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Methods in Philosophizing: Types of Fallacy Characteristics Example

This document outlines various concepts and logical fallacies related to philosophizing including: 1) It defines key terms like truth, propositions, knowledge, claims, facts, opinions, conclusions, beliefs, explanations, and arguments. 2) It describes common logical fallacies such as ad hominem, appeal to force, appeal to emotion, begging the question, and cause-and-effect. 3) It also discusses types of bias like correspondence bias, confirmation bias, framing, hindsight bias, conflict of interest, and cultural bias.

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207 views

Methods in Philosophizing: Types of Fallacy Characteristics Example

This document outlines various concepts and logical fallacies related to philosophizing including: 1) It defines key terms like truth, propositions, knowledge, claims, facts, opinions, conclusions, beliefs, explanations, and arguments. 2) It describes common logical fallacies such as ad hominem, appeal to force, appeal to emotion, begging the question, and cause-and-effect. 3) It also discusses types of bias like correspondence bias, confirmation bias, framing, hindsight bias, conflict of interest, and cultural bias.

Uploaded by

younggirldavid
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Methods in Philosophizing

• Truth- Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and
acceptance. “True or False” statements
• Propositions- statements about world or reality and these may not carry truth. They are
usually stated as short statements or sentences.
 Knowledge- is the clear awareness and understanding that we are able to determine the what
is TRUE.
 Claims – are statements or propositions which are not evidently or immediately known to be
true.
 Facts – are statements or propositions which are observed to be real and truthful.
 Opinion- is a belief or judgement , or way of thinking about something: what someone thinks
about a particular thing.
 Conclusion- is a judgement based on certain facts. The facts that form bases of a conclusion
may not be disputed but the conclusions can be contested or disputed.
 Belief- is a statement the expresses convictions that is not easily and clearly explained by facts.
To judge the truthfulness of a belief, one must consider the person’s experiences and views.
 Explanations- are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the
statement is true.
 Arguments- are series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener
that a claim or opinion is truthful.
 However, there could be arguments which are based on faulty reasoning, it’s called Fallacies.
Types of Fallacy Characteristics Example

Ad hominem Attacking the person presenting the “Of course he believes that the
argument instead of the argument government is flawed, he is a rebel and a
itself Communist.”

Appeal to Using the threat of force or an “If this is peace agreement will not be
Force undesirable event to advance and signed by the government, then we will
argument have no recourse but to go to war.”

Appeal to Using emotions as pity or sympathy “All these charges are baseless; this is
Emotion just plain harassment– can’t you see
how this is affecting my family?

Appeal to the The idea is presented as acceptable “Every boy your age already has a
popular because a lot of people accept it. girlfriend, you should go find one!”

Appeal to The idea is acceptable because it has “Marriage should be between a man and
tradition been true for a long time. a woman. It has been for so long in this
country; it should remain today and in
future.”

Begging the Assuming the thing or idea to be “ I have a right to free speech, therefore
question proven is true; also known as “circular you cannot stop me from talking.”
argument”.

Cause-and- Assuming a “ cause-and-effect” “Ever since you bought that sweater,


effect relationship between unrelated events. everything has been going wrong in your
life. You should get rid of it.”

Fallacy of Assuming that what is true of a part is These cases of robbery in this district
Composition true for the whole. have convinced me that the city has
become a den of thieves and criminals

Fallacy of Assuming that what is true for the “ You come from a family of doctors and
division whole is true for its parts”. intellectuals! Surely you can do better in
this course.”

Bias - are not necessarily errors in reasoning, nut refer to tendencies or influences which affect
the views of people

Types Bias Characteristics Example

Correspondence Tendency to judge a person’s “These soldiers who fought in the war
bias or attribution personality by his or her actions, are all bloodthirsty murderers!”
effect without regard for external factors.

Confirmation Bias Tendency to look and readily “ How can I accept his view that there
accept information which fits one’s is no God? I am a Christian!”
own beliefs or views and to reject
ideas or views that go against it.

Framing Focusing on a certain aspect of a “Preliminary evidence has still not


problem while ignoring other pointed out the actual cause of the
aspects. plane crash, but investigators are
focusing on possibility of pilot error.”

Hindsight The tendency to see past events as “Magellan’s assault on Mactan Island
predictable, or to ascribe a pattern was a foolhardy venture, made by an
to historical events. overconfident, careless man who
underestimated the valor of the native
Filipinos.”

Conflict of interest A person or group is connected to “As the daughter of the accused, I have
or has a vested interest in the issue the right to express my opinion on the
being discussed. issue of his alleged corruption.”

Cultural Bias Analyzing an event or issue based “ I do not agree with this Western
on one’s cultural standards Practice of placing aged parents in
retire homes. We Filipinos take care of
our family members.”

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