horn. The overall flow chart of the driver evaluation is shown in
Figure 7.

Register at Push start Take the Drive the vehicle
Start
the counter buzzer parcel to evaluation set


Push stop Return Back to registration Honking after
End

buzzer

parcel

counter

each task

Figure 7 Overall flow chart of crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency of driver
evaluation

25
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Assessment for riders consists of slow slalom, sudden stopping, sharp bend and
number 8. The details of assessment explanation as follows:

a) Slalom
The slalom will assess the rider’s ability to make controlled direction changes
while moving slowly. Although the rider may never experience this on the
road, this manoeuvre demonstrates that the rider can manage some weight
shift and precisely manoeuvre the motorcycle around objects. Numbers of
cones are set up in a straight line at a distance based on the turning circle
radius of the motorcycle. The rider will weave continuously between the
cones.
b) Sudden stopping
The sudden stop will assess the rider’s ability to stop suddenly from 25–30
km/h riding speed. Many collisions occur due to the rider’s inability to
correctly use the brakes when a sudden or emergency stop is required. The
rider will use both brakes to stop without skidding or losing balance.
Motorcycles with manual transmissions must be in first gear when stopped.
c) Sharp bend
The sharp bend will assess the rider’s ability to coordinate multiple controls
while riding at sharp bend route. Difficulty in completing a sharp bend is
often the result of riders that are poor in control of throttle, manoeuvre and
balancing.
d) Number 8
The number 8 task will assess the rider’s skill and capability to control and
counterbalance the motorcycles when manoeuvring at “number 8” track. As
compared to slalom, Number 8 Procedure required extensive skill to control
the motorcycle at the 180 degrees left and right turn. The rider will ride
continuously for two complete cycles. Figure 8 shows the Number 8
Procedure. The overall flow chart of the rider evaluation is shown in Figure 9.

26
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Figure 8 Number 8 Procedure

Ride the
Register at Push Take
motorcycle to
the start Start the
the evaluation
counter buzzer parcel
set


Back to Honking
Push stop Return
End registration after each
buzzer parcel
counter task

Figure 9 Overall flow chart of crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency of rider
evaluation

3.2.7 Vehicle Inspection

Pre-trip vehicle inspection is a vital daily work activity to ensure roadworthiness of
the motor vehicle before commencing with the daily delivery or making interstate
freight transport. The routine tests and inspections on the motor vehicle systems
and components are carried out with the main purpose to verify the operational
status of the motor vehicle.

According to Rompe and Seul (1985) that their review of US studies suggests that
periodic vehicle inspections could reduce the number of accidents caused by vehicle

27
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

defects by about 50%. These authors also note that vehicle inspection activities may
influence and reduce crashes by increasing drivers’ understanding of the need for
regular maintenance, of safety issues and the condition of their own car. From the
other studies according to George, Narelle, and Naomi (2000), the effect of vehicle
inspection activities on accident rates as assessed by the studies varied significantly,
from no effect to decreasing the accident rate by up to 16%. Few studies examined
the effect on the incidence of defects: a USA study found that it was associated with
a 2.5% reduction; in Sweden, it was found that 7-8% of vehicles with serious defects
were replaced after the introduction of vehicle inspection activities (George,
Narelle, & Naomi, 2000).

According to Grandel (1985) and Treat (1977), between 3% and 19% of crashed
vehicles had a defect that played a contributory role in the crash. Besides, vehicle
defects are a contributing factor in 6.5% to 12.6% of car crashes. For motorcycle
crashes, it would appear that in 5% to 12% of crashes that defect plays a
contributory role.

The motor vehicle inspection task will assess driver’s and rider’s ability to:

• Determine the condition of the various critical motor vehicle systems and
components malfunction through visual inspection;
• Use safety equipment and hand tools to test and inspect the items on the
motor vehicle inspection checklist.

Procedure
Before the assessment starts participant will be given the instructions on how the
assessment will be conducted. The instructions are as follows:

• Assessment format;
• The time duration for the assessment.

28
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

The participant will be asked to conduct the vehicle inspection according to their
daily basis of inspection activities before commencing their delivery work. The
assessment criteria for the challenge will be assessed as follows:

• Perform the inspection activity systematically;

• Identify the vehicle system and component malfunction;
• Complete the inspection in the time duration allocated.

29
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

4. Marking Scheme

The marking scheme consists of scoring for the assessment criteria which are a
distraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity, speed management,
hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency, and vehicle
inspection. The details of the marking scheme for driving and riding performance
evaluation are shown in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.

Table 1 Marking scheme for driver performance evaluation

No. Criterion Score

1 Distraction 10
2 Safe gap acceptance 10
3 Speed management 10
4 Hazard perception 10
5 Crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency 10
6 Vehicle inspection 10
Total 60
Total (percentage) (Total score/60) x 100%

30
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Table 2 Marking scheme for rider performance evaluation

No. Criterion Score

1 Distraction 10
2 Safe gap acceptance 10
3 Motorcyclist conspicuity 10
4 Speed management 10
5 Hazard perception 10
6 Crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency 10
7 Vehicle inspection 10
Total 70
Total (percentage) (Total score/70) x 100%

31
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

5. Evaluation Validity

The validity of driving and riding performance evaluation depends on the fleet
managers. It is important for each driver and rider to be reassessed to ensure the
driving and riding performance is at an optimum level. As suggested by Eby,
Trombley, Molnar, and Shope (1998), cognitive performance declines with age and
the ability to react to certain stimuli while driving might decrease too with ageing
due to decline in visual perception and psychomotor skills (Dunn & Hellier, 2011).
Therefore, a reassessment is needed and should be made compulsory prior to
driver’s recruitment. Fleet managers should take ownership of this assessment and
observe incorporated factor such as the cost of assessment to implementation of
such assessment yields a higher return on investment.

32
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

6. Benefits of the Evaluation

This assessment should be considered with a plan of continuation for a good return
on investment. The assessment should be conducted at an interval period to ensure
and monitor the best performance of motor drivers and riders. Apart from that,
such assessment could also be used to as a marketing tool to the client in the
context of safer operations.

Keeping drivers at their best capability to drive will yield in term of reduced crash
risk and damage which will in return save the operation cost of the entire fleet. This
would increase the confidence level of clients to continue the services. Over a
period, implementation of assessment will improve the safe driving and ride culture
among the drivers and riders in the fleet. The intervention could be conducted as a
yearly or bi-annually road safety program embedded as part of their occupational
safety and health initiatives. Interpretation of the evaluation scoring is based on
operators’ jurisdiction; therefore, the scoring for the evaluation can be used
extensively for staff recruitment, reassignment and promotion purposes.

33
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

7. Conclusion

This document provides systematic guidelines which contain a scientific method of
evaluating drivers and riders performance. It consists of seven assessment criteria
which are a distraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity, speed
management, hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency,
and vehicle inspection. It is applied to all classes or description of motor vehicle
drivers and riders which include the public service vehicles, goods vehicles and also
the private vehicles.

This guideline enables driving and riding performance to be assessed easily and
systematically for a more accurate driver and rider profiling. Accurate driver’s
profiling would in turn expedite fleet owners or operators to make good decision
efficiently and effectively for further actions to be taken appropriately. These
actions may include further improving the driving and riding skill or knowledge or
avoiding them into the road safety system in preventing road crashes and severity.

Thus, contributing to nation’s road safety in reducing road crashes and injury
severity, and enhance the organisation’s image and services apart from instilling a
safe driver culture amongst motor vehicle drivers.

34
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

References

ACEM. (2009). In-depth investigations of accidents involving powered two-wheelers
(MAIDS). Retrieved from http://www.maids-study.eu/pdf/MAIDS2.pdf

Ackerman, P. L. (1988). Determinants of individual differences during skill
acquisition: Cognitive abilities and information processing. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 117(1), 288–318.

Amore, F., Declercq, E., Ehman, S., Elatri, S., Evans, S., Froeschl, T., Fuchs, M., Giger,
M., Holder, V., Kallevik, S. A., Kralova, P., Petursson, S., Roels, R., Signoretti, C.,
Soini, P., Stevovic, D., Valchev, I., Vernelen, R., Vernez, I., & Witpas, N. (2009).
Guidelines for the psychological assessment of train drivers and other safety-
related personnel. Brussels: Community of European Railway and Infrastructure
Companies.

Anstey, K. J., Horswill, M. S., Wood, J. M., & Hatherly, C. (2012). The role of cognitive
and visual abilities as predictors in the multifactorial model of driving safety.
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 45, 766–774.

Anstey, K. J., Wood, J., Lord, S., & Walker, J. G. (2005). Cognitive, sensory and
physical factors enabling driving safety in older adults. Clinical Psychology
Review, 25(1):45–65.

Boufous, S., Ivers, R., Senserrick, T., & Stevenson, M. (2011). Attempts at the
practical on-road driving test and the hazard perception test and the risk of
traffic crashes in young drivers. Traffic Injury Prevention, 12(5), 475–482.

35
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Chapman, P., & Underwood, G. (1998). Visual search of driving situations: Danger
and experience. Perception, 27, 951–964.

Cheng, A. S. K., Ng, T. C. K., & Lee, H. C. (2011). A comparison of the hazard
perception ability of accident-involved and accident-free motorcycle riders.
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 43(4), 1464–1471.

Congdon, P. (1999). Vicroads hazard perception test, can it predict accidents?
Australian Council for Educational Research, Camberwell: Victoria, Australia.

Crundall, D., Humphrey, K., & Clarke, D. (2008). Perception and appraisal of
approaching motorcycles at junctions. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic
Psychology and Behaviour, 11(3), 159–167.

Crundall, D., Crundall, E., Clarke, D., & Shahar, A. (2012). Why do car drivers fail to
give way to motorcycles at T-junctions? Accident Analysis & Prevention, 44(1),
88–96.

Darby, P., Murray, W., & Raeside, R. (2009). Applying online fleet driver assessment
to help identify, target and reduce occupational road safety risks. Safety Science,
47(3), 436–442.

Dingus, T. A., Klauer, S. G., Neale, V. L., Petersen, A., Lee, S. E., Sudweeks, J., Perez,
M. A., Hankey, J., Ramsey, D., Gupta, S., Bucher, C., Doerzaph, Z. R., Jermeland,
J., & Knipling, R. R. (2006). The 100 car naturalistic driving study phase 2 -
Request of the 100 car field experiment. NHTSA DOT, Report No: HS B10 593.

Dunn, V., & Hellier, E. (2011). Evaluation of Devon County Council’s “Driving safer for
longer” workshops. University of Plymouth: Devon County Council.

Evans, L. (2004). Traffic safety report. Bloomfield, Michigan: Science Serving Society.

36
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Eby, D. W., Trombley, D., Molnar, L. J., & Shope, J. T. (1998). The assessment of older
driver's capabilities: A review of the literature (Report No. UMTRI-98–24). Ann
Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute.

Fadde, P. J. (2007). Instructional design for advanced learners: Training expert
recognition skills. Educational Technology Research and Development.

Fuller, R. (2005). Towards a general theory of driver behavior. Accident Analysis &
Prevention, 37(3), 461–472.

George, R., Narelle, H., & Naomi, K. (2000). The effect of vehicle roadworthiness on
crash incidence and severity (Report No. 164). Monash University Accident
Research Centre.

Grandel, J. (1985). Investigation of the technical defects causing motor vehicle
accidents. Field accidents: Data collection, analysis, methodologies, and crash
injury reconstructions. SAE International Congress and Exposition, Detroit,
February 25-March 1, 1985.

Gibson, J. J. (1961). The contribution of experimental psychology to the formulation
of the problem of safety: A brief for basic research. Behavioral Approaches to
Accident Research, 77–89. New York, Association for the Aid of Crippled
Children.

Gregory, R. J. (2007). Psychological testing: History, principles, and applications (5th
ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to the history of psychology (6th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Horswill, M. S., Anstey, K. J., Hatherly, C. G., & Wood, J. (2010). The crash
involvement of older drivers is associated with their hazard perception
latencies. Journal of International Neuropsychology Society, 16(5939–944).

37
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Horswill, M. S., & McKenna, F. P. (2004). Drivers’ hazard perception ability: Situation
awareness on the road. In: Banbury, S., Tremblay, S. (Eds.). A cognitive approach
to situation awareness: Theory and application (pp. 155–175). Ashgate,
Aldershot: UK.

Hurt, H. H. J., Ouellet, J. V., & Thom, D. R. (1981). Motorcycle accident cause factors
and identification of countermeasures, Vol. 1. NHTSA, Washington, DC. IRTAD,
2009.

International Standard of Organization (ISO). (2015). Road vehicles - Transport
information and control system – detection response task. (Preliminary Work
Item – Working Document). Unpublished manuscript.

Jacobs, A. C., MacKenzie, M. J., & Botma, Y. (2013). Learning experiences of student
nurses on a healthcare train in the free state province of South Africa. Africa
Journal of Nursing and Midwifery 15(1), 3–14.

Jensen, M., Wagner, J., & Alexander, K. (2011). Analysis of in-vehicle driver behavior
data for improved safety (pp. 197–212). International Journal Vehicle Safety 5
(3).

Jessica, S. J. (2010). Crash avoidance potential of four passenger vehicle
technologies. Journal of Accident Analysis & Prevention.

Knapper, C., & Cropley, A. (2008). Interpersonal factors in driving. Applied
Psychology, 29(4), 415–438.

Li, M. D., Doong, J. L., Huang, W. S., Lai C. H., & Jeng, M. C. (2009). Survival hazards
of road environment factors between motor-vehicles and motorcycles. Accident
Analysis & Prevention 41(5), 938–947.

Liang, Y., & Lee, J. D. (2010). Combining cognitive and visual distraction: Less than
the sum of its parts. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 42, 881–890.

38
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Lisa, D. A. (1994). Review of the literature on obstacle avoidance maneuvers: Braking

versus steering. The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute.

McKenna, F. P., Horswill, M. S., & Alexander, J. L. (2006). Does anticipation training
affect drivers’ risk-taking? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12, 1–
10.

McKnight, A. J., & McKnight, A. S. (1999). Multivariate analysis of age-related driver
ability and performance deficits. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 31, 445–454.

Miles, D., & Johnson, G. (2003). Aggressive driving behaviors: Are there
psychological and attitudinal predictors? Transportation Research Part F: Traffic
Psychology and Behaviour, 6(2), 147–161.

Miyake, A., Emerson, M. J., & Friedman, N. P. (2000). Assessment of executive
functions in clinical settings: Problems and recommendations. Seminars Speech
Lang, 21(2), 169–183.

Niewoehner, W., & Berg, F. A. (2005). Endangerment of pedestrians and bicyclists at
intersections by right turning trucks. Statistics, 1–15.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2006).
Transport research centre: Speed management report. Paris.

Pai, C-W. (2009). Motorcyclist injury severity in angle crashes at T-junctions:
Identifying significant factors and analysing what made motorists fail to yield to
motorcycles. Safety Science, 47(8), 1097–1106.

Pai, C-W, Hwang, K. P., & Saleh, W. (2009). A mixed logit analysis of motorists’ right-
of-way violation in motorcycle accidents at priority T-junctions. Accident
Analysis & Prevention, 41(3), 565–573.

39
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Pai, C-W., & Saleh, W. (2008). Exploring motorcyclist injury severity in approach-turn
collisions at T-junctions: Focusing on the effects of driver's failure to yield and
junction control measures. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 40(2), 479–486.

Plug, C., Meyer, W. F., Louw, D. A., & Gouws, L. A. (1989). Psychology dictionary.
Johannesburg: Lexicon.

Psychological Assessment of Train Drivers and other safety-related personnel. CER
Psychologists’ Subgroup. http://www.psy.it/allegati/guidelines_train_drivers.pdf

Rizzo, M. (2011). Medical disorders. In: Fisher, D. L., Rizzo, M., Caird, J. K., & Lee, J.
D. (Eds.). Handbook of driving simulation for engineering, medicine, and
psychology (pp. 46–51 through 46–21). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group.

Road Transport Act 1987 (Incorporating all amendments up to 1 July 2006). (2006).
Kuala Lumpur: The commissioner of law revision. Malaysia Under The Authority
of The Revision of Laws Act 1968 & Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Bhd.

Road Transport Department of Malaysia. (2004). Driver’s education curriculum
handbook first edition. Putrajaya: Road Transport Department of Malaysia.

Rompe, K., & Seul, E. (1985). Advantages and disadvantages of conducting
roadworthiness tests to monitor the mechanical condition for private cars, the
impact of such tests on road safety, environmental protection and the renewal
of the vehicle fleet and the scope for introducing roadworthiness testing
throughout the European community. Final report commissioned by the
Directorate-General for Transport, VII/G-2 of the Commission of the European
Communities. Drawn up by the TUV Rheinland.

Sagberg, F., & Bjørnskau, T. (2006). Hazard perception and driving experience
among novice drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 382, 407–414.

40
 Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components

Sullivan, L. (2009) (Ed.). Psychomotor skills in The SAGE glossary of the social and
behavioural sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Treat, J. R. (1977). Tri-level study of the causes of traffic accidents: An overview of
final results. American Association for Automotive Medicine Conference. USA.

Treat, J. R., Tumbas, N. S., McDonald, S. T., Shinar, D., Hume, R. D., Mayer, R. E.,
Stanisfer, R. L., & Castellan, N. J. (1977). Tri-level study of the causes of traffic
accidents. Report No. DOT-HS-034-3-535-77 (TAC).

Trick, L. M., Enns, J. T., Mills, J., & Vavrik, J. (2004). Paying attention behind the
wheel: A framework for studying the role of attention in driving. Theory Issues
Ergon 5(5), 385–424.

Van Elslande, P., & Jaffard, M. (2010). Typical human errors in traffic accidents
involving powered two-wheelers. In: Proceedings of the 27th International
Congress of Applied Psychology (pp. 1363–1364). Melbourne, Australia.

Wang, J. S., Knipling, R. R., & Goodman, M. J. (1996). The role of driver inattention in
crashes: New statistics from the 1995 crashworthiness data system. In 40th
Annual Proceedings Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine,
Des Plaines (pp. 377–392). IA: AAAM.

Wells, P., Tong, S., Sexton, B., Grayson, G., & Jones, E. (2008). Cohort ii: A study of
learner and new drivers. Department for Transport, London, UK.

Wetton, M. A., Hill, A., & Horswill, M. S. (2011). The development and validation of a
hazard perception test for use in driver licensing. Accident Analysis &
Prevention, 43(5), 1759–1770.

Young, K. L., & Salmon, P. M. (2012). Examining the relationship between driver
distraction and driving errors: A discussion of theory, studies and methods.
Safety Science, 50, 165–174.

41

Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation:
Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components MCP No. 226

Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research

Lot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral,
43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Tel: 603-89249200 Faks: 603-87332005
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.miros.gov.my
Guideline of Safe Driver and
Rider Performance Evaluation:
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH

ASEAN ROAD SAFETY CENTRE

Focusing on Cognitive and
Psychomotor Components

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH

ASEAN ROAD SAFETY CENTRE