CE 2721 – Fluid Mechanics &

Thermodynamics

Susantha Wanniarachchi
Notes prepared by Dr. Upaka Rathnayake

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 Things to remember
 No mobile phones
(if you are carrying it make it to silent mode or vibration
mode)
 Lectures start ON TIME
 Attendance-SLIIT needs 80%

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 A Book to refer

Douglas J.F., Gasiorek J.M., Swaffield J.A., and

Jack L.B., 2001. Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall publishers, ISBN-13: 978-
0-13-129293-2

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• 2 labs on Fluid mechanics – No shoes, then, no
labs
• Lab 1- Finding the centre of pressure of a totally or partially submerged
plane surface using centre of pressure apparatus
• All calculations should complete within 2 hours of the lab class – No Report
submission
• Lab 2-Flow over weirs (Determination of the coefficient of discharge of a V-
notch)
• All calculations should complete within 2 hours of the lab class – No Report
submission

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 Topics we going to cover…
 Fluids and their Properties
 Pressure and Head
 Static Forces on Surfaces
 Buoyancy
 Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams
 The Momentum Equation and its Applications
 The Energy Equation and its Applications


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Why Study Fluid Mechanics ?

There are number of fluids that when burnt, produce lots of heat, which can be used for various
applications. Examples of these fluids includes petrol and diesel for vehicles.

There are some fluids like oil that have a tendency to exert very high pressure or force. These
fluids can be used for lifting various heavy loads. The fluids used in hydraulic machines and
hydraulic lifters are an example.

Some fluids have excellent flow properties which can be used for the lubrication of various
machines.

Fluids like water posses kinetic and potential energy, which is used for generation of electricity
as in hydroelectric power plants.
 Properties of fluids
Density
Density is the quantity of matter (M) in a given volume (Vol) of
the fluid

Defined in 3 forms
– mass density ( - rho)
– specific weight (w)
– relative density

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 Mass density (ρ)
defined as the mass of the substance per unit volume

Units: kilograms per cubic meter (kg m−3)

Dimensions: ML−3

Specific weight (w)

defined as the weight per unit volume

Units: newtons per cubic meter (N m−3)

Dimensions: ML−2T−2
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 Relative density (σ)
defined as the ratio of the mass density of a
substance to some standard mass density

no units
Dimensions: M0L0T0

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https://steemit.com/steemstem/@singhtheripper/the-holy-water
 Properties of fluids
Viscosity is tendency to resist flowing freely
2 forms
dynamic viscosity  (greek "myu")
The coefficient of dynamic viscosity μ can be defined as the
shear force per unit area (or shear stress τ) required to drag one
layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit distance
away from it in the fluid.
Force
 Force  Time Mass  dis tan ce
  Area  
dv Velocity Area Area  Time
dy Dist an ce

 1.0 × 10-3 kg m-1 s-1 (or Nsm-2) – for water

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 https://opentextbc.ca/physicstestbook2/chapter/viscosity-
and-laminar-flow-poiseuilles-law/

https://www.cradle-cfd.com/technology/
glossary/ja_K/detail0009.html
 Viscosity
kinematic viscosity  (greek "nyu")
ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density




Units: square metres per second (m2 s−1)

Dimensions: L2T−1

 1.0 × 10-6 m2 s-1 at 200C – for water

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 Surface tension (σ)
Surface tension is the strength of the surface skin
– molecules within a body of liquid are attracted to each
other equally in all directions
– at an interface between substances the attractions are
unbalanced
– molecules in the surface are pulled inward giving the
impression of a skin or elastic membrane between the
surfaces
– surface tension is the force acting across
the unit length of a line drawn in the
surface due to the unbalance attraction

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Think : Why drops of liquids are tend to be spherical?

REF: https://i.stack.imgur.com/wD24O.jpg
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 Surface tension contd.

Surface tension preventing a paper clip

from submerging.

Water striders stay atop the liquid because

of surface tension

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 Surface tension contd.
Forces acting on a diametral plane through a
spherical drop of radius r,
the force due to internal pressure = p × πr2
the force due to surface tension around the
perimeter = 2πr × σ.
For equilibrium
pπr2 = 2πrσ
p = 2σ/r
Surface tension Pressure
force force
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Classroom problem 1

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 Capillarity
Fine tube (open at both ends) is vertically submerged as shown
in the figure.
If the liquid wets the tube - the level of the liquid will rise in the
tube (a)
If the liquid does not wet the tube - the level of liquid in the tube
will be depressed below the level of the free surface outside (b)

θ - Angle of contact between liquid

and solid
d - Tube diameter

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 Capillarity contd.
Force equilibrium
Upward force = Downward force
Upward force ???
(Surface tension)
Downward force???
(Weight of the liquid column)

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 Forces and fluids
We have 3 Kinds of forces
– Point forces
– Surface forces
– Body Forces
Point forces - cannot be applied to a fluid!
Surface forces - there are 3 kinds of surface forces
– compression force Fc (squeezing)
– tension force, Ft (pulling)
– shear force, Fs (tearing or twisting)

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 Forces and fluids contd.
Body forces
Act directly on the matter which comprises a body whatever
state (solid, liquid or gas) the body is in.
These are the mysterious forces that “act at a distance”.
Body forces are sometimes imaginary in that they derive from
matter’s property of inertia. (e.g. The Coriolis Force which is due
to the earths rotation).
In other cases the body force is due to the interaction which
occurs when matter is placed in a field.

What is the most common body force acting on a fluid?

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 Response of fluids to surface forces
Compression Force (Compressive Stress)
(In fluid mechanics we call this pressure force and the resulting
stress simply the pressure) F c
Initial State
 Solids less compressible Final State
Fc
 Liquids slightly compressible Fc
 Gases highly compressible

Tension Force (Tensile Stress)

Fc
Liquid changes phase to vapour gases
It boils because of the pressure drops
Vapour pressure vacuum Solid Initial State
Can gases expand without a limit??? Ft Ft
Liquid Final State

Ft Ft
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 Response of fluids to surface forces contd.
Shear Forced (Shear Stress)
Comparison of the states
Solids
Fs
Solids distort with finite strain  when a shear
Fs
D
force is applied. Internally generated forces
D
1 2
resist the shear force. These internal forces are
A B A B
related to the amount of distortion
C C
Fs Fs

Fs
Fluids Fluids continue to distort indefinitely under the
Fs
D  D action of shear force. After a short time t the
A B A B line CD has rotated through an angle . However,
internal forces are generated and these are
C C
Fs Fs
related to the rate of distortion.
Time = t Time = t + t
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 Definition of a Fluid
Since fluids always deform when a shear force is
applied we can define a fluid as “a substance which
deforms continuously under the action of a shear
force”. It follows that if a body of fluid is at rest relative
to its container the only forces acting on the fluid
particles must be normal or “Pressure” forces

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 Defining the rate of deformation of a
fluid
Fs
Fs
We need a measure of the rate of D D

distortion so that we can relate it A B A B
to the resisting force. We might
C C
consider using the rate of rotation Fs Fs

of the line CD which is given by: Time = t Time = t + t


  radians s 1
t
Displacement in time t = ut
ut
The shear force produces continuous u + u

}
distortion the top face
Therefore, the cube must move at a 
y
steady velocity relative to the bottom
surface thus. u

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 Defining the Viscosity of a Fluid
Displacement in time t = ut
From the diagram
arc u t ut
   u + u

}
radius y

y
Therefore, the rate of angular velocity
u u
   rate of rotation
y

Fluids resist rapid deformation

Therefore, the internal stresses will be “some function of” the rate
of rotation
This is the measure of how fast the fluid is being deformed.

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 Defining the Viscosity of a Fluid contd.
All real fluids - the internal shear stress  is “some function of”
how fast the fluid is deforming
τ  Φ(rate of shear)  Φ   u 
 y 

Examples of the relationship 

for different kinds of fluids

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 Defining the Viscosity of a Fluid contd.
Luckily for us the two most common engineering fluids (air and
water) can be approximated to Newtonian fluids.
So, if shear stress is directly proportional to rate of strain we can
write
  
dy
du
Newton’s Law of Viscosity

 - the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

It is a property of the fluid dependent mainly on temperature.

What is a Newtonian fluid?

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