LAB REPORT NO-9

Title:
To measure strain in Mild steel specimen
Objectives:
1. To find the strain produced in a material
2. To plot graph between stress and strain

Theoretical background:
Stress:
It is the resistive force per unit area to the applied load. It is represented by σ.
Mathematically,
Stress = Force /Area
σ = F/A
Strain:
It is defined as change in length per original length or change in shape per original shape. It
is denoted by ϵ.
Mathematically,
Strain = Change in length / length
ϵ=δ/L

Yield Strength:

The point at which a material ceases to be elastic and becomes

permanently plastic, the point at which it yields, is called its yield point.
The magnitude of stress at which this transition occurs is known as the material’s yield
stress or strength.
The yield strength is a material constant that represents the limit of its elastic behavior.
Ductile materials like iron boast higher yield strength values than plastics, such as
polyethylene.
𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
𝛔𝐲 =
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧

Ultimate Strength:
Tensile strength is a measurement of the maximum deformation a
certain material can take without necking.
Tensile properties of a material indicate how it will react to forces applied on it in tension.
𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
𝛔𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞 =
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧
 Resilience:
It is the property of material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically.

Gauge Length:
It is the Predefine distance between two points.
It is considered 8 inches here.
Rupture strength:
The differential stress that a material sustains at the instant of breaking, or rupture.
The term is normally applied when deformation occurs at atmospheric confining pressure
and room temperature.

Apparatus description:
UTM:
A Universal testing machine (UTM) is used to test the mechanical properties (tension,
compression etc.) of a given test specimen by exerting tensile, compressive or transverse
stresses.

The machine has been named so because of the wide range of tests it can perform over
different kind of materials. Different tests like peel test, flexural test, tension test, bend test,
friction test, spring test etc. can be performed with the help of UTM.

Components of Universal Testing Machine (UTM):

A universal testing machine consists of two main parts :

1. Loading Unit
2. Control Unit
The arrangement of the test specimen and the exertion of the load is held in the loading unit.
The variations in the application of the load and the corresponding test result are obtained
from the control unit.

1. Loading Unit:

The loading unit of a UTM consists of the following components :

1. Load Frame
2. Upper crosshead and Lower crosshead
3. Elongation Scale
 1. Load Frame
The load frame of a universal testing machine can be made either by single support or by
double support. The load Frame consists of a table (where the specimen is placed for the
compression test), upper crosshead, and lower crosshead.

2. Upper Crosshead and Lower Crosshead:

The upper crosshead is used to clamp one end of the test specimen. The lower crosshead in
the load frame is the movable crosshead whose screws can be loosened for height adjustment
and tightened. Both the crossheads have a tapered slot at the center. This slot has a pair of
racked jaws that is intended to grip and hold the tensile test specimen.

3. Elongation Scale:
The relative movement of the lower and upper table is measured by an elongation scale
which is provided along with the loading unit.

2. Control Unit:

The main components of the control unit in a universal testing machine are :

1. Hydraulic Power Unit

2. Load Measuring Unit

3. Control Devices
1. Hydraulic Power Unit:
This unit consists of an oil pump that provides non-pulsating oil flow into the main cylinder
of the load unit. This flow helps in the smooth application of load on the specimen. The oil
pump in a hydraulic power unit is run by an electric motor and sump.

2. Load Measuring Unit:

This unit has a pendulum dynamometer unit that has a small cylinder with a piston which
moves with the non-pulsating oil flow. The pendulum is connected to the piston by pivot
lever. The pivot lever deflects based on the load applied to the specimen. This deflection is
converted to the load pointer and displays as the load on the dial.

The range of load application can be adjusted by means of a knob in the load measuring unit
(0-100 kN; 0-250 kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN). The accuracy of measuring unit controls
the overall accuracy of the machine.
3. Control Devices:

The control devices can be electric or hydraulic. Electric control devices make use of
switches to move the crossheads and switch on/off the unit. A hydraulic control device
consists of two valves, Right Control Valve and Left Control Valve or Release Valve. A
right control valve is used to apply load on the specimen. The left control valve is used to
release the load application
Experimental procedure:
1. Take a steel bar. Mark two points on it 8” apart. This is the gauge length.
2. Measure its diameter two or three times with Vernier caliper & then take its mean.
3. Clamp the bar in the jaws of UTM in such a manner that the force is applied to gauge
length.
4. Turn on the UTM & apply the tensile load on the steel specimen.
5. Calculate stress & strain & plot the graph between stress & strain.
Observations and calculations:

Gauge length

Stress = F/ A

Strain= δ / L
load(Tons)

change in
Diameter
Sr. No

length
*2204
Area

1 4.26 0 21338.72 0.00

2 6.38 0 31958.00 0.00
7.81 *1E-
9.76 1/16"
3 48888.72 3
31.25*1E-
10.14 1/4".
4 50792.18 3
5 3/4" 0.44 8" 11.44 3/8" 57304.00 46.8*1E-3
70.31*1E-
12.68 9/16"
6 63515.27 3
1+ 218.0*1E-
13.96
7 3/4" 69926.90 3
2+ 257.8*1E-
12.38
8 1/16" 62012.54 3

Data analysis:

80000.00
70000.00
60000.00
50000.00
40000.00
30000.00
20000.00
10000.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10
Results and conclusions:
 The material obeys Hooke’s law.
 The graphical results obtained from experimental data are not in line with theoretical
value due to errors that may be due to personal error, systematic error or material
composition.