TE

3
Cellular
organization

e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccfc03.e

The cell is the basic unit of life.

Links to prior knowledge Chapter preview

In Chapter 1, you learned that life
can be studied at many levels: from 3.1 Cells as the basic units of life
atoms to molecules to cells which 3.2 Using a light microscope
are further organized into more
complex structures. You will explore
3.3 Sub-cellular structures in animal cells
cells as the basic functioning unit of
and plant cells
life, how they were discovered, and 3.4 Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
the functions of the parts inside a
3.5 Levels of organization in organisms
cell in this chapter.
 3 Cellular organization

Life in a drop of pond water

A drop of pond water may seem like ‘lifeless’ to the naked eye. If it is magnified 100
times, we can see many tiny organisms in it. Some are single-celled while others are
multicellular.

 Volvox is a group of green algae that lives in freshwater.

Each small sphere is a single cell. Several cells form a colony
contained in the larger sphere. (x80)

Surf the net

Watch the video clip below to see
microscopic life in pond water in
action:
e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccstn0301.e

Think about …
1. What is a cell?
2. What instruments are needed to observe cells?
Answer
(Refer to p.A2 for answers.)

Volvox 團藻
3- 2
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Learning objective 3.1 Cells as the basic units of life

• Appreciate the contribution of
the microscope to the Cells are the smallest functioning unit of life that shows all of the
discovery of cells
seven characteristics of life. All organisms consist of one or more
• Recognize that advancements
in microscope technology have cells, such as the unicellular organisms found in pond water, and
aided the study of cells multicellular organisms such as fish and pondweed.

a b

Amoeba is single-celled (x150). Pondweed consists of many cells (x100).

Figure 3.1 All organisms consist of one or more cells.

Since most cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye, no one
knew that cells existed until microscopes were invented.

A. Discovery of cells and the cell theory

Cells were first discovered in the 1660s by the British scientist
Robert Hooke (1635–1703). He used a light microscope he made
to examine slices of cork from the bark of a tree. Hooke noted that
cork was made up of many tiny boxes, which he called ‘cells’,
similar to the ‘cells’ of a honeycomb.

a b c

Hooke’s microscope Hooke’s drawing of cork cells ‘Cells’ of a honeycomb

Figure 3.2 Hooke called the tiny boxes he observed in cork ‘cells’.

unicellular 單細胞
multicellular 多細胞 3- 3
microscope 顯微鏡
 TE
3 Cellular organization

What Hooke saw were actually the cell walls of dead cork cells. The
NOS note
first person to observe living cells was Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Leeuwenhoek was inspired by (1632–1723), a Dutch scientist skilful in making lenses. Using
Hooke’s work Micrographia,
published in 1665, and became lenses that could magnify objects up to nearly 300 times, he
interested in using a microscope observed microbes in pond water and in the plaque from his teeth,
to examine things. This shows how as well as blood cells, sperm cells, etc.
important it is for scientists to
publish their findings so that other
scientists can share in their ideas,
discuss or repeat their work.

Figure 3.3 Leeuwenhoek’s

drawings of blood cells (left) and
sperm cells (right)

Following the work of these two pioneers, the study of cells and the
development of microscopes continued. By the early 19th century,
microscopes were of much better quality, so scientists could observe
various types of cells in detail and even some cellular activities.

In 1839, two German biologists, Matthias Schleiden (1804–1881)

and Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) summarized the findings of a
number of scientists and proposed the cell theory, which states that:

 all organisms are made up of one or more cells.

NOS note  the cell is the basic unit of life (i.e. it is the smallest unit of an
organism that can carry out all of the processes of life).
These events demonstrate that:
• the discovery of cells was Later in 1855, the German scientist Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902)
based on observations of the proposed an extension of the cell theory:
natural world.
• before the invention of the  cells arise from pre-existing cells.
microscope, people knew little
about cells or microscopic
organisms. This shows that
progress in science is
influenced by the technology
and the types of equipment
available at the time.
• the contributions of various
scientists aided in the
development of the cell theory.
Figure 3.4 A cell undergoing cell
This shows that science is a
division (x15,000)
process of ongoing inquiries
and that scientists build on the
work of other scientists. The cell theory is one of the fundamental ideas of modern biology.
It provides the basis for the study of organisms.

cell theory 細胞學說 cell division 細胞分裂

3- 4
 TE
3 Cellular organization

B. Microscope technology and the study of

cells
The study of cells relies on the use of microscopes. Cell biologists
nowadays use different types of microscopes to produce different
types of images. Several commonly used microscopes include:

1. Light microscope
The light microscope makes use of lenses to refract and focus light
from the specimen to form a magnified image. It is ideal for
examining living cells and preserved cells. It can also be used to
Figure 3.5 A light microscope
used in schools today
look at biological processes in living cells (e.g. movement, cell
division, etc.). The light microscope used in school laboratory today
can produce an image magnified up to 1000 times.

However, the magnification available from a light microscope is not

high enough to see all the structures inside cells.

a 2. Electron microscope
For higher magnification and resolution, electron microscopes,
such as the transmission electron microscope (TEM) and the
scanning electron microscope (SEM), are used.

The TEM passes a beam of electrons through a thinly sliced

b
specimen and uses a magnetic field to focus the beam. It
produces high-resolution images magnified up to 10,000,000
times. It is essential for revealing the detailed internal structures
of a specimen.

The SEM scans the surface of a three-dimensional specimen

c
with an electron beam. It can produce images magnified up to
500,000 times. It is useful in revealing the external structures
of a specimen.

However, living specimens cannot be examined with an electron

microscope because the specimens must be completely dehydrated
Figure 3.6 Blood cells viewed and chemically treated. All images from an electron microscope
with a a light microscope
(x600), b a transmission are black and white. False colour is often added to the images using
electron microscope (x2000), computer software.
and c a scanning electron
microscope (x2800)

light microscope 光顯微鏡 scanning electron microscope 掃描電子顯微鏡 resolution 分辨率

electron microscope 電子顯微鏡 3- 5
transmission electron microscope 透射電子顯微鏡
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Key point
1. The cell theory states that:
• all organisms are made up of one or more cells.
• the cell is the basic unit of life.
• all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
2. The types of microscopes commonly used today are light microscopes,
transmission electron microscopes and scanning electron microscopes.

Learning objective 3.2 Using a light microscope

• Know the different parts of a
light microscope and their Figure 3.7 shows a light microscope commonly used in school
functions
laboratories. It is a compound microscope consisting of two sets of
• Know how to use a light
microscope and calculate the lenses: eyepieces and objectives.
total magnification of a
microscope

Coarse adjustment knob

Eyepiece
This is used to raise or lower
This is the magnifying lens
the body tube (or the stage)
that the eye looks through.
for rough focusing.

Body tube
Fine adjustment knob
Nosepiece This is used to bring the
This holds the objectives of image into a sharp focus.
different magnifications. It
can be turned to switch Arm
between different objectives.

Objective Stage-clip
This is the magnifying lens This holds the slide in
closest to the specimen. position on the stage.

Stage Condenser
The slide is put here for This concentrates the light
observation. reflected from the mirror
onto the specimen.

Mirror
Iris diaphragm
This reflects light to shine
This regulates the amount of
through the specimen.
light passing through the
Base condenser.
Figure 3.7 Components of a light microscope and their functions

compound microscope 複式顯微鏡 body tube 鏡筒 coarse adjustment knob 粗調節器 iris diaphragm 虹膜式光欄
3- 6 eyepiece 目鏡 nosepiece 物鏡轉換器 fine adjustment knob 微調節器
objective 物鏡 stage 載物台 condenser 聚光器
 All answers TE
3 Cellular organization

The image of the specimen is magnified by the eyepiece and the

STEM activity 3.1 objective. Hence, the total magnification of a compound microscope
Using your smartphone is the product of the magnification of the eyepiece and the
as a microscope magnification of the objective.
By placing a lens or a glass
bead in front of the camera
of your mobile phone, you Eyepiece Objective Total magnification
can use your phone as a 5X 4X 20X
handy microscope! Check this
out at: 10X 10X 100X

e-aristo.hk/r/ 15X 40X 600X

bioccstem.e
Table 3.1 Different combinations of eyepiece and objective and the
resulting magnification

 Skill-building Handling data

Activity 3.1 Calculating the actual length of a specimen shown in a

photomicrograph with a given magnification

Objects seen under the microscope seem to be much larger than their actual size. The magnification of
an object is calculated as follows:
Sharpen your skills
The SI unit of length is the metre (m). To measure
Size of specimen in the image objects in the microscopic world, we use small
Magnification =
Actual size of the specimen units of measurement, such as millimetres
(mm), micrometres (μm) and nanometres (nm):
1 mm = 0.001 m (10-3)
1 μm = 0.000001 m (10-6)
1 nm = 0.000000001 m (10-9)

Below is a photomicrograph showing some human cheek cells. The magnification of the image is 200X.
How can you calculate the actual length of cell Y?

cell Y

(x200)

First, measure the length of cell Y in the photomicrograph: cm

Then, calculate the actual length of cell Y:

Length of cell Y in the photomicrograph

Actual length of cell Y =
=
Magnification 200
cm

μm

3- 7
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Practical 3.1 Observation with a light microscope

Procedure Video
Practical 3.1
A. Observation at low power magnification e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccpv0301.e
1. Insert a low power eyepiece (5X) into the body tube.
2. Choose a low power objective (5X or 10X) by turning the nosepiece.
3. Look through the eyepiece. Adjust the mirror to reflect light through
the hole on the stage.

Caution
Never use direct sunlight.
It may damage your eyes.

4. Adjust the condenser and the iris diaphragm until the light is sufficient
and even.
5. Prepare a piece of paper (about 1 cm2) with the letter ‘b’ on it. Stick
the piece of paper onto a microscope slide with sellotape.
6. Put the slide on the stage and fix its position with the clips. The letter
‘b’ should be placed right above the centre of the hole on the stage.
7. Watch from the side and lower the body tube (or raise the stage) by
turning the coarse adjustment knob until the objective is just above
the slide.

8. Look through the eyepiece. Slowly turn the coarse adjustment knob
in the opposite direction to raise the body tube (or lower the stage)
until the image becomes clear. Turn the fine adjustment knob to
make the image sharp.

Caution
Never move the body tube downwards when
looking through the eyepiece. This may break
the slide and damage the objective.

cont'd
3- 8
 3 Cellular organization

9. Look through the eyepiece. Move the slide slightly to your right. Observe the direction in which the
image seems to move.
10. Move the slide slightly away from the arm of the microscope. Observe the direction in which the
image seems to move.

B. Observation at high power magnification

1. Put a prepared slide of onion epidermal cells on the stage and fix its position with the clips. Focus
the specimen with low power magnification as in Part A.
2. Adjust the position of the slide so that the part of the specimen you want to observe is at the centre
of the field of view.
3. Looking from the side, turn the nosepiece to select the high power objective (40X).
4. Looking through the eyepiece, slowly raise the body tube (or lower the stage) by turning the fine
adjustment knob until the image becomes clear.
5. If the image is still not in focus, carry out the following procedures:
(a) Watch from the side and lower the body tube (or raise the stage) by turning the coarse adjustment
knob until the objective almost touches the slide.
(b) Looking through the eyepiece, turn the fine adjustment knob slowly to raise the body tube (or
lower the stage) in order to focus the image.
(c) Adjust the condenser, the iris diaphragm, the mirror and the slide, if necessary, to obtain suitable
illumination.

Results and discussion

• When the typed letter ‘b’ is observed under the microscope, the image appears as ‘q’. This shows
that the image formed by a light microscope is upside down and reversed from left to right
(laterally). We call this an inverted image.
• When the same specimen is examined at low power magnification and high power magnification,
the images observed differ in some ways:

Test yourself
Suppose you are observing a
Paramecium with a microscope
and it moves to the left where you
cannot see it. In which direction
should you move the slide on the
stage in order to bring it back to
the field of view?
(Refer to p.A2 for answers.) Answer

Low power magnification High power magnification

Area of specimen observed larger smaller
Details of the image observed fewer more
Brightness of the image brighter dimmer

inverted image 倒立像

3- 9
 TE All answers
3 Cellular organization

Key point
1. The total magnification of a compound microscope is the product of the
magnification of the eyepiece and the magnification of the objective.
2. The image formed by a light microscope is inverted upside down and
reversed laterally.
3. Compared with the observation at low power magnification, a smaller
area (i.e. fewer cells) of the specimen is observed at high power
magnification. More details are shown but the image is dimmer.

Checkpoint
1. Which of the following combinations of eyepiece and objective
provides the highest power magnification?
Eyepiece magnification Objective magnification
A. 4X 20X
B. 8X 10X
C. 10X 20X
D. 15X 10X

2. The photomicrographs below show the cross-section of a root with

different magnifications.

photomicrograph 1 photomicrograph 2

A student focused on the section with a microscope and saw the

image as shown in photomicrograph 1.
In order to see the view as shown in photomicrograph 2, the following
steps are taken. Arrange the steps in the correct sequence.
(1) Turn the nosepiece to select an objective of higher magnification.
(2) Adjust the position of the section on the stage.
(3) Turn the coarse adjustment knob or the fine adjustment knob.
A. (1), (2), (3)
B. (2), (1), (3)
C. (3), (1), (2)
D. (3), (2), (1)

3- 10
 TE
3 Cellular organization

3.3 Sub-cellular structures in

Learning objective animal cells and plant cells
• Recognize the various sub-
cellular structures and their
functions A. The basic structure of a cell
• Identify sub-cellular structures
as seen under the light In organisms, cells may vary greatly in forms and functions, but all
microscope and electron
cells share some features in common. The cell is surrounded by a
microscope
• Compare the cellular
cell membrane, which encloses a jelly-like substance called the
organization of animal cells and cytoplasm and a nucleus. This is the basic structure of an animal
plant cells cell (Figure 3.8).

In addition to the cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus, all plant

Remember this
cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane. Many plant cells
• The cytoplasm and the nucleus also have a large central vacuole surrounded by a membrane. Some
together make up the living
cells in green plants also contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis
contents of a cell, called
protoplasm. (Figure 3.10).
• Many cell structures are
transparent and colourless, so
stains are often added to aid
observation. The parts that
absorb more stain appear
darker, such as the nucleus.

cell membrane

nucleus

cytoplasm

Figure 3.8 Drawing of an animal cell as viewed with Figure 3.9 Photomicrograph of human
a light microscope cheek cells (x150)

chloroplast vacuole

cell wall

cell
membrane
nucleus cytoplasm

Figure 3.10 Drawing of a plant cell as viewed with a Figure 3.11 Photomicrograph of leaf cells
light microscope from Hydrilla (x150)

cell membrane 細胞膜 cell wall 細胞壁 protoplasm 原生質

cytoplasm 細胞質 vacuole 液泡 Hydrilla 黑藻 3- 11
nucleus 細胞核 chloroplast 葉綠體
 3 Cellular organization

B. Sub-cellular structures and their

functions
Link it
There are many small sub-cellular structures, called organelles,
Organelles are so called because
inside the cytoplasm of a cell. You can view the relatively larger
they are like organs in the way
that each type carries out a organelles such as the nucleus, chloroplasts and large vacuoles
particular function. Since each with a light microscope. To see the smaller organelles, you have to
type of organelle has its own
use an electron microscope.
functions, the cell as a whole has
division of labour.
Figure 3.12 shows the structure of an animal cell and a plant cell as
seen with an electron microscope.

cell membrane

cytoplasm
nucleus
rough endoplasmic vacuole
reticulum

mitochondrion
ribosome
3D model smooth endoplasmic
Animal cell reticulum
e-aristo.hk/r/
biocc3dm0301.e

mitochondrion

cell wall

cell membrane
nucleus vacuole
rough endoplasmic
reticulum chloroplast

cytoplasm
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
ribosome
3D model
Plant cell Test yourself
e-aristo.hk/r/
biocc3dm0302.e Which organelles are only visible
with an electron microscope?
(Refer to p.A2 for answers.) Answer

Figure 3.12 Drawing of a an animal cell and b a plant cell as viewed with an electron microscope AR

organelle 細胞器
3- 12
 TE
3 Cellular organization

1. Cell membrane
Link it
The cell membrane is a thin and flexible layer surrounding all cells.
The detailed structure and It is made up of lipids and proteins. It is differentially permeable, so it
functions of the cell membrane
can control the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
are discussed in Chapter 4.

2. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance made up mainly of water,
proteins and other basic chemicals of life (e.g. sugars, fatty acids,
nucleotides, etc.). It holds all the organelles in a cell. It is where
many biochemical reactions take place.

3. Nucleus
The nucleus often appears as a darkly stained spherical structure
under the light microscope. It is surrounded by a double membrane
known as the nuclear membrane. Small holes called nuclear pores
exist on the nuclear membrane to allow exchange between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.

The nucleus contains the genetic material of life, DNA, which

controls protein synthesis and therefore all activities of the cell
Figure 3.13 3D diagram of an
animal cell with its nucleus such as cell growth and the repair of worn-out parts.
highlighted

Remember this
nuclear
There are one or more nucleoli membrane
(singular: nucleolus) inside the
nucleus. They are involved in nucleolus
making ribosomes which move
into the cytoplasm and play an
important role in protein
synthesis.

nuclear
pores

Figure 3.14 Electron micrograph showing a nucleus (x2500)

nuclear membrane 核膜 differentially permeable 具差異透性

nuclear pore 核孔 3- 13
nucleolus 核仁
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Extras: Do you know...

Not all cells have one nucleus
Most cells contain one nucleus but there are exceptions. For example, in humans, mature red blood cells have no
nucleus at all. On the other hand, a single muscle fibre may have several nuclei.

nuclei a muscle fibre

×200 ×800
 Mature red blood cells do not  Each muscle fibre is a cell with
have a nucleus. several nuclei.

4. Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of
membrane-bound sacs that are interconnected. It comes from the
outer membrane of the nucleus and extends throughout the
cytoplasm of a cell. There are two types of ER:

Rough ER with ribosomes attached on the surface. Ribosomes

are the sites of protein synthesis. Rough ER helps transport the
proteins produced at the ribosomes.
Figure 3.15 3D diagram of an
animal cell with its endoplasmic
reticulum highlighted
Smooth ER has no ribosomes attached on it. It is involved in the
synthesis and transport of lipids within the cytoplasm.

rough ER
ribosome

smooth ER

ribosome

membrane-
bound sac

Figure 3.16 3D drawing of rough ER Figure 3.17 Electron micrograph showing rough ER
and smooth ER (x12,000)

endoplasmic reticulum 內質網

3- 14 ribosome 核糖體
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Remember this Taking it further

• There is a lot of rough ER in More about the ribosomes
protein-secreting cells (e.g.
cells that secrete insulin, which Ribosomes are tiny organelles (about 20 to 30 nm in diameter) that are not
is a protein hormone). surrounded by a membrane. They are found in large numbers in all living cells.
Ribosomes which are free in the cytoplasm synthesize proteins to be used
• Smooth ER is present in larger
within the cell, whereas ribosomes attached to ER produce proteins that are
amounts in lipid-secreting cells
transported out of the cell. You will learn about how ribosomes are involved in
(e.g. cells that secrete male sex
hormones in testes, which are
protein synthesis in Chapter 27.
lipid hormones).

5. Mitochondrion
The mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is a rod-shaped organelle
surrounded by a double membrane. The outer membrane is smooth
while the inner membrane is highly folded to form finger-like
projections.

Mitochondria are the main sites of aerobic respiration. During the

process, organic food substances are broken down to release
energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Figure 3.18 3D diagram of an
animal cell with its
mitochondria highlighted The number of mitochondria in a particular cell depends on its
energy need. Cells that use a lot of energy (e.g. sperms, liver cells
and muscle cells) usually have large numbers of mitochondria.

outer
membrane

inner
membrane

Figure 3.19 Structure of a mitochondrion Figure 3.20 Electron micrograph of a

mitochondrion (x10,000)

mitochondrion 線粒體 aerobic respiration 需氧呼吸

3- 15
 TE
3 Cellular organization

vacuole
6. Vacuole
The vacuole is enclosed by a membrane. It contains water and
cell dissolved substances. Most animal cells have only a few small
wall
vacuoles or none. Plant cells have a large central vacuole. The fluid
inside is called cell sap. It is a solution containing mineral salts,
sugars, pigments, enzymes, etc. When the vacuole is fully filled, the
plant cell becomes turgid. This provides support to the plant.
chloroplast
Water-soluble pigments
Figure 3.21 3D diagram of a
plant cell with its vacuole, cell contained in the vacuole give
wall and chloroplasts blue or purple colours to some
highlighted
leaves, flowers and fruits.

Figure 3.22 The vacuoles of red onion

epidermal cells contain a pigment
which gives them a purplish-red
colour (×120)

7. Cell wall
Remember this
A cellulose cell wall is found around all plant cells. The cell wall is a
As plant cells are surrounded by a thick, rigid layer covering the cell membrane. It is fully permeable
rigid cell wall, they are more
regular in shape than animal cells.
to water and dissolved substances. It protects and gives shape to
plant cells.

8. Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are found in some cells of green plants. Each
chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane. Inside the
chloroplast, there is a network of flattened sac-like structures. These
internal membrane sacs contain a green pigment called chlorophyll
which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

outer membrane

inner membrane

internal
membrane sac

Figure 3.23 Structure of a chloroplast Figure 3.24 Electron micrograph of a

chloroplast (x11,000)

cell sap 細胞液

3- 16 chlorophyll 葉綠素
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Discovering science
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs found in nearly all animal cells. They
contain many hydrolytic enzymes that catalyse the breakdown of proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, etc. Lysosomes act as the waste treatment
system of the cell. They fuse with worn-out organelles or foreign particles to
break them down, so that any useful substances can be recycled by the cell.
The lysosome was discovered by the Belgian scientist Christian de Duve
(1917–2013) in the 1950s. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Surf the net Medicine in 1974 for this discovery. However, how cells identify and transport
Find out more about the lysosmes unwanted materials to the lysosomes remained a mystery until the 1990s
by searching the Internet with the when the Japanese scientist Yoshinori Ohsumi (1945–) found out the
keywords: mechanism of this process. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
lysosome, self-eating, Medicine in 2016. What idea(s) about the nature of science is/are demonstrated
autophagosome in these events?

C. Similarities and differences between

animal cells and plant cells
Animal cells and plant cells share some common features:

Both have a cell membrane surrounding the cytoplasm.

Both have a nucleus that contains the genetic material.

Both contain mitochondria that function in the production of

ATP.

However, there are some unique features that plant cells have but
animal cells do not have, or vice versa:

Skill builder Animal cells Plant cells

For help on making Shape Usually irregular Fixed by the cell wall
comparison between two
things, refer to p.S4. Size Usually smaller Usually larger

Cell wall Absent Present

Vacuole None or only a few small Usually a large central

vacuoles vacuole is present

Chloroplast Absent Present in green plant

cells

Position of nucleus Usually at the centre of Usually at one side of

the cell the cell

Table 3.2 Comparison between animal cells and plant cells

lysosome 溶酶體
3- 17
 TE
3 Cellular organization

We have learned how to use a light microscope in Section 3.2. Let

us now get some hands-on experience in examining plant and
animal tissues with a light microscope.

In Practicals 3.2 and 3.3, we are going to prepare temporary mounts

of animal and plant tissues for microscopic examination. Try to
identify any sub-cellular structures that you see.

Practical 3.2 Preparation of a temporary mount of animal cells

Procedure Video
1. Gently touch the surface of the cornea of an ox eye with the middle of a Practical 3.2
e-aristo.hk/r/
microscope slide to obtain some ox eye cornea cells. bioccpv0302.e

ox eye
Caution
slide Wear disposable gloves.

2. Add a drop of methylene blue solution to the touched area of the slide. Caution
3. Place a cover slip over the drop of methylene blue solution. Be careful • Methylene blue solution is
not to trap any air bubbles between the cover slip and the slide. Use harmful. Avoid contact
with the solution.
tissue paper to soak up excess stain.
• Students with G6PD
deficiency should use
other stains such as eosin.

methylene forceps
Notes
blue
solution cover slip Methylene blue, iodine
solution and eosin are some
slide with ox eye examples of stains often
cornea cells on it used.

4. Examine the slide with a microscope using low power magnification and
then high power magnification.
5. Draw a labelled diagram of the cells you observed. Skill builder

For help on making a

good biological drawing,
refer to p.S5–6.

temporary mount 臨時裝片

3- 18 methylene blue solution 亞甲藍溶液
G6PD deficiency 葡萄糖-6- 磷酸脫氫酶缺乏症 (俗稱蠶豆症 )
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Practical 3.3 Preparation of temporary mounts of plant cells and

tissues

Procedure Video
Practical 3.3
A. Observation of onion epidermal cells e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccpv0303.e
1. Obtain a small piece of inner epidermis from an onion and spread it on a
slide.
Caution
• Iodine solution is an
irritant. Avoid contact
with the solution.
forceps • Wear disposable gloves.

iodine solution cover slip

onion epidermis

2. Add a drop of iodine solution and place a cover slip over the epidermis.
3. Examine the slide with a microscope using low power magnification and then high power
magnification.
4. Draw a labelled diagram of the cells you observed.

B. Observation of Hydrilla leaf cells

1. Remove a leaf from the growing tip of a Hydrilla plant and place it on a slide.

Hydrilla

2. Mount the leaf with a drop of distilled water.

distilled
cover slip
water

Hydrilla leaf

3. Examine the slide with a microscope using low power magnification and then high power
magnification.
4. Draw a labelled diagram of the cells you observed.
cont'd
3- 19
 TE
3 Cellular organization

C. Observation of pollen grains Caution

1. Add a drop of distilled water to a slide. Students allergic to pollen
grains should not carry out
2. Pick a ripe stamen from a flower. any steps involving the use
of flowers or pollen grains.
3. Using a brush, transfer pollen grains from the anther to the drop of water
on the slide.
4. Place a cover slip over the drop of distilled water containing pollen
grains. anther

5. Examine the slide with a microscope using low power magnification and
distilled
then high power magnification. water
6. Draw a labelled diagram of the pollen grains you observed.

pollen grains

D. Observation of cells in banana tissue

1. Obtain a small amount of banana tissue with a toothpick.

2. Transfer the banana tissue to a drop of distilled water on a slide.
3. Squash the banana tissue in the drop of water using the toothpick.
4. Mount the banana tissue with a drop of iodine solution. Caution
5. Examine the slide with a microscope using low power magnification and • Iodine solution is an
irritant. Avoid contact
then high power magnification.
with the solution.
6. Draw a labelled diagram of the cells you observed. • Wear disposable gloves.

Taking it further
Contribution of microscope development to the understanding of
cells
The discovery of cells was made possible by the
invention of the microscope.
Do you know how microscopes were developed
and improved over time?
How do microscopes help scientists understand
cells better?
Search for information about the contribution of
the development of different types of microscopes
to the understanding of cells.
 A modern transmission
electron microscope

3- 20
 All answers
3 Cellular organization

Key point
Different structures in cells have different functions:

Presence in
Cell structure Function
plant cells animal cells
Cell membrane   • Controls the movement of substances into and out
of the cell
Cytoplasm   • Holds all the organelles in a cell
• Provides a site for chemical reactions to take place
Nucleus   • Contains the genetic material DNA
• Controls activities of the cell
Rough ER   • Helps in the synthesis and transport of proteins
Smooth ER   • Helps in the synthesis and transport of lipids
Mitochondrion   • The site of ATP production during aerobic respiration
Vacuole   • Contains water and dissolved substances
a large central only a few or • Provides support to the plant when it is full
vacuole none
Cell wall   • Protects and gives shape to cells
Chloroplast   • Contains chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for
photosynthesis

Checkpoint
Directions: Questions 1 and 2 refer to the diagram below which shows
a plant cell.
4

5
1

6
2

3 7

(x20,000)

1. Which structure is not bounded by a double membrane?

A. 1 B. 3
C. 4 D. 6
2. Which of the following correctly matches the structure with its function?
Structure Function
A. 2 synthesizes and transports proteins
B. 4 stores nutrients
C. 5 stores genetic material
D. 7 prevents cell bursting

3- 21
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Learning objective 3.4 Prokaryotic cells and

Compare the cellular organization
of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
eukaryotic cells
cells

1. Eukaryotic cells
The animal cells and plant cells discussed before are eukaryotic
cells. These cells have a true nucleus surrounded by the nuclear
membrane which encloses the genetic material, DNA.

Organisms made up of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes.

Animals, plants, fungi and protists are all examples of eukaryotes.
They may be unicellular (made up of a single cell) or multicellular
(composed of many cells).

Figure 3.25 Euglena. Each cell is a Figure 3.26 A leaf surface seen
single organism. (x400) with a light microscope. A leaf is
made up of many cells. (x400)

2. Prokaryotic cells
Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotic
cells. The genetic material of prokaryotic cells exists in the form of
a coiled loop of DNA and it lies free in the cytoplasm.

Organisms made up of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes. An

example is the bacteria.

genetic material (DNA) ribosomes

flagellum

cytoplasm capsule
cell wall
cell membrane

Figure 3.27 Structure of a prokaryotic cell Figure 3.28 Electron micrograph of a

bacterium (x10,000)
eukaryotic cell 真核細胞 prokaryote 原核生物 fungus (plural: fungi) 真菌
3- 22 eukaryote 真核生物 protist 原生生物
prokaryotic cell 原核細胞
 All answers TE
3 Cellular organization

Remember this
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and have a simpler structure,
The length of most prokaryotic compared with eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have
cells is about 1 to 10 μm whereas
that of eukaryotic cells ranges
membrane-bound organelles (e.g. endoplasmic reticulum,
from 10 to 100 μm. mitochondria and chloroplasts). Ribosomes, like DNA, lie free in
the cytoplasm.

Most prokaryotic cells have a cell wall. However, the cell wall is not
Link it made up of cellulose as in plant cells. Some prokaryotic cells have
You will learn more about a slimy capsule outside the cell wall, giving them extra protection.
prokaryotes and eukaryotes in
Some of them also have flagella (singular: flagellum) for movement.
Chapter 29.

Key point
1. Cells with a true nucleus and DNA enclosed in the nuclear membrane are
eukaryotic cells. Animals, plants, fungi and protists are examples of
eukaryotes.
2. Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotic cells.
Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria.

Checkpoint
Which of the following indicates whether a cell is prokaryotic or
eukaryotic?
A. the presence or absence of a cell membrane
B. the presence or absence of a rigid cell wall
C. the presence or absence of a membrane-bound nucleus
D. the presence or absence of ribosomes

Learning objective 3.5 Levels of organization in

Recognize the levels of
organization in organisms
organisms

Recall from Chapter 2, organisms are made up of various

biomolecules. Those molecules are grouped in different ways to
form various organelles. Each organelle performs specific functions
in a cell. Some organisms are single-celled. Others are multicellular,
in which groups of similar cells are organized into a specialized
tissue to perform a specific function. Multiple tissues that cooperate
to perform a task make up an organ. Several organs may be
grouped into a system for carrying out a vital body function.

capsule 莢膜
flagellum 鞭毛 3- 23
 TE
3 Cellular organization

Figures 3.29 and 3.30 (on the next page) illustrate the levels of
organization in a human and a plant.

Molecule
e.g. DNA is the molecule that
carries genetic information.

Organelle
e.g. The nucleus houses the  DNA
genetic material DNA.

 A nucleus
Cell
e.g. The heart muscle cell
contracts and relaxes
rhythmically.

 A heart muscle cell

Tissue
e.g. Groups of heart muscle cells
form heart muscle tissue.

 Heart muscle tissues

Organ
e.g. The human heart is an organ
mainly composed of heart
muscles and nervous tissues held
together by connective tissue.
The heart pumps blood to all
parts of the body.

 A human heart
System
e.g. The heart, blood and blood
vessels form the circulatory
system for supplying and
removing substances to and from
cells.

Organism
Different systems work together
to maintain the normal
functioning of the human body.

 Human body showing

the circulatory system
Figure 3.29 Levels of organization in a human

3- 24
 3 Cellular organization

Molecule
e.g. Chlorophyll is found in some plant
cells for absorbing light energy.

 A chlorophyll molecule

Organelle
e.g. Chloroplasts are packed with
chlorophyll.
 A chloroplast

Cell
e.g. Mesophyll cells in leaves contain
 A mesophyll cell chloroplasts.

epidermal
tissue
Tissue
e.g. Mesophyll tissue is responsible for
mesophyll
photosynthesis; epidermal tissue is for
tissue protection.

Organ
epidermal e.g. A leaf is an organ composed of
tissue epidermal tissue, mesophyll tissue and
 A section of a leaf showing different vascular tissue.
types of tissues

System
e.g. A plant consists of a root system
and a shoot system. The root system
 A leaf absorbs water and minerals from the
shoot
soil. It also anchors the plant. The
system
shoot system consists of stems bearing
leaves, flowers and fruits. Green leaves
carry out photosynthesis. Flowers and
fruits are the reproductive parts of
flowering plants.

root
system
 A whole plant Organism
Different systems work together to
sustain the life of a plant.
Figure 3.30 Levels of organization in a plant

Key point
The levels of organization in organisms:
molecule  organelle  cell  tissue  organ  system  organism

unicellular organism

multicellular organism

3- 25
 TE All answers
3 Cellular organization

Checkpoint
The following list shows some cell types, tissues and organs in animals
and plants. Identify which of them are cells, tissues or organs.

brain, stem, sperm, root hair, liver,

blood, muscle fibre, leaf, heart

(a) Cells:
(b) Tissues:
(c) Organs:

3- 26
 3 Cellular organization

e-Museum
Time Microscope
developments and the
Discovery of the magnifying power of study of cells
convex lenses when the Romans 1st century e-aristo.hk/r/
experimented with different shapes of bioccem0301.e
clear glass

Lenses were used to make spectacles for

improving eyesight.
14th century
Leeuwenhoek’s microscope


Dutch spectacle makers made the first • Robert Hooke made a coarse compound
microscope by placing two lenses in a 1590s microscope for observation. He observed
tube. The maximum magnification of this tiny boxes in the bark of cork and called
microscope was about 9x and the images them ‘cells’.
were quite blurry. • Leeuwenhoek made a single-lens
1660s microscope with a magnification of
270x. He observed living cells and
single-celled organisms.

1831 The nucleus was observed and named.

1837 Chloroplasts were observed within green

plant cells.
1839
Proposal of the cell theory

Carl Zeiss and Ernst Abbe improved lens

quality and image quality. More and more
1855 Modification of the cell theory
scientists used the improved microscopes
to make observations of organisms.

The mitochondrion was observed and

The ultramicroscope was invented for 1886 named.
observing substances smaller than the
wavelength of visible light (smaller than 1903
400 nm).

ribosomes
The phase-contrast microscope was
invented, which allows the study of 1932
transparent biological materials.
1938  Ribosomes in eukaryotes
are about 25 nm in diameter.
The electron microscope was invented. The
ability to use electrons in microscopy
Ribosomes were first observed in the
greatly improves the magnifying power 1950s mid-1950s with an electron microscope.
and resolution of the images produced by
the electron microscope.

3- 27
 TE All answers
3 Cellular organization

Article reading

How did scientists study the

functions of particular organelles?
Since the invention of the electron microscope in the 1930s, scientists can observe and study the
physical characteristics of many organelles. However, at that time, the chemical properties and
functions of many organelles were still unknown.
By the mid 1940s, differential centrifugation was invented to separate organelles from cells
according to their mass. The process involves grinding up cells to break the membrane and
release the cells’ contents. The cell contents are then extracted and placed in a centrifuge to
separate them by gravity, towards the bottom of a test tube, depending on the spinning speed,
the mass and relative density of the organelles.

low speed medium speed high speed very high speed

centrifugation centrifugation centrifugation centrifugation

cell contents sediment sediment sediment sediment

containing containing containing containing
nuclei mitochondria, fragments of ribosomes,
chloroplasts, ER, etc. etc.
etc.

Questions

1. Why are the nuclei the first to sediment by centrifugation? (1 mark)

2. List two types of molecules that can be detected in nuclei. (2 marks)

3. Mitochondria were first observed in the 1880s, but their function in respiration was not
discovered until the invention of differential centrifugation. Find out more about how scientists
discovered the functions of various types of organelles from the Internet.

3- 28
 3 Cellular organization

e-dictionary
Key terms e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccedict.e

cell membrane 細胞膜 p.11, 13 microscope 顯微鏡 p.3

cell sap 細胞液 p.16 mitochondrion 線粒體 p.15

cell theory 細胞學說 p.4 multicellular 多細胞 p.3

cell wall 細胞壁 p.11, 16 nucleus 細胞核 p.11, 13

chlorophyll 葉綠素 p.16 prokaryotic cell 原核細胞 p.22

chloroplast 葉綠體 p.11, 16 ribosome 核糖體 p.14

cytoplasm 細胞質 p.11, 13 unicellular 單細胞 p.3

endoplasmic reticulum 內質網 p.14 vacuole 液泡 p.11, 16

eukaryotic cell 真核細胞 p.22

Summary

3.1
　 Cells as the basic units of life

1. The cell theory states that:

• all organisms are made up of one or more cells.

• the cell is the basic functioning unit of life.
• all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

2. The types of microscopes commonly used today are light microscopes, transmission electron
microscopes and scanning electron microscopes.

3. Comparison between the light microscope and electron microscope:

Light microscope Electron microscope

Principle of image Makes use of lenses to refract and Makes use of a magnetic field to focus
formation focus light to form an image an electron beam to form an image

Magnifying power Up to 2000 times Up to 10,000,000 times

Resolution 200 nm 0.2 nm

Types of specimen Living or dead Dead

Preparation of specimen Simple and quick Complicated and time-consuming

Ideal for viewing • Living or preserved cells • TEM: internal structure of a

• Biological processes in living specimen
cells • SEM: external features of a
specimen

　
3.2 Using a light microscope

4. The total magnification of a compound microscope is the product of the magnification of the eyepiece and
the magnification of the objective.

5. The image formed by a light microscope is inverted upside down and reversed laterally.

3- 29
 3 Cellular organization

6. There are some differences between observation at low power magnification and high power magnification:

Low power magnification High power magnification

Area of the specimen
larger (more cells can be observed) smaller (fewer cells can be observed)
observed

Details in the image fewer more

Brightness of the image brighter dimmer

　
3.3 Sub-cellular structures in animal cells and plant cells

7. Different structures in cells have different functions:

Presence in
Cell structure Function
plant cells animal cells

Cell • Controls the movement of substances into and out

 
membrane of the cell

Cytoplasm • Holds all the organelles in a cell

 
• Provides a site for chemical reactions to take place

Nucleus • Contains the genetic material DNA

 
• Controls activities of the cell

Rough ER   • Helps in the synthesis and transport of proteins

Smooth ER   • Helps in the synthesis and transport of lipids

Mitochondrion   • The site of ATP production during aerobic respiration

Vacuole   • Contains water and dissolved substances

a large central only a few or • Provides support to the plant when it is full
vacuole none

Cell wall   • Protects and gives shape to cells

Chloroplast • Contains chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for

 
photosynthesis

8. Animal cells and plant cells share some common features:

• Both have a cell membrane surrounding the cytoplasm.

• Both have a nucleus that contains the genetic material.
• Both contain mitochondria that function in the production of ATP.

9. There are some unique features that plant cells have but animal cells do not have, or vice versa:

Animal cells Plant cells

Shape Usually irregular Fixed by the cell wall

Size Usually smaller Usually larger

Cell wall Absent Present

Vacuole None or only a few small vacuoles Usually present as a large central vacuole

Chloroplast Absent Present in green plant cells

Position of nucleus Usually at the centre of the cell Usually to one side of the cell

3- 30
 3 Cellular organization

　
3.4 Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

10. Comparison of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells:

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Examples of organisms Animals, plants, fungi and
Bacteria
protists

Similarities • Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are surrounded by a

cell membrane
• Both possess DNA as their genetic material

Differences Size Usually smaller (about 1 to Usually larger (about 10 to

10 μm in diameter) 100 μm in diameter)

Genetic material Coiled loop of DNA lies free in DNA enclosed in the nuclear
the cytoplasm membrane

Nuclear
Absent Present
membrane

Membrane-bound
Absent Present
organelles

Cell wall • Sometimes present • Present in plant cells but

• Does not contain cellulose absent in animal cells
• Usually contains cellulose
(except in fungi)

　
3.5 Levels of organization in organisms

11. The levels of organization in organisms:

Organism

System

Organ
Multicellular organisms

Tissue

Cell
Unicellular organisms

Organelle

Molecule

3- 31
 All answers
3 Cellular organization

Concept map

Complete the following concept map to review the key points of this chapter.

Cells
can be
in groups form
observed with

microscopes tissues

with a true without a

in groups form
nucleus true nucleus

eukaryotic cell

contains
in groups form

systems
cell wall cell cytoplasm nucleus
(plant cells only) membrane in groups form an

contains
organism

endoplasmic ribosome vacuole

reticulum
(plant cells only)

for
for

rough ER for ATP production photosynthesis

smooth ER for

lipid synthesis

3- 32
 All answers
3 Cellular organization

Time allowed: 40 minutes

Self quiz Total score: 30 marks

Level 1: Understanding basic concepts (7 marks)

1. The following are the steps in using a light microscope for high power magnification. Rearrange them in the correct
order. (1 mark)

(1) Slowly turn the coarse adjustment knob to raise the body tube until the image is clear.
(2) Turn the coarse adjustment knob to lower the body tube towards the slide until the low power objective is just
above the slide.
(3) Rotate the nosepiece to select a high power objective.
(4) Turn the fine adjustment knob to make the image sharp.
(5) Adjust the position of the slide so that the structures to be observed are at the centre of the field of view.

   

2. The diagrams below show the drawings of an animal cell and a green plant cell. Label the structures in the spaces
provided. (3 marks)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) (f)

(e)

3. Identify the sub-cellular structure described by each of the following statements. (3 marks)

(a) A site of ATP production during aerobic respiration

(b) A structure with ribosomes attached, which helps in the
synthesis and transport of proteins
(c) A rigid covering made of cellulose

3- 33
 3 Cellular organization

Level 2: Applying concepts (19 marks)

4. Photomicrograph X shows some red blood cells and photomicrograph Y shows some onion epidermal cells.

Photomicrograph X Photomicrograph Y

(x2000) (x120)

(a) With reference to the photomicrographs, describe two observable structural differences between red blood cells
and onion epidermal cells. (2 marks)Answer
(b) Name the structures that form the outermost surfaces of red blood cells and onion epidermal cells
Answer
respectively. (2 marks)
(c) Compare the outermost layer of a red blood cell and an onion epidermal cell, in terms of
(i) chemical composition (2 marks)Answer
(ii)
functions (2 marks)Answer

5. The electron micrograph below shows a type of white blood cell. This type of cell produces antibodies which are
proteins.

(a) The actual length of the cell is 15 μm. Calculate the magnification of the photomicrograph. Show your
working. (2 marks)Answer
(b) State two observable features of the cell and explain how they are related to its function in the production of
antibodies. (4 marks)Answer

3- 34
 3 Cellular organization

6. In an investigation, some liver tissue was ground up. The component organelles were separated by centrifugation,
extracted and put into different test tubes. Each tube was then tested to find out which type of organelle it contains.
The results are shown in the table below.

Test tube
Tests
1 2 3

Presence of DNA trace amount present absent

Ability to produce proteins no no yes

Ability to produce ATP yes no no

(a) Identify the contents of the three test tubes. (3 marks)Answer

(b) Suggest why different types of organelles can be separated by centrifugation. (2 marks)Answer

Level 3: Building a better answer (4 marks)

7. Read the following question and student A’s answer. Re-write and improve the answer based on the teacher's
comments.

Question
State two organelles that are found abundant in human liver cells, and relate their abundance to the functions
of liver cells. (4 marks) Answer

Student A’s answer

Liver cells contain a lot of rough endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. Rough ER is for
protein synthesis. Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production.

Teacher's comments
Don’t just state the functions of the organelles. Describe how the organelles are involved in performing the
functions of liver cells.

Answers are available on p.A2. If you miss any of the questions, review the relevant section(s) again.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Section(s) 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2, 3.3 3.3 3.3

3- 35
 TE All answers
3 Cellular organization

Exam practice 3. A student wants to estimate the stomatal density

(氣孔密度) of the upper and lower epidermis of a
leaf using a microscope. Which of the following
Multiple-choice questions combinations correctly shows the magnification
that should be used and the reason?
Section 3.1
Magnification Reason
1. Which of the following is not a discovery directly A. low magnification show a larger field
brought about by advances in microscopy? of view
A. Cells are the basic units of life B. low magnification give a brighter
image
B. The discovery of sub-cellular structures
C. high magnification show more cellular
C. Some prokaryotes can cause diseases details
D. The development of the cell theory D. high magnification give a clearer image

HKDSEE Biology 2016 Paper 1 Section A Q12

Section 3.2
2. The diagram below is drawn from an electron Section 3.3
micrograph of an animal cell.
Directions: Questions 4 and 5 refer to the following
study:
A student wants to use an ordinary light
microscope to observe the binary fission (二分裂)
of a photosynthesizing protist under high
magnification. A temporary mount of the protist is
placed on the stage of the microscope.

4. Below are some steps in using a light microscope:

(1) Focus with 10X objective

Which of the following represents the same cell as (2) Focus with 40X objective
seen under a light microscope at 400X (3) Search the field with 10X objective
magnification?
(4) Search the field with 40X objective
A. B. (5) Move the slide until the protist is located in the
centre of the field
(6) Adjust the light intensity if necessary

Which of the following is the most reasonable

C. D. sequence of steps for the above study?

A. (1), (3), (5), (6)

B. (2), (6), (4), (5)
C. (1), (2), (4), (5), (6)
D. (1), (3), (5), (2), (6)

HKDSEE Biology 2014 Paper 1 Section A Q3

3- 36
 All answers
3 Cellular organization

5. Which of the following structures would be 9. Which cell type is most likely a cell that secretes
observable in the above study? the hormone insulin?

A. Ribosome A. W
B. Chloroplast B. X
C. Mitochondrion C. Y
D. Endoplasmic reticulum D. Z

HKDSEE Biology 2014 Paper 1 Section A Q5

10. Which cell type is most likely a red blood cell?
6. Which of the following structures is present in all A. W
living human cells?
B. X
A. large vacuole
C. Y
B. nucleus
D. Z
C. cell membrane
D. cell wall
Section 3.4
11. Which of the following comparisons between a
7. Which of the following statements about the
prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell is/are
nucleus is incorrect?
correct?
A. It contains the genetic material DNA.
(1) Both have cell wall.
B. It is present in all types of cells.
(2) Both have nucleic acid as the genetic material.
C. It controls cellular activities.
(3) A prokaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane but
D. It is surrounded by a double membrane. a eukaryotic cell does not.
A. (1) only
 Directions: Questions 8 to 10 refer to the table below, B. (2) only
which shows the relative amounts of three types of
organelles in four types of human cells. C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only
Relative abundance of
Cell type
N* ER* M* HKCEE Biology 2011 Paper 2 Q2
W – – –

X + ++++ +++ Section 3.5

Y + ++ +
12. Which of the following terms best describes a group
Z + ++ +++ of cells with a similar structure and function?

A. a tissue
Key: ‘+’ indicates the presence of the organelle;
‘–’ indicates the absence of the organelle B. an organ
C. a system
* N = nucleus
ER = endoplasmic reticulum D. an organism
M = mitochondrion

8. Which cell type is most likely a muscle cell?

A. W B. X

C. Y D. Z

3- 37
 3 Cellular organization

Short questions
Section 3.2
13. Tony is viewing some Hydrilla leaf cells using the low power of a light microscope.

cell X

(x100)

Tony wants to examine cell X with high power magnification.

(a) What should he do before turning the nosepiece to switch to the high power objective? (1 mark)Answer
(b) How can he obtain a bright and sharp image after switching to high power magnification? (2 marks)Answer

Section 3.3
14. The photographs on the opposite page show the appearance of the same type of plant cells as observed under a light
microscope (Photomicrograph A) and an electron microscope (Electron Micrograph B).

(a) Based on a comparison of the photographs, name two organelles which are revealed in Electron Micrograph B
but not in Photomicrograph A. (2 marks)
(b) Discuss briefly the impact of the advances in microscopy on the study of cells. (2 marks)

HKALE Biology 2011 Paper 1 Q3(a)–(b)

Section 3.4
15. The diagrams below show the simplified structure of three different cell types A, B and C. (Not drawn to scale)

cell A cell B cell C

2 µm

(a) State one piece of evidence from the diagrams that

(i) cell B is a plant cell. (1 mark)Answer
Answer
(ii) cell C is a prokaryotic cell. (1 mark)
(b) Using the scale provided, calculate the magnification of cell C. (2 marks)Answer

3- 38
 3 Cellular organization

Photomicrograph A (For use with question 14)

(x200)

Electron Micrograph B (For use with question 14)

(x3400)

3- 39
 All answers
3 Cellular organization

16. The diagram below shows an algal cell.

cell wall

nucleus

large chloroplast

(a) Complete labels A and B on the diagram above. (2 marks)

(b) (i) Complete the table. (3 marks)

Part of algal cell Function

nucleus _____________________________

_____________________________ photosynthesis

cell wall _____________________________

(ii) I. Name one part of the algal cell, shown in the diagram above which is not present in an animal cell.
(1 mark)
II. Name one part of the algal cell, shown in the diagram above which is not present in a bacterial cell.
(1 mark)

WJEC GCSE Biology 2 Foundation Tier Jun 2013 Q4

17. The table below compares the features of typical plant, animal and bacterial cells. Put a ‘✓’ if the feature is present,
and a ‘✗’ if it is not. (5 marks)

Feature Plant cells Animal cells Bacterial cells

Nuclear membrane
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Cellulose cell wall

3- 40
 All answers
3 Cellular organization

Structured questions

Section 3.2
18. The diagram below shows a light microscope commonly used in school laboratories.

(a) State the function of the following parts of the microscope:

(i)
X (1 mark)Answer
(ii)
Y (1 mark)Answer
(iii)
Z (1 mark)Answer
(b) The microscope has two eyepiece lenses and three objective lenses to choose from. Complete the table below
to show the combinations of eyepiece and objective lenses that produce different magnifications for this
microscope. (3 marks)

Eyepiece lens magnification Objective lens magnification Total magnification

5X 10X

5X 200X
40X 400X

(c) A student used this microscope to observe a slide of Paramecium. Explain why an electron microscope is not
suitable for viewing a living Paramecium. (2 marks)Answer
(d) Give one reason why it is necessary to cover the specimen with a cover slip when preparing a microscope
slide. (1 mark)Answer

19. The diagrams below show two different types of cells.

cell X cell Y

(a) (i) Name and state one function of each of the structures A and B. (4 marks)Answer
(ii) Label on the diagram, with a letter C, another structure that occurs in both cells. State one of its functions.
Answer
(2 marks)
(b) Cell X is a plant cell and cell Y is an animal cell. Describe two features, shown in the diagrams, that support this
Answer
statement. (2 marks)

3- 41
 3 Cellular organization

Section 3.3
20. The photograph below shows an electron micrograph of part of a plant cell.

F Scale bar
8 µm
© Biophoto Associates / Science Photo Library

Answer
(a) (i) State the functions of structures A and B. (2 marks)
(ii) Identify the structures labelled C, D and E. (3 marks)Answer
(b) (i) Identify the structures labelled F and state their precise function in the cell. (2 marks)Answer
(ii) Suggest why the two structures labelled F look different in this micrograph. (1 mark)Answer
(c) Using the scale bar on the photograph given, calculate the magnification of this electron micrograph. (Show
your working.) (3 marks)Answer

CCEA GCE AS Biology Assessment Unit AS 1 Jun 2015 Q3

Section 3.4
21. The diagram below shows an animal cell viewed with an electron microscope.

3- 42
 All answers
3 Cellular organization

Answer
(a) (i) Name the structures labelled A to D. (4 marks)
(ii) Using the appropriate letter, identify one structure present in prokaryotic cells. (1 mark)Answer
(iii) Name the type of organelle that has structures B attached on it, and state its function. (2 marks)Answer
(b) With reference to the diagram, explain how you can tell that this is a view under an electron microscope rather
Answer
than a light microscope. (1 mark)

22. The diagram below shows a bacterial cell.

D
E

C
F

3.5 µm

(a) Calculate the magnification of the above figure. Show your working and give your answer to the nearest whole
number. (2 marks)Answer
(b) For each of the descriptions listed in the table below, write down the letter that represents the structure being
described. (4 marks)

Description Structure
(i) Fully permeable to water and dissolved substances
(ii) Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell
(iii) Allows movement of the cell
(iv) Genetic materials that control the activities of the cell

(c) Name two sub-cellular structures that can be found in a human liver cell but not in a bacterial cell. (2 marks)Answer

Section 3.5
23. The thyroid gland is an organ in the neck. The diagram below shows the outline of an epithelial cell from the thyroid
gland, which produces and secretes a protein called thyroglobulin.

3- 43
 3 Cellular organization

(a) Inside the epithelial cell in the diagram, draw the nuclear membrane and a mitochondrion as they would be seen
with an electron microscope. Label these structures. (3 marks)
(b) Plant cells, such as palisade mesophyll cells, can also be observed with an electron microscope. A palisade
mesophyll cell viewed with an electron micrograph shows:
• a cell wall
• fewer mitochondria than an epithelial cell from the thyroid gland
(i) State the function of the cell wall. (1 mark)Answer
(ii) Suggest why a palisade mesophyll cell has fewer mitochondria than an epithelial cell from the thyroid
gland. (1 mark)Answer
(c) The thyroid epithelial cells form a tissue. The thyroid gland is an organ.
Answer
(i)
Give one difference between an organ and a tissue. (1 mark)
(ii)
Suggest one way in which tissues and organs are similar. (1 mark)Answer

Essays

24. Write an essay on how microscopes have contributed to our understanding of organisms. (10 marks)Answer
Answer
25. Describe the similarities and differences in the structure of a bacterial cell and an animal cell. (8 marks)

CCEA GCE AS Biology Assessment Unit AS 1 Jan 2013 Q8(b)

3- 44