I.

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMICAL TERMS AND

ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY

1. DEFINITION
Anatomy & Physiology
ANATOMY is the study of the structure of the body and the relationship between its
various parts. Anatomy has a certain appeal because it is concrete and the body structures can
be seen, felt and examined closely - it is purely a descriptive approach.
PHYSIOLOGY is the study of the function of the body and how the parts of the
body work. Physiology is concerned with the functioning of normal vital processes in animal
and plant organisms, including their biochemical composition and how drugs and disease
affect them. Physiology reveals the dynamic nature of the workings of the living body and
Anatomy provides the static image.
Complementarity of Structure and Function
Although it is possible to study Anatomy and Physiology in isolation from one
another, they are truly inseparable sciences because the function always reflects the structure.
This is called the principle of complementarity. In studying Anatomy and Physiology, a
description of the anatomy of a structure is often accompanied by an explanation of its
function - what a structure can do depends on its specific form.
The intimate relationship between anatomy and physiology is stressed throughout
any textbook to make learning more meaningful. In all cases, a description of the anatomy of
a structure is accompanied by an explanation of its function, emphasizing the structural
characteristics contributing to that function.
For example: Bones: A function (i.e. Physiology) of bones is that they are able to
provide support and protection to body organs because their structure (i.e. Anatomy)
contains hard mineral deposits. Heart: A heart functions (i.e. Physiology) by pumping blood
flow in one direction because its structure (i.e. Anatomy) contains valves that prevent the
backflow of blood. Lungs: The lungs function (i.e. Physiology) as a site for gas exchange
because the structure (i.e. Anatomy) of the walls of their air sacs is extremely thin.

1.2 Fields of Study of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy:
Gross Anatomy
Often regarded as general anatomy, so far as it can be studied without the use of
the microscope (i.e. body structures are visible to the naked eye); commonly used to
denote the study of anatomy by dissection of a cadaver.
Systemic Anatomy
An approach to anatomical study organized by systems of the body, e.g. the
cardiovascular system, emphasizing an overview of the system throughout the body.
 Regional Anatomy
The study of one particular region, part or division of the body (e.g. the foot or
the groin region), emphasizing the relationships of various systemic structures (e.g.
muscles, nerves and arteries) within that area. Also referred to as topographic anatomy.
Surface Anatomy
The study of the configuration of the surface of the body, especially in its
relation to deeper parts.
Microscopic Anatomy
The study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye. The structure of
cells, tissues and organs is studied with a light microscope.
Two categories of Microscopic Anatomy are:
 Histology: The science concerned with the minute structure of cells, tissues
and organs in relation to their function.
 Cytology: The study of the anatomy, physiology, pathology and chemistry of
the cell. Synonymous with Cellular Biology.
Developmental Anatomy
The study of the structural changes in an individual from conception through to
old age; includes embryology, fetology and postnatal development.
Pathological Anatomy
The study of the structural changes in the body caused by disease including both
the gross and microscopic analysis and interpretation of diseased organs and tissues
removed by biopsy or during post-mortem examination and also the interpretation of the
results of such study.
Radiographic Anatomy
The study of internal structures using x-ray images.
Physiology:
Physiology is also subdivided into several specialized areas. Common
subdivisions of Physiology consider the operation of specific organ systems.
For example:
 Renal Physiology investigates urine production and kidney function
 Neurophysiology explains the workings of the nervous system
 Cardiac Physiology examines the operation of the heart.

1.3 Characteristics of Life

What constitutes life?

No single criterion defines it. Instead, characteristics of life consist of the following:

Maintenance of boundaries: Keeping the internal environment distinct from the external
environment.
Movement: The ability to transport the entire being, as well as internal components,
throughout the body.
 Responsiveness: The ability to sense, monitor and respond to changes in the external
environment.
Conductivity: The movement of energy from one point to another.
Growth: A normal increase in size and/or number of cells.
Respiration: The absorption, transport and use or exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen
and carbon dioxide).
Digestion: The process by which food products are broken down into simple substances
to be used by individual cells.
Absorption: The transport and use of nutrients.
Secretion: The production and delivery of specialized substances for diverse functions.
Excretion: The removal of waste products.
Circulation: The movement of fluids, nutrients, secretions and waste products from one
area of the body to another.
Reproduction: The formation of a new being, including the formation of new body cells
to permit growth, repair and replacement.
Metabolism: A chemical reaction that occurs in cells to effect transformation,
production, or consumption of energy. Each characteristic of life is related to the sum of
all the physical and chemical reactions that occur in the body. Physiology, or function,
characterizes life.
We can study form (structure) without life, for example through cadaver
dissection; however, we can study physiology only in terms of living dynamics. This
subject represents the study of life and the dynamic process of living.
1.4 Introduction to the Levels of Organization in the Body
The human body incorporates many levels of structural complexity starting with the
ATOM and continuing through to the ORGANISM itself.

Level One - Chemical Level

The simplest level of the structural ladder is the chemical level, which we will study
in Lesson 2. At this level, atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules
such as water, sugar and proteins. Molecules, in turn, associate in specific ways to form
microscopic cells, the smallest units of all living things.
Level Two - Cellular Level
The cellular level is examined in Lesson 3. Individual cells vary widely in size and
shape, reflecting their particular functions in the body.
Level Three - Tissue Level
The simplest living creatures are composed of single cells, but in complex organisms
like human beings, the structural ladder continues on to the tissue level. Tissues consist of
groups of similar cells that have a common function. As we will discuss in Lesson 4, each of
the four basic tissue types plays a definite but different role in the body.
Level Four - Organ Level
An organ is a structure, composed of two or more tissue types, that performs a
specific function for the body. At the organ level of organization, discussed in Lesson 5,
extremely complex functions become possible. For example, the stomach, which digests and
absorbs food, is composed of all four tissue types. Refer to diagram above showing the
stomach and digestive system as the example.
Level Five - Organ System Level
All the body’s organs are grouped so that a number of organ systems are formed. An
organ system is a group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose. For
example, the digestive system includes the esophagus, the stomach and the small and large
intestines (to name a few of its organs). Each organ has its own job to do and, working
together, they keep food moving through the digestive system so that it is properly broken
down and absorbed into the blood, providing fuel for all the body’s cells.
Level Six - Organism Level
In all, 12 organ systems make up the living body, or the organism, which represents
the highest level of structural organization, the organism level. This is discussed in Lesson 6.

2. Body Chemicals

Chemical Level (Level One)

Chemicals Our body needs energy to function, this energy is provided by the food we
eat but it has to change form before it can be utilized as an energy force. Chemicals present in
food form the basis of this energy. They have to be combined with other chemicals, as well as
being broken into smaller chemical structures to allow absorption to take place in the body.
These chemicals must remain in a state of balance or homeostasis.

Homeostasis
Our body cells survive and thrive in a healthy condition only when the temperature,
pressure and chemical composition of their fluid environment remains relatively constant.
The overall structure of our body does not change noticeably from moment to moment. When
you go to bed at night, unless major trauma has occurred, your body looks pretty much the
same as it did when you wake up. This consistency is due to the constant balancing activities
of our physiology.
Homeostasis is the relatively constant state maintained by the physiology of the body.
We have our own regulatory mechanisms that constantly adjust and adapt to keep the
temperature and chemical composition in balance in the fluid environment contained inside
 our skin. When this balance is interrupted, homeostasis is altered and the body is more
susceptible to a disease process.
Chemical Elements
We need to digress here for a moment and cover some basic chemistry. In our bodies
and in the universe for that matter, all substances have a chemical form whether it is liquid,
gaseous or solid. These chemicals are classified into elements. There are roughly 106 of these
known at the moment but many more may be discovered in the future. Ninety-two of these
elements occur naturally and 24 of these are found in the human body. The human body is
also capable of synthesizing other chemical elements out of the chemicals it absorbs.
These chemical elements are like bricks in a house, they are the units that build our
body. Each element can be broken down into a smaller unit called an atom. Each element is
made up of atoms.
When atoms combine, we have a molecule (a larger structure). Chemical compounds
are made up of molecules that have two different atoms – e.g. sodium chloride.
To create energy in our body atoms, combine or separate and in this sense a chemical
reaction is said to have occurred. It is this chemical reaction that is the actual beginning of all
the life processes as vital energy is released or stored. Two important energy forms in our
body are adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine di-phosphate (ADP), they enable the
cell to carry on its activities – eg; the resident “battery” in the cell. ATP provides us with an
immediate source of energy to run our body machinery.
The body is really a thriving mass of energy. It’s either breaking apart chemical
compounds to give us instant energy or, its digesting and absorbing food for stored energy.
Whichever one is occurring it is an energy reaction. If this energy reaction fails, we become
ill.
In Chinese medicine and the study of acupuncture, attention is paid to this energy
force, as acupuncture points occur on the meridian/energy pathway.
Medical physicists in the western world are at last starting to pay more attention to these
concepts. Discrediting anything that can’t be seen, heard, felt or touched has been a major tenant
of conventional (allopathic) medicine for the past 200 years. It may be that the scientific
reductionism of medicine is beginning to lose power.

Chemical elements in the Human Body

The major chemical elements in the human body are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen with the most abundant being oxygen. These four elements make up 96% of body
weight. The food we eat finishes up as these chemicals. Interesting thought isn’t it? 3% of the
body is occupied by the chemical elements phosphorus and calcium and they are found mainly in
the bones. 1% of chemical elements in the body are made up of trace elements, such as sodium,
copper, magnesium etc. Our body is made up largely of water and these dissolved chemical
elements vital to our survival.

Water
Water itself is an important chemical in the body. It is the most abundant chemical and
found in all cells, with the smallest amount being in the teeth and bones.
Take for example the cell and the cell membrane that separates the watery substance
inside the cell from the watery substances outside the cell. 60% of red blood cells are made of
water, 92% of plasma is made of water, 75% of muscle tissue is made up of water.
 Water is a great solvent. It dissolves chemicals allowing the breaking apart of the
molecules with new chemical combinations then occurring. It assists in the transportation of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. Water carries out wastes in urine, feces and in
perspiration. Water is used in the synthesis or storage of energy and in the decomposition process
which liberates energy for our use. Water also serves as lubrication.
It is easy to see how vital water is to our body and how dangerous dehydration can be.
Dehydration results in an inability to dissolve chemicals adequately, an inability to get rid of
waste products; store energy or make energy available for use in the body. Water is an extremely
important part of our daily intake for our health’s sake. The most important property of water is
that it forms a medium in which chemical reactions occur. Chemical reactions cause changes,
thereby creating a charge which produces energy.

Chemical Reactions (Changes = Charge)

Anabolism
This is the combination of atoms or molecules to form new or larger molecules from the
food we take into our bodies. This synthesis or changing reaction provides energy which is stored
in the body for future use. For example, when we drink juice, the glucose molecules, may be
converted by the body into a new substance called glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver and
the muscle for future energy requirements. The process of anabolism is going on all the time and
is vital to our life processes.
Catabolism
This is the reverse of anabolism. Catabolism occurs when we break down the larger
substances into smaller parts, e.g. a bowl of pasta consists of complex carbohydrate molecules
that can be broken down into smaller molecules called monosaccharides. These monosaccharides
are the molecules that can be utilized by the body. Digestion is a catabolic process and so is
burning up of stored food molecules for energy use.
ANABOLISM + CATABOLISM = METABOLISM

Metabolism
The physiologic process that converts food and air into energy is called metabolism.
Metabolism is equivalent to the sum of the anabolic and catabolic processes. Differences in
metabolic rate occur and if this is the case then symptoms of one process overtaking the other will
appear.
For example:
A high metabolic rate, often due to an overactive thyroid gland will create large
amounts of energy being used up in the body. This excessive catabolic process results in
the symptom of weight loss and a speeding up of all bodily processes including:
 appetite increases despite weight loss
 increased movements of the digestive tract, i.e. diarrhea
 increased heart and respiratory rates
 high blood pressure
 marked muscular tremor and nervousness
 excitable and apprehensive emotional states
 protrusion of eyeballs
 Conversely, if an excess of anabolic processes occurs, governed by a dysfunction of the
thyroid gland, the person will have a tendency to be plumper, slower and have less
energy. A slowing down of all bodily processes occurs including:
 reduced appetite and weight gain
 sluggish gut movements, i.e. constipation
 reduced heart, respiratory rate and blood pressure
 slow thought processes, e.g. lethargy
 thickening and puffiness of the skin
 dry, brittle and loss of hair

Energy is involved whenever the bonds between the atoms in the molecules are formed or
broken down, so anabolism needs energy to take place and catabolism re-releases energy
into the body when it takes place. This concept of energy is a constant theme in the
body’s vital processes.
Anabolism: Sodium + Chloride + ENERGY = Sodium Chloride
Catabolism: Sodium Chloride = Sodium + Chloride + ENERGY
Chemical Compounds
There are two classes of compounds in the body:
1. Organic Compounds
2. Inorganic Compounds
Organic Compounds
Organic compounds contain the element carbon and are derived from the food
stuffs we eat. They are divided into the following groups.
1 Carbohydrates
The sugars and starches. They are the most readily available form of
energy and they are stored in the liver and skeletal muscles in the form of
glycogen which is synthesized from glucose. Glucose is the body’s major quick
energy source. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides then into
glucose then glycogen.

2. Fats or Lipids
Are substances derived from the food we eat, they are insoluble in water
and are therefore more complex to digest. The molecules of fat are held together
by hydrogen bonds that come in three combinations
 saturated fats
 unsaturated fats
 polyunsaturated fats
This classification is based on the number of hydrogen atoms present in
the molecule. The polyunsaturated fat molecules have the least number of
hydrogen atoms and the saturated fat molecules have the highest number. This is
of interest to us because hydrogen is a substance that once broken down in the
body leaves acidic waste which the body has to work hard to eliminate. The
other concern is that these molecules usually occur in foods that are already high
in cholesterol molecules. The combination of these two (the saturated fats and the
cholesterol) leads to waste building up on the walls of arteries. This can lead to
high blood pressure and the increased potential for a heart attack and/or stroke.
 There is evidence that both our genetic background and our level of exercise can
influence the use of saturated fats and cholesterol in the body. Fats are a good
source of energy but not as efficient in their usage by the body as carbohydrates.
If the body runs out of a carbohydrate for energy it will use fats. If a person
wants to lose weight, they will be eating into their fat storage provided they cut
down their carbohydrate intake. But a person relying on stored fats only as a
source of energy will show symptoms of high acid build–up in the blood. This
can be smelt on the breath and can be detected in the urine as ketone bodies.
Ketone bodies are the waste products of fatty acids and glycerol, which
are the absorbable substances from our fat intake.
Diabetes occurs when carbohydrates are unable to be utilised by the
body and fats are then burnt up as a source of energy. This is detrimental to the
person’s health and in diabetics can lead to severe symptoms including coma. A
coma can occur because the body has high levels of acidic waste from the
inappropriate burning of fats and because the brain is unable to function without
glucose.
3. Proteins
Proteins are the building blocks of the body. Just as the final unit to be
absorbed for carbohydrates is glucose, for fats it is fatty acids and glycerol, for
proteins it is amino acids. There are 20 amino acids that we know of and they are
responsible for maintaining the structure of the body. They maintain the structure
of the organs because of their contribution to muscle build up. They also
maintain production of hormones and the manufacture of enzymes and anti-
bodies. Proteins are not a source of energy; proteins make up the hormones and
enzymes units that keep the body moving and without which we would be at risk
of infection and illness.

Inorganic Compounds
Inorganic compounds contain no carbon; they include the mineral salts, acid and
alkaline bases and water. Inorganic compounds are found in our food and they readily
dissolve in water to form electrolytes.
This is one of the key characteristics of inorganic compounds. These molecules
become ionized and are then capable of carrying an electric charge. This is very similar to
a car battery. The ions of the salts are the source of many essential chemical elements.
They could not be used by the body if they were not ionized, in fact, they would be fatal
if they circulated in the blood in a unionized form. Electrolytes are found in all cells and
extra-cellular spaces of the body. They can carry a positive or negative charge.
Positively charged ions are cations, negatively charged ions are anions. These
charges are significant because different charges are attracted to each other for interaction
and combination for special purpose. For example, nerve tissue relies on precise amounts
of potassium and sodium for the impulse to be passed along the axon. If the potassium
and sodium are not ionized then the nerve impulse would not pass along.
So, in a way the electrolytes are the starters of our body, they are the things that
keep the energy maintained in our body and then interact with other chemicals to keep all
the body processes happening, to keep energy flowing throughout the body, to enable
energy to be built up and stored, to enable energy to be released. For example, calcium
ions found in muscle tissue combine with ATP from the mitochondria and with amino
 acids for muscle activity and muscle repair. Our body is like a chemical factory and the
importance of keeping the chemicals in absolute balance is vital to our health.
Like salts, acids and bases are electrolytes. That is, they ionize and then dissolve
in water and conduct an electrical charge. There are many sports drinks on the market
which contain electrolytes which replenish the bodies loss of ions due to physical
exercise.

Acid/ Base Balance (the concept of pH)

In order to describe the nature of the different types of chemicals and fluids in
our body we use a concept known as pH. This measures the degree of acidity and
alkalinity with a measure of the proportion of anions and cations present in a substance.
This can be determined by tests; at its most simple is the litmus paper test. Our body is
very sensitive to minute changes in the acid/base balance.
A scale from zero to fourteen is used to measure pH - the level of acidity and
alkalinity. Values below 7 are considered acidic while values above 7 are considered
alkaline. For example gastric juice, is very acidic, usually between 1.2 to 3 compared to
lime water which is very alkaline, at around 12.3. Blood which is slightly alkaline is 7.35
to 7.45, with pure distilled water being 7.0.
This balance of acids and alkaline must be maintained in our bodies so the blood
can remain exactly within this range of 7.35 to 7.45. If the blood becomes too alkaline or
too acid, then symptoms of illness will appear.
Our body is very sensitive to subtle changes in pH. The body has a complex
buffer system which acts like a big sponge using counter chemicals to soak up the
chemical imbalances and correct the problem. Weak acids or weak alkaline soak up the
oversupply to strong alkaline or strong acids.
The most important of these is the carbonic acid found in the interstitial fluid
(the spaces outside the cells). Little is known about the exact origin of these buffer
systems. But we know from other buffer systems that they send out chemicals that soak
up excessive acidity or alkalinity.
If acid levels rise, we talk about a state of acidosis. Diabetic coma is a good
example of this. In this condition, fats are being burnt up inappropriately for energy and
eventually the acid level in the blood rises. The excess acids in the form of ketones
circulating in the bloodstream combined with the lack of carbohydrates for nourishment
in the brain, can lead to a coma.
On the other hand, alkalosis is a state where there is a predominance of alkaline
substances in the blood. A good example is hyper-ventilation where the person has
actually breathed off more carbon dioxide than is necessary and a state of alkalosis exists.
Breathing into a paper bag is a well-known remedy for alkalosis.
An acid could be defined as a substance that has more hydrogen ions than its
counterpart. An alkaline has more hydroxyl ions, which are more alkaline. The ions of
the salts are found throughout the body and these are the source of many essential
chemical compounds that keep our body going but they must remain in balance.
Heat Production
Our body always has some degree of muscle activity occurring; even when we
are sitting still muscle activity occurs to keep our posture. The outcome of this muscle
activity is heat and this heat plays a vital role in keeping the body’s temperature stable.
 So, a vital role in homeostasis is played by heat production from muscle activity. It is
necessary for us to understand how this heat is produced by muscle activity.
Following is an example:
If we do some exercise, we need fuel, the cell will release glycogen, turn it into
glucose and it will be used by the muscles to give energy. This will then give a waste
product from the oxidation of the glucose called pyruvic acid, this combines with other
cellular chemicals and we have heat produced. Chemicals combine to give us energy;
heat is produced as a result of this activity.

3. Cellular Level (Level Two)

Cellular Level (Level Two) Molecules, in turn, associate in very specific ways to form
cells, the living structural and functional units of an organism.

Cells
This lesson is one of the more abstract in the course. But it is important you
understand the microscopic structures in our bodies. Without this understanding you will
not be able to conceive of activities like metabolism and absorption and conservation of
energy for future use. It is very exciting to study cells, the information that has been
collected together about their function is quite considerable.
Scientists originally assumed the basic organization of an organism were the
visible structures such as the legs, heart, lungs, etc. The cell is now known to be the basic
subunit of any living organism. It is the simplest unit that can exist as an independent
living system.
There are billions and billions of cells in our body that are all working intricately
in a programmed manner every day for our well-being. Cells are like little protein
factories that determine the growth and direction of our bodies.
A cell is the basic structural unit of an organism and is also the primary
functional unit with properties that reflect the characteristics of life. Cells reproduce by
cell division. They are surrounded by a dilute saltwater solution called interstitial fluid.
Cells are self-regulating, which allows them to adjust to constant changes and to interact
with their surroundings. The specific activities of any organism depend on the individual
and collective activities of the cells.
Cells change size in response to hormones, nutrient availability and changes in
their function. Atrophy is a decrease in the size of a cell; hypertrophy is an increase in the
size of a cell. Muscle cells in particular can adapt their size to their function. Hypertrophy
most often occurs when a person is continually using muscle cells, such as in weight
training; atrophy occurs in underused muscle cells, such as when a muscle is immobilized
so that a broken bone can heal.

Cell Theory
The cell theory states that:
 all living organisms are composed of cells
 the life of a new organism begins with a single cell
 organisms develop by creating new cells
There are four concepts to consider regarding cells:
 1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
2. The activity of an organism is dependent on both INDIVIDUAL and
COLLECTIVE activity of its cells.
3. Structure of a cell determines its function.
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis.
Basic Model of a Cell Shown is a basic model of a cell consisting of:

1. Cell Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus

Every cell is not exactly like this but this cell combines the three basic features of
all cells and it is the cell that is the basis of this lesson.

Cell Membrane (also called Plasma Membrane)

This is a membrane that separates cells from each other and from the fluid that
surrounds cells. The most plentiful substance composing most cell membranes is protein.
The cell membrane allows substances to pass through it by processes of osmosis,
diffusion and filtration. Cells are actually bathed in fluid (Interstitial Fluid) and the
plasma membrane is also made up of cells. So everything is made up of cells. You can
imagine how small the cells are in the plasma membrane when you think the plasma
membrane itself is part of a microscopic structure.

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is the liquid inside the cells. It is like a soup with all sorts of
ingredients floating around in it. It is within the ‘soup’ that all the chemical activity of the
body takes place, the movement of nutrients and wastes and the exchange of gases
(carbon dioxide and oxygen). Cytoplasm is 75 % to 90% water. In the cytoplasm we find
proteins, carbohydrates, fats and mineral salts.

Nucleus
This is generally spherical or oval shaped and contains the structures that control
the body’s activities and is referred to as the ‘brains’ of the cell. The DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and the RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) structures are composed of
protein. Genes are found in the DNA molecules and within this substance there is specific
genetic material that is used to program cells around reproduction and repair.
 It is the DNA that carries our inherited genetic material.
 Chromosome strands are a part of DNA protein, within these are
located the genes.
 The RNA structure assumes a role in protein manufacture.
This is necessary because proteins are used in our body in many forms and must
be synthesized to meet the needs of the body such as hormones, enzymes and muscle
tissue. Cells need to be replaced and this process is going on all the time. Each cell has a
special program so that it will divide and reproduce itself exactly so that the next cell will
carry on in the same manner as the parent cell. If this were not the case, we would not
continue to maintain our uniqueness. We all have programming within our genes to
reproduce our particular eyes, nose, cheek shape, the skin color, the amount of hair on
our face etc. All these programmed are in the genes and they keep repeating themselves
over and over again. If this were not the case, we would change the way we look all the
time. I could finish up with a nose that looks like yours or you might finish up with hair
the same color as me or your next-door neighbors.
Cells are repairing all the time. The skin or any tissue in our body does not
remain static, it is reproduced constantly so we always have fresh tissue occurring in our
body from the constant activity of the cells dividing and replacing themselves. This is an
extraordinary activity when you think about it; it happens all the time right throughout
our life. If it did not happen, we would wear out. It is something that goes on without us
even thinking about it.

Specialization of Function
No matter what a cell does or where it is located in the body, its basic
maintenance functions are the same. These are nutrition, metabolism, respiration,
excretion, organization and irritability.
When a cell needs to adapt to perform specialized duties, the structure of the cell
and in turn some of the specialized functions are modified; this form of specialization is
referred to as cell differentiation. For example, fat cells are modified to store energy, but
they have lost the functions of contraction and secretion. Muscle cells have well-
developed functions of contractility but diminished functions of secretion and
reproduction. Cells that specialize in certain functions form tissues. As mentioned earlier,
disease usually appears when cellular homeostasis (internal balance) has been lost.
Even at a cellular level, complementarity of structure and function exists, i.e. the
structure and form of a cell is closely related to its function.

Let’s look at some examples:

Secretory Cell Nucleus
is displaced to the base by the formed
and stored secretion. As a result, it has highly
developed powers of secretion, e.g. Enzymes
for chemical breakdown of foodstuffs.
However, it has diminished powers of
contraction and reproduction.
Fat Cell
Cytoplasm is displaced by the stored fat. As a
result, it has the specialized function of storage of fat.
However, it has loss of powers of contraction and
secretion.
Muscle Cell
Has an elongated cell body.
As a result, it has highly developed
powers of contractility. However, it
has diminished powers of secretion
and reproduction.
Nerve Cell
 Cytoplasm is drawn out into long branching processes. As a result, it has
highly developed powers of irritability.
However, there is loss of powers of reproduction, i.e. if a nerve cell is
destroyed limited regeneration is possible.
As can be seen from the above examples, cells vary in:
1. Size
2. Shape
3. Length
4. Function

Cell Structure
Let’s now look at the structure of a cell in more detail.

Organelles
Organelles, detailed shortly, are special bodies floating around in the
cytoplasm, like peas floating around in soup. Typically, the cytoplasm contains
about nine types of organelles including the nucleus.
Each type of organelle is “engineered” to carry out a specific function
for the cell as a whole; some synthesize proteins, others package those proteins
and so on.
Inclusions, discussed later, are not a functioning unit, but instead are
chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the specific
cell type.
1. The Nucleus The nucleus is rich in RNA.
Refer to above for further details.
2. The Golgi Complex/Apparatus
This is a small structure that sits near the nucleus. Its function is
to dispense proteins as they are required by other cells, packaging
them and releasing them from the Cytoplasm, so they move through
the cell membrane and into the bloodstream and on to areas of the
body.
An example of this is a protein required for hormone
manufacture by the Thyroid gland. A chemical message is sent out
around the body that a protein is needed for this acidity, the Cell
releases the protein after it has been synthesized by the RNA
molecule. The Golgi complex packages it and sends it off into the
bloodstream to its destination. This is quite a remarkable activity for
such a small structure. The Golgi complex is also involved in fat and
carbohydrate metabolism.
3. The Mitochondria
The mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. They are
extremely important and contain a chemical called Adenosine Tri
Phosphate, or A.T.P, which is a form of stored energy and will be
used for later activity by the cell. There are many Mitochondria in
muscle cells and in the liver cells because these are areas of high
activity,
4. Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are enzyme substances that live in the cells and they
have the charter of cleaning up the cell. They enclose any debris in
the cell, package it up and push it out through the plasma membrane
for waste product disposal. They also help break down cells
following cell reproduction and cell death.
5. Centrioles
These are structures involved in reproduction. They also have a
role in propelling substances across a cell’s surface through
projections called cilia.
6. Ribosomes
These are small, dark-staining granules surrounded by a
membrane and containing ribosomes (RNA = ribonucleic acid). The
assembly of amino acids occur on the ribosomes thus making
ribosomes the sites of protein synthesis.
7. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum is an extensive system of fluid-filled
tubes that coil and twist through the cytoplasm. It accounts for about
half of a cell’s membranes. It serves as a mini-circulatory system for
the cell because it provides a network of channels for carrying
substances or material (primarily proteins) from one part of the cell
to another.
8. Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are membranous sacs containing powerful enzymes
that use oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous
substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde. However, their
most important function is to “disarm” dangerous free radicals.
Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals that scramble the
structure of proteins and nucleic acids. Although free radicals are
normal by-products of cellular metabolism, if allowed to
accumulate, they can have devastating effects on cells and therefore
the body.
Peroxisomes convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide, a
function indicated in their naming (peroxisomes = peroxide bodies).
The enzyme catalase then converts excess hydrogen peroxide to
water. Peroxisomes are especially numerous in the liver and kidney
cells, which are very active in detoxification.
9. Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton is an elaborate network of protein structures which
extends throughout the cytoplasm. This acts as the cell’s “bones and
muscles” by creating an internal framework that determines cell
shape, supports other organelles and provides the machinery needed
for intracellular transport and various types of movements.
It is clear that the Organelles are important in the cell. They
direct the nature for the particular cell and thus direct the structure of
the organ. It is on the Organelles, particularly the Nucleus that much
scientific focus has been directed. We are able to see the DNA
molecule microscopically.
 Shown is an interpretation of the DNA molecule with the Helix
strands, its engineering, meaning they are able to lift off unwanted
genes from the DNA Molecule and replace them with other more
desirable genes.
Inclusions These are bodies found in the cell, the identity of
which would depend on the particular activity of the cell. Most
inclusions are stored nutrients or cell products.
Examples are:
 Calcium and phosphorus will be found in large quantities in
bone cells but not so in nerve cells.
 Glycogen will be found in muscle and liver cells but Glycogen
will not be found in skin cells.
 Fat droplets are common in fat cells of the subcutaneous tissue
below the skin, but would not be found in liver cells.
 Melanin is seen in the skin and hair cells, but not so in stomach
cells.
Inclusions will change at certain stages in life for example
puberty and menopause. Dietary changes will also affect inclusions. If a
person has an inadequate diet then the number of specialized inclusions
will be below the required level and a symptom of this will occur, e.g.
Osteoporosis from low levels of calcium. Below are the common
structural and functional features of a generalized cell as discussed
above.

Cell Activities
The spaces outside the cell that are filled with water are called the extra
cellular spaces; these spaces contain interstitial fluid substances related to the
cell’s activities. There will be substances outside the cell that are in transport
either into the cell or they have just come out of the cell, e.g. nutrients, wastes
etc. Anything that the cell produces will be transported to its destination by the
Blood or the Lymph. Lymph itself is originally blood and as it changes to Lymph
the Red blood cells come out of it. So, Lymph is really a Plasma type substance.
Cell Division
The worn-out cells must be reproduced. Cells normally have a
life of 4 months. The nucleus knows this and it starts to divide, this is
called Mitosis. Each cell divides so that it has the same type and number
of chromosomes to enable it to carry on exactly the same function in the
future. Each cell reproduces itself exactly
otherwise we would finish up changing
appearances all the time.
 The longitudinal halving of
chromosomes and genes ensures that each
new cell receives the same hereditary
factors as the original cell.
 The number of chromosomes is
constant for any one species.
 The cells of the human body carry
23 pairs, i.e. 46 chromosomes.

Cell Damage
Cells are also repaired by the DNA Molecule If we cut or bruise
ourselves, the DNA Molecule knows exactly how to repair this cell
because it has the genetic blueprint. The cell will never change in
character unless it becomes ill and mutation occurs. One form of
mutation is excess growth of the cell – a tumor.

Target Cells
These have special receptors that will attract and absorb a
particular hormone or enzyme. Once absorbed the cell will perform a
certain way. A good example of this is insulin, not every cell has a
 special receptor for this. Once insulin is manufactured it circulates
throughout the body and is taken up by only the cells that need it, e.g. the
bone cells don’t want to store glucose, liver cells do. The liver cells will
have a particular receptor that will be tuned into insulin, so once the
blood gets to the site the receptors are activated and the glucose is drawn
in through the plasma membrane.

Exchange of Gases
Within the cytoplasm many chemical reactions occur and one in
particular is that the cell will take up oxygen. This enables chemical
changes to occur in the cell, as a result waste product occur, namely
carbon dioxide. It is then taken out into the blood for transport out of the
body. This is called exchange of gases. Oxygen is a gas and carbon
dioxide are a gas. Every cell in the body must utilize oxygen or it dies.
Oxygen undergoes chemical changes in the cell to give the cell energy.
The waste product of this process is carbon dioxide.
Viruses
We will mention viruses here because they are in the news a lot.
A virus will enter the cell and actually change the way it functions. The
cell can’t deal with the virus and it becomes weakened in its function.
Symptoms often result - people who have weakened immune systems
often have a virus in their cells. Many viruses are thought to be
carcinogenic. In some cases viruses affect Lysosome production (the
cleaners of the cell).
Basic Constituents of a Cell
Let’s now look at the basic constituents of a cell. It will help if
we can include some of the information covered in the previous lesson
on Chemicals.
Firstly, all cells are composed entirely of chemical substances
called Protoplasm.
Protoplasm is made up of certain ELEMENTS in CHEMICAL
COMBINATION.
As discussed earlier, the four major chemical elements in the
human body (making up 96% of body weight) are:
 Hydrogen (H)
 Oxygen (O)
 Carbon (C)
 Nitrogen (N)
Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water (H2O)
 Combining one oxygen atom with two hydrogen atoms gives
you water (H2O).
Carbon + Hydrogen + Oxygen = Carbohydrates & Fats (CHO)
 C, H and O combine chemically to form carbohydrates and
fats.
 These are the chief sources of energy in the living cell.
Carbohydrates (CHO)
  The simpler ones are SUGARS.
 The more complex ones are STARCH, made up of hundreds of
units of sugar tied chemically together.

Fats (CHO)
 The fat molecule is made up of smaller molecules of FATTY
ACIDS linked chemically with a molecule of GLYCEROL.
Carbon + Hydrogen + Oxygen + Nitrogen = Protein (CHON)
 C, H, O and N combine to form proteins
 protein is the chief organic constituent and the main building
constituent of all cells
 the molecule is made up of smaller units called AMINO
ACIDS
 as well as C, H, O and N, they sometimes contain S (Sulphur)
and P (phosphorus)
 There are thousands of different kinds of Protein but only
about 20 different amino acids.
 The differences between proteins depend on the amino acids
present and, on their number, and arrangement.
The following eight elements make up much of the remaining body weight (over 3%):
Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus (P)
Important constituents of blood and of hard tissues, e.g. Bones
and teeth
Chlorine (Cl) and Sodium (Na)
Important constituents of body fluids.
Sulphur (S) Magnesium (Mg)
Important for activity of the brain, nerves and muscles.
Iron (Fe)
Trace elements, such as Manganese, Copper, Iodine, Zinc,
Cobalt, Fluorine and Strontium make up the remaining body weight (less
than 1%).

Please Note:
Apart from WATER, the chief constituents in both plant and
animal cells, are present as compounds of CARBON, i.e. they are
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

4. Tissue Level (Level Three)

As can be seen from the examples of different cells in the previous lesson, cells of
one tissue will differ from those of other tissues, depending on the specialized function they
perform (in accordance with their modified structure).
As a result, different cell types are not mixed haphazardly in the body. Groups of
similar cells that have a common function (i.e. cells which are alike) combine to create
tissues.
 Tissues are the basis of the organs in our body. There are four main types of tissue
classifications:
1. Epithelial think of the word Covering
2. Connective Tissue think of the word Support
3. Muscular Tissue think of the word Movement
4. Nervous Tissue think of the word Control

1. Epithelial Tissue
 Consists of a sheet of cells that covers the body surface (and therefore forms
part of the skin).
 It lines body cavities, such as the gastro-intestinal system including the mouth,
anus and vagina.
 Epithelium forms the boundaries between different environments, e.g.
epidermis of the skin lies between the inside and outside of the body, epithelium
lining of the bladder separates the bladder wall from urine.
 Nearly all substances received or given off by the body must pass through an
epithelium.
 It also forms glands such as the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.

Epithelial tissue can be single or multilayered. The thickness depends on the

amount of wear and tear on that part of the body, so the epithelial tissue of the skin
will have many more layers of cells than the epithelial tissue in the small intestine.
Epithelial Tissue has the capacity to absorb, secrete, filter and protect. Thus,
our skin is able to absorb many substances. The secretory ability of the epithelial
tissue is important for glands like the thyroid gland that is able to secrete thyroxine
straight into the bloodstream.
Because they endure a considerable amount of wear and tear, epithelial cells
reproduce actively. If a person is suffering from stress overload or any homeostatic
imbalance, the condition often is first seen in the epithelial tissues because of the fast
turnover of cells.
Typically, little matrix material is found in epithelial tissues. The matrix present
tends to form continuous sheets of cells, with the cells held closely together. The
surface of most epithelial tissue is not in contact with other tissues but rather is
exposed to the external or internal environment. This surface is the apical surface.
The other surface faces the inside of the body and is known as the basal surface. A
permeable, thin basement membrane attaches epithelial tissues to the underlying
connective tissues. Because epithelial tissues contain no blood vessels, they must
obtain oxygen and other nutrients by diffusion from capillaries in the connective
tissue.
The epithelial tissues make up three types of membranes, each formed with
epithelial tissue on the surface and a specialized connective tissue layer underneath.
A membrane is a thin, sheet-like layer of tissue that covers a cell, an organ, or a
structure; that lines tubes or cavities; or that divides and separates one part from
another. The three types of membranes are as follows:
 Cutaneous membranes cover the surface of the body, which is exposed to
the external environment. The largest cutaneous membrane, more commonly known
as our skin, accounts for about 16% of our body weight.
Serous membranes line body cavities not open to the external environment
and cover many of the organs. These membranes secrete a thin, watery fluid that
lubricates organs to reduce friction as they rub against one another and against the
walls of the cavities. Serous membranes line the peritoneal, pleural and pericardial
cavities.
Mucous membranes are found on the surface of tubes that open directly to
the exterior, such as those lining the respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive
tracts. The film of mucus secreted by these membranes coats and protects the
underlying cells.

2. Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue in the body and is the most widely
distributed of the four primary types of tissue. Connective tissue is specialized to
support and hold together the body and its parts, transport substances through the
body and protect the body from foreign substances.
All forms of connective tissue are made of matrix, fibers and cells. The
properties of the connective tissue cells and the composition and arrangement of the
matrix elements account for the amazing diversity of connective tissues.
Connective tissue cells often are spaced far apart and the space between cells is
filled with large amounts of nonliving matrix. Within the matrix of connective tissue
is a shapeless ground substance containing molecules that expand when combined
with electrolytes and water molecules. The matrix of connective tissue may be 90%
ground substance. The remainder is made up mainly of one or more of the following
fibers:
Collagen fibers
Collagen fibers are tough and strong and have minimal stretch capability.
They have a high degree of tensile strength, which allows them to withstand
longitudinal stress. These fibers occur in bundles. Because of their color, they are
referred to as white fibres. Collagen makes up more than one quarter of the
protein in the body. As we age, the molecular structure of collagen changes,
which accounts for the appearance of changes in our tissues. Scar tissue has a
high concentration of collagen fibres.
Reticular fibres
Reticular fibres are delicate fibres found in networks that support small
structures such as capillaries, nerve fibres and the basement membrane. These
fibres are made of a form of collagen called reticulin.
Elastic fibres
Elastic fibres are extensible and elastic. Found in the stretchy tissues,
they are made from a protein called elastin, which has the ability to return to its
original length, much like an elastic band does after being stretched. Because of
their colour, these fibres are called yellow fibres.
Connective Tissue Cell Types
Each major type of connective tissue has a fundamental cell type that secretes the
matrix and fibres:
 A watery ground substance creates a fluid connective tissue such as blood. By
changing the proportion of collagen and elastic and reticular fibres, the tissue can be
made as tough as tendons or as flexible as the tissue that covers muscles. Calcium salts
added to the ground substance make the tissue become rigid, such as bone.
Connective tissue can be manipulated by application of heat, cold, stretch and
activity. Connective tissue is thixotropic, which makes substances solidify when cold or
left undisturbed and become more fluid when warmed or stirred. Gelatin is an example. If
not stretched and warmed by muscular activity, connective tissue tends to stiffen and
become less flexible.
Therapeutic massage stretches, strokes and moves tissue and generates heat to
make connective tissue more fluid, allowing greater mobility and encouraging blood
flow.
The collagen fibres of connective tissue tend to bind together by hydrogen
bonding with disuse and chronic pressure. Inflammation is a factor in the bonding process
called adhesions. Nerves and blood vessels may get caught in adhesions and range of
motion often is reduced or pain results. Massage applications help slow down formation
of adhesions and also aids the alignment of the collagen fibres, reducing friction and
allowing more optimal movement.
Although connective tissue is found in all areas of the body, some areas contain
more than others. The brain has little connective tissue, whereas ligaments, tendons and
skin have high concentrations. The number of blood vessels in connective tissue varies.
Cartilage has none, but other types of connective tissue have a large number of blood
vessels. Connective tissue contains cells that help with repair, healing and storage as well
as other cells that help with defense. Three other types of cells also are found commonly
in connective tissue:
In order from the most rigid to the softest, the major connective tissue classes
are:
a) Bone
b) Cartilage
c) Dense Fibrous
d) Loose Fibrous
e) Blood

a) Bone
 Also referred to as osseous tissue. Because of its hardness it is able to protect and
support other body organs.

Bone Tissue
Bones share four features that allow them to work together as parts of the skeleton
despite their different shape.
1. Hard cells and a rigid matrix give bones strength and shape to sustain weight
and movement.
2. Bones usually articulate with other bones.
3. A connective tissue structure called the periosteum covers every bone and
provides vessels for nutrition, bone cells for growth and attachments for tendons
and ligaments and finally

4. Oppositional growth of new bone matrix and remodeling of the existing bone
matrix is responsible for shaping bones.

Ossification or bone development is a two-part process in the embryo, first a cartilage

model is created and then osteoblasts or bone building cells develop the bone tissue from
the cartilage model. Shortly after birth calcification takes place.
In a long bone the transformation of cartilage to bone begins in the centre of the shaft.
The long bone continues to grow in length at secondary bone forming centres through
childhood and into the late teens. As we grow, our bones widen and lengthen as
osteocytes (bone cells) are added in some areas of bone and resorbed in others. In
children their bodies contain more cartilage making them more flexible as complete
calcification has not yet taken place. In older adults this is reversed where bone cells
outnumber cartilage cells, and the bone is more brittle because it contains more minerals
and fewer blood vessels. This makes bones more prone to fracture or breaks and slower
to heal.

Stages of Bone Growth

 Bone Regeneration and Remodeling
Whilst bones appear to be the most lifeless of body organs, they are in fact very dynamic
and active tissue in which renewal takes place at the cellular and tissue level. Every week we
recycle 5-7% of our bone mass and when bones break, they undergo a remarkable process of self-
repair. Fractured (broken) bones are first treated by reduction which brings the bone ends back
into alignment. From there the area is immobilized by cast or traction to allow the healing to take
place. The healing time of a simple fracture is 8-12 weeks but it is much longer for large weight
bearing bones.

There are four stages of healing.

1. Hematoma formation
Acute inflammation usually lasts around 4 days. As a result of trauma, to the
bone, the periosteum and the surrounding soft tissue, blood gathers at the site of
the fracture forming a mass of clot known as a hematoma.
2. Cellular proliferation
The dead bone cells and damaged vessels and structures elicit a typical
inflammatory response.
3. Callus formation
The hematoma in a bone fracture gradually forms a fibrous junction between
the fractured ends, which becomes a fibrous callus, then cartilage and finally
bone.
4. Ossification
This is the final stage of laying down bone tissue. The fracture is bridged and
firmly united. Osteoclasts resorb excess callus.

Remodeling
Remodeling occurs after resorption of the callus and the laying down of trabecular bone
along the lines of stress. Complete remodeling may take many years. The final structure
of the remodeled areas resembles that of the original unbroken bony regions because it
responds to the same set of mechanical stimuli.

Abnormal Bone Growth & Healing

Imbalances between bone formation and bone resorption underlie nearly every disease
process that affects the skeletal system. Examples include Osteoporosis, Osteomalacia
(Rickets) and Piagets Disease. Bone fractures usually heal without problems in most
cases. However, when they occur, problems are almost always a result of a severe initial
injury.

Examples of complications that can arise during bone fracture healing include:
 Compartment syndrome: swelling after a fracture that puts pressure on the
blood vessels such that not enough blood can get to the muscles around the
fracture. The decreased blood supply can cause the muscles around the fracture
 to die, which can lead to long-term disability. Compartment syndrome usually
occurs only after a severe injury.
 Neurovascular injury: Some fractures are so severe that the arteries and nerves
around the injury site are damaged.
 Infection: Open fractures can become infected when the jagged bone ends are
exposed to the air where they have torn through the skin.
 Post-traumatic arthritis: Fractures that extend into the joints (intra-articular
fractures) or fractures that cause the bones to meet at an abnormal angle in the
joint can cause premature arthritis of a joint.
 Growth abnormalities: A fracture in the growth plate, in a child, can cause
many problems. Two of these problems are premature partial or complete closure
of the growth plate. This means that one side of a bone or the whole bone stops
growing before it naturally would. If one side of a bone stops growing before the
other side, the bone will grow at an abnormal angle. If the whole bone, such as a
thigh bone, stops growing prematurely, it will be shorter than the other thigh
bone, making one leg shorter than the other.
 Delayed union: A fracture that takes longer to heal than expected is a delayed
union.
 Nonunion: A fracture that fails to heal in a reasonable amount of time is called
a nonunion.
 Malunion: A fracture that does not heal in a normal alignment is called a
malunion.

b) Cartilage
Cartilage is less hard than bone but more flexible due to its rubbery matrix. Cartilage
consists of 3 types:
 Hyaline
The most abundant cartilage and covers the end of bones where they
form joints.
 Elastic
A white cartilage providing great movement due to elastin fibres, e.g.
supports the external ear.
 Fibrocartilage
A yellow cartilage that forms cushion-like discs between the vertebrae of
the spine.
c) Dense Fibrous
Consists predominantly of collagen fibres hence creating a dense connective tissue. It
forms rope-like structures such as:
 Tendons - attach skeletal muscle to bone.
 Ligaments - connect bone to bone at joints.

d) Loose Fibrous
Relatively speaking, the loose connective tissues are softer and have more cells and fewer
fibres than any other connective tissue type except blood. They consist of:
 Areolar
 The most widely distributed connective tissue variety in the body. Found
under the skin, binding the skin to organs and cushioning and protecting them.
You’ll often see it in a leg of lamb under the skin and attached to the muscle. It is
thin but quite strong, transparent and is quite wet.
Fascia is a particular type of connective tissue belonging to the areolar
group. Fascia will be referred to often throughout the course.
 Adipose
Adipose tissue is actually fat. As was shown in the previous lesson,
stored fat occupies most of a fat cell’s volume and compresses the nucleus,
displacing it to the side. Adipose tissue forms the subcutaneous tissue beneath the
skin where it insulates and protects the body.
 Reticular
Reticular tissue consists of a delicate network of interwoven reticular
fibres associated with reticular cells. It forms an internal supporting framework
(like a mattress) that can support many free blood cells (mainly lymphocytes) in
lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, the spleen and bone marrow.
e) Blood
Blood or vascular tissue is actually connective tissue because it has a matrix (plasma) and
ground substance (blood cells). This is not really evident unless blood clotting occurs, in
which case the “fibres” within blood become visible.
3. Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissue is responsible for movement and heat production in the body. Muscle tissue
is a highly cellular and well-vascularised tissue.
There are three types of muscle tissue:
1. Skeletal
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth
They differ in:
1. structure of cells
2. location in the body
3. function
4. means by which they are activated

1. SKELETAL MUSCLE
Skeletal muscle fibres are the longest cell types
consisting of obvious bands called striations. They are
often referred to as voluntary muscles because they are the
only type subject to conscious control. Skeletal muscle can
contract rapidly and vigorously, exerting tremendous force.
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
Cardiac muscle occurs only in the heart constituting
most of the mass of the heart walls. Also striated but is not
voluntary. Contraction is usually at a steady rate however
it can increase noticeably for brief periods.
3. SMOOTH MUSCLE
 Found in the walls of hollow visceral organs (other than the heart). Has no
striations and there is no voluntary control. Contraction is slow and sustained due to
its role within the body.

Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle

Refer to the diagrams below which outline the structure of muscles from the
gross macroscopic level right down to the cell or myofibril and the microscopic
filament or sarcomere level.
A muscle consists of hundreds to thousands of muscle cells plus the connective
tissue wrappings, blood vessels and nerve fibres.
At the fascicle level is a discrete bundle of muscle cells bound together by a
connective tissue wrapping known as perimysium. Within the Fascicles are Muscle
Fibres (cells) which are elongated multinucleated and striated in appearance and
surrounded by a connective tissue endomysium.
Within each muscle fibre are myofibrals or fibrals which are complex rod like
organelles composed of myofilaments. These are the contractile elements of muscles.
Myofibrals occupy most of the cell and appear banded and aligned to adjacent
myofibrals composed of sarcomeres arranged end to end.
Sarcomeres are the contractile unit within a segment of a myofibril and are made
up of contractile proteins. Sarcomeres have a thin (actin) filament and a thick
(myosin) filament.
The sliding of the contractile protein thin filaments passed the thick filaments is
what produces muscle shortening or contraction.
When a muscle cell contracts its individual sarcomeres shorten resulting in
shortening of the cell as a whole.
Levels of Functional Organization of a Muscle Fibre

Muscle Contraction - The Sliding Filament Theory

For more information on muscle contraction refer to online resources youtube videos –
such as Muscle Contraction Process: Molecular Mechanism
The sliding filament theory first described in 1954, refers to the movement of thin (actin)
filaments sliding past the thick (myosin) ones so that the actin and myosin fibres overlap to a
greater or lesser degree. In a relaxed muscle fibre, the thick and thin filaments overlap only
slightly, but during contraction the thin filaments moved deeper into the A zone as indicated
in the diagram below.
 When muscle fibres are activated by the nervous system, the cross bridges (myosin
heads) attach to the active (myosin binding sites on the actin thin filaments and the sliding
begins. Each cross-bridge attaches and detaches several times during contraction, acting
much like a tiny ratchet. As this occurs simultaneously throughout the muscle cell the cell
shortens. Calcium levels and Neurotransmitters such as Acetylcholine (Ach) control the
transmission of nerve impulses to the Sarcolemma of the muscle fibre and the presence of
Calcium ions allows the interactions to occur.

Sliding of the actin filament during muscle contraction

The above diagram illustrates the steps and sequence of events involved in the sliding of the
actin filament during contraction. How do nerve impulses cause muscle contraction? Skeletal
muscle is under voluntary control. Nerve impulses that originate in the central nervous
system cause muscles to contract. Both neurons and muscle tissue conduct electrical current
by moving ions across cellular membranes. As indicated in the diagram below a motor
neuron ends in a synapse with a muscle fiber. The neuron releases acetylcholine and transfers
the action potential to the muscle tissue. The signal will travel through the tissue and trigger
the contraction of individual sarcomeres.

Motor Unit
The below diagram illustrates the motor unit complex. Each muscle is served by at least
one motor nerve with contains hundreds of motor neuron axons. As an axon enters a muscle
it branches into a number of axonal terminals, each of which forms a neuromuscular junction
with a single muscle fibre. The motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it supplies are called a
motor unit. When a motor neuron fires (transmits an electrical impulse) all the muscle fibres
it innervates respond by contracting. The average number of muscle fibres premotor unit is
150 but may be as high as several hundred or as few as 4. Muscles that exert fine control
(such as the muscles controlling movements of the eye and fingers) have few motor units
compared with larger weight bearing muscles with less precise movements such as the hip.

Muscle Proprioceptors
Muscle spindles (stretch receptors). These are the primary proprioceptors in the muscle
that are sensitive to changes in muscle length.
 The golgi tendon organ. This proprioceptor in the tendon near the end of the muscle fibre
is sensitive to changes in muscle tension.

In addition to providing information about the movement and positioning of our body,
head, arms and legs, the proprioceptors can trigger certain protective reflexes. The "stretch
reflex," for example, is activated when the proprioceptors sense too much stretch or force on
a muscle or tendon. To resist an unsafe change in muscle length that may lead to a torn
muscle or tendon, the reflex causes the stretched muscle to contract, shorten and protect the
muscle or tendon from injury

A classic Reflex Arc – The Patellar Tendon Reflex (knee jerk reflex)
 A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls an action reflex. In higher animals, most
sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This
characteristic allows reflex actions to occur relatively quickly by activating spinal motor
neurons without the delay of routing signals through the brain, although the brain will receive
sensory input while the reflex is carried out. An example reflex arc is the Patellar Tendon

Reflex. Striking the patellar tendon with a tendon hammer just below the patella causes a
stretch of the quadriceps muscles in the thigh. This stimulates sensory receptors called muscle
spindles that trigger an afferent or sensory nerve impulse to the lumbar region of the spinal
cord. There, the sensory neuron synapses directly with a motor neuron that conducts an
efferent or motor impulse to the quadriceps muscle, triggering contraction. This contraction,
coordinated with the relaxation of the antagonist hamstring muscle causes the leg to kick.
This reflex helps maintain posture and balance, allowing us to walk without consciously
thinking about each step.
4. Nervous Tissue
Is highly specialized tissue, it senses, transmits and interprets impulses. Nervous tissue
makes up the nervous system consisting of the brain, spinal cord and nerves which regulate and
control body function.
Composed of 2 major cell types:
 Neurons - the cell itself that generates and conducts nerve impulses
 Supporting Cells - the non-conduction part that supports, insulates and protects
the delicate neurons.
5. Organ Level (Level Four)
At least two tissues combine together to create an organ which is a discrete structure
enabling extremely complex physiological processes to occur.
For example, the Stomach organ contains all four tissue types:
As the food enters and fills the stomach, its wall begins to stretch. The areolar connective
tissue warps and cushions the stomach organ, providing excellent support.
 Then the three distinct layers of muscle tissue creating the stomach wall become active.
They compress and pummel the food, breaking it apart physically.
At the same time secretion of the gastric juices occurs through the single layer of tall
cells in the epithelium tissue. The food is continually being mixed with the enzyme-containing
gastric juice so that the semifluid chyme is formed.
Perhaps it would help if you visualize this process as being like the preparation of a cake
mix in which the floury mixture is continually folded on itself and mixed with the liquid until it
reaches uniform texture.
Once the food has been well mixed, a rippling peristalsis begins in the lower half of the
stomach and the contractions, activated through the nervous tissue, increase in force as the
pyloric valve is approached. When the duodenum is filled with chyme and its wall is stretched, a
stretch reflex, again activated by nervous tissue, occurs. This reflex “puts the brakes on” gastric
activity and slows the emptying of the stomach by inhibiting the nerves and tightening the pyloric
sphincter, thus allowing time for intestinal processing to catch up.
Generally, it takes about 4 hours for the stomach to empty completely after eating a well-
balanced meal and 6 hours more if the meal has a high fat content.

6. Organ System Level (Level Five)

Organs that cooperate and work closely with one another to accomplish a common
purpose are said to be part of a particular organ system known as a body system. For example, let
us extend our discussion of the stomach organ to include other associated organs. The alimentary
canal and associated glands are involved here creating a special system for dealing with FOOD
and FLUIDS known as the Digestive System. From ingestion through to rejection there are
organs such as the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and rectum, systematically involved in
processing your meal involving both mechanical and chemical changes. Your body has 12 body
systems in total.

II. Skeletal System

The skeleton, consisting of bones and cartilages, gives support to the body and provides
protection for some organs, especially the brain and spinal cord. It also acts as a
storehouse for minerals and the marrow cavities of some bones are the site of formation
of blood cells.
Altogether, the skeleton makes up about 20 percent of a person’s body weight.
An adult’s skeleton contains 206 bones. Children’s skeletons actually contain more bones
because some of them, including those of the skull, fuse together as they grow up.
There are also some differences in the male and female skeleton. The male skeleton is usually
longer and has a high bone mass. The female skeleton, on the other hand, has a broader pelvis to
accommodate for pregnancy and child birth.
Regardless of age or sex, the skeletal system can be broken down into two parts, known as the
axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton
 The Skeletal System The skeletal system consists of three elements:
A. bones
B. cartilage
C. Ligaments.

Axial skeleton anatomy

The adult axial skeleton consists of 80 bones.
It’s made up of the bones that form the vertical axis of
the body, such as the bones of the head, neck, chest, and
spine.

Skull bones
The adult skull comprises 22 bones. These bones
can be further classified by location:
 Cranial bones. The eight cranial bones form the
bulk of your skull. They help to protect your
brain.
 Facial bones. There are 14 facial bones. They’re
found on the front of the skull and make up the
face.
Auditory ossicles
The auditory ossicles are six small bones found within the inner ear canal in the skull. There are three
auditory ossicles on each side of the head, known as the:
 malleus (hammer)
 incus (anvil)
 stapes (stirrup)
They work together to transmit sound waves from the surrounding environment to the structures of
the inner ear.
Hyoid
The hyoid is a U-shaped bone found at the base of the jaw. It serves as a point of attachment for
muscles and ligaments in the neck.
Vertebral column
The vertebral column is made up 26 bones. The first 24 are all vertebrae, followed by the sacrum
and coccyx (tailbone).
The 24 vertebrae can be further divided into the:
 Cervical vertebrae. These seven bones are found in the head and neck.
 Thoracic vertebrae. These 12 bones are found in the upper back.
  Lumbar vertebrae. These five bones are found in the lower back.
The sacrum and coccyx are both made up of several fused vertebrae. They help support the weight of
the body while sitting. They also serve as attachment points for various ligaments.
Thoracic cage
The thoracic cage is made up of the sternum (breastbone) and 12 pairs of ribs. These bones form
a protective cage around the organs of the upper torso, including the heart and lungs.
Some of the ribs attach directly to the sternum, while others are linked to the sternum via cartilage. Some
have no attachment point and are referred to as “floating ribs.”

Appendicular skeleton anatomy

There are a total of 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton. It consists of the bones that make up
the arms and legs, as well as the bones that attach them to the axial skeleton.
Pectoral girdle
The pectoral girdle is where the arms attach to the axial skeleton. It’s made up of the clavicle
(collarbone) and scapula (shoulder blade). There are two of each of these — one for each arm.
Upper limbs
Each arm contains 30 bones, known as the:
 Humerus. The humerus is the long bone of the upper arm.
 Radius. The radius is one of two long bones of the forearm, found on the thumb side.
 Ulna. The ulna is the second long bone of the forearm, found on the pinky finger side.
 Carpals. The carpals are a group of eight bones found in the wrist area.
 Metacarpals. The metacarpals are five bones found in the middle area of the hand.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that make up the fingers.
Pelvic girdle
The pelvic girdle, commonly known as the hips, is where the legs attach to the axial skeleton. It’s
made up of two hipbones — one for each leg.
Each hip bone consists of three parts, known as the:
 Ilium. The ilium is the top portion of each hip bone.
 Ischium. The ischium is a curved bone that makes up the base of each hip bone.
 Pubis. The pubis is located in the front part of the hip bone.
Lower limbs
 Each leg is composed of 30 bones, known as the:
 Femur. The femur is the large bone of the upper leg.
 Tibia. The tibia is the main bone of the lower leg. It forms the shin.
 Fibula. The fibula is the second bone in the lower leg, found in the outer leg.
 Patella. The patella is also called the kneecap.
 Tarsals. The tarsals are the seven bones that make up the ankle.
 Metatarsal. The metatarsals are the five bones that make up the middle area of the foot.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that comprise the toes.

The Functions:
The skeletal system’s main function is to provide support for the body. For example, the spinal
column provides support for the head and torso. The legs, on the other hand, support and bear the weight
of the upper body while a person stands.
But the skeletal system has several additional functions, including:
 Protecting internal organs from injury. For example, the skull protects the brain, while the
thoracic cage protects the heart and lungs.
 Allowing for movement. Muscles attach to bones through tendons. This connection allows the
body to move in many different ways.
 Producing blood cells. The soft bone marrow inside of many bones produces red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets.
 Storing minerals and nutrients. Bones can store and release minerals, including calcium and
phosphorus, which are important for many bodily functions. Additionally, adipose (fat) tissue that
can be used as energy can be found in part of the bone marrow.

Conditions affect the skeletal system

Fractures
A fracture can also be referred to as a broken bone. Fractures typically occur due to an injury or trauma,
such as a car accident or a fall. There are many different types of fractures, but they’re generally
categorized by the nature and location of the break.
Metabolic bone diseases
Metabolic bone diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect bone strength or integrity. They can be
due to things such as a deficiency in vitamin D, loss of bone mass, and use of certain medications, such as
steroids or chemotherapy.
Arthritis
Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints. This can cause pain and a limited range of movement. Several
things can cause arthritis, including the breakdown of cartilage that’s found in joints, autoimmune
conditions, or infection.
Cancer
Cancer can develop in the tissues of the bone or in the cells produced by bones. Cancer that forms in the
primary bone tissue is actually quite rare. Cancers of the blood cells produced by bone, such
as myeloma or lymphoma, are more common.
Spinal curvatures
A spinal curvature is when the spine doesn’t curve in its usual shape. Typically, the spine follows gentle
forward and backward curves.
There are three main types of spinal curvature:
 Kyphosis. Kyphosis creates a rounding in the upper back.
 Lordosis. Lordosis causes the lower back to curve inward.
 Scoliosis. Scoliosis causes an S- or C-shaped curve in the spine.

A healthy skeletal system

The skeletal system provides the foundation for all of the body’s movements, in addition to other
important functions.
Follow these tips to keep it in good working order:
 Consume calcium. Calcium-rich foods include leafy green vegetables, broccoli, tofu, and fish
such as salmon.
 Get enough vitamin D. Most people get plenty of this by spending regular time outdoors, but
a vitamin D supplement can help those in areas that don’t get much sunlight.
 Do weight-bearing exercises. These include things like walking, jogging, and climbing stairs.
 Wear protection. Always wear protective gear when riding a bike or playing contact sports to
avoid bone fractures and other potentially serious injuries

III. Muscular System

 The voluntary or skeletal muscles that move the skeleton form the muscular system; the term
Musculo-skeletal system is sometimes given to the bones and cartilages of the skeleton, the joints
connecting them and the muscles that move them. Tissues that are contractile make up the muscular
system. The three types of muscle tissue include cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and skeletal muscle.

The muscular system relies on the coordinated action of millions of actin and myosin filaments pulling in

the same direction at the same time. To achieve this coordination, muscles are innervated by the nervous

system. Nerve signals originating in the brain travel to specific muscles, allowing organisms to

stimulate specific muscle tissues to produce coordinated actions like running, swimming, and flying.

Muscular System Function

Movement

The most obvious function of the muscular system is movement. Organisms have

adopted a variety of methods to use the contractile function of the muscular system to move

through the environment. The most basic movements of fish include contracting muscles on

opposite sides of the body in succession. This action propels them through the water.

In organisms with limbs, tendons and other connective tissues are used to secure

muscles to the joints and skeleton. Skeletons may be internal like the human skeletons, or they

may be external like the exoskeleton of crabs. The nervous system coordinates the contraction of

the muscular system to synchronize the movement of the limbs. Animals like the cheetah,

swordfish, and bat have obtained speeds above 60 miles per hour or more through the power of

their muscles alone.

Circulation

The second and less obvious function of the muscular system is to assist with

circulation. Visceral and cardiac muscle tissues surround the blood vessels and lymph vessels

that carry crucial nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the body. Cardiac muscle makes up

the heart and supplies the main force for blood traveling through the body.

Large arteries and veins have associated muscles which can contract or relax to control

blood pressure. The actions of large skeletal muscles also help pump the blood and lymph

fluid throughout the body. While you exercise and contract large and small muscles, they push

vessels aside, which works like a pump to move fluids around your body.

Digestion

Much like its ability to move fluids through vessels in the circulatory system, the

muscular system also aids in moving food through the digestive system. Most digestive organs

are surrounded by smooth muscle tissue. Although the tissue cannot be voluntarily contracted

like skeletal muscles, it is controlled subconsciously. When food needs to be moved through

the gut, the muscles contract in a synchronized fashion in a wave through the digestive system.

These wave-like muscular contractions are called peristalsis.

Muscular System Parts

Unlike other organ systems, the muscular system is divided into different types of tissues,

which are incorporated into various organs in the body.

Skeletal Muscle

Striated muscle, or Skeletal muscle, is the tissue most commonly associated with the
muscular system. This type of muscle attaches to the skeleton and moves the limbs and body of
an organism. Skeletal muscle systems are composed of striated muscle which has distinct
bands of proteins in each myofibril. When these proteins are given energy, they slide past each
other, pulling the ends of each muscle cell together. The sarcomeres, or function units of actin
and myosin, produce the banding that can be seen in striated muscle. This can be seen in the
image below.

Visceral Muscle

By contrast, visceral muscle cells do not contain these stark bands of protein, and the
actin and myosin fibers work differently. Instead of thick fibers than run through the cell, visceral
muscle is surrounded by a net of actin and myosin fibers, which squeezes the cell when
contracted. This can be seen in the image below. Visceral muscle is also known as smooth
muscle for this reason.

Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle, which surrounds the chambers of the heart, is striated like skeletal
muscle, but the cells are connected to adjacent cells, which creates more of a contractile motion to
pump the blood.

Muscular System Structure

In general, the muscular system has a basic structure which allows muscles to move
limbs and create force. A muscle is always situated between two bones, connected to the bones
via tendons, which are fibrous and flexible tissues that can attach to bones. The action of each
individual cell shortening causes the muscle to shorten as a whole. This pulls on the tendon on
 each side of the muscle, causing a force on the bones. The bones, if they are connected to a joint,
can move in response to this force.
Some bones are stationary, which allows the muscle to pull against them. This is the case
with muscles like the diaphragm, which is connected to two stationary bones. When the
diaphragm contracts, it forces the air out of the chest cavity because all of the force is directed
upward.
Together, the many different types and connections of muscles function to allow your
body a complete range of movement. Thus, many muscles cross over each other or are on
opposite sides of a bone to move it in different directions.

Muscular System Connections to the Nervous System

Skeletal muscle is connected mostly to the somatic nervous system which is controlled by

voluntary impulses from the brain. The cardiac and visceral muscles, on the other hand, are
controlled largely by the autonomic nervous system, which controls the subconscious actions of
an organism. The separation of these nerve systems ensures that the autonomic functions
like breathing and digestion continue to take place as an animal moves about and searches
for more food.

The difference in muscular system tissues is due to their very different uses. Skeletal
muscles must be able to do a large amount of work quickly, therefore they consist of striated
muscle cells, which can contract voluntarily. The smooth muscle tissue found in visceral tissues
has fewer energy-producing mitochondria. These tissues are simply used to contract hollow
organs and move the fluid inside. The stomach, intestines, and blood vessels are lined with
visceral muscles. Cardiac muscle is striated because it needs to produce lots of force, although it
is not controlled voluntarily.

Muscular System Diseases

Muscular system diseases fall in a wide range of categories. Simple muscular system
injuries can happen, such as tearing a muscle or spraining an ankle. Diseases like tendonitis can
happen when a tendon is repeatedly strained. However, there are several muscular diseases not
caused by strain or harm to actual muscle cells.

Muscular dystrophy
is a genetic disease that affects the muscular system. Beginning at the ages 2-6, the
disease persistently weakens the muscles across the entire anatomy. This continues through the
remainder of an afflicted person’s life. Generally, people with muscular dystrophy only live into
their late teens or early twenties.
Lupus
is another disease which affects the muscular system. The symptoms of Lupus include a
butterfly-shaped rash on the face, as well as swelling and inflammation of the skin, muscles, and
joints. Lupus is an autoimmune disease, meaning the cause of the disease is immune cells within
your body creating antibodies against your body’s own proteins.

IV. NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main feature is to generate, modulate
and transmit information between all the different parts of the human body. This property enables
many important functions of the nervous system, such as regulation of vital body functions
 (heartbeat, breathing, digestion), sensation and body movements. Ultimately, the nervous system
structures preside over everything that makes us human; our consciousness, cognition, behaviors
and memories.

The nervous system consists of two divisions; 

 Central nervous system (CNS) is the integration and command center of the body
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the conduit between the CNS and the body. It is
further subdivided into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system
(ANS). 

Understanding the nervous system requires knowledge of its various parts, so in this article you will
learn about the nervous system breakdown and all its various divisions.

Cells of the nervous system 

Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system; 
  Neurons

Neurons, or nerve cell, are the main structural and functional units of the
nervous system. Every neuron consists of a body (soma) and a number of processes
(neurites). The nerve cell body contains the cellular organelles and is where neural
impulses (action potentials) are generated. The processes stem from the body, they
connect neurons with each other and with other body cells, enabling the flow of
neural impulses. There are two types of neural processes that differ in structure and
function; 

 Axons are long and conduct impulses away from the neuronal body. 
 Dendrites are short and act to receive impulses from other neurons, conducting the
electrical signal towards the nerve cell body.
Every neuron has a single axon, while the number of dendrites varies. Based on that
number, there are four structural types of neurons; multipolar, bipolar, pseudounipolar and
unipolar.

How do neurons function?

The morphology of neurons makes them highly specialized to work with neural impulses; they
generate, receive and send these impulses onto other neurons and non-neural tissues. 

There are two types of neurons, named according to whether they send an electrical signal towards
or away from the CNS;

 Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses from the CNS to

the peripheral tissues, instructing them how to function. 
 Afferent neurons (sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues to the
CNS. These impulses contain sensory information, describing the tissue's environment.
The site where an axon connects to another cell to pass the neural impulse is called a synapse. The
synapse doesn't connect to the next cell directly. Instead, the impulse triggers the release of
chemicals called neurotransmitters from the very end of an axon. These neurotransmitters bind to
the effector cell’s membrane, causing biochemical events to occur within that cell according to the
orders sent by the CNS.

 Glial cells
Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory cells that
act to support neurons. They do not propagate action potentials. Instead, they myelinate
neurons, maintain homeostatic balance, provide structural support, protection and nutrition
for neurons throughout the nervous system. 
This set of functions is provided for by four different types of glial cells;

 Myelinating glia produce the axon-insulating myelin sheath. These are

called oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Remember these
easily with the mnemonic "COPS" (Central - Oligodendrocytes; Peripheral - Schwann)
 Astrocytes (CNS) and satellite glial cells (PNS) both share the function of supporting and
protecting neurons. 
 Other two glial cell types are found in CNS exclusively; microglia are the phagocytes of
the CNS and ependymal cells which line the ventricular system of the CNS. The PNS
doesn’t have a glial equivalent to microglia as the phagocytic role is performed by
macrophages.
Most axons are wrapped by a white insulating substance called the myelin sheath, produced by
oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin encloses an axon segmentally, leaving
unmyelinated gaps between the segments called the nodes of Ranvier. The neural impulses
propagate through the Ranvier nodes only, skipping the myelin sheath. This significantly
increases the speed of neural impulse propagation. 

White and gray matter

The white color of myelinated axons is distinguished from the gray colored
neuronal bodies and dendrites. Based on this, nervous tissue is divided into white matter
and gray matter, both of which has a specific distribution; 

 White matter comprises the outermost layer of the spinal cord and the inner part
of the brain.
  Gray matter is located in the central part of the spinal cord, outermost layer of the
brain (cerebral cortex), and in several subcortical nuclei of the brain deep to the
cerebral cortex.

Nervous System Division:

So nervous tissue, comprised of neurons and neuroglia, forms our nervous organs (e.g.
the brain, nerves). These organs unite according to their common function, forming the
evolutionary perfection that is our nervous system. 

The nervous system (NS) is structurally broken down into two divisions; 

 Central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - gathers all neural tissue outside the CNS
Functionally, the PNS is further subdivided into two functional divisions; 

 Somatic nervous system (SNS) -  informally described as the voluntary system

 Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - described as the involuntary system. 

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 Although divided structurally into central and peripheral parts, the nervous system
divisions are actually interconnected with each other. Axon bundles pass impulses
between the brain and spinal cord. These bundles within the CNS are called afferent and
efferent neural pathways or tracts. Axons that extend from the CNS to connect with
peripheral tissues belong to the PNS. Axons bundles within the PNS are called afferent
and efferent peripheral nerves.

Central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. These are found
housed within the skull and vertebral column respectively.

The brain is made of four parts; 

1. cerebrum, 
2. diencephalon, 
3. cerebellum
4. brainstem.

Together these parts process the incoming information from peripheral tissues and
generate commands; telling the tissues how to respond and function. These commands
tackle the most complex voluntary and involuntary human body functions, from
breathing to thinking.

The spinal cord continues from the brainstem. It also has the ability to generate
commands but for involuntary processes only, i.e. reflexes. However, its main function is
to pass information between the CNS and periphery

Peripheral nervous system

The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and a number of small
neuronal clusters throughout the body called ganglia.
Peripheral nerves can be sensory (afferent), motor (efferent) or mixed (both). Depending on
what structures they innervate, peripheral nerves can have the following modalities;
  Special - innervating special senses (e.g. eye) and is found only in afferent fibers
 General - supplying everything except special senses
 Somatic - innervates the skin and skeletal muscles (e.g. biceps brachii)
 Visceral - supplies internal organs. 

Cranial nerves:

Cranial nerves are peripheral nerves that emerge from the cranial nerve nuclei of the
brainstem and spinal cord. They innervate the head and neck. Cranial nerves are numbered
one to twelve according to their order of exit through the skull fissures.

Namely, they are:

   olfactory nerve (CN I), 

 optic nerve (CN II),

  oculomotor nerve (CN III), 
 trochlear nerve (CN IV),
  trigeminal nerve (CN V),
  abducens nerve (VI),
  facial nerve (VII),
  vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), 
 glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), 
 vagus nerve (X), 
 accessory nerve (XI),
 hypoglossal nerve (XII).

These nerves are:

 motor (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII), 

 sensory (I, II and VIII)
 mixed (V, VII, IX, and X).

Spinal nerves

Spinal nerves emerge from the segments of the spinal cord. They are numbered
according to their specific segment of origin. Hence, the 31 pairs of spinal nerves are
divided into 8 cervical pairs, 12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1
coccygeal spinal nerve. All spinal nerves are mixed, containing both sensory and motor
fibers.

Spinal nerves innervate the entire body, with the exception of the head. They do so
by either directly synapsing with their target organs or by interlacing with each other and
forming plexuses. There are four major plexuses that supply the body regions; 

 Cervical plexus (C1-C4) - innervates the neck 

 Brachial plexus (C5-T1) - innervates the upper limb 
  Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) - innervates the lower abdominal wall, anterior hip and
thigh 
 Sacral plexus (L4-S4) - innervates the pelvis and the lower limb

Ganglia

Ganglia (sing. ganglion) are clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside of the CNS,
meaning that they are the PNS equivalents to subcortical nuclei of the CNS. Ganglia can be
sensory or visceral motor (autonomic) and their distribution in the body is clearly defined.

 Dorsal root ganglia are clusters of sensory nerve cell bodies located adjacent to the
spinal cord; they are a component of the posterior root of a spinal nerve.
 Autonomic ganglia are either sympathetic or parasympathetic. Sympathetic
ganglia are found in the thorax and abdomen, grouped into paravertebral and
prevertebral ganglia. Paravertebral ganglia lie on either side of vertebral column
(para- means beside), comprising two ganglionic chains that extend from the base
of the skull to the coccyx, called sympathetic trunks. Prevertebral ganglia (collateral
ganglia, preaortic ganglia) are found anterior to the vertebral column (pre- means in
front of), closer to their target organ. They are further grouped according to which
branch of abdominal aorta they surround; celiac, aorticorenal, superior and inferior
mesenteric ganglia.
 Parasympathetic ganglia are found in the head and pelvis. Ganglia in the head are
associated with relevant cranial nerves and are the ciliary, pterygopalatine, otic and
submandibular ganglia. Pelvic ganglia lie close to the reproductive organs
comprising autonomic plexuses for innervation of pelvic viscera, such as prostatic
and uterovaginal plexuses.

Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system is the voluntary component of the peripheral nervous
system. It consists of all the fibers within cranial and spinal nerves that enable us to
perform voluntary body movements (efferent nerves) and feel sensation from the
skin, muscles and joints (afferent nerves). Somatic sensation relates to touch, pressure,
vibration, pain, temperature, stretch and position sense from these three types of structures. 

Sensation from the glands, smooth and cardiac muscles is conveyed by the
autonomic nerves.
Autonomic nervous sytem
The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part of the peripheral nervous
system. Further divided into the sympathetic (SANS), parasympathetic (PANS) systems, it
is comprised exclusively of visceral motor fibers. Nerves from both these divisions
innervate all involuntary structures of the body; 

 Cardiac muscle
 Glandular cells
 Smooth muscles present in the walls of the blood vessels and hollow organs. 
Balanced functioning of these two systems plays a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis, meaning that the SANS and PANS do not oppose each other but rather, they
complement each other. They do so by potentiating the activity of different organs under
various circumstances; for example, the PSNS will stimulate higher intestine activity after
food intake, while SANS will stimulate the heart to increase the output during exercise.

Autonomic nerves synapse within autonomic ganglia before reaching their target
organ, thus all of them have presynaptic and postsynaptic parts. Presynaptic fibers originate
from CNS and end by synapsing with neurons of the peripheral autonomic
ganglia. Postsynaptic fibers are the axons of ganglion neurons, extending from the ganglion
to peripheral tissues. In sympathetic nerves, the presynaptic fiber is short as the ganglia are
located very close to the spinal cord, while the postsynaptic fiber is much longer in order to
reach the target organ. In parasympathetic nerves it’s the opposite; the presynaptic fiber is
longer than the postsynaptic.

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic system (SANS) adjusts our bodies for situations of increased

physical activity. Its actions are commonly described as the “fight-or-flight” response as
it stimulates responses such as faster breathing, increased heart rate, elevated blood
pressure, dilated pupils and redirection of blood flow from the
skin, kidneys, stomach and intestines to the heart and muscles, where it’s needed. 

Sympathetic nerve fibers have a thoracolumbar origin, meaning that they stem
from the T1-L2/L3 spinal cord segments. They synapse with prevertebral and
paravertebral ganglia, from which the postsynaptic fibers travel to supply the target
viscera.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) adjusts our bodies for energy

conservation, activating “rest and digest” or “feed and breed” activities. The nerves of the
PSNS slow down the actions of cardiovascular system, divert blood away from muscles
and increase peristalsis and gland secretion. 

Parasympathetic fibers have craniosacral outflow, meaning that they originate

from the brainstem (cranio-) and S2-S4 spinal cord segments (-sacral). These fibers travel
to thoracic and abdominal organs, where they synapse in ganglia located close to or
within the target organ.

Enteric nervous system

Enteric nervous system comprises the SANS and PANS fibers that regulate the
activity of the gastrointestinal tract. This system is made of parasympathetic fibers of the
vagus nerve (CN X) and sympathetic fibers of the thoracic splanchnic nerves. These
fibers form two plexuses within the wall of the intestinal tube which are responsible for
modulating intestinal peristalsis, i.e. propagation of consumed
food from esophagus to rectum;

 Submucosal plexus (of Meissner) found in the submucosa of the intestines and contains
only parasympathetic fibers
 Myenteric plexus (of Auerbach) located in the muscularis externa of intestines,
containing both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers

A. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

(SYMPATHETIC - PARASYMPATHETIC)
 The autonomic nervous system is a complex network of cells that controls the body’s
internal state. It regulates and supports many different internal processes, often outside of a
person’s conscious awareness.
The nervous system is a collection of cells that send and receive electrical and chemical
signals throughout the body.
The nervous system consists of two main parts:
 The central nervous system: This consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system: This contains all the neurons outside of the central
nervous system.
The ANS is part of the peripheral nervous system. It is a collection of neurons that
influence the activity of many different organs, including the stomach, heart, and lungs.
Within the ANS, there are two subsystems that have mostly opposing effects:
 The sympathetic nervous system (SNS): Neurons within the SNS generally prepare the
body to react to something in its environment. For example, the SNS may increase heart
rate to prepare a person to escape from danger.
 The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS): Parasympathetic neurons mostly regulate
bodily functions when a person is at rest.

Function
The nervous system regulates the internal environment of the body. It is essential for
maintaining homeostasis.
Homeostasis refers to the relatively stable and balanced conditions inside the body that
are necessary to support life. Some of those that homeostasis regulates include:
 body temperature
 blood pressure
 heart rate
 breathing
 metabolism
 blood glucose levels
 blood acidity levels
 water and electrolytes
 digestion
The ANS receives information from the environment and other parts of the body and regulates
the activity of the organs, accordingly.
The ANS is also involved in the following bodily functions:
 producing bodily fluids, such as sweat
 urination
 sexual responses
One critical function of the ANS is to prepare the body for action through the “fight or flight”
response.
If the body perceives a threat in the environment, the sympathetic neurons of the ANS react by:
 increasing heart rate
 widening the airways to make breathing easier
 releasing stored energy
 increasing strength in the muscles
 slowing digestion and other bodily processes that are less important for taking action

These changes prepare the body to respond appropriately to a threat in the environment.

Factors that affect how it works

The fight or flight response of the ANS evolved to protect the body from dangers around
it. However, many stressful aspects of daily life can also trigger this response.
Examples include:
 work-related stress
 financial concerns
 relationship problems
Chronic stress can cause the ANS to trigger the fight or flight response over long periods.
This continuation will eventually harm the body.
Some drugs can also affect the way the ANS functions. Examples include:
 caffeine
 phenylephrine, which doctors use to treat low blood pressure, or hypotension
 clonidine, which doctors use to treat high blood pressure, or hypertension
 albuterol, which helps to relax airway spasms during an acute asthma attack
 the beta-blockers esmolol and labetalol

Autonomic disorders and their causes

Autonomic disorders affect the functioning of the ANS. They can sometimes occur as a
result of the following:
  aging
 damage to neurons within the ANS
 damage to specific parts of the brain
Certain medical conditions can also affect the ANS. Some common causes of autonomic
disorders include:
 diabetes
 peripheral nerve disorder
 Parkinson’s disease
Less common causes of autonomic disorders include:
 multiple system atrophy (MSA)
 spinal cord disorders
 Lambert-Eaton syndrome
 botulism
 viral infections
 damage to nerves in the neck

Autonomic disorder symptoms

Autonomic disorders can cause a wide range of symptoms, including:
 dizziness and lightheadedness due to orthostatic hypotension (OH), which is a
significant drop in blood pressure when standing up after sitting
 reduced or absent sweating, leading to intolerance of heat
 dry eyes and mouth
 digestive issues
 nausea
 vomiting
 constipation
 difficulty urinating
 erectile dysfunction
 pupils being less reactive to light
 Prelim Activity

1. List the final units to be absorbed for each of the organic compounds discussed:
b. Carbohydrates - ________________________________________________________________
c. Fats or Lipids - _________________________________________________________________
d. Protein - ______________________________________________________________________
2. Use the key to match each basic tissue type with description below:

_______1. Connective tissue

_______2. Epithelial tissue

_______3. Muscle tissue

_______4. Nervous tissue

a.) composed largely of nonliving extracellular matrix: important in protection, support,

defense and holding tissue fluid.
b.) The tissue immediately responsible for body movement
c.) The tissue that provides an awareness of the external environment and enables us to react
to it
d.) The tissue that lines body cavities and cover surfaces
e.) the tissue that includes most glands
3. Consult your Medical Dictionary or Medical Terminology text to define the following:

a. Ankylosing spondylitis -
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________

b. Fracture____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________
c. Osteoarthritis_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
d. Osteoporosis________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
 __________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
e. Osteochondritis______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________
f. Osteochondrosis_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
g. Dislocation_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
h. Ganglion Cyst
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
i. Degenerative joint
disease___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________

j. Bursitis____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________
4. Locate a more complete list of muscles in your anatomy and physiology textbook or medical dictionary.
Break down four muscle names not listed in this section into their word elements. You will need a medical
terminology book and/or medical dictionary to complete this exercise. Example: Auricularis superior: Aur-
means ear; ar- means pertaining to; superior means above or upward.
a._____________________________________________________________________________
b._____________________________________________________________________________
c._____________________________________________________________________________
d._____________________________________________________________________________

5. List five of the disease conditions of the nervous system described in the indications and contraindications
section in Appendix A of FUNDAMENTALS.
a._____________________________________________________________________________________
b.___________________________________________________________________________________
c.____________________________________________________________________________________
d____________________________________________________________________________________
e.___________________________________________________________________________________

6. Choose one of the reflexes and look it up in a medical dictionary. Define the term and then write down
how you think the reflex is implicated during massage. Example: Reflex: Psychogalvanic Definition:
Psycho- relates to the mind and galvanic pertains to electricity Implication: This reflex involves changes in
electrical activity in the body connected with mind processes or thoughts. With the galvanic skin
response, changes in electrical activity are related to activity of the sweat glands. Massage stimulates the
skin as well as electrical activity in the body, which in turn may influence the mind. Your Turn:
Reflex:_________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
_______
Definition:______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______
Implication:_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________

V. Cardiovascular system
(Circulatory and Lymphatic System)

Otherwise known as the circulatory system, it includes the heart as a muscular pump and
blood vessels with the blood that circulates through them forming a transport system for many
substances. Arteries conduct blood away from the heart and veins conduct it back to the heart.
Through branches of ever-decreasing size, blood reaches the blood capillaries, the microscopic
vessels which form a vast network in organs and tissues and through which fluid and many
substances, including blood gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) can be exchanged. From the
capillaries blood is gathered into veins of ever-increasing size to be returned to the heart. Blood
consists of a fluid (plasma) containing red cells (erythrocytes, for the transport of blood gases),
various types of white cells (leukocytes, for body defenses, including lymphocytes) and platelets
(thrombocytes, concerned with blood clotting).

The cardiovascular system consists of two parts: the heart and the blood vessels.

Arterial and Venous blood vessel systems.

The cardiovascular system is responsible for transporting oxygen, hormones, nutrients

and waste products around the body. The heart powers this system, pumping the blood which
carries the previously mentioned contents at a rate of five liters per minute.
 The heart
The heart is a muscle that is located in the thoracic region, between the lungs. It
is composed of two sides and is a four chambered 'double pump’ – the two atria at the top
of the heart receive blood from various parts of the body, while the two ventricles are
located at the bottom of the heart. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the
lungs and the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Valves exist
between these chambers and ensure that blood flows in one direction.

Circulatory loops
In the human body, there are two circulatory loops:
 Pulmonary circulation loop – transports deoxygenated blood from the
right side of the heart to the lungs; here, the blood becomes re-
oxygenated and is transported back to the left side of the heart. The right
atrium and right ventricle pump blood along this loop.
 Systemic circulation loop – transports oxygenated blood from the left
side of the heart to all body tissue (apart from the heart and lungs). It
also removes waste from tissue and returns deoxygenated blood to the
right side of the heart. The left atrium and left ventricle pump blood
along this loop.

Circulation of Blood through the Heart.

Blood vessels
Blood vessels allow blood to travel from the heart to every area of the body and
back and are sized according to how much blood passes through that particular area of
the body. Blood travels through a hollow area called the lumen, which is encased in a
 wall (thin for capillaries and thick for arteries). The blood vessels are lined with
endothelium which keeps blood inside them and prevents the formation of clots.

There are three types of blood vessels:

 Arteries –carry blood away from the heart, which is usually oxygenated;
the only exception is the pulmonary trunk circulation loop, which carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. They have high levels of
blood pressure, as the blood is being pushed from the heart (hence the
thicker vessel walls). Bigger arteries are more elastic, to accommodate
the pressure, whereas smaller arteries are muscular and contract/expand
to regulate blood flow.
Arterioles are narrow arteries that branch off from the ends of
arteries and carry blood to capillaries. They have lower blood pressure as
they are greater in number, further from the heart and carry less blood
per unit – therefore, the walls are much thinner than arteries. They also
use muscle to regulate blood flow.
 Capillaries – these are the smallest, thinnest and most common blood
vessels in the body. They run through just about every tissue in the body
and connect arteries to venules. Gases, nutrients and waste products are
exchanged between tissues in capillaries – therefore, the endothelium is
thin to allow easier passage of materials, while still retaining blood cells
inside the vessels.
Precapillary sphincters regulate blood flow into capillaries by
reducing blood flow to inactive tissue and directing it towards active
tissue.
 Veins –return blood to the heart; their walls are much thinner, less elastic
and less muscular than arteries (as they are not subjected to as much
pressure). Instead, gravity, inertia and skeletal muscle contractions allow
veins to push blood back to the heart. Many veins contain valves that
prevent blood from going away from the heart.

Venules perform the same function as arterioles but collect blood

from capillaries, rather than deposit it.

Functions of the cardiovascular system:

 Transportation of blood (along with its contents) to body tissue.
  Protection – white blood cells clean up debris and fight infections;
platelets and red blood cells form scabs that prevent infection and open
wounds; blood also carries antibodies to help protect from specific
infections.
 Regulation – helps maintain body temperature; helps balance the body's
pH; maintains concentration of body's cells.
Regulation of blood pressure:
 The greater the contractions of the heart, the higher the blood pressure.
 Vasoconstriction – the diameter of an artery is reduced by contracting the muscle
in the arterial wall. Blood pressure is increased and flow reduced.
 Vasodilation – the diameter of an artery is increased as the muscle in the arterial
wall relaxes. This can be caused by hormones or chemicals, artificial or natural.
 An increase in blood volume equals higher blood pressure.
 Thicker blood (from clots etc.) raises blood pressure.

Lymphatic System

Closely allied to the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system consists of the
lymphoid organs (thymus, spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes), lymphoid follicles scattered in
certain non-lymphoid organs (especially in parts of the digestive tract) and lymphatic channels
(lymphatics) which drain lymphocytes and fluid from the lymphoid organs and follicles, as well
as tissue fluid from other parts of the body. Lymph is the fluid within the lymphatics. Nodes may
become the sites for infection or cancerous deposits derived from any part of the drainage area.
The cervical, axillary and inguinal nodes are those most readily palpable and routinely examined.
Apart from drainage, the system is concerned with the manufacture and transport of lymphocytes
for the body’s immune responses. Part of it also transports fat absorbed from the intestine.
This system's primary function is to transport lymph, which is a clear and colorless fluid
that contains white blood cells (to fight disease). Lymph helps the body get rid of toxins, waste
and other unwanted substances from the body. It also transports fatty acids from the intestines to
the circulatory system.
The lymphatic system consists of:
 Lymph vessels – they carry lymph through the body and they resemble veins in
structure.
 Lymph nodes (600 to 700) – make more white blood cells to fight infection.
 Lymph – flows upward towards the neck, through the subclavian veins. It is
created from any fluid that doesn't return to the heart via the veins.
 Tonsils – clusters of lymphatic cells in the pharynx. They are commonly
removed after persistent throat infections.
 Adenoids
 Spleen – helps protect against infection and is just above the kidney. Humans can
live without this, but are more prone to injury and infection without it.
 Thymus – in the chest, just above the heart; it stores immature lymphocytes and
prepares them to become active T cells.

The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is responsible for several functions and operates in the
following ways:
 Returns vital substances, such as plasma protein, to the bloodstream from the
tissues of the body
  Assists in maintaining fluid balance by draining fluid from the body tissues
 Helps the body defend against disease-producing substances
 Helps absorb fats from the digestive system

VI. Endocrine System

Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is for communication, but acts at a much slower
rate via the hormones secreted by its various components and mostly distributed by the bloodstream. It
consists of the main endocrine organs (pituitary gland and the adjacent part of the brain, the adrenal,
thyroid and parathyroid glands) and various other groups of endocrine cells that are found in other organs,
especially in the pancreas (where they form the islets of Langerhans), testis, ovary and digestive tract.
The endocrine system is composed of glands that produce hormones that are secreted directly
into the bloodstream to stimulate cells in a specific way or to set a body function into action.
The glands are controlled by the nervous system and chemical receptors in the blood. They help
maintain homeostasis (stable internal condition) by regulation of organ functions. Hormones are
responsible for things like metabolism, sexual development and reproductions, mineral and sugar
retention, heart rate and digestion.

Hypothalamus
This part of the brain directly controls the endocrine system through the pituitary gland; it
is also responsible for various nervous system-related jobs. It contains neurosecretory cells –
these are neurons that secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones. These hormones are responsible
for the controlled release of things like growth hormone and follicle stimulating hormone.
Pituitary gland
This is a pea-sized piece of tissue connected to the hypothalamus, which releases
hormones through blood vessels surrounding it.
It is made of two parts:
 Posterior pituitary – releases oxytocin (for childbirth contractions and release of
milk for breastfeeding) and antidiuretic hormone (prevents water loss in body by
reducing blood flow to sweat glands and increasing water uptake in kidneys).
 Anterior pituitary – controlled by the hypothalamus, it produces six vital
hormones:
o thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
o adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
o follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
o luteinizing hormone (LH)
o human growth hormone (HGH)
o prolactin (PRL).

Pineal gland
The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin which helps regulate the sleep-wake
cycle. The pineal gland is inhibited by stimulation from the photoreceptors of the retina; light
sensitivity leads to melatonin production only in low light or darkness. Increased production
causes feelings of drowsiness.

Thyroid gland
 Located at the base of the neck around the lateral sides of the trachea, it produces:
 Calcitonin – regulating blood calcium levels.
 Triiodothyronine and thyroxine – regulating metabolic rate.
Parathyroid glands
They produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) when calcium ion level drop too low – this
stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the calcium stores from bones, so they are released into
the bloodstream. It also triggers kidneys to return calcium back into the bloodstream.

Adrenal glands
Found above the kidneys, they are made of two layers:
 Adrenal cortex
o produces glucocorticoids (breaks down proteins and lipids; reduces
inflammation and triggers immune response)
o mineralocorticoids (help regulate mineral ions concentration in the
body)
o androgens e.g. testosterone (regulate growth and activity of cells).
 Adrenal medulla – produces epinephrine and norepinephrine, helping increase
blood flow to the brain and muscles under stress (known as 'fight or flight'
reaction). They increase heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure, while
decreasing blood flow to organs that are not involved in responding to
emergencies.
Pancreas
This is a large gland near the stomach which releases glucagon to raise blood glucose
levels and insulin to lower them after eating.
Gonads
These are the ovaries (in females) and testes (in males), which produces sex hormones –
they determine the respective secondary sex characteristics of adults.
Their function:
 Testes – releases testosterone (causes growth and increases in strength of the
bones and muscles, particularly during puberty; causes inherited hair loss;
triggers sexual development)
 Ovaries – release oestrogen and progesterone (for ovulation and pregnancy; for
sexual and growth development during puberty)
Thymus
 Found behind the sternum, it produces thymosins (to develop t-lymphocytes during foetal
and child development). During puberty, it becomes inactive and is replaced by adipose tissue.

Other hormone producing organs:

 Heart – atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in response to high blood pressure levels.
 Kidneys – erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low levels of oxygen in the blood.
 Digestive system – cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, and gastrin are all produced
by the organs of the gastrointestinal tract.
 Adipose – produces the hormone leptin that is involved in the management of
appetite and energy usage by the body.
 Placenta – human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) assists progesterone by
signaling the ovaries to maintain the production of estrogen and progesterone
throughout pregnancy.
 Local hormones – prostaglandins and leukotrienes are produced by every tissue
in the body (except for blood tissue) in response to damage.

VII. Integumentary System (Skin)

Properly, but not commonly, called the integument or Integumentary system, it forms the
protective outer covering of the body and includes specialized derivatives – nails, hair, sebaceous glands
(which lubricate the surface) and sweat glands which, in association with the blood flow through the skin,
play a vital part in the control of body temperature (by surface evaporation). The breasts (mammary
glands), which are modified sweat glands, secrete milk for the newborn and are described in the section
on the thorax. Through its sensory nerve supply (cutaneous nerves, with specialized endings and
receptors) the skin assesses the body’s environment; certain kinds of skin cells are concerned with
pigmentation, immune responses and the synthesis of Vitamin D.

The components of the skin are:

 Hair
 Nails
 Sweat glands
 Oil glands
 Blood vessels
 Lymph vessels
 Nerves
 Muscles

Layers of Human Skin

The anatomy of the integumentary system consists of:

 The epidermis – this is comprised of squamous cells which create keratin – this is a
major component of skin, hair and nails. It is the outermost layer of the skin. It can either
be thick (on the palms of hands and feet) or thin (rest of the body) skin
 Dermis – this is the thickest layer of the skin (90 per cent) and it supports the epidermis.
It contains special cells that help regulate temperature, fight infection, store water and
supply nutrients and blood to the skin. They also detect sensations and give skin its
strength and flexibility. It contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous
glands, hair follicles, sensory receptors, collagen and elastin.
 Hypodermis – this innermost layer of the skin helps insulate the body and cushions the
internal organs. It is composed of fat and loose connective tissue and connects skin to
underlying tissues through collagen, elastin and reticular fibres from the dermis. It
contains a specialized tissue called adipose that stores excess energy as fat. Blood
vessels, lymph vessels, nerves and hair follicles also extend through this layer of the skin.

Human Skin Receptors

 MIDTERM ACTIVITY

1. List five of the disease conditions of the cardiovascular system described in the indications and
contraindications.
a.___________________________________________________________________________________
b.___________________________________________________________________________________
c.____________________________________________________________________________________
d.___________________________________________________________________________________
e.___________________________________________________________________________________

2. Using your list, choose one condition and note any indications or contraindications involved.
Condition:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________
Indications or Contraindications:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3. Look up the medication classification “anticoagulant” FUNDAMENTALS TEXT BOOK or in a

pharmacology reference text. List contraindications and side effects of these medications. Also describe
contraindications to massage that may exist if someone is taking anticoagulant medication.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Match the lymph nodes and plexuses to their correct description.
_______1. Parotid
_______2. Occipital
_______3. Superficial cervical
_______4. Subclavicular
_______5. Hypogastric
_______6. Facial
_______7. Deep cervical
_______8. Axillary
_______9. Mediastinal
_______10. Cubital
_______11. Para-aortic
_______12. Deep inguinal
_______13. Superficial inguinal
_______14. Popliteal
_______15. Mammary plexus
_______16. Palmar plexus
_______17. Plantar plexus
a. deeply situated nodes in the groin
b. nodes in the groin close to the surface
c. nodes under the collarbone
d. nodes draining the tissue in the face
e. lymphatic vessels in the sole of the foot (plantar)
f. lymphatic vessels in the palm of the hand (palmar)
g. nodes around or in front of the ear
h. nodes over the bone at the back of the head
i. nodes in the area beneath the stomach
j. nodes around the aorta
k. deeply situated nodes in the neck
l. lymphatic vessels around the breasts
m. nodes in the armpit
n. nodes of the elbow
o. nodes close to the surface of the neck
p. nodes in back of the knee
q. nodes in the mediastinal section of the thoracic cavity
IIX. Respiratory System

Concerned with the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and air.
These exchanges take place in the lungs; the rest of the respiratory system is the respiratory tract,
which is simply a conducting pathway for air and includes the nose and paranasal sinuses,
pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi. Part of the larynx acts as a respiratory sphincter, concerned
with the production of voice.
The respiratory system supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the cells of the
body. The two phases of respiration are external and internal.

Nose/nasal cavity
This nasal cavity is the primary tract through which air moves; the nose is made of
cartilage, bone, muscle and skin, and protects the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity warms,
moisturizes and filters air that enters the body before it goes to the lungs. Hairs and mucus trap
dust and other contaminants. Exhaled air returns moisture and heat to the nasal cavity before
exiting the body.

Mouth
This is the secondary tract through which breathing takes place and is used when extra
air is needed. However, it doesn't warm and moisturize air as well as the nose and doesn't filter as
well. However, it allows more air to enter the body quicker.

Pharynx
This is the throat and is a muscular funnel that goes from the end of the nasal cavity to
the esophagus and larynx. It contains the epiglottis, which is a flap of cartilage that moves
between the trachea and esophagus, blocking the correct passage, depending if you are eating or
not –preventing choking.

Larynx
This is the voice box and contains vocal cords, the epiglottis and is constructed of
cartilage.

Trachea
This is the windpipe and is made of cartilage rings – it connects the larynx to the bronchi
and allows passage of air into the lungs – it contains mucus to trap external bodies from reaching
the lungs. This mucus is then moved toward the pharynx, where it is swallowed and digested.

Bronchi/bronchioles
This is where the airway splits into two branches, which then spilt into secondary
branches (two in the left lung, three in the right lung). Secondary bronchi then spilt into tertiary
bronchi and then into bronchioles, which further split until they become less than a millimetre in
diameter – these are known as terminal bronchioles and transfer air into the alveoli of the lungs.
Muscle tissue in the bronchi and bronchioles helps regulate airflow – they relax when more air is
required (e.g. during exercise) and contract when resting to prevent hyperventilation.
Lungs
The lungs are organs and are surrounded by a pleural membrane to allow expansion and a
negative pressure space to allow for passive filling of the lungs as they relax. The left lung is
slightly smaller, to accommodate the heart and only has two lobes, comparative to the right lung's
three. They contain around 30 million alveoli, which are tiny cup-shaped structures that allow the
exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood passing through the capillaries.

Muscles of respiration
There are muscles surrounding the lungs that allow air to be inhaled and exhaled from the
lungs. The primary muscle responsible for this is the diaphragm – situated at the floor of the
thorax. When it contracts, it moves into the abdominal cavity and allows air to be pulled into the
lungs; relaxation of the muscle allows air to flow back out of the lungs. Intercostal muscles
between the ribs assist the diaphragm in expanding and compressing the lungs.

Types of respiration
There are two types of respiration:
 External respiration – the exchange of gases from the air into the blood.
 Internal respiration – the exchange of gases between blood and the tissues of the
body.
Homeostatic control of respiration
When the body is resting, it maintains what is called eupnea – this is a steady breathing
rate and happens during rest. When we become active, the body requires more oxygen and is
producing more carbon dioxide – therefore, chemoreceptors send signals to the brain which will
instruct the body to increase its rate and depth of breathing to cope with the situation.

Common Disease or Disorder in Respiratory System:

1. Common cold (upper respiratory infection)
2. Influenza or Flu
3. Diptheria
4. Allergic rhinitis
5. Sinusitis
6. Epiglottitis
7. Pharyngitis
 8. Stridor
9. Whooping cough
10. Tonsilitis
11. Acute Upper Respiratory Infection
12. Pneumonia
13. Pneumothorax (collapsed lung)
14. Pleural Effusion
15. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
16. Interstitial Lung Disease
17. Cystic Fibrosis
18. Lung Cancer
19. Tuberculosis
20. Chronic Pulmonary Edema
21. Neuromuscular Lung Disorder
22. Mesothelioma
23. Obesity hypoventilation Syndrome
24. Pulmonary MAC infection/ MAC Lung Disease
25. Pneumoconiosis
26. Acute bronchitis
27. Acute Pneumonia
28. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
29. Pulmonary Embolism
30. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
31. Pulmonary Hypertension
32. Acute Pulmonary edema

IX. Digestive System

Concerned with the digestion and absorption of the foodstuffs necessary to provide the chemical
energy for all body functions. The digestive or alimentary tract is composed of the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) and large intestine (caecum and
appendix, colon, rectum and anal canal). The digestive processes of the stomach and intestines are
assisted by the secretions of the major digestive glands – liver (with the gallbladder) and pancreas.
The digestive system enables you to consume and digest food and absorb the nutrients into the
bloodstream for use by the body. In the GI tract, tubes join from the mouth to the anus, so that food and
drink which is ingested is digested and leaves the body as feces, once all useful nutrients have been
extracted.

These useful nutrients include:

 Carbohydrates – they can be simple and complex; they are used for energy and make up
45-65 per cent of the total daily calorie intake.
 Protein – they are broken down into amino acids, which are the building blocks of the
body and are used for growth and repair.
  Fats – these are a rich source of energy and help absorb vitamins in the body. They make
up 20-35 per cent of daily calories; they are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.
The body also stores excess energy as fat.
 Vitamins – they can be water-soluble and fat-soluble; each vitamin has a different role in
the growth and health of the body. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in fat, whereas water
soluble vitamins are flushed out in urine.
There are bacteria in the GI tract called gut flora that help the digestion process, along with the
nervous and circulatory systems. Food moves through the GI tract via peristalsis (the movement
of organ walls), which also allows the contents to be absorbed.

The organs involved in the digestive system include:

 Mouth – for chewing and breaking down starches.
 Esophagus – for swallowing.
 Stomach – for letting food enter and mix with digestive
juices; it breaks down protein.
 Small intestine – for peristalsis and breaking down
starches, protein and carbohydrates.
 Pancreas – to break down starches, fats and protein.
 Liver – to break down fats.
 Large intestine – to change waste products into feces
and to excrete it from the body during a bowel
movement.
The anatomy of the digestive system can be compared with that
of a long muscular tube that travels a path through the body. The
organs of the digestive system break down food and transport
food and waste through these muscular tubes.

Common Digestive System Disorder:

1. Gas in Intestine (colic)
2. Constipation
3. Gastritis
4. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
5. Crohn’s Disease
6. Gastro Paresis
7. Bowel Obstruction
8. Diverticulitis
9. Kidney Stone
10. Appendicitis

X. Urinary System (Excretory System)

In both sexes, the urinary or excretory system consists of paired kidneys and ureters and a single
urinary bladder and urethra. The urinary system produces, stores and eliminates urine in order to
maintain the body’s proper content of water and dissolved substances.

The parts of the urinary tract include:

 Kidneys – they filter about 136 to 170 liters of blood to make one to two liters of
urine.
The kidneys, which maintain the purity and constancy of our internal fluids, are
perfect examples of homeostatic organs.
1. Location. These small, dark red organs with a kidney-bean shape lie
against the dorsal body wall in a retroperitoneal position (beneath the
parietal peritoneum) in the superior lumbar region; they extend from
the T12 to the L3 vertebra, thus they receive protection from the lower
part of the rib cage.
2. Positioning. Because it is crowded by the liver, the right kidney is
positioned slightly lower than the left.
3. Size. An adult kidney is about 12 cm (5 inches) long, 6 cm (2.5 inches)
wide, and 3 cm (1 inch) thick, about the size of a large bar of soap.
4. Adrenal gland. Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland, which is part of
the endocrine system is a distinctly separate organ functionally.
5. Fibrous capsule. A transparent fibrous capsule encloses each kidney and
gives a fresh kidney a glistening appearance.
6. Perirenal fat capsule. A fatty mass, the perirenal fat capsule, surrounds
each kidney and acts to cushion it against blows.
7. Renal fascia. The renal fascia, the outermost capsule, anchors the
kidney and helps hold it in place against the muscles of the trunk wall.
8. Renal cortex. The outer region, which is light in color, is the renal
cortex.
9. Renal medulla. Deep to the cortex is a darker, reddish-brown area, the
renal medulla.
10. Renal pyramids. The medulla has many basically triangular regions
with a striped appearance, the renal, or medullary pyramids; the broader
base of each pyramid faces toward the cortex while its tip, the apex,
points toward the inner region of the kidney.
11. Renal columns. The pyramids are separated by extensions of cortex-like
tissue, the renal columns.
12. Renal pelvis. Medial to the hilum is a flat, basin like cavity, the renal
pelvis, which is continuous with the ureter leaving the hilum.
13. Calyces. Extensions of the pelvis, calyces, form cup-shaped areas that
enclose the tips of the pyramid and collect urine, which continuously
drains from the tips of the pyramids into the renal pelvis.
14. Renal artery. The arterial supply of each kidney is the renal artery,
which divides into segmental arteries as it approaches the hilum, and
each segmental artery gives off several branches called interlobar
arteries.
15. Arcuate arteries. At the cortex-medulla junction, interlobar arteries give
off arcuate arteries, which curve over the medullary pyramids.
16. Cortical radiate arteries. Small cortical radiate arteries then branch off
the arcuate arteries and run outward to supply the cortical tissue.
 Ureters – they
carry urine
from the
kidneys to the bladder. The ureters do play an active role in urine transport.
1. Size. The ureters are two slender tubes each 25 to 30 cm (10 to 12
inches) long and 6 mm (1/4 inch) in diameter.
2. Location. Each ureter runs behind the peritoneum from the renal hilum
to the posterior aspect of the bladder, which it enters at a slight angle.
3. Function. Essentially, the ureters are passageways that carry urine from
the kidneys to the bladder through contraction of the smooth muscle
layers in their walls that propel urine into the bladder by peristalsis and is
prevented from flowing back by small valve-like folds of bladder mucosa
that flap over the ureter openings.

 Bladder – it expands as it fills with urine, and the emptying of it is controlled by the
person. During urination, the bladder empties through the urethra. The sphincters
(internal and external) control whether urine stays in the bladder or exits through the
urethra. The urinary bladder is a smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores urine
temporarily.
1. Location. It is located retroperitoneally in the pelvis just posterior to the
symphysis pubis.
2. Function. The detrusor muscles and the transitional epithelium both
make the bladder uniquely suited for its function of urine storage.
3. Trigone. The smooth triangular region of the bladder base outlined by
these three openings is called the trigone, where infections tend to
persist.
4. Detrusor muscles. The bladder wall contains three layers of smooth
muscle, collectively called the detrusor muscle, and its mucosa is a
special type of epithelium, transitional epithelium

 Urethra - The urethra is a thin-walled tube that carries urine by peristalsis from the
bladder to the outside of the body.
 1. Internal urethral sphincter. At the bladder-urethral junction, a
thickening of the smooth muscle forms the internal urethral sphincter,
an involuntary sphincter that keeps the urethra closed when the urine is
not being passed.
2. External urethral sphincter. A second sphincter, the external urethral
sphincter, is fashioned by skeletal muscle as the urethra passes through
the pelvic floor and is voluntarily controlled.
3. Female urethra. The female urethra is about 3 to 4 cm (1 1/2 inches)
long, and its external orifice, or opening, lies anteriorly to the vaginal
opening.
4. Male urethra. In me, the urethra is approximately 20 cm (8 inches) long
and has three named regions: the prostatic, membranous, and spongy
(penile) urethrae; it opens at the tip of the penis after traveling down its
length.

Functions of the Urinary System

The function of the kidneys are as follows:

1. Filter. Every day, the kidneys filter gallons of fluid from the
bloodstream.
2. Waste processing. The kidneys then process this filtrate,
allowing wastes and excess ions to leave the body in urine while
returning needed substances to the blood in just the right proportions.
3. Elimination. Although the lungs and the skin also play roles in
excretion, the kidneys bear the major responsibility for eliminating
nitrogenous wastes, toxins, and drugs from the body.
4. Regulation. The kidneys also regulate the blood’s volume and chemical
makeup so that the proper balance between water and salts and
between acids and bases is maintained.
5. Other regulatory functions. By producing the enzyme renin, they help
regulate blood pressure, and their hormone erythropoietin stimulates red
blood cell production in the bone marrow.
6. Conversion. Kidney cells also convert vitamin D to its active form.
Alteration in Diseases:

1. Kidney Stones Form from Substances in Urine

The kidneys produce urine to eliminate waste. Kidney stones can form
when mineral and acid salts in the urine crystallize and stick together. If
the stone is small, it can pass easily through the urinary system and out
of the body. A larger stone can get stuck in the urinary tract, however. A
stuck kidney stone causes pain and can block the flow of urine.

2. Urinary Incontinence Is the Loss of Bladder Control

Most bladder control issues arise when the sphincter muscles of the
urethra are too weak or too active. If the sphincter muscles are too weak,
a cough or sneeze can cause urination. Sphincter muscles that are too
active can trigger a sudden, strong urge to urinate with little urine in the
bladder. These issues are diagnosed as urinary incontinence (UI).
Women experience UI twice as often as men. It becomes more
common with age.
3. Fluid-filled Cysts Can Develop in the Kidneys
A simple kidney cyst is a rounded pouch or a closed pocket that is
usually filled with fluid. In polycystic kidney disease (PKD), clusters of
cysts form inside the kidneys and take the place of the normal tissue. The
affected kidneys become enlarged and work poorly. PKD is an inherited
condition that often leads to kidney failure, requiring dialysis or kidney
transplantation. Acquired cystic kidney disease (ACKD) typically affects
people already on dialysis from chronic kidney disease. In ACKD the
kidneys do not enlarge and no other symptoms occur.
4. Chronic Kidney Disease can lead to Kidney Failure
In chronic kidney disease (CKD), the kidneys are damaged and unable to
filter blood properly. This damage can lead to a build-up of waste
substances in the body and to other problems, including kidney failure.
The most common causes of CKD include diabetes, heart disease, and
high blood pressure. A diseased kidney may look smaller and have a
granular surface.
 Pre-final Activity

1. List five of the disease conditions of the respiratory system described

in the indications and contraindications section in FUNDAMENTALS.

a._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
b._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
c._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
d._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
e._______________________________________________________
______________________________________

2. Using FUNDAMENTALS, choose one condition from your list and

note any indications or contraindications involved.

Condition:________________________________________________
_____________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Indications or
contraindications:__________________________________________
__________________
3. 1. List five of the disease conditions of the digestive system described
in the indications and contraindications section in FUNDAMENTALS.
a._______________________________________________________
b._______________________________________________________
c._______________________________________________________
d._______________________________________________________
e._______________________________________________________
2. Using FUNDAMENTALS, choose one condition from your list and
note any indications or contraindications involved.
Condition:________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Indications or
contraindications:__________________________________________
__________________
1. List five of the disease conditions of the lymphatic and immune
system described in the indications and contraindications section in
FUNDAMENTALS.

a._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
b._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
c._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
d._______________________________________________________
______________________________________
e._______________________________________________________
___________________________________

2. Using FUNDAMENTALS, choose one condition from your list and

note any indications or contraindications involved.

Condition:_____________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
________________________
Indications or
contraindications:__________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
XI. Immune System

Our immune system, a built-in specific defense system, stalks and eliminates with great
precision, almost any type of pathogen that intrudes into the body. Although certain organs of the
body (notably, lymphatic and cardiovascular organs) are intimately involved with the immune
response, the immune system is a functional system rather than an organ system in an anatomical
sense. Its “structures” are trillions of individual immune cells, which inhabit lymphatic tissues
and circulate in body fluids and a diverse array of molecules. The immune system protects the
body both directly, by cell attack and indirectly by releasing mobilizing chemicals and protective
antibody molecules. The resulting highly specific resistance to disease is called immunity
(immune–free). The human body is able to resist organisms or toxins that tend to damage the
tissues and organs that make up the body.

Main Characters in the Immune System:

 White Blood Cell
White blood cells are also called leukocytes. They circulate in the body in blood
vessels and the lymphatic vessels that parallel the veins and arteries.
White blood cells are on constant patrol and looking for pathogens. When they
find a target, they begin to multiply and send signals out to other cell types to do
the same.
Our white blood cells are stored in different places in the body, which are
referred to as lymphoid organs. These include the following:
 Thymus — a gland between the lungs and just below the neck.
 Spleen — an organ that filters the blood. It sits in the upper left of the
abdomen.
 Bone marrow — found in the center of the bones, it also produces red
blood cells.
 Lymph nodes —small glands positioned throughout the body, linked by
lymphatic vessels.
There are two main types of leukocyte:
1. Phagocytes
These cells surround and absorb pathogens and break them down,
effectively eating them. There are several types, including:
 Neutrophils — these are the most common type of phagocyte and tend
to attack bacteria.
 Monocytes — these are the largest type and have several roles.
  Macrophages — these patrol for pathogens and also remove dead and
dying cells.
 Mast cells — they have many jobs, including helping to heal wounds
and defend against pathogens.
2. Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes help the body to remember previous invaders and
recognize them if they come back to attack again.
Lymphocytes begin their life in bone marrow. Some stay in the marrow
and develop into B lymphocytes (B cells), others head to the thymus and become
T lymphocytes (T cells). These two cell types have different roles:
 B lymphocytes — they produce antibodies and help alert the T
lymphocytes.
 T lymphocytes — they destroy compromised cells in the body and help
alert other leukocytes.

The immune system needs to be able to tell self from non-self. It does
this by detecting proteins that are found on the surface of all cells. It learns to
ignore its own or self-proteins at an early stage.
An antigen is any substance that can spark an immune response.
In many cases, an antigen is a bacterium, fungus, virus, toxin, or foreign
body. But it can also be one of our own cells that is faulty or dead. Initially, a
range of cell types works together to recognize the antigen as an invader.

The role of B lymphocytes

Once B lymphocytes spot the antigen, they begin to secrete antibodies

(antigen is short for “antibody generators”). Antibodies are special proteins that
lock on to specific antigens.
Each B cell makes one specific antibody. For instance, one might make
an antibody against the bacteria that cause pneumonia, and another might
recognize the common cold virus.
 Antibodies are part of a large family of chemicals called
immunoglobulins, which play many roles in the immune response:

 Immunoglobulin G (IgG) — marks microbes so other cells can

recognize and deal with them.
 IgM — is expert at killing bacteria.
 IgA — congregates in fluids, such as tears and saliva, where it protects
gateways into the body.
 IgE — protects against parasites and is also to blame for allergies.
 IgD — stays bound to B lymphocytes, helping them to start the immune
response.

Antibodies lock onto the antigen, but they do not kill it, only mark it for
death. The killing is the job of other cells, such as phagocytes.

The role of T lymphocytes

There are distinct types of T lymphocytes:

Helper T cells (Th cells) — they coordinate the immune response. Some
communicate with other cells, and some stimulate B cells to produce
more antibodies. Others attract more T cells or cell-eating phagocytes.
Killer T cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) — as the name suggests, these
T cells attack other cells. They are particularly useful for fighting
viruses. They work by recognizing small parts of the virus on the outside
of infected cells and destroy the infected cells.
There are three types of immunity in humans called innate, adaptive,
and passive:

Innate immunity
We are all born with some level of immunity to invaders. Human
immune systems, similarly to those of many animals, will attack foreign
invaders from day one. This innate immunity includes the external
 barriers of our body — the first line of defense against pathogens — such
as the skin and mucous membranes of the throat and gut.
This response is more general and non-specific. If the pathogen
manages to dodge the innate immune system, adaptive or acquired
immunity kicks in.

Adaptive (acquired) immunity

This protect from pathogens develops as we go through life. As
we are exposed to diseases or get vaccinated, we build up a library of
antibodies to different pathogens. This is sometimes referred to as
immunological memory because our immune system remembers
previous enemies.
Passive immunity
This type of immunity is “borrowed” from another source, but it
does not last indefinitely. For instance, a baby receives antibodies from
the mother through the placenta before birth and in breast milk following
birth. This passive immunity protects the baby from some infections
during the early years of their life.
Immunizations
Immunization introduces antigens or weakened pathogens to a
person in such a way that the individual does not become sick but still
produces antibodies. Because the body saves copies of the antibodies, it
is protected if the threat should reappear later in life.

XII. Reproductive System

The reproductive systems of the male and female are each geared toward fulfilling
specific roles. The male's is designed to generate sperm cells containing half of the genetic
material necessary for the development of a baby and deliver that material to the female's system.
The female's reproductive system is designed to generate an ovum, or egg, which carries the other
half of the genetic material, to be fertilized by the sperm cells from the male. The female's
reproductive tract is also designed to support the gestating fetus until it is born, approximately
nine months after fertilization. Since some of the male genital organs are shared with some
urinary organs, the combined systems are often called the genito-urinary system.

The male reproductive system consists of:

 Testes – encase in the scrotum, they contain sperm, which are the male sex cells.
They also make male sex hormones, for sexual development
 Glands – they create fluids that mix with sperm.
 Sperm ducts – the sperm travel through these and are mixed with fluids from the
glands, created semen.
 Urethra and the penis – the urethra can either pass out urine or semen of the body,
depending on whether you are urinating or having sexual intercourse.

The female reproductive system consists of:

  Breasts - are sometimes considered part of the reproductive system.  After
childbirth, the hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to produce prolactin, a
hormone that stimulates milk production.
 Ovaries – they contain hundreds of unfertilized eggs (ova). A woman has these
cells from birth (compared to the continual production of sperm in men).
 Fallopian tubes – these connect the ovaries to the uterus. Every month, when an
ovary releases an egg, they are transferred through the fallopian tubes to the
uterus.
 Uterus – also known as the womb, this muscular organ is where fertilized eggs
develop into fetuses’.
 Cervix – this is a ring of muscle on the lower part of the uterus – it serves to hold
the baby in during pregnancy.
  Vagina – this is a muscular tube that goes from the cervix to the outside of the
female body. This is also the entrance for a man's penis during sexual

intercourse. The opening of the vagina has a vulva (two folds of skin, called
labia). The urethra opens into the vulva and is the exit for urine; however, it is a
separate entity to the vagina.

Fertilization
When a man ejaculates into a woman's vagina during sexual intercourse, the sperm cells
travel to the uterus through the cervix; there, if it meets with an egg, fertilizations happens and an
embryo forms from the fertilized egg. This then develops into a fetus and then a baby.

Fetus development
The fetus requires:
 Protection – this is done by the uterus and amniotic fluid.
 Oxygen and nutrients – this is provided by the placenta.
 Waste removal – this is also performed by the placenta.

The placenta grows in the wall of the uterus and is connected to the fetus via an umbilical
cord – it lets substances pass between the blood supplies of the mother and fetus via diffusion but
never lets the blood mix together.
Birth
After nine months, the baby is fully developed and ready to be born and the
cervix relaxes as the uterus wall muscles contract to push the baby out of the body.
Puberty
As a child grows into an adult, they go through puberty (between the ages of ten
and 15) – where their reproductive system develops so that they can produce children of
their own.
Some of the other changes include:
 Growth of underarm hair
 Growth of pubic hair
 Body smells become stronger
 Increased rate of bone and muscle growth
 Emotional development.

In males, the following changes happen:

 The voice breaks
 Testes start producing sperm
 Shoulders get wider
 Testes and penis enlarge
 Hair growth on the face and chest.
In females, the following changes happen:
 Development of breasts
 Ovaries start releasing eggs and periods begin
 Hips get wider.

REPRODUCTIVE DISEASES IN WOMEN:

 Amenorrhea
 Cervical Erosion
 Cervicitis
 Oligomenorrhea
 Puerperal Fever
REPRODUCTIVE DISEASES IN MEN:
 Gynecomastia
 Hydrocele
 Priapism
 Prostate Disorder
XIII. Special Senses (smell, taste, vision, equilibrium and hearing)

Special senses allow us to interact with and to detect changes in our environment.

You should be aware of the following special senses:

 Hearing – initiated by sound waves interacting with sensory receptors in the ear.
 Equilibrium – initiated by motion interacting with sensory receptors in the ear.
 Vision – initiated by light interacting with sensory receptors in the retina of the eye.
 Taste – initiated by chemicals interacting with sensory receptors in the tongue.
 Smell – initiated by chemicals interacting with sensory receptors in the nose.

The Ear
The ear is the sense organ that detects sounds. The vertebrate ear shows a
common biology from fish to humans, with variations in structure according to order and
species. It not only acts as a receiver for sound, but plays a major role in the sense of
balance and body position. The ear is part of the auditory system. Note the following:
 The external, middle and inner sections of the ear contain the organs for
balance and hearing.
 The visible part of the ear is called the auricle – it directs sound waves to
the ear canal.
 The ear canal is lined with hairs and ceremonious glands that create
earwax to protect the eardrum.
 The middle ear contains bones called ossicles – the hammer, the anvil
and the stirrup. They transmit sound vibration to the oval window from
the tympanic membrane (the connection with the inner ear).
 The middle ear contains the Eustachian tube, which connects to the
pharynx and allows equalization of air pressure between external and
internal environments.
 The inner ear contains fluid and interconnecting chambers/tunnels in the
temporal bone. The cochlea is responsible for hearing and the
semicircular canals and vestibule for balance.
The Eyes
The eyes are responsible for sight. They are located within the orbits of the skull,
one on either side of the nose. The eyeball is protected by the bony socket within which it
is located and by the eyebrow ridge. The eyelids protect the frontal surface of the eyeball
and tears prevent friction between the eyelids and surface of the eye.
The eyeball, or globe, is spherical in shape and about 2.5 cm across. It houses
many structures that work together to facilitate sight.

The eye is composed of three layers:

 The sclera – the outermost layer of white, connective tissue – it
contains the cornea (a transparent area of the eye that allows
light to enter the eye.
 The choroid – the second layer, containing blood vessels and
pigment cells.
 The retina – the innermost layer, containing the light sensitive
cells, cones and rods.
Another component of the eye is:
  The iris – the coloured part of the eye that controls how
much light enters.
Light travels to various objects where it undergoes reflection. This reflected light
can then travel towards the eye; where it passes through the cornea, aqueous humour, the
lens and the vitreous humour, before forming an image on the retina. Nerve endings in
the retina transmit electrical impulses along the optic nerve to the brain. The optic nerve
emerges from the back of the eyeball and passes to the optic chiasma, an area at the base
of the brain.
Here, further processing occurs so that the image is given meaning. Even if all of
the structures of the eye work perfectly, what we know as vision cannot happen without
the brain's interpretation of the electrical impulses sent by the retina. The optic nerve is
the bundle of retinal fibres that exits the back of the eye and transports electrical impulses
to the brain where they are interpreted in the primary visual cortex.
The eyelids, eyelashes and eyebrows are all designed to protect the eye from dirt
and dust that might enter it and cause damage. The globe sits inside the orbital cavity, a
bony pocket lined with fatty tissue as a cushion. Together these provide additional
protection against injury. Six muscles attach at various points to the sclera and enable the
globe to move in many directions inside the orbit.

The Mouth and Tongue

 Taste buds are found on the tongue, the palate of the roof of the mouth and part of the
pharynx.
 Taste buds are made up of epithelial cells on the exterior and taste cells in the interior.
 Taste is determined when the chemical is dissolved in saliva and transferred to the taste
cortex in the parietal lobe of the brain via the facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.

The tongue
 - is a muscular organ located on the floor of the mouth. It is an extremely mobile
structure and an important accessory organ in such motor functions as speech, chewing and
swallowing. It has taste receptors (taste buds) or chemoreceptors which are most numerous on the
upper and lateral surfaces of the tongue. The four basic tastes are sweet, sour, salty and bitter. The
tip of the tongue is most sensitive to sweet and salty substances, the edges of the tongue are most
sensitive to sour substances and the back of the tongue is most sensitive to bitter substances.
Substances must be in solution (in saliva) so that they can enter the opening in a taste bud and
stimulate the nerve ending.

The Tongue - principal structures:

Taste
 The area of the tongue with the most intense taste sensations is located towards
the back of the tongue.
 Touch is also detected by nerve endings in the mouth.

Fibres from the 7th, 9th and 10th cranial nerves carry taste impulses, via the brain
stem; to an area of the cerebral cortex where the taste is experienced. Taste is intricately
linked with the sense of smell and the sense of taste depends on stimulation of the
olfactory receptors.
Both senses have a protective function, in detecting substances, which could be
harmful.

The Nose
The nose is a complex structure and some of its functions are necessary for life
while others are useful. The function of the nose in terms of its role in respiration - as part
of the respiratory system is to:
 house the nostrils, or nares, which admit and expel air for respiration in
conjunction with the mouth
 filter air that is breathed in (nose hairs catch airborne bacteria and dust particles
to prevent them from reaching the lungs)
 warm and moisten incoming air
 prevent loss of moisture with outgoing air (reclaiming moisture from the air
before it is exhaled)
  act as a receptor for odors - air drawn in contains odor molecules which flow
past turbinate (structures that divide the nasal passage) which direct it toward the
olfactory epithelium (nerves or receptors) - it contacts the olfactory receptor
neurons which transform the features of the molecule into non-painful electrical
impulses in the brain, ie we are alerted to the fact that we can smell something
 assist speech acoustics (airflow through the nose and nasal passages contributes
to vocal resonance and clarity as anyone who has ever had a blocked nose will
realize)

The nose has olfactory receptors (chemoreceptors) which respond to airborne chemicals and odor
molecules. The receptors generate impulses, which are transmitted to the brain for interpretation.
Olfactory receptors are situated in the mucous membrane lining the upper part of the nose. Smell
receptors are very sensitive and can adapt readily. This adaptation means that an individual can
become accustomed to an odour when constantly exposed to the same stimulus. The sensations of
smell and taste play an important part in stimulating the secretion of digestive juices. The
common cold is the most common medical condition related to the nose, and can lead to
difficulties with breathing and sleep.

Other problems that can affect the nose:

 Deviated septum – shifting of the wall that divides the nasal cavity into halves.
 Nasal polyps – swellings of the nasal lining that occur inside the nasal passages
and sinuses.
 Nosebleeds
 Rhinitis - inflammation of the nose and sinuses sometimes caused by allergies.
 Nasal fractures.

The Throat The pharynx

 - commonly called the throat, is a passageway that extends from the base
of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra. It serves both the
respiratory and digestive systems by receiving air from the nasal cavity
and air, food and water from the oral cavity.

The Voice Box The larynx,

commonly called the voice box or glottis, is the passageway for air between the
pharynx above and the trachea below.

Special Senses (Alteration in Disease):

1. Macular Degeneration
2. Glaucoma
3. Ear Squeeze
 4. Color Blindness
5. Eye Disease
6. Conjunctivitis
7. Deaf-Blindness
8. Keratitis
9. Cataract
10. History of the Deaf
11. Ear Disease
12. Uveitis
13. Sinusitis

Final Activity

Use the key to match each basic tissue type with a description below:
BODY SYSTEM STRUCTURAL COMPONENT FUNCTIONAL COMPONENT
Skeletal System Hair, Skin, Nails Forms the external body covering; protects deeper
tissues from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; site of
Muscular Skeletal muscles cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc) receptors and sweat
System and oil glands.

A functional system that protects the body via the

Cardiovascular Cartilage, Joint, Bones immune response, in which foreign substances are
System attacked by the lymphocytes and/or antibodies.
Brain, Sensory receptor, Spinal
Lymphatic cord, Nerves Protects and supports body organs; provides a
System framework the muscles use to cause movement;
Pineal gland, Pituitary gland, blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals.
Thyroid gland (parathyroid glands
Nervous System on posterior aspect), Thymus Fast acting control system of the body; responds to
internal and external changes by activating
gland, Adrenal gland, Pancreas,
appropriate muscles and glands.
Testis (male), Ovary (female)
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes
Endocrine Heart, Blood vessels such as growth, reproduction and nutrient use
System (metabolism) by body cells.
Thoracic duct, Lymph nodes,
Integumentary Lymphatic vessels Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion
System and facial expression; maintains posture; produces
Red bone marrow, Thymus, heat
 Lymph nodes, Spleen, Blood vessels transport blood which carries oxygen,
Respiratory Lymphocyte carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc; the heart
System pumps blood.
Liver, Oral cavity, Esophagus,
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body;
Digestive Stomach, Small intestine, Large
regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of
System intestine, Rectum, Anus the blood. Keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous
Urinary System Kidney, Ureter, Urinary bladder, exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of
Urethra the lungs.

Immune System Male - Seminal vesicles, Prostate Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns
gland, Penis, Vas deferens, Testis, it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic
Scrotum stream; houses white blood cells involved in
immunity.
Reproductive
System Female - Mammary glands (in
Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter
breasts), Ovary, Uterine tube, the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible
Uterus, Vagina foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Lung, Nasal cavity, Pharynx, Overall function is production of offspring, through

Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus production of sperm (male) and eggs (female).