UNIT IV: FUNDAMENTALS OF HARMONICS

Harmonic distortion, sources of harmonics, effects of harmonic distortion, Voltage Vs Current

Harmonics,Active, Reactive, Volt-Amp power under non sinusoidal conditions, Harmonic
Indices (THD and TDD),principles of harmonic control, mitigating devices, interharmonics,
IEEE standard 519.

CONCEPTS:
HARMONIC DISTORTION

Fig.1 : Current distortion caused by nonlinear resistance.

Fig.2 :Fourier series representation of a distorted waveform

 Harmonic distortion is caused by nonlinear devices in the power system.

 A nonlinear device is one in which the current is not proportional to the applied
voltage.
 Figure.1 : illustrates this concept by the case of a sinusoidal voltage applied to a
simple nonlinear resistor in which the voltage and current vary according to the curve
shown.
 While the applied voltage is perfectly sinusoidal, the resulting current is distorted.
Increasing the voltage by a few percent may cause the current to double and take on
a different wave shape. This is the source of most harmonic distortion in a power
system.
 Figure.2 : illustrates that any periodic, distorted waveform can be expressed as a sum
of sinusoids.
 When a waveform is identical from one cycle to the next, it can be represented as a
sum of pure sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple
of the fundamental frequency of the distorted wave.
 This multiple is called a harmonic of the fundamental, hence the name of this subject
 matter. The sum of sinusoids is referred to as a Fourier series, named after the great
mathematician who discovered the concept.

HARMONICS VERSUS TRANSIENTS

 Transient waveforms exhibit the high frequencies only briefly after there has been an
abrupt change in the power system.
 The frequencies are not necessarily harmonics; they are the natural frequencies of
the system at the time of the switching operation.
 Harmonics, by definition, occur in the steady state and are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency. The waveform distortion that produces the harmonics is
present continually or at least for several seconds. Transients are usually dissipated
within a few cycles.
 Transients are associated with changes in the system such as switching of a capacitor
bank.
 Harmonics are associated with the continuing operation of a load.

HARMONIC SOURCES FROM COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LOADS

Harmonics of different orders generated when connected power system network by
different sources as below:
i. The non linear loads such as inverter fed adjustable speed drive.
ii. The use of powerfactor correction capacitor creates parallel or series resonance problems
increasing the harmonic distortion.
iii. Process control and solid state power conversion equipments.
iv. Energy efficient compact flourescent lamps.
v. Use of AC and DC adjustable speed drives
vi. Static VAR compensators.
vii. Transformers produce very high levels of harmonics when they are initially energized,the
so called in rush current will generate harmonics of several orders.
viii. Cycloconverters,Lift control system,Traction,AC voltage regulators, UPS, Battery
chargers.

Harmonic Sources from Commercial Loads:

1. Single-phase power supplies

Fig 3: Switch-mode power supply.

There are two common types of single-phase power supplies.

  Older technologies use ac-side voltage control methods, such as transformers, to
reduce voltages to the level required for the dc bus.
 The inductance of the transformer provides a beneficial side effect by smoothing the
input current waveform, reducing harmonic content.
 Newer-technology switch-mode power supplies use dc-to-dc conversion techniques
to achieve a smooth dc output with small, lightweight components.
 The input diode bridge is directly connected to the ac line, eliminating the
transformer. This results in a coarsely regulated dc voltage on the capacitor.
 This direct current is then converted back to alternating current at a very high
frequency by the switcher and subsequently rectified again.
 Personal computers, printers, copiers, and most other single-phase electronic
equipment now almost universally employ switch-mode power supplies.
 The key advantages are the light weight, compact size, efficient operation, and lack of
need for a transformer.
 Switch-mode power supplies can usually tolerate large variations in input voltage.

2. Fluorescent lighting

Fig.4: Fluorescent lamp with (a) magnetic ballast current waveform and (b)
its harmonic spectrum.
 Fluorescent lights are discharge lamps; thus they require a ballast to provide a high
initial voltage to initiate the discharge for the electric current to flow between two
electrodes in the fluorescent tube.
 Once the discharge is established, the voltage decreases as the arc current increases.
It is essentially a short circuit between the two electrodes, and the ballast has to
quickly reduce the current to a level to maintain the specified lumen output.
 Thus, a ballast is also a current-limiting device in lighting applications.
 There are two types of ballasts, magnetic and electronic.
 A standard magnetic ballast is simply made up of an iron-core transformer with a
capacitor encased in an insulating material.
 The iron-core magnetic ballast contributes additional heat losses, which makes it
inefficient compared to an electronic ballast.
 Fig .5: Fluorescent lamp with (a) electronic ballast current waveform and
(b) its harmonic spectrum.

 Electronic ballast employs a switch-mode–type power supply to convert the incoming

fundamental frequency voltage to a much higher frequency voltage typically in the
range of 25 to 40 kHz.
 This high frequency has two advantages. First, a small inductor is sufficient to limit
 the arc current. Second, the high frequency eliminates or greatly reduces the 100- or
 120-Hz flicker associated with iron-core magnetic ballast.
 A single electronic ballast typically can drive up to four fluorescent lamps.
3. Adjustable-speed drives for HVAC and elevators
 Common applications of adjustable-speed drives (ASDs) in commercial loads can be
found in elevator motors and in pumps and fans in HVAC systems.
 An ASD consists of an electronic power converter that converts ac voltage and
frequency into variable voltage and frequency.
 The variable voltage and frequency allows the ASD to control motor speed to match
the application requirement such as slowing a pump or fan.
 ASDs also find many applications in industrial loads.
Harmonic Sources from Industrial Loads
1. Three-phase power converters
(a) DC drives.

Fig .6: Six-pulse dc ASD.

  Compared with ac drive systems, the dc drive offers a wider speed range and higher
starting torque.
 However, purchase and maintenance costs for dc motors are high.
 Most dc drives use the six-pulse rectifier shown in Fig.
 Large drives may employ a 12-pulse rectifier.
(b) AC Drives:

Fig .7: PWM ASD.

 In ac drives, the rectifier output is inverted to produce a variable-frequency ac
voltage for the motor.
 Inverters are classified as voltage source inverters (VSIs) or current source inverters
(CSIs).
 A VSI requires a constant dc (i.e., low-ripple) voltage input to the inverter stage.
 This is achieved with a capacitor or LC filter in the dc link.
 The CSI requires a constant current input; hence, a series inductor is placed in the dc
link.
 A popular ac drive configuration uses a VSI employing PWM techniques to synthesize
an ac waveform as a train of variable-width dc pulses as shown in Fig above.
 The inverter uses either SCRs, gate turnoff (GTO) thyristors, or power transistors for
this purpose.
 Currently, the VSI PWM drive offers the best energy efficiency for applications over a
wide speed range for drives up through at least 500 hp.
 Another advantage of PWM drives is that, unlike other types of drives, it is not
necessary to vary rectifier output voltage to control motor speed.
 This allows the rectifier thyristors to be replaced with diodes, and the thyristor
control circuitry to be eliminated.
 Very high power drives employ SCRs and inverters.
 These may be 6-pulse or like large dc drives, 12-pulse.
 VSI drives are limited to applications that do not require rapid changes in speed.

 CSI drives have good acceleration/deceleration characteristics but require a motor

with a leading power factor (synchronous or induction with capacitors) or added
control circuitry to commutate the inverter thyristors.
 Fig.8: Large ac ASDs.
Impact of operating condition.

Fig .9: Effect of PWM ASD speed on ac current harmonics.

Fig 3.9 shows two operating conditions for a PWM adjustable speed drive.
 While the waveform at 42 percent speed is much more distorted proportionately, the
drive injects considerably higher magnitude harmonic currents at rated speed.
 The bar chart shows the amount of current injected. This will be the limiting design
factor, not the highest THD.
2. Arcing devices:

Fig.10: Equivalent circuit for an arcing device.

 This category includes arc furnaces, arc welders, and discharge-type lighting
(fluorescent, sodium vapor, mercury vapor) with magnetic (rather than electronic)
ballasts.
 As shown in Fig .10., the arc is basically a voltage clamp in series with a reactance that
limits current to a reasonable value.
 The voltage-current characteristics of electric arcs are nonlinear.
 Following arc ignition, the voltage decreases as the arc current increases, limited only
by the impedance of the power system.
 This gives the arc the appearance of having a negative resistance for a portion of its
operating cycle such as in fluorescent lighting applications.
 The electric arc itself is actually best represented as a source of voltage harmonics.
 If a probe were to be placed directly across the arc, one would observe a somewhat
trapezoidal waveform.
 Its magnitude is largely a function of the length of the arc
3. Saturable devices

Fig .11: Transformer magnetizing characteristic.

 Equipment in this category includes transformers and other electromagnetic devices
with a steel core, including motors.
 Harmonics are generated due to the nonlinear magnetizing characteristics of the
steel as shown in Fig .11.
 Power transformers are designed to normally operate just below the “knee” point of
the magnetizing saturation characteristic.
 The operating flux density of a transformer is selected based on a complicated
optimization of steel cost, no-load losses, noise, and numerous other factors.
EFFECT OF HARMONICS
 The duration presence of long duration harmonic cause more serious effects on the
various equipments connected to the power system.
 Amplitude of harmonics: Large amplitude harmonics of short duration under
resonance condition cause dielectric breakdown due to over voltages. Now a day
various devices and equipment being measured applications are more sensitive
compared to the past.
 The capacitor used for power factor correction and in different filters decreases
resulting in increasing in current drawn by capacitor beyond permissible limits. The
capacitor acts as sink for harmonic currents resultant effect of harmonics is
overloading , hence over heating increases dielectric stress and increase the power
lost. The thermal failure of capacitor may take place because of higher temperature.
 Non sinusoidal power supplies results in reduction of torque of induction motor.
 It will increase interference with telephone, communication and logic circuits.
 Error in reading of induction type energy meters which are calibrated for pure
sinusoidal A.C power.
 Higher order harmonics causes voltage stress and corona.
 Presence of harmonics in power system network can cause additional losses in power
system network, overheating of transmission lines, transformers and generators etc.
 Malfunction or even failure of electronic or computer controls.
Hence it is clear that day by day the increase in harmonic contents will impose new problems
on operations of electronic equipment. The energy efficient electronic equipment that will
be produced in future trends result in poor performance due to the voltage distortion. Hence
it is essential to have the proper coordination between the supply authorities and consumers
regarding the power quality problem, their causes and results and solutions available to
eliminate them.

Harmonic indices
The two most commonly used indices for measuring the harmonic content of a waveform
are the total harmonic distortion and the total demand distortion. Both are measures of the
effective value of a waveform and may be applied to either voltage or current.

Total harmonic distortion(THD)

The THD is a measure of the effective value of the harmonic components of a distorted
waveform. That is, it is the potential heating value of the harmonics relative to the
fundamental.
This index can be calculated for either voltage or current:
The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic content to the rms value of the
fundamental quantity, expressed as a per- cent of the fundamental

where Mh is the rms value of harmonic component h of the quantity M.

The rms value of a distorted waveform is the square root of the sum of the squares

Total demand distortion(TDD)

The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic current to the rms value of the rated or
maximum demand fundamental current, expressed as a percent.

Interharmonics
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called
interharmonics. They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wideband spectrum.
Interharmonics can be found in networks of all voltage classes.
Causes: Static frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction furnaces, and arcing devices.
Power line carrier signals can also be considered as interharmonics.
Interharmonic currents can excite quite severe resonances on the power system as the
varying interharmonic frequency becomes coincident with natural frequencies of the system.
They have been shown to affect power-line-carrier signaling and induce visual flicker in
fluorescent and other arc lighting as well as in computer display devices.
Since interharmonics can assume any values between harmonic frequencies, the
interharmonic spectrum must have sufficient frequency resolution.
Thus, a single-cycle waveform sample is no longer adequate to compute the interharmonic
spectrum since it only provides a frequency resolution of 50 or 60 Hz.
Any frequency in between harmonic frequencies is lost. The one-cycle waveform though is
commonly used to compute the harmonic spectrum since there is no frequency
between harmonic frequencies.

Devices for controlling harmonic distortion

Three different solutions can be adopted in the reduction of the harmonic distortion:
i. Reduction of harmonic emission from non-linear loads, by modifications to their structure;
ii. High harmonic filters (passive and active); and
iii. Isolation and harmonic reduction transformers.

The devices used to control harmonic distortion are,

i. Reinforce distribution system
ii. Passive Filters
iii. Active Filters
iv. Isolation transformers
v. Harmonic mitigation transformer
vi. Multi-pulse converters
Passive and active filters

Passive and active filters

Passive Filters:

They include devices that provide low impedance paths to divert harmonics to ground and
devices that create a high impedance path to discourage the flow of harmonics.
Both of these devices,by necessity, change the impedance characteristics of the circuits into
which they are inserted.
Another weakness of the passive harmonic technologies is that they cannot adapt to changes
in electrical systems in which they operate.
Notch filters can provide power factor correction in addition to harmonic suppression. In
fact, power factor correction capacitors may be used to make notch filters.
Advantages of Passive filters:
1. Simple in construction, less costly and efficient
2. Serves dual purpose: harmonic filtration and power factor correction of load.
Disadvantages of Passive filters:
1. Cannot function under saturated condition.
2. Number of passive filters installed must be equal to the number of harmonic levels
to be compensated.
3. Connection of passive filters necessities a specific analysis of each installation.
4. Non adaptability to system variations.
5. Bulky in size.
6. Tendency to resonate with the other load.
Active filters:
When the number of harmonics to be filtered, large no of branches of passive filters will
be required .
The large no of branches of passive filters will be required.
The actual number of branches will depend upon no of harmonic level of branches will
depend upon no of harmonic level to be compensated.
Hence, because of passive filter use for filtration of large no of harmonics results in large size
&more cost.
Introduction of self commutated devices e.g. MOSFETS, IGBT etc, accelerated the research in
design of active filter & resulted low cost, high performance active filter suitable to eliminate
the harmonics of different orders to overcome the drawbacks of passive filters.
Active filters compensate voltage of current harmonic signal measured.
The injected voltage or current harmonic signal measured.
The injected voltage or current harmonic signals in to the power system network is of
same magnitude and opposite in phase of the measured harmonic signal.
It comprises power converter and control loop which controls the harmonics injection of
the filter as the function of harmonic signal measure.
Advantages of Active filters:
1. Superior filtering performance
2. Smaller physical size
3. Flexibility

http://www.elnet.cc/thd-and-tdd/
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) and Total Demand Distortion (TDD)
The total harmonic distortion, or THD, of a signal is a measurement of the harmonic distortion present and is defined as the ratio of the sum of
the powers of all harmonic components to the power of the Fundamental frequency.
TDD(I) = Total Current Demand Distortion is Calculated harmonic current distortion against the full load (demand) level of the electrical system. At the
full load TDD(I)=THD(I). So TDD gives us better insight about how big impact of harmonic distortion in our system. For example we could have very
high THD but the load of the system is low. In this case the impact on the system is also low