Index page

AUSTRALIAN HARDWOOD AND CYPRESS 1

G U I D E Expressed Hardwood Structures

Trusses, Cathedral Ceilings, Post and Beam Frames
SCOPE The success of specialist, non-domestic
structures depends on the fusion of design and
This guide provides ideas and design
engineering disciplines. The structural form is
information to assist in the development of
dependant as much on the desired feel of the
expressed native timber structures in buildings.
space as it is on structural requirements.
Basic information on how to determine
Australian timbers offer a wide range of options
structural form, typical connections and timber
and may also be successfully blended with
use are included.
other building materials such as steel, concrete
EXPRESSED INTERNAL STRUCTURES and glass.

The use of hardwoods as expressed internal POPULAR STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

structural elements represents the most
FOR EXPRESSED CONSTRUCTION
‘complete’ application of hardwood in
construction. The three major attributes of Post and Beam Frames
Australian hardwood- high strength to weight, Probably the oldest structural system, yet still
A P P L I C A T I O N

durability and beauty are all ‘expressed’ in the favoured by today’s designers. Traditionally
final result. using large end-section timbers, post and beam
Combined with the natural fire resistance structures have been favoured for building
properties of many hardwoods, these attributes everything from shearing sheds to eight storey
make high value applications, such as city buildings. Many examples over 100 years
structures for public buildings, a natural choice old still stand behind their nineteenth century
for the material. brick facades throughout our major cities.

Post and beam structure

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Although large end-section timbers are still COMMON EXPRESSED ROOF

G U I D E
available to order, today’s precision milled, kiln
dried hardwoods are ideal for multiple member
STRUCTURES
post and beam structures. The use of timber to (Refer to Figure 2)
timber connection systems enables slim, robust • Simple pitched roof – using rafters spanning
and beautiful structures to be constructed between ridge beam, intermediate beams
practically and economically. Where large end and wall.
sections are required, glue laminated hardwood
• Coupled pitched roof – using collar-ties.
offers almost unlimited potential.
• Trusses supporting purlins and rafters.
Figure 1: Typical multiple member post and • Trusses supporting purlin battens.
beam construction

Figure 2: Common expressed roof structures

Roofing
Batten

Ceiling over rafter

A P P L I C A T I O N
Simple pitched roof

Rafter

Roof beam

Multiple member
post

Coupled pitched roof

using collar-ties
Flooring

Multiple
member
beam Joists
Trusses supporting
purlins and rafters

Multiple member
post

Trusses supporting
purlin battens

Concealed
post shoe

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PITCHED ROOF STRUCTURES Figure 3: Ceiling above rafters

G U I D E Often used in conjunction with a post and beam Batten depth commonly
determined by insulation
system for efficient construction. Can work requirements. Alternatively use
counter batten and top batten
equally well with conventional stud framing Batten
support. It should be noted that where the rafters
are not ‘tied’ together via conventional ceiling Insulation
joists, an alternative must be considered to resist Metal deck roofing
the spreading of the rafters under roof loads. To Rafter

prevent this, a collar tie must be included, and

rafter sizes are generally increased to retain
Ceiling lining
rigidity in the structure. If this increase in size is over rafters

undesirable, then an extra tie can be located Blocking Triple grip

or similar
near the base of the rafters, and this can be
made of timber, wire or steel rod. Cladding
Wall lining
Simple Pitched Roof
The most common method of achieving a so-
called ‘cathedral ceiling’ uses rafters simply
spanning between ridge and intermediate beams Ceiling Below Rafters
and external walls. Ceiling linings can be fixed As rafters are concealed within the ceiling
A P P L I C A T I O N

to either the top or bottom face of the rafters. lining and supporting beams, trusses or other
Ceiling Above Rafters primary structural members are expressed. The
depth of the rafters is available for insulation,
Has the advantage of concealing joins in ceiling
and ceiling installation is done after the roof
materials – commonly lining boards, plywood
covering. Concealing of rafter/support
or cement based panel products. If using lining
connection is still required for best appearance.
boards, shorter lengths can be utilised.
Refer to Figure 4.
Progressive cover needs to be maintained to
prevent water damage and staining. Connections for these members are simple,
and utilise nail requirements akin to site-
Fixing of rafters to beams also needs careful
pitched roof construction. Structural detailing
detailing, as common methods such as the use
may make use of the previously mentioned
of nail plate connectors are not appropriate.
post and beam construction. As shown in
The use of long (up to 150mm) type 17 screws
Figure 2, this involves a pitching beam and
and coach screws are common methods of
ridge beam to support the rafters. In addition,
achieving required tie down. AS1684 should
intermediate beams may be necessary to
be utilised to calculate the loads to be resisted.
reduce the span of long rafters.
Assistance can be sought from structural
engineers for specific requirements. Figure 4: Ceiling below rafters
The depth of battens is determined largely by Batten
insulation requirements. A 70 x 45mm on edge Insulation
is common. Alternatively, counter battens over between
rafters
rafters with standard battens over can be used.
Metal deck roofing
Refer to Figure 3. Rafter

Ceiling lining Intermediate

below rafter beam

Eaves lining Triple grip

below rafters or similar

Cladding
Wall lining

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ARCHITECTURAL TRUSSES In trying to maximise the visual impact of

G U I D E
trusses, it is common to space them in the
Architectural trusses are often used as part of a
order of 3 to 6 metres apart, to distinguish
‘cathedral ceiling’ system. Aesthetically, this
them as individual features. To make this
part of the structure creates an eye-catching
possible, purlins are used to span between
appearance, and typical options are shown in
trusses for the purpose of supporting in-fill
Figure 5. Many of these designs, were patented
rafters (i.e. between the trusses). As a result, the
during the 19th century, and still bear the
truss chords (top) take extra bending from the
name of the original designers e.g., Pratt,
purlin loads. This can require larger top chords
Howe etc.
than desired, and if there is a need to reduce
this size, the problem can be solved by
Figure 5: Typical truss designs incorporating more webs into the truss (i.e.
more top chord support), thus allowing a
smaller chord to be used.
Some truss designs involve situations where the
Howe
bottom chord is raised to give a greater feeling
of space – as shown in Figure 6. The main
disadvantage of this type of truss is that larger
and stronger members are required to deal
Pratt
with flexure in the top chord, resulting from

A P P L I C A T I O N
the acquired loads brought about by the raised
bottom chord. As a result, care must be taken
to ensure that the desired appearance and
King post budget can still be is attained. If appropriate, a
more attenuated option is the scissor truss – as
shown in Figure 7. It uses the inner members
to create ties that are always in tension - even
Palladian
under wind reversal loads – these create a
notional ceiling line and may be made from
timber, cable or steel rod.

Figure 6: Truss with raised bottom chords

Fan

Fink

Trusses get their strength via triangulation,

which bands elements together to act in
structurally advantageous ways. For instance,
each member can be assigned to work in a Figure 7: Scissors truss configuration
network of tension and compression members,
and by doing this, greater structural efficiency
is possible. For the types of trusses described
above, compression members often dictate the
size of the elements, and for this reason,
designs that have short compression members,
or restraint against lateral buckling, are
generally more efficient than trusses with long
compression members.

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CONNECTIONS Steel Plates used with Nails or Screws

G U I D E Connections greatly influence appearance,
Truss members are commonly joined with
metal plates that incorporate nails or screws.
economy and ease of construction. A key issue
Nails are the most economical option, and are
is the number of members intersecting at a
commonly used in mass production situations.
connection (i.e. truss nodes). For instance,
Here, ‘nail plates’ are pressed into place, and
there are various configurations that can
the many small nails serve to distribute the
broadly be grouped into: single web and single load over a broad area. As a result, there is
chord connections; double web and single better transfer of stresses, reduced impact from
chord connections; single web and double imperfections such as knots, and less concern
chord connections; and more complex about using low strength timbers. In contrast,
connections. A number of these options are bolts concentrate the load, and are therefore
shown in Figure 8. structurally less efficient.

Figure 8. Alternative truss connection systems In some cases where aesthetics dictate, greater
effort may be made to conceal the plate
connectors. Here, the plates may be cut into
insertion slots in the webs and chords - as
shown in Figure 9. This also provides an
efficient structural design. During fabrication, it
is also useful to take advantage of machine
A P P L I C A T I O N

driven nails which can penetrate steel plates

up to 2mm in thickness . For thicker plates,
screws may be necessary, and can be
An eccentric joint where care needs to be exercised in the
efficiently applied using self-drilling screws.
design (refer Ozeiton and Baird)
Screws are typically Type 17 wood screws –
often termed ‘batten screws’ – and come in a
number of head types to facilitate driving. The
ability to drive these screws is somewhat
dependent on the depth and density of the
substrate timber. For instance, there are
limitations with the use of self-drilling screws
in hardwood, and in such instances, pre-
drilling is required.

A five member joint where the central web load travels via the
connecter and the chord members to reach the outer (inclined)
webs. This means that the load is applied close to 90º to the
grain Figure 9: Interleaved plate connection

A seven member arrangement as could be employed in a

Palladian or fan truss

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Bolts with Steel Side Plates Timber to timber connections

G U I D E
Under this scenario, thick steel side plates or
gussets are used in conjunction with bolts to
transfer the load. Here, gussets may become
long and obtrusive due to the need to space
bolts far enough apart to spread the load.
Plates can also be expensive to fabricate as the
plate must mimic the complex shapes of the
member intersections. If appropriate, a way
around this issue is to use hidden plates – as
discussed previously.

Bolts and Timber Connections

In traditional trusses, connections are often
made using bolts which hold multiple chord
and web components together like a pin joint
(Refer to Figure 8). Though common in older
structures, these types of connections have
difficulty in developing sufficient rigidity, and
also cause eccentric loading. It is hard to

A P P L I C A T I O N
prevent this, but the usual method of managing
Spliced Members
the problem is to make a more compact joint
by using a large number of small diameter On some occasions, splices are necessary in
bolts. As a result, this method tends to be more long chord members. In such instances, splice
expensive than the steel plate options locations should be chosen to coincide with
discussed previously. areas of low loading. Such positions are best
determined by a structural engineer, but as a
Timber to Timber Connections guide, if the chord is in compression the splice
A wide range of options prevail for multiple should be at the node where lateral restraint
member timber trusses. Timber to timber is can be provided. An economical method of
very efficient and economically fabricated on- splicing tension members is to use Type 17
site using screw fixings. The following photos screws in conjunction with a metal plate – as
reflect some examples of this form of shown in Figure 10. Note the use of a
construction. staggered screw pattern to reduce the chance
of splitting.
Timber to timber connections with concealed
steel plates Figure 10: Staggered screw pattern in
connector plate

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WHICH TIMBER TO USE virtue of metal plates connecting pieces

G U I D E Both seasoned and unseasoned hardwood can
together. These are generally available in all
species of hardwoods, but care should be
be used for truss fabrication. Even so, size
taken to ensure the nail plates are suitable
availability may limit the use of large solid
for the intended appearance requirements.
sections, and create the need to use multiple
In addition, nail plated hardwoods are not
smaller sections, instead.
recommended for use where directly
Table 1 (seasoned hardwood) and Table 2 exposed to external environments.
(unseasoned hardwood) give an idea of cross
• Glue laminated hardwood (Glulam) utilises
sectional sizes, lengths and stress grades
small strips of timber which are glued
available. In reading these tables it is notable
together. A key benefit of this product is the
that seasoned timbers tend to offer higher
capacity to create curved elements and to
grades; but unseasoned timbers tend to offer
remove many natural imperfections in the
slightly longer lengths.
timber. It is generally available in Tasmanian
In addition to solid timber members, Oak, Spotted Gum, mixed hardwoods and
engineered timber products can also be used Cypress. There is also a limited supply of
for truss fabrication. These include nail plated Brushbox and hybrid beams utilising
hardwood and glue laminated hardwood. hardwood flanges and softwood webs.
• Nail plated hardwood utilises kiln dried Check with suppliers for sizes and strength
solid timber that is combined together to specifications as these vary for each
A P P L I C A T I O N

form longer and/or deeper members by manufacturer.

Table 1: Timber availability – Seasoned hardwood

mm 70 90 120 140 170 190 240
35 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
45 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Notes:
1. ✓ – Indicates commonly available sizes.
2. 70 and 90mm thickness are generally made up by vertically nail laminating.
3. Lengths can be ordered in 300mm increments up to 6 metres in length; longer lengths may be available upon
enquiry with suppliers.
4. Stress grade timbers are generally available in F17 and F27.
5. Seasoned hardwood is gauged to size, and often provides a good quality finish approaching a ‘dressed finish’ –
check with suppliers for details.

Table 2: Timber availability – Unseasoned hardwood

mm Nom. 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
38 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗
50 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗
75 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗
100 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Notes:
1. ✓ – Indicates commonly available sizes.
2. ✗ – Indicates additional sizes, usually available on order only.
3. Stress grades are generally available in F11, F14 and F18. There are also limited instances of F8 and F22.
4. Lengths can be ordered in 300mm increments up to 6 metres. Lengths up to 6.9m are frequently available. Over
6.9m should be checked with suppliers.

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RELATED DOCUMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

G U I D E
(From this Series of Timber Development • AS1720 Timber Structures – Design
Association Publications) Methods, Standards Australia, Homebush,
• Fire Requirements for Non-Domestic Fit-Out 1997.
(including information on BCA requirements • Timber Manual, National Association of
for fire and other issues). Forest Industries Ltd., Canberra.
• Technical & Detailing Guide for Hardwoods
and Cypress (including information on
moisture management, durability,
appearance and structural issues). Expressed hardwood truss ceiling

A P P L I C A T I O N
Expressed hardwood post and beam structure

For additional assistance please contact the

Timber Advisory Service

1800 044 529

T DA
Timber Development
or visit the following websites: Association (NSW) Ltd
www.timber.net.au
www.australianhardwood.net

Sponsored by the NSW Native Timber Industry Marketing and Development Fund

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