TRS cutichii@iok covers funda- Méal'al concepte In the analysis and daalgisulWerogpach structures. It de- valops analytical ipols for Ihe pre: dictlon and adaesemont of structural behavior that are highly useful re- gordiaea of the field in which they are applled, Tha book makes readers dware af important factors to con- alder In the design of structural gomponents, Including basic olastic- ly relationships and material be havior and selection. A very current volurne, It offers @ working knowl- gage of both classical and modern computer techniques used in struc- tural analysis, Included is a great deal of highly practical information, such a8 load analyses of flight vehi- les and the analysis and design of apedlfic fllght vehicle structural components. A great variety of analytlaat techniques ts covered, i cluding energy methods, the fi difference method, and the stiffness matrix methods in the deflection analyela of structures. The many it- fustrative examples In every section fopeatedly use theoretical cevolop- mante to delve practical problems. An oxdallent collection of stim- ulating supplementary problems offers readers extra holp in under- standing concepts. Tha naw edition foaturas oxionsive new rraterial ona varlaty of top inctuding thermal strons analy: {inte differences, matrix mathods, epargy metheds, and olastichy to latlonabipa. the book haw boon brought completaly up to-date, thanks le coverage of how mathods of etructital analysts for complex SHUEH FAs BL few Gotirenienti ia Hugig ter high apood Hight vaiictan THe odio hae tio boon revined to plete grader emphaale an tha tn POLL HEAT Integrating the conneptis fin, li and denignSI metric conversion factors Quantity To convert from To Multiply by Area square feet (ft?) square meter (m?) 0.0929 Bending moment (pound-force) (feet) newton-meters 1.356 or torque Degree (heat) Fahrenheit (°F) Celsius (°C) T =(F - 32) Force pound-force (Ibf) newton (N) 4448 kilogram-force (kgf) kyne Force per unit pound-force per feet newtons per meter 14,594 length (N/m) Length foot (ft) meters (m) 03048 inch (in) centimeter (em) 00254 Mass pound (Ibm) kilogram (kg) 0.4536 Mass density pound-mass per cubic kilogram per cubic 16.021 foot (lbm/ft*) meter (kg/m?) Stress pound-force per square —_ pascal (Pa) 6.894 x 10° (pressure) inch (Ibffin?) Velocity foot per second (ft/s) meter per second 0.3048 (m/s) Viscosity pound-force per inches newtons per meter to-3 centipoise (N/m) pound force second (Pa: s) 47.88 per square foot (Ibf + s/ft*)AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES Second Edition David J. Peery, pb.v. Late Professor of Aeronautical Engineering The Pennsylvania State University. J.J. Azar, pho. Professor of Petroleum and Mechanical Engineering University of Tulsa McGraw-Hill Book Company New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotit Hamburg Johannesburg London Madrid Mexico Montreal New Delhi Panama Paris Sio Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoTo THE MEMORY OF Dr. David Peery This book was sct in Times Roman by Santyy The editors were Diane D. Heiberg and J. W. Mai the production supervisor was Charles Hess. New drawings were done by J & R Services, Inc. The cover was designed by Kao & Kuo Associates. Halliday Lithograph Corporation printer and binder. Byrd. 13 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES: Copyright @ 1982 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright 1950 by McGraw-Hill, Inc, All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 234567890 HDID 89876543 ISBN O-0?-O491L9b-8 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Peery. David J. raft structures. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Airframes. I. Azar, Jamal J., date U. Title TLOTI.GP4 1982 629.1341 81-17196 ISBN 0-07-149196-8 AACR2CONTENTS Preface ix Chapter L_ Static Analysis of Structures 1 Lt Introduction 1 1.2 Structural System 1 4.3 Load Classification 2 1.4 Supports and Reactions 3 LS Equations of Static Equilibrium 5 1.6 Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 6 1.7 Applications 7 Problems. 21 Chapter 2. Flight-Vehicle Imposed Loads 26 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 General Considerations 26 2.3 Basic Flight Loading Conditions 27 2.4. Plight-Vehicle Aerodynamic Loads 31 2.5 Flight-Vehicle Inertia Loads 34 2.6 Load Factors for Translational Acceleration 37 2.7 Velocity-Load Factor Diagram 41 2.8 Gust Load Factors 4B 2.9 Examples 46 Problems 58 Chapter 3 Elasticity of Structures 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2. Stresses 62 3.3. Stress Equilibrium Equations in a Nonuniform Stress Field 65 3.4 Strains and Strain-Displacement Relationships 66 3.5. Compatibility Equations for Piane-Stress and Plane-Strain Problems 69 3.6 Boundary Conditions 70vi CONTENTS 37 38 Chapter 4 41 42 43 44 4S 46 47 Chapter 5 S.A 5.2 5.3 54 55 5.6 57 58 59 5.10 sat Chapter 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 68 69 6.10 611 6.12 Chapter 7 TA 12 Stress-Strain Relationships Transformation of Stresses and Strains Problems Behavior and Evaluation of Vehicle Material Tntroduction Mechanical Properties of Materials Equations for Stress-Strain Curve Idealization Fatigue Strength-Weight Comparisons of Materials Sandwich Construction Typical Design Data for Materials Problems Stress Analysis Introduction Force-Stress Relationships Normal Stresses in Beams Shear Stresses in Beams Shear Flow in Thin Webs Shear Center Torsion of Closed-Section Box Beams Shear Flow in Closed-Section Box Beams Spanwise Taper Effect Beams with Variable Stringer Areas Airy Stress Function Problems Deflection Analysis of Structural Systems Introduction Work and Complementary Work: Strain and Complementary Strain Energies Principle of Virtual Displacements and Related Theorems Principle of Virtual Forces and Related Theorems Linear Flastic Structural Systems Castigliano’s Second Theorem in Deflection Analysis of Structures Rayleigh-Ritz Method in Deflection Analysis of Structures Finite Difference Method in Deffection Analysis of Structures Redundant Structures dnd the Unit-Load Method Structures with Single Redundancy Structures with Multiple Redundancy Shear Lag Problems Finite Element Stiffness Method in Structural Analysis Introduction Mathematical Model of the Structure a 73 15 8 78 9 92 95 7 97 7 101 107 109 112, 113 Hg. 122 126 130 139 139 140 140 144 147 150 156 158 165 167 1733 181 186 190 190 19173 14 1S 16 11 78 19 7.10 TAL TAZ Chapter 8 81 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 Chapter 9 91 92 93 94 95 9.6 Chapter 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 CONTENTS vii Element Discretization Applications of Finite Element Matrix Method Coordinate System Forces, Displacements, and Their Sign Convention Stiffness Method Concept Formulation Procedures for Element Structural Relationships Element Shape Functions Flement Stiffness Matrices From Element {o System Formulations Global Stiffness Matrices for Special Beam Elements Problems Analysis of Typical Members of Semimonocoque Structures Introduction Distribution of Concentrated Loads to Thin Webs Loads on Fuselage Bulkheads Analysis of Wing Ribs Shear Flow in Tapered Webs Cutouts in Semimonocoque Structures Shearing Deformations Torsion of Box Beams Elastic Axis or Shear Center Warping of Beam Cross Sections Redundancy of Box Beams Torsion of Multicell Box Beams Beam Shear in Multicell Structures Problems Thermal Stresses Introduction ‘Thermal Stress Problem: Philosophy Formulation of Equations for Thermal Stress Analysis, Solution Methods for Thermoelastic Problems Thermal Stresses in Unrestrained Beams with Temperature Variation through the Depth Only Thermal Stresses in Built-up Structures Problems Design of Members in Tension, Bending, or Torsion Tension Members Plastic Bending Constant Bending Stress Trapezoidal Distribution of Bending Stress Curved Beams Torsion of Circular Shafts Torsion of a Noncircular Shaft 191 192 192 194 197 202 207 209 2ut 214 226 233 233 238 243 251 260 261 263 266 269 270 272 275 279 279 281 284 289 291 295 299 299 300 302 304 307 310 iLviii CONTENTS: 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 Chapter 11 Tt 112 113 14 ILS 16 17 18 ig 11.10 HU HZ 1ht3 Wd 1s 11.16 VAT 1B tar) Chapter 12 124 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 End Restraint of Torsion Members Torsional Stresses above the Elastic Limit Combined Stresses and Stress Ratios Failure Theories in Structural Design Problems Buckling Design of Structural Members Beam-Deflection Equations Long Columns Eccentrically Loaded Columns Short Columns Column End Fixity Empirical Formulas for Short Columns Dimensionless Form of Tangent Modulus Curves Buckling of Isotropic Flat Plates in Compression Ultimate Compressive Strength of Isotropic Flat Sheet Plastic Buckling of Flat Sheet Nondimensional Buckling Curves Columns Subject to Local Crippling Failure Needham and Gerard Methods for Determining Crippling Stresses Curved Sheet in Compression Elastic Shear Buckling of Flat Plates Elastic Buckling of Curved Rectangular Plates Pure Tension Field Beams Angle of Diagonal Tension in Web Semitension Field Beams Problems Joints and Fittings Introduction Bolted or Riveted Joints Accuracy of Fitting Analysis Eccentrically Loaded Connections Welded Joints Problems Appendixes Moments of Inertia and Mohr’s Circle Matrix Algebra References Index 316 37 320 325 327 328 328 330 331 332 334 339 342 344 349 353 357 358 362 364 368 370 373 377 380 387 389 389 390 395 401 408 409 434 446 430PREFACE ‘The purpose of this book is (wofuld: (1) to provide the reader with fundamental concepts in the analysis and design of flight structures, and (2) to develop unified analytical tools for the prediction and assessment of structural behavior re- gardless of field application. The text is written in a manner which allows the reader to develop a work- ing knowledge in both the classical and the modern computer techniques of structural analysis. In addition, it helps the reader develop a thorough under- standing of the important factors which must be considered in the design of structural components. The scope covers areas that the authors feel are essential fundamentals from which the reader may progress to the analysis and design of more complex and larger structural systems. The definitions of structural systems and its con- stiluents, loads, supports and reactions, the concepts in statics, and the funda- mental principles of mechanics are covered in the first portion of the book. The basic elasticity relations (stress-strain, strain displacements, etc), and material behavior and selection’ are discussed. Load analysis of flight vehicles and the analysis and design of specific flight-vehicle structural components are presented. Fatigue analysis, thermal stress analysis, and instability analysis of structures are also included. Energy methods, finite-difference methods, and the stiffness matrix metliods in the deflection analysis of structures are provided. Numerous examples are solved in every section of the book to close the gap between the theoretical developments and its application in solving practical problems. The book is written for a first course in structural analysis and design. It is intended for senior-level students. The essential prerequisites are strength of ma- terials and a basic course in calculus. The book also serves as an excellent reference for the practicing engineer. J.J. Azar ixCHAPTER ONE STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 11. INTRODUCTION The full understanding of both the terminology in statics and the fundamental principles of mechanics is an essential prerequisite to the analysis and design of structures. Therefore, this chapter is devoted to the presentation and the appli- cation of these fundamentals. 1.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM Any deformable solid body which is capable of carrying loads and transmitting these loads to other parts of the body is referred to as a structural system. The constituents of such systems are beams, plates, shells, or a combination of the three. Bar elements, such as shown in Fig, 1.1, are one-dimensional structural mem- bers which are capable of carrying and transmitting bending, shearing, torsional, and axial loads or a combination of all four. Bars which are capable of carrying only axial loads are referred to as axial rods or two-force members. Structural systems constructed cntircly out of axial rods are called rrusses and frequently are used in many atmospheric, sea, and land-based structures, since simple tension or compression members are usually the lightest for transmitting forces. Plate elements, such as shown in Fig. 1.2, are two-dimensional extensions of bar elements. Plates made to carry only in-plane axial loads are called mem-2 AMCRAET STRUCTURES @ 1 Hee Ss . ow ( A» sx —__ - ___.. __(|_ (-_- 4 Figure 1.1 Bar elements. (a) Gen- A eral bar: (b) axial rod; (e} tor- © sional rod. branes. Those which are capable of carrying only in-plane shearing loads are referred to as shear panels; frequently these are found in missile fins, aircraft wings, and tail surfaces. Shells are curved plate clements which occupy a space. Fusclages, building domes, pressure vessels, etc., are typical examples of shells. 13 LOAD CLASSIFICATION Loads which act on a structural system may be gencrally classified in accordance with their causes. Those which are produced by surface contact are called surface loads. Dynamic and/or static pressures are examples of surface loads. If the area of contact is very small, then the load is said to be concentrated; otherwise, it is called a distributed load. (Sec Fig. 1.3.) Loads which depend on body volume are called body loads, Inertial, mag- netic, and gravitational forces are typical examples. Generally, these loads are assumed to be distributed over the entire volume of the body. Loads also may be categorized as dynamic, static, or thermal. Dynamic loads are time-dependent, whereas static loads are independent of time. Thermal loads are created on a restrained structure by a uniform and/or nonuniform temper- ature change. Regardless of the classification of the externally imposed loads, a structural member, in general, resists these loads internally in the form of bending, axial, shear, and torsional actions or a combination of the four. In order to present definitions for internal loads, pass a hypothetical plane soSTATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 3. a + Figure 1.2 Plate elements. (a) ‘ee General plate clement; (6) mem- © brane element; (c) shear panel. that it cuts the face of a structural member perpendicular to the member axis, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Thus, a bending moment may be defined as a force whose vector representation lies in and parallel to the plane of the cut, while a torque is a force whose vector representation is normal to that cut. On the other hand, shear load is a force which lies in and is parallel to the planc of the cut, while axial load is a force which acts normal to the plane of the cut. 1.4 SUPPORTS AND REACTIONS The primary function of supports is to provide, at some points of a structural system, physical restraints that limit the freedom of movement to only that4 AIRCRAFT: STRUCTURES Wy és it "Y KS ‘J R @ . ny 7a) Figure 1.3 Concentrated and distributed loads. (a) Actual loads: (h) idealized loads; (c) wing pressure load. intended in the design. The types of supports that occur in ordinary practice are shown in Fig, 1.5. The forces induced at points of support are called reactions. For example, a hinge support is designed to allow only rotation at the point of connection, and Figure 1.4 = axial load, Ib; M, = T = torque, Ib-in; Mf,. M,= bending moment(s), Ib-in; ¥,, shear loads, 1b.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 5 Pi " Pin a = Ko Koller s Re Ry Knife edge Ao, ee — |—— Knife edge . y R,| ay @ M, . ye Fo — 5 -R, 5 ° Tk, - af @ © Figure 1.5 Support types. (a) Hinge support; (h) hinge-roller support; (c) fixed support; (d) fixed-roller support. thus reactive forces (reactions) are developed in the other directions where move- ments are not allowed. Likewise, a hinge-roller support allows rotation and a translation in only the x direction, and hence there exists one reactive force (reaction) in the y direction. A fixed support normally is designed to provide restraints against rotation and allstranslations; therefore, reactive forces and moments (reactions) are developed along the directions where movements are not permitted. 1.5 EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM One of the first steps in the design of a structural system is the determination of internal loads acting on each system member. Any solid body in space or any part cut out of the body is said to be in a state of stable static equilibrium if it simultaneously satisfies: (i =x, y, 2) (Al) where & F; = 0 implics that the vector sum of all forces acting on the system or on part of it must add to zero in any one direction along a chosen set of system axes x, y, and z; likewise, £ M; = 0 means that the vector sum of all moments at6 MRCRAFT STRUCTURES: any presclected point must add to zero around any one of the chosen set of axes x, yyand z. While Faq. (1-1) applics for general space structures, for the case of planar- type structures it reduces to (=x) (1.2) Note that only six independent equations exist for any free body in space and three independent equations exist for a coplanar free body. If, for cxample, an attempt is made to find four unknown forces in a coplanar free body by using the two force equations and moment equations at two sclected points, the four equations cannot be solved because they are not independent (ie., one of the equations can be derived from the other three). The following equations cannot be solved for the numerical values of the three unknowns because they are not independent: Fi + F,+F3=3 Fy + Fy 42Fy=4 2F,+2F,4+3F,;=7 In matrix form these are as follows. riaiyfAy=f3 112] ]F, 4 223} Le%J=L7 The third equation may be obtained by adding the first two equations, and consequently it does not represent an independent condition. The dependence of these equations is more readily established if an attempt is made to find the inverse of the 3 x 3 matrix of coefficients. It can be shown casily that the deter- minant of the matrix is zero; hence equation dependence does, in fact, exist. A matrix whose determinant is zero is said to be sinytdar and therefore cannot be inverted. 1.6 STATICALLY DETERMINATE AN’ INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES A structure is said to be determinate if all its external reactions and the internal loads on its members can be obtained by utilizing only the static equa- tions of equilibrium, Otherwise the structure is said to be statically indeterminate. In the latter, or what is commonly referred to as a redundant structure, there are more unknown forces than the number of independent equations of statics which can be utilized. The additional equations required for the analysis of redundant structures can be obtained by considering the deformations (displacements) in theSTATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 7 Figure 1.6 Indeterminate structures. structure. This is studied in detail in later chapters. External reactions, internal loads, or a combination of both may cause a structural system to be statically redundant. The number of redundancies in a structure is governed by the number of external reactions and/or the number of members that may be taken out without the stability of the structure being affected. For example, in Fig. 1.6c if member 1-3 and/or reaction Rg, is removed, then the structure becomes stati- cally determinate and maintains its stability. Likewise, in Fig. 1.6b if members 2-4 and 2-6 and either reaction Rp, or R3, are removed, then the structure becomes determinate and stable. If, on the other hand, additional members such as 3-5 and 1-5 are removed, then the structure becomes a mechanism or un- stable. Mechanisms cannot resist loads and therefore are not used as structural systems. 1.7 APPLICATIONS While the set of [Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2)] is simple and well known, it is very important for a student to acquire proficiency in the application of these equa- tions to various types of structural systems. Several typical structural systems are_ analyzed as illustrative examples. Example 1.1 Find the internal toads acting on each member of the structure shown in Fig, 1.7. SOLUTION First, disassemble the structure as shown in Fig. 1.8 and make a free-body diagram for each member. Since members 1-2 and 4-6 are two- force members (axial rods), the forces acting on them are along the line joining the pin joints of these members. All directions of forces are chosen arbitrarily and must be reversed if a negative value is obtained; that is, F, is assumed to act to the right on the horizontal member and therefore must act to the lefi since its magnitude came to be negative.8 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 1000 tb Figure 1.7 For the pulley EM, =0(4+0) 1000 x 2—2T =0 T = 1000 1b ZF, =0(+) Figure £.8 Disassembled structure.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 9 Fz, — 1000 =0 Fy, = 1000 Ib EF, =0(+1) F;,— 1000 =0 Fy, = 1000 Ib For member 3-6-7, =M;=0(+) 1000 x 7—24F, =0 Fy = 2915 Ib =0(*%) F3, + 2915 cos 36.9° — 1000 = 0 Fy, = —1335 Ib ZF, =0(+ 1) Fy, + 2915 sin 36.9° — 1000 = 0 Fy, = —750 Ib Since the magnitudes of F, and F3, came to be negative, the assumed direc- tion must be reversed. A common practice is to cross out (rather than erase) the original arrows. For member 2-3-4-5, IMs =0(+ 7) 1335 x 5 — 2915 x 2 cos 36.9° — 4F, = 0 F, = 500 Ib EF, =0( 45) Fs, — 2915 cos 36.9° + 1335 — 500 cos 60° = 0 Fs, — 1250 Ib EF, = 06+) ‘sy — 2915 sin 36.9" + 750 — 500 sin 60° = 0 Fs, = 1433 Id Now all internal loads have been obtained without the use of the entire structure as a free body. The solution is checked by applying the three10 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES equations of equilibrium to the entire structure: =F, =0(+) 1250 — 1000 — 500 cos 60° = 0 EF, =0(+1) 1433 — 1000 — 500 sin 60° = 0 =IMs=0(+0) 1000 x 9 — 1000 x 7— 500 x 4=0 This equilibrium check should be made wherever possible to detect any errors that might have occurred during the analysis. Example 1.2 Find the internal load in member 5 of the coplanar truss struc- ture shown in Fig, 1.9, SOLUTION Several methods are available for analyzing truss structures; two are discussed and applied in solving this example. (a) Method of joints. In the analysis of a truss by the method of joints, the two equations of static equilibrium, ZF, = 0 and ZF, = 0, are applied for each joint as a free body. Two unknown forces may be obtained for each joint. Since each member is an axial rod (two-force member), it exerts equal and opposite forces on the joints at its ends. The joints of a truss must be analyzed in sequence by starting at a joint which has only two members meeting with unknown forces. Then the joints are analyzed in the proper sequence until all joints have been considered, if necessary. To find the unknown reactions, consider the entire structure as a free body. EM, =0(+.0) 2000 x 10 + 4000 x 10 + 1000 x 30 — 20R., = 0 Reg = 4500 Ib 4000 1b 10 in—+}+—10 ae in—+| Rey| Figure 1.9 Truss structure.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES IT EF, =0(+) 2000 — Ray Ray = 2000 Ib EF,=0(+9) Ra, — 4000 ~ 1000 + 4500 = 0 Ra, = 500 Ib The directions of unknown forces in each member are assumed, as in the previous example, and vectors are changed on the skeich when they are found to be negative. (Sec Fig. 1.10) Isolating joint 4, we have IF, =0(+ +) F, — 2000 =0 F, = 2000 Ib =F, =0(+1) 500 — F, =0 F, = 500 Ib Isolating joint 1 gives EF, =0(+1) 500 — Fy sin 45° = 0 Fy = 707 Ib 500) fs IF, =0(+ +) 2000 + 707 cos 45" — Fy = 0 Fy = 2500 Ib Figure 1.1012 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 1000 1» Finally, isolating joint 5 to obtain the load in member 5, we get =F, =0(+1) 707 707 sin 45° — Fs = 0 Fs = 500 Ib Fe Arrows acting toward a joint indicate that a member is in com- pression, and arrows acting away from a joint indicate tension. (b) Method of sections. As in this example, often it is desirable to find the internal loads in certain selected members of a truss without analyzing the entire truss. Usually the method of joints is cumbersome in this case, since the loads in all the members to the left or right of any member must be obtained before the force is found in that particular member. An analysis by the method of sections will yield the internal load in any preselected member by a single operation, without the necessity of finding loads in the other members. Instead of considering the joints as free bodies, a cross section is taken through the truss and the part of the truss on either side is considered as a free body. The cross section is chosen so that it culs the members for which the forces are desired and preferably only three members. In our example, the internal load in member 5 is desired; the free body is as shown in Fig. 1.11. The load in member 5 may be found by summing forces in the y direction on either part of the cut truss. Con- sidering the left part as a free body, we get ZF,=0(+ 1) 500 — Fs, =0 F, = 500 Ib Example 1.3 Analyze the structural system shown in Fig. 1.12. SOLUTION Quite often, structural systems are made up largely of axial rods but contain some members which are loaded laterally, as shown in Fig. 1.12.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 13 $0 tbyin lL Figure 1.12 These structures usually are classified as trusses, since the analysi similar to that used for trusses. As shown in Fig. 1.12, members 1-2 and 2-3 are not axial rods, and separate free-body diagrams for these members, as shown in Fig. 1.134 and b, are required. Since each of these members has four un- known reactions, the equations of static equilibrium are not sufficient to find all four unknowns. It is possible, though, to find the vertical reactions Ri, = Ray = Roy = Ry, = 100 Ib and to obtain the relations R,, = Rz, and Ruz = Ry, from the equations of equilibrium. When the unknown reactions obtained from members 1-2 and 2-3 are applied to the remaining part of the structure as a free body (Fig. 1.13b), it is apparent that the rest of the analysis is similar to that of the previous examples. All members except 1-2 and 2-3 may now be designed as simple tension or compression members. The horizontal members (1-2 and 2-3) must be designed for bending combined with axial and shear loads. Example 1-4 Find the reactions at supports 4, B, and C, for the landing gear of Fig. 1.14. Members OB and OC are two-force members. Member OA resists bending and torsion, but point A is hinged by a universal joint so that the member can carry torsion but no bending in any direction at this point. So1ution First consider the components of the torsional reaction at point A. ‘The resultant torsional vector Ty, shown in Fig, 1.15b, must be along the member, and it has components Tyx and Tyy. Any vector force Q acting in space may be resolved into components along the chosen set of axes by the method of direction cosines. Q, = Qcos a Q, = Qcos B Q, = Qcos y (13)10 tb/in to tbyin 100 1h @) 200 Ib 100 th 364.4 Ib 173.2 1b 173.2 tb 400 1b Figure 1.13 © Here «, fi, and y are the angles between the x, y, and z axes and the line of action of the force vector Q, respectively. Thus, from Fig. 1.15h, utilizing Eq, (1.3), we have Tay = Ty cos fp = Ty ($8) = 0.87, Tax = Ty cos & = Ty (38) = 0.6T, Taz = Ty Cos y = Ty (%) = 0 In the free-body diagram for the entire structure, shown in Fig. 1.15a, there are six unknown reaction forces. The six equations of static equilibrium are just sufficient to determine these unknown forces. Taking moments about an axis through points A and B gives EM 4n = 4000 x 36 — 0.8F¢ x 30 =0 Fe = 6000 Ib30 in ++ 6 in->| Figure 1.14 The torsional moment T, may be found by taking moments about line 0A. Note that ail unknown forces act through this line. EM ag = 1000 x 4.8 ~ T, = 0 Ty, = 4800 in - Ib ay "J (000 +4000 Ib toou tb (a) wy Figure 1.1516 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES The other forces are obtained from the following equations, which are chosen so that only one unknown appears in each equation. EMox = 2880 — 40F yz =0 an = T2Ib The subscript “Ox” designates an axis through point 0 in the x direction. ‘M,, = 1000 + 72 — 6000 x 0.6 + 0.371F% =0 Fy = 6820 Ib EF x = Fax — 6820 x 0.557 = 0 F yx = 3800 Ib Ley = 4000 + 6820 x 0.743 — 6000 x 0.8 — Fay =0 F yy = 4270 Ib Check: EM yy = —1000 x 36 + 6000 x 0.6 x 30 - 6820 x 0.557 x 20 + 3840 =0 Example 1.5 Find the internal loads on all members of the landing gear shown in Fig. 1.16. SoLuTION For convenience, the reference axes V, D, and S are taken as shown in Fig. 1.16 with the V axis parallel to the olco strut. Free-body diagrams for the oleo strut and the the horizontal member are shown in Fig. 1.17. Forces perpendicular to the plan of the paper are shown by a circled dot for forces toward the observer and a circled cross for forces away from 20,000 cos 15° = 19,300 Ib (a) () Figure 1.16Ey = 19,790 1b Fy = 4740 Ib va Eg 6300 1b oe ip = 4740 Ib Trl 0.83206 = 9,440 th = 41.720 in-ib 0.707611 9930 Ih = 9.930 Ib 9440 1b] BU = 14,080 tb 0. SOG 6300 Ib G0 hy a aL | 5190 Ib dD A v7RUL FF 99301 L 3s 9930 th 19300 tb 19,300 18 fa) am 41,7201 19,790 tb | Ih 417.1301 4740 Ip = 6115 Ib 47,720 en eno 19,790 th 6300 1b Ww 1°, 20016 te Figure 1.17 the observer. The V component of the 20,000-Ib force is 20,000 cos 15° = 19,300 Ib The D component is 20,000 sin 15” = 5190 tb The angle of the sidc-brace member CG with the V axis is tan”! 2 = 33.7"18 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES The V and S components of the force in member CG are CG cos 33.7° = 0.832CG CG sin 33.7° = 0.555CG The drag-brace member BH is at an angle of 45° with the V axis, and the components of the force in this member along the V and D axes are BH cos 45° = 0.707BII BH sin 45° = 0.707BH The six unknown forces acting on the olco strut are now obtained from the following equations: UMey = 5190 x 8— T.=0 T, = 41,720 in: tb IMs = 5190 x 44 — 0.707BH x 20 —0.707BH x 3=0 BH = 14,050 Ib 0.707BH = 9930 Ib EMep = 0.555CG x 20 + 0.832CG x 3— 19,300 x 8=0 CG = 11,350 Ib 0.555CG = 6300 Ib 0.832CG = 9440 Ib =F, = 19,300 + 9930 — 9440 —- E, =0 E, = 19,700 Ib EF, = E, — 6300 =0 E, = 6300 Ib EF, = —5190 + 9930 — EF, =0 E, = 4740 tb The horizontal member IJ is now considered as x free body. The forces obtained above are applied to this member, as shown in Fig. 1.17c and d, and the five unknown reactions are obtained as follows: EF, =1,= = 19,790 x 3 + 9440 x 18 + 6300 -2—20/,=0 J, = 12,100 Ib = 19,790 + 9440 — 12,100 — 1, = 17,130 IbSTATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 19 EMyy = 41,720 — 4740 x 3+ 20J, Jy = ~1375 Ib Fy = 4740 + 1375 - 1, 1, = 6115 Ib The reactions are now checked by considering the entire structure as a free body, as shown in Fig. 1.17e. = 19,300 — 17,130 — 12,100 + 9930 = 0 ZF, = —5190 + 1375 — 6115 + 9930 =0 IF, =0 EM yy = 5190 x 11 — 1375 x 20 — 9930 x 3=0 EM jp = 19,300 x 11 — 12,100 x 20 +9930 x 3 =0 EM,, = 5190 x 44 — 9930 x 23 =0 Example 1.6 Find the ds on the lift and drag-truss members of the exter- nally braced monoplane wing shown in Fig, 1.18. The air load is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the span of the wing. The diagonal drag-truss members are wires, with the tension diagonal effective and the other diagonal carrying no load. SOLUTION The vertical load of 20 Ib/in is distributed to the spars in inverse proportion to the distance between the center of pressure and the spars. The RIES pee 20 thyin ihn “LE a sin E10 Gal a o Figure 1.1820 MRCRAFT STRUCTURES: load on the front spar, is therefore 16 Ib/in, and that on the rear spar is 4 Ib/in, If the front spar is considered as a free body, as shown in Fig, 1.19a, the vertical forces at A and G may be obtained. EM, = —16 x 180 x 90 + 1006, = 0 G, = 2590 Ib EF, = 16 x 180 - 2590 — A, A, = 290 Ib Force A, cannot be found at this point in the analysis, since the drag-truss members exert forces on the front spar which are not shown in Fig. 1.194. If the rear spar is considered as a free body, as shown in Fig. 1.196, the (2880 tb) | Lt 4 tbyin (720 tb TS ib 180% 175 tb 100 th 2700 Ih —_— 8100 Ib 100 - 69s -s9su, 2 1225 Ib 7 ©STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 21 vertical forces at B and E may be obtained: =Mz = —4 x 180 x 90 + 100E, =0 = 648 Ib By _ Ey _ 648 30° «100-60 = 324 Ib E, = 1080 Ib IF, = 4 x 180 — 648 — B,= 721b The loads in the plane of the drag truss can be obtained now. The forward load of 5 Ib/in is applied as concentrated loads at the panel points, as shown in Fig. 1.19c. ‘The components of the forces at G and E which lic in the plane of the truss also must be considered. The remaining reactions at A and B and the forces in all drag-truss members now can be obtained by the methods of analysis for coplanar trusses, shown in Fig. 1.19¢. PROBLEMS 1A S000-4b airplane is in a steady glide with the Night path at an angle @ below the horizon ig. PIU). The drag force in the direction of the light path is 750 Ib. the flight path and the angle 0. (D = 750 tb W = 5000 Ih Flight path Figure P1t 1.2 A jet-propelted airplane in steady flight has forces acting as shown in Hig. P12. Find the jet thrust T. lif Land the tail load P. 10in 40,000 in-Ib 8000 tb Figure PLZ22 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 13 A wind-tunne! model of an airplane wing is suspended ax sho Wig, PLT and PLA, Vind the loads in members B, C, and E if the forces at A are L = 43.8 ib, D = 3.42 Ib, and M = —20.6in «th 1.4 For the load of Prob. 1.3, find the forces 1, D, and M at x point 4 if the measured forces are B= 402, C = 4.16,and £ = 3.74 Ib. Figure P13 and 14 LS Find the forces at points A and B of the landing gear shown in Fig. P15. rt. 8000 tb Figure PLS 16 Find the forces at points A, Rand C of the structure of the briced-wing monoplane shown in PLO. Figure P16 nd the forces 1" and Af at the cul cross section of the beant shown PL.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 23 300 Ib Figure PL7 L8 Find the internal loads in all members of the truss structure shown in Fig. PLE. 1000 1 (@) () 100 ty 2000 th 600 th 800 Ih WAY ep ee () Figure PLS 1.9 Find the internal loads on all members of the fuselage truss structure shown in Fig. P19, van 22 2.2 2 2 2 2/1 \ 8 .8°878~.s 2 ¢ eal \ =——$--8- F-32288 3 (77 ooo m \ MK isin 1 ue 15 in {us Figure PLS1.10 All members of the structure shown in Fig. P1.10 are two-lorce members, except member ABC. Find the reactions on member ABC and the loads in other members of the structure. 3 20 in a c 20 in—+}+—20 in—r}-—20 in 1000 1 Figure P110 1.11 The bending moments about the x and z axes in a plane perpendicular to the spanwise axis of a wing are 400,000 and 100,000 in-Ib, as shown in Fig. P1.11, Find the bending moments about the x, and 2, axes which are in the same plane but rotated 10° counterclockwise. oer \ z Figure P11 1.12 The main beam of the wing shown in Fig, PI.12 hax a sweephack angle of 30°. First the moments of 300,000 and 180,000 in - 1b are computed about the x and y axes which are paralle! and perpendicular to the centerline of the airplane. Find the moments about the x’ and y' axes. 1.13 Find the forces acting on all members of the nose-wheel structure shown in Fig. P1.13. Assume the V axis is parallel to the oleo strpt. 15 in) 15 in 4 B ° 15,000 Ib Figure PLA2 Figure P13SVAVIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 23 1.14 Analyze the landing gear structure of Example 1.5 for a 15,000-Ib load up parallel to the V axis and a $000-Ib load aft paralle! to the D axis. The loads are applied at the same point of the axle as the ioad in Example 1.5. 115 Write a computer program to calculate the reactions of the beam structure shown in Fig. P1.15. K, Figure PLAS 1.16 Write a computer program to calculate the internal shear and bending moments at every station of the cantilevered wing shown in Fig. P1.16. Assume the center of pressure is at 25 percent of the chord length measured from the x axis. Center of pressure ve x. reference 5 4 3 27 1 axis Figure P1.16CHAPTER TWO FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 2.1 INTRODUCTION Before the final sclection of member sizes on’ flight vehicles can be made, all load conditions imposed on the structure must be known. The load conditions are those which are encountered both in flight and on the ground. Since it is impos- sible to investigate every loading condition which a flight vehicle might encounter in ils service lifetime, it is normal practice to select only those conditions that will be critical for every structural member of the vehicle. These conditions usually are determined from past investigation and experience and are definitely specified by the licensing or procuring agencies. Although the calculations of loads imposed on flight-vehicle structures are the prime responsibility of a special group in an engitfeering organization called the loads group, a basic general overall knowledge of the loads on vehicles is essential to stress analysts, Therefore, in this chapter we present the fundamentals and terminology pertaining to flight-vchicle loads. 2.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Every fight vehicle is designed to safely carry aut specific missions. This results in a wide variety of vehicles relative to size, configuration, and performance. Com- mercial transport aircraft are specifically designed to transport passengers from one airport to another. These types of aircraft are never subjected to violent intentional mancuvers. Military aircraft, however, used in fighter or dive-bomber operations, are designed to resist violent maneuvers. The design conditions u- 26FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 27 sually are determined from the maximum acceleration which the human body can withstand, and the pilot will lose consciousness before reaching the load factor (load factor is related to acceleration) which would cause structural failure of the aircraft. To ensure safety, structural integrity, and reliability of flight vehicles along with the optimality of design, government agencics, both civil and military, have established definite specifications and requirements-in‘regard to the magnitude of loads to be used in structural design of the various flight vehicles. Terms are defined below which arc generally uscd in the specification of loads on flight vehicles. The limit loads used by civil agencies or applied loads used by military agencies are the maximum anticipated loads in the entire service life-span of the vehicle, The ultimate loads, commonly referred to as design loads, are the limit loads multiplied by a factor of safety (FS): ultimate load FS =~ Tinit load Generally, a factor of safety which varies from 1.25 for missile structures to 1.5 for aircraft structures is used in practically every design because of the uncertainties involving 1. The simplifying assumption used in the theoretical analyses 2. The variations in material properties and in the standards of quality control 3. The emergency actions which might have to be taken by the pilot, resulting in loads on the vehicle larger than the specified limit loads. The limit loads and ultimate loads quite often are prescribed by specifying certain load factors. The limit-load factor is a factor by which basic loads on a vehicle are multiplied to obtain the limit loads. Likewise, the ultimate load factor is a factor by which basic vehicle loads are multiplied to obtain the ultimate loads; in other words, it is the product of the limit load factor and the factor of safety. 2.3 BASIC FLIGHT LOADING CONDITIONS One_of four basic conditions will probably produce the highest load in any part of the airplane for.any flight condition. Usually these conditions are called posi- tive high angle of attack, positive low angle of attack, negative high angle of attack, and negative low angle of attack. All these conditions represent symmetri- cal fight maneuvers; i.e., there is no motion normal to the plane of symmetry of the airplane, The positive high angle of attack (PHAA) condition is obtained in a pullout at the highest possible angle of attack on the wing. The lift and drag forces areperpendicular and parallel respectively, to the relative wind, which is shown as horizontal in Fig. 2.14. The resultant R of these forces always has an aft com- ponent with respect to the relative wind, but will usually have a forward com- ponent C with respect to the wing chord line, because of the high angle of attack «. The maximum forward component C will be obtained when a has a maximum value. In order to account for uncertainties in obtaining the stalling angle of attack under unsteady flow conditions, most specifications arbitrarily require that a value of @ be used which is higher than the wing stalling angle under steady flow conditions. An angle of attack corresponding to a coefficient of lift of 1.25 times the maximum coefficient of lift for steady Now conditions is often used, and. acrodynamic data are extrapolated from data measured for steady flow condi- tions. Experiments show that these high angles of attack and high lift coefficients may be obtained momentarily in a sudden pull-up before the airflow reaches a steady condition, but it is difficult to obtain accurate lift measurements during the unsteady conditions. In the PHAA condition, the bending moments from the normal forces N, shown in Fig, 2.14, produce compressive stresses on the upper side of the wing, and the moments from the chordwise forces C produce compressive stresses on the leading edge of the wing. These compressive stresses will be additive in the upper flange of the front spar and the stringers adjacent to it. The PHAA condi- tion, therefore, will be critical for compressive stresses in the upper forward (a) PIAA () PLAA aS h Wd) NLAA roKN (e) NAA Figure 21FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 29 region of the wing cross section and for tensile stresses in the lower aft region of the wing cross section, For normal wings, in which the aerodynamic pitching- moment coefficient is negative, the line of action of the resultant force R is farther forward on the wing in the PHAA condition than in any other possible flight attitude producing an upload on the wing. The upload on the horizontal tail in this condition usually will be larger than for any other positive flight attitude, since pitching accelerations are normally neglected and the load on the hor- izontal tail must balance the moments of other aerodynamic forces about the center of gravity of the airplane. In the positive low angle of attack (PLAA) condition, the wing has the smallest possible angle of attack at which the lift corresponding to the limit-load factor may be developed. For a given lift on the wing, the angle of attack decreases as the indicated airspeed increases, and consequently the PLAA condi- tion corresponds to the maximum indicated airspeed at which the airplane will dive. This limit on the permissible diving speed depends on the type of aircraft, but usually is specified as 1.2 to 1.5 times the maximum indicated spced in level flight, according to the function of the aircraft. Some specifications require that the terminal velocity of the aircraft—the velocity obtained in a vertical dive sustained until the drag equals the airplane weight—be calculated and the limit on the diving speed be determined as a function of the terminal velocity. Even fighter aircraft are seldom designed for a diving speed equal to the terminal velocity, since the terminal velocity of such airplanes is so great that difficult aerodynamic and structural problems are encountered. Aircraft are placarded so that the pilot will not exceed the diving speed limit. In the PLAA condition, shown in Fig. 2.1b, the chordwise force C is the largest force acting aft on the wing for any positive flight attitude. The wing bending moments in this condition produce the maximum compressive stresses on the upper rear spar flange and adjacent stringers and maximum tensile stresses on the lower front spar flange and adjacent stringers. In this condition, the line of action of the resultant wing force R is farther aft than for any other positive flight condition. The moment of this force about the center of gravity of the airplane has the maximum negative (pitching) value; consequently, the down- load on the horizontal tail required to balance the moments of other aerody- namic forces will be larger than for any positive flight condition. The negative high angle of attack (NHAA) condition, shown in Fig. 2.1¢, occurs in intentional flight maneuvers in which the air loads on the wing are down or when the airplane strikes sudden downdrafts while in level flight. The load factors for intentional negative Might attitudes arc considerably smaller than for positive flight attitudes, because conventional aircraft engines cannot be oper- ated under a negative load factor for very long and because the pilot is in the uncomfortable position of being suspended from the safety belt or harness. Gust load factors are also smaller for negative flight attitudes, since in level flight the weight of the airplane adds to the inertia forces for positive gusts but subtracts from the inertia forces for negative gusts. In the NHAA condition, usually the wing is assumed to be at the negative30 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES stalling angle of attack for steady flow conditions. The assumption used in the PHAA condition—the maximum lift coefficient momentarily exceeds that for steady flow--is seldom used because it is improbable that negative maneuvers will be entered suddenly. The wing bending moments in the negative high angle of attack condition produce the highest compressive stresses in the lower forward region of the wing cross section and the highest tensile stresses in the upper aft region of the wing cross section. The line of action of the resultant force R is farther aft than for any other negative flight attitude, and it will probably pro- duce the greatest balancing upload on the horizontal tail for any negative fight attitude, The negative low angle of attack (NLAA) condition, shown in Fig. 2.1d, occurs al the diving-speed limit of the airplane. This condition may occur in an intentional maneuver producing a negative load factor or in a negative gust condition. The aft load C is a maximum for any negative flight attitude, the compressive bending stresses have a maximum value in the lower aft region of the wing cross section, and the tensile bending stresses have a maximum value in the upper forward region of the wing cross section. The resultant force R is farther forward than in any other flight attitude, and the download on the hor- izontal tail will probably be larger than in any other negative flight attitude. In summary, one of the four basic symmetrical flight conditions is critical for the design of almost every part of the airplane structure. In the stress analysis of a conventional wing, it is necessary to investigate cach cross section for each of the four conditions Then each stringer or spar flange is designed for the maximum tension and the maximum compression obtained in any of the conditions. The probable critical conditions for each region of the cross section are shown in Fig. 2.2. Some specifications require the investigation of additional conditions of medium-high angle of attack and miedium-low angle of attack which may be critical for stringers midway between the spars, but usually these conditions are not considered of sufficient importance to justify the additional work required for the analysis. The wing, of course, must be strong enough to resist loads at medium angles of attack, but normally the wing will have adequate strength if it meets the requirements for the four limiting conditions. Compression PHAA | Compression PLAA. Tension NLAA Tension NHAA. Se Compression NHAA | Compression NLAA. Tension PLAA Tension PHAA, Figure 2.2FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 31 For aircrafts such as transport or cargo aircrafts, in which the load may be placed in various positions in the gross-weight condition, it is necessary to deter- mine the balancing tail loads for the most forward and most rearward center-of- gravity positions at which the airplane may be flown at the gross weight. Each of the four Right conditions must be investigated for each extreme position of the center of gravity. For smaller aircraft, in which the useful Joad cannot be shifted appreciably. there may be only one position of the center of gravity at the gross-weight condition. To account for greater balancing tail foads which may occur Tor another Tocation of fhe cenfer of gravity, 1t may be possible to make some conservative assumption and still compute balancing tail loads for only one location. The gust load factors on an aircraft are greater when it is flying at the minimum flying weight than they are at the gross-weight condition. While this is seldom critical for the wings, since they have less weight to carry, it is critical for a structure such as the cngine mount which carries the same weight at a higher load factor. It is therefore necessary to calculate gust load factors at the minimum weight at which the aircraft will be flown. For aircraft equipped with wing flaps, other high lift devices, or dive brakes, additional fight loading conditions must be investigated for the flaps extended. These conditions usually are not critical for wing bending stresses, since the. specified load factois are not large, but may be critical for wing torsion, shear in the rear spar, or down tail loads, since the negative pitching moments may be quite high. The aft portion of the wing, which forms the flap supporting structure, will be critical for the condition with flaps extended. Unsymmetrical loading conditions and pitching-acceleration conditions for commercial aircraft are seldom of sufficient importance to justify extensive analy- sis, Conservative simplifying assumptions usually are specified by the licensing agency for use in the structural design of members which will be critical for these conditions. The additional structural weight required to meet conservative design assumptions is not sufficient to justify a more accurate analysis. Some military aircraft must perform violent evasive maneuvers such as snap rolls, abrupt rolling pullouts, and abrupt pitching motions. The purchasing agency for such airplanes specifies the conditions which should be investigated. Such investigations require the calculation of the mass moment of inertia of the airplane about the pitching, rolling, and yawing axes. The acrodynamic forces on the airplane are calculated and set in equilibrium by inertial forces on the airplane. 2.4 FLIGHT-VEHICLE AERODYNAMIC LOADS Extensive aerodynamic information is required to investigate the per- formance, control, and stability of a proposed airctaft. Only the information which is required for the structural analysis is considered here, although normally this would be obtained as part of a much more extensive program, The first aerodynamic data required for the structural analysis are the lift, drag, and32 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES pitching-moment force distributions for the complete aircraft with the horizontal tail removed, through the range of angles of attack from the negative stalling angle to the positive stalling angle. While these data can be calculated accurately for a wing with a conventional airfoil section, similar data for the combination of the wing and fuselage or the wing, fuselage, and nacelles are more difficult to calculate accurately from published information because of the uncertain effects of the aerodynamic interference of various components. It is therefore desirable to obtain wind tunnel data on a model of the complete airplane less horizontal tail. It is often necessary, of course, to calculate these data from published infor- mation in order to obtain approximate air loads for preliminary design purposes. Wind tunnel tests of a model of the complete airplane with the horizontal tail removed provide values of the lift, drag, and pitching moment for all angles of attack. Then components of the lift and drag forces with respect to airplane reference axes are determined. The aircraft reference axes may be chosen as shown in Fig. 2.3. The force components are C,qS and C,qS along these axes, where q = p¥2/2 is the dynamic pressure and S is the surface wing area. The nondimensional force coefficients C, and C, are obtained by projecting the lift and drag coefficients, respectively, for the airplane less horizontal tail along the reference axes by the following equations: C= Cy, cos 0 + Cy sin 0 @1) Cy = Cp cos 0 — C,, sin 0 2.2) The angle 0 is measured from the flight path to the x axis, as shown in Fig. 2.3, and is equal to the difference between the angle of attack « and the angle of wing incidence i. The pitching moment about the airplane's center of gravity is obtained from wind tunnel data and is C,,.,¢95, where C,,., is the dimensionless pitching- moment coefficient of the airplane less tail and ¢ is the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing. The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is a wing reference chord which usually is calculated from the wing planform. If every, airfoil section along Center of, gravity Thrust line Fuignt pat } Figure 2.3FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 33 the wing span has the same pitching-moment coefficient c,,, the MAC is deter- mined so that the total wing pitching moment is c,,¢gS. For a rectangular wing planform the value of ¢ (the MAC) is equal to the wing chord; for a trapezoidal planform of the semiwing, the valuc of ¢ is equal to the chord at the centroid of the trapezoid. The MAC is actually an arbitrary length, and any reference length would be satisfactory if it were uscd consistently in all wind tunnel tests and calculations. For irregular shapes of planforms, some procuring or licensing agencies require that the mean chord (wing area divided by wing span) be used as the reference chord. The balancing air load on the horizontal tail, C,qS, is obtained from the assumption that there is no angular acceleration of the airplane. The moments of the forces shown in Fig. 2.3 about the center of gravity are therefore in equilib- rium: GaSL, = ¢, Met eS é oo Cre) L Cat (2.3) where C, is a dimensionless tail force coefficient expressed in terms of the wing area and L, is the distance from the airplane's center of gravity to the resultant air load on the horizontal tail, as shown in Fig. 2.3. Since the pressure dis- tribution on the horizontal tail varies according to the attitude of the airplane, L, theoretically varies for different loading conditions. This variation is not great, and it is customary to assume L, contant, by using a conservative forward pos- ition of the center of pressure on the horizontal tail. The total acrodynamic force on the airplane in the z direction, C,, gS, is equal to the sum of the force C, gS on the airplane less tail and the balancing tail load C,qS: C..48 = C.qS + CS or C=C, 4G, 24) For power-on flight conditions, the moment of the propeller or jet thrust about the center of gravity of the airplane should also be considered. This adds another term to the Eq. (2.3). Now the aerodynamic coefficients can be plotted against the angle of attack a, as shown in Fig. 2.4. If more than one position of the center of gravity is considered in the analysis, if is necessary to calculate the curves forC,, ,.C,, and C., for each center-of-gravity position. The right-hand portions of the solid curves shown in Fig. 2.4 represent the aerodynamic characteristics after stalling of the wing. Since stalling reduces the air loads on the wing, these portions of the curves are not used. Instead, the curves are extrapolated, as shown by the dotted lines, in order to approximate the conditions of a sudden pull-up, in which high lift coefficients may exist for a short time. For the PHAA condition, the angle of attack corresponding to the force coefficient of 1.25 times the maximum value of C,, is used, and the curves are extrapolated to this value, as shown in Fig. 2.4.34 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 223, ale me 7 \ Figure 24 2.5 FLIGHT-VEHICLE INERTIA LOADS The maximum load on any part of a flight-vchicle structure occurs when the vehicle is being accelerated. The loads produced by landing impact, maneuvering, gusts, boost and staging operations, launches, and dockings are always than the loads occurring when all the forces on the vehicle are in equi Before any structural component can be designed, it is necessary to determine the inertia loads acting on the vehicle. In many of the loading conditions, a flight vehicle may be considered as being in pure translation or pure rotation. The inertia force on any element of mass is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration and acts in the direction opposite to the acceleration. If the applied loads and inertia forces act on an element as a free body, these forces are in equilibrium. For example, a body of mass m under the action of a force vector F moves so as to satisfy the equation F = ma (2.5) where m is the mass and a is the acceleration relative to a newtonian frame of reference. If a cartesian system of x, y, and z axes is chosen in this frame, then Eq. (2.5) gives, upon resolving into components, F,=m%, Fy=mj, F,= mi 2.6) where F,, F,, and F, are the components of F along the x, y, and z axes, respectively, and X, j, and Z are the components of acceleration along the x, y, and z axes. In the preceding discussion, all parts of the rigid body were moving in straight, parallel lines and had equal velocities and accelerations. In many engin- ecring problems, it is necessary to consider the inertia forces acting on a rigid body which has other types of motion. In many cases where the elemcnts of a rigid body are moving in curved paths, they are moving in such a way that eachFLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 35 clement moves in only one plane and all clements move in parallel planes. This type of motion is called plane motion, and it occurs, for example, when at vehicle is pitching and yet has no rolling or yawing motion. All elements of the vehicle move in planes parallel to the plane of symmetry. Any type of plane motion can be considered as a rotation about some instantancous axis perpendicular to the planes of motion, and the following equations for inertia forces are derived on the assumption that the rigid body is rotating about an instantaneous axis perpen- dicular to a plane of symmetry of the body. The inertia forces obtained may be used for the pitching motion of a vehicle, but when they are utilized for rolling or yawing motions, it is necessary to first obtain the principal axes and moments of inertia of the vehicle. The rigid mass shown in Fig. 2.5 is rotating about point O with a constant angular velocity @. The acceleration of any point a distance r from the center of rotation is wr and is directed toward the center of rotation. The inertia force acting on an element of mass dM is the product of the mass and the acceleration, or wr dM, and is directed away from the axis of rotation. This inertia force has components w?x dM parallel to the x axis and w*y dM parallel to the y axis. If the x axis is chosen through the center of gravity C, the forces are simplified. The resultant inertia force in the y direction for the cntirc body is found as follows: F,= fers dM = oy dM =0 The angular velocity « is constant for all elements of the body, and the integral is zero because the x axis was choscn through the center of gravity. The inertia force in the x direction is found in the same manner: = fors dM = wf dM = 03M (27) The term & is the distance from the axis of rotation O to the center of gravity C, as shown in Fig. 2.5. If the body has an angular acceleration «, the element of mass dM has an wer dll wird whe dit Figure 2536 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES additional inertia force ar dM acting perpendicular to r and opposite to the direction of acceleration. This force has components 2x dM in the y direction and ay dM in the x direction, as shown in Fig. 2.6, The resultant inertia force on the entire body in the x direction is a= fay au =a{ yam =o The resultant inertia force in the y direction is y= [exam =a aw = asm (2.8) The resultant inertia torque about the axis of rotation is found by integrating the terms representing the product of the tangential force on each clement ar dM and its moment armr: To = far dM = af PdM =alo 29) The term Ig represents the moment of inertia of the mass about the axis of rotation. It can be shown that this moment of inertia can be transferred to a parallel axis through the center of gravity by use of the following relationship: Ip = Mi? +I, (2.10) where I, is the moment of inertia of the mass about an axis through the center of gravity, obtained as the sum of the products of mass clements dM and the square of their distances r, from the center of gravity: w= fea By substituting the value of fo from Faq. (2.10) in Eq. (2.9), the following ex- pression for the inertia torque is obtained: Ty = Ma + Ia (2.11) Figure 2.6FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 37 Figure 2.7 ‘The inertia forces obtained in Eqs. (2.7), (2.8), and (2.11) may be represented as forces acting at the center of gravity and the couple J. a, as shown in Fig. 2.7. The force aM and the couple I. « must both produce moments about point O which are opposite to the direction of a. The force w?M must act away from point 0. It is seen from Fig. 2.7 that the forces at the centroid represent the product of the mass of the body and the components of acceleration of the center of gravity. In many cases, the axis of rotation is not known, but the components of acceler- ation of the center of gravity can be obtained. In other cases, the acceleration of one point of the body and the angular velocity and angular acceleration are known. If the point ‘O in Fig. 2.8 has an acceleration ap, an inertia force at the center of gravity of Mag, opposite to the direction of ag, must be considered in addition to those previously taken into account. 2.6 LOAD FACTORS FOR TRANSLATIONAL ACCELERATION For flight or landing conditions in which the vehicle has only translational accel- eration, every part of the vehicle is acted on by parallel inertia forces which are proportional to the weight of the part. For purposes of analysis, it is convenient to combine these inertia forces with the forces of gravity, by multiplying the weight of each part by a load factor n, and thus to consider the combined weight and inertia forces. When the vehicle is being accelerated upward, the weight and inertia forces add directly. The weight of w of any part and the inertia force wa/g have a sum nw: a nw = wt we g or (2.12) The combined inertia and gravity forces are considered in the analysis in the same manner as weights which are multiplied by the load factor n. In the case of an airplane in flight with no horizontal acceleration, as shown in Fig. 2.9, the engine thrust is equal to the airplane drag, and the horizontal38 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES Figure 2.8 components of the inertia and gravity forces are zero. The weight and the inertia force on the airplane act down and will be equal to the lift. The airplane lift L is the resultant of the wing and tail lift forces. The load factor is defined as follows: ift Load factor = weight L or n= w (2.13) This value for the load factor can be shown to be the same as that given by Eq. (2.12) by equating the lift nW to the sum of the weight and inertia forces: Wwewews g a or n=1+~ g which corresponds to Eq. (2.12). Flight vehicles frequently have horizontal acceleration as well as vertical acceleration. The airplane shown in Fig, 2.10 is being accelerated forward, since the engine thrust T is greater than the airplane drag D. Every element of mass in the airplane is thus under the action of a horizontal inertia force equal to the product of its mass and the horizontal acceleration. It is also convenjent to consider the horizontal inertia loads as equal to the product of a load factor n, t ' t Figure 2.9FLIGHT-VEIICLE IMPOSED LOADS 39 Figure 2.10 and the weights. This horizontal load factor, often called the thrust load factor, is obtained from the equilibrium of the horizontal forces shown in Fig. 2.10: or (2.14) A more general case of translational acceleration is shown in Fig. 2.11, in which the airplane thrust line is not horizontal. It is usually convenient to obtain components of forces along x and z axes which are parallel and perpendicular to the airplane thrust line, The combined weight and inertia load on any element has a component along the z axis of the following magnitude: a, nw = w cos 0+ w— g or ne cos 0+“ (2.15) From summation of all forces along the z axis, L= (sos o+ (2.16) Nyt Figure 2.1140 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES By combining Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16), L=Wna or net which corresponds with the value used in Eq. (2.13) for a level attitude of the airplane. The thrust load factor for the condition shown in Fig. 2.11 is also similar to that obtained for the airplane in level attitude. Since the thrust and drag forces must be in equilibrium with the components of weight and inertia forces along the x axes, the thrust load factor is obtained as follows: Ww : ng W = a,—W sinO=T—D or This value is the same as that obtained in Eq. (2.14) for a level attitude of the airplane. In the case of the airplane landing as shown in Fig. 2.12, the landing load factor is defined as the vertical ground reaction divided by the airplane weight. The load factor in the horizontal direction is similarly defined as the horizontal ground reaction divided by the airplane weight: (2.17) n= and n= (2.18) RP Sle In the airplane analysis, it is necessary to obtain the components of the load factor along axes parallel and perpendicular to the propeller thrust line. However, aerodynamic forces are usually obtained first as lift and drag forces perpendicular and parallel to the direction of flight. If load factors are obtained first along lift and drag axes, they may be resolved into components along other axes, in the same manner as forces are resolved into components. The force acting on any Figure 2.12FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 41 weight w is wn, and the component of this force along any axis at an angle 0 to the force is wn cos @. The component of the load factor is then n cos 8. As a general definition, the load factor n along any axis i is such that the product of the load factor and the weight of an element is equal to the sum of the components of the weight and inertia forces along that axis. The weight and inertia forces are always in equilibrium with the external forces acting on the airplane, and the sum of the comporients of the weight and inertia forces along any axis must be equal and opposite to the sum of the components of the external forces along the axis 2F;. The load factor is therefore defined as ZF, n= a (2.19) where ZF; includes all forces except weight and inertia forces. 2.1 VELOCITY-LOAD-FACTOR DIAGRAM The various loading conditions for an airplane usually are represented on a graph of the limit-load factor n plotted against the indicated airspeed V. This diagram is often called a V-n diagram, since the load factor n is related to the acceleration of gravity g. In all such diagrams, the indicated airspeed is used, since all air loads are proportional to g or pV?/2. The value of g is the same for the air density p and the actual airspeed at altitude as it is for the standard sea-level density po and the indicated airspeed, since the indicated airspeed is defined by this relationship. The V-n diagram is therefore the same for all alti- tudes if indicated airspeeds are used. Where compressibility cMects are considered, they depend on actual airspeed rather than indicated airspeed and consequently are more pronounced at altitude, Compressibility effects are not considered here. ‘The aerodynamic forces on an airplane are in equilibrium with the forces of gravity and inertia. If the airplane has no angular acccleration, both the inertia and gravity forces will be distributed in the same manner as the weight of various items of the aircraft and will have resultants acting through the center of gravity of the aircraft. It is convenient to combine the inertia and gravity forces as the product of a load factor n and the weight W, as described previously. The z component of the resultant gravity and inertia force is the force nW acting at the center of gravity of the airplane, as shown in Fig. 2.13. The load factor is obtained from a summation of forces along the z axis: C.,q8 = nw C., pSV? =e 2.20 or nae (2.20) The maximum value of the normal force coefficient C,, may be obtained at various airplane speeds. For level flight at a unit-load factor, the value of V corresponding to C.,,,, would be the stalling speed of the airplane. In acceler-