Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92

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Measurement
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/measurement

Surface integrity and residual stress analysis of pulsed water jet peened
stainless steel surfaces
Madhulika Srivastava a,⇑, Sergej Hloch b,c, Nenad Gubeljak d, Marijana Milkovic d,
Somnath Chattopadhyaya a, Jiri Klich c
a
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India
b
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies, Technical University of Kosice, with the seat in Prešov, Bayerova 1, 080 01 Prešov, Slovakia
c
Institute of Geonics of the Czech Academy of Sciences Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
d
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ul. 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Enhancement of the life of the engineering components is essential from the perspective of its perfor-
Received 28 March 2019 mance, therefore, it is necessary to eliminate the negative effects that attenuates the life of these compo-
Received in revised form 19 April 2019 nents. Numerous surface treatment methods are used at present out of which water jet peening process
Accepted 28 April 2019
have been stated to overcome the shortcoming reported in other surface treatment methods like surface
Available online 8 May 2019
defects caused by the embedment of particles during shot peening, thermal effects caused by laser shock
peening. It has been reported in studies that the technological modification of water jet technology, ultra-
Keywords:
sonically generated pulsed water jet (PWJ) can be used for the peening application but still the detailed
Pulsating water jet
Residual stress
study of parametric variations for the peening process is not clearly explained. The present work aims at
Micro-hardness reporting the effect of variation of parameters: jet pressure (40 MPa to 100 MPa), traverse speed of the
Peening nozzle (5 mm/s to 25 mm/s) and standoff distance (15 mm to 31 mm) during the ultrasonically generated
Surface roughness PWJ peening process. The peened surface was quantified in terms of surface residual stress measure-
ments, micro hardness and surface roughness measurements. The results indicate that the variations
in the parameters shows significant changes in the surface residual stress enhancement and strengthen-
ing process. The lower pressure (40 MPa), lower traverse speed (5 mm/s) and higher standoff distance
(31 mm) showed the maximum improvement in the surface residual stress (up to 540 MPa) and
micro-hardness (up to 570 HV). The impact of the repeated pulses causes plastic deformation on the sur-
face and sub-surface layers which results into the change in the microstructures of the affected area. The
microstructural examination through field emission scanning electron microscopy showed variations in
these deformations under different parametric conditions. This study can give better understanding for
the proper selection of the peening parameters for practical applications using ultrasonically generated
pulsed water jet technology.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction in form of tensile stresses acts on the surface of the components

which potentially reduces its life and causes pre-mature failure.
Residual stresses are associated with the components undergo- To compensate these negative effects, surface treatment methods
ing thermal, mechanical and metallurgical phase transformation are employed which introduces compressive residual stresses into
during its manufacturing like casting, welding and rolling. These materials and enhance its fatigue life [2]. Among the different
are the self-balanced internal stresses acting in a body free from methods used till date, water jet peening (WJP) has proved to over-
any external forces or constraints [1]. A negative effect of these come the shortcomings reported in the other treatment methods
[3,4]. Water jet is currently one of the most advanced unconven-
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian tional manufacturing technology owing to its increased diversity
Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, as a competitive tool [5]. This ability is due to the absence of heat
India. affected zone, reduced dust and hazardous gases and flexible mate-
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Srivastava), hloch. rial integration, thereby making it an environmental friendly tech-
[email protected] (S. Hloch), [email protected] (N. Gubeljak), marijana.
[email protected] (M. Milkovic), [email protected] (S. Chattopadhyaya), jiri.
nology [6].
[email protected] (J. Klich).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2019.04.082
0263-2241/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
82 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92

Nomenclature

Symbols lc acoustic chamber length [mm]

m possion ratio p jet supply pressure [MPa]
As amplitude of sonotrode [mm] P hydraulic power [W]
b thickness [mm] Qm flow rate [kg/s]
d diameter of the nozzle [mm] Ra surface roughness [mm]
E elastic constant [GPa] v traverse speed of the nozzle [mm/s]
f frequency [kHz] vw velocity [m/s]
F reactive force [N] z standoff distance [mm]

Studies reported the enhancement of the surface properties of scopy and interferometric profile was used. The results showed
the materials using continual WJP method. Muruganandhan et al. that at exposure time of 0.5 h the microstructural features were
[3] determined the optimum peening parameters for the alu- observed without material loss while for exposure time of 1–5 h
minium 6061-T6 alloy using multi response technique. The study erosion occurs with loss in material. The cavitation damage stages
includes the treatment of the aluminium surface with the variation were demonstrated to use this technology as micro-nano fabrica-
of pressure (150 MPa), standoff distance (60 mm–100 mm), tra- tion method for the controlled modifications on biomaterial sur-
verse speed (1500 mm/min to 2000 mm/min) and number of faces. Balamurugan et al. [11] attempted to improve the tool life
passes (1 and 2). The improvement in the micro-hardness values of high speed steel. The abrasive water jet turning cavitation peen-
from 111 HV to 200 HV was recorded. The surface roughness value ing process was used on the root of the form tool for introducing
of minimum 1.28 mm was reported in a single pass but the opti- compressive residual stress. The confirmation of beneficial residual
mized conditions were obtained during double pass. This was stress was provided by x-ray diffraction technique. The study
due to the significant effect of the peened surface hardness over showed that at standoff distance 10 mm and nozzle angle of 45°
the surface roughness. Arola et al. [7] observed the effect of abra- compressive stress were introduced with less modifications in
sive WJP parameters on the surface of AISI 304 and Ti6Al4V alloy the surface profile. Ju and Han [12] explored the influence of water
in relation to residual stress, surface texture and fatigue strength. cavitation peening treatment through the microstructural exami-
The average surface roughness obtained from abrasive WJP ranged nation of pure titanium. The near surface of pure titanium was
between 5.08 mm and 13.64 mm. The magnitude of roughness was examined in terms of peening time which was characterized using
dependent on the jet pressure and particle size. The residual stress X-ray diffraction technique, optical microscopy, scanning electron
on AISI 304 surface ranging between 165 MPa and 463 MPa, was microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The results
dependent on the jet pressure and abrasive particle size. Enhaance- revealed that the twining phenomenon occurring during the plas-
ment in fatigue strength was obtained in both the materials. The tic deformation phenomenon is responsible for strengthening the
WJP phenomenon was also examined on the surface of carbon steel near surface layers.
1045 in terms of variation in jet passes and pressure over the sur- For better adaptation to the environmental needs and econom-
face characteristics [8]. As the number of jet passes increases from ical advantages, considerable improvement in the performance is
2 to 6 with pressure (from 100 MPa to 300 MPa) higher roughness required in terms of exploiting the effects of water jet impinge-
value up to 12 mm was observed. The initial and evolved damage ment on the surface properties modifications. Pulsating water jet
stages showed the presence of various fracture modes through (PWJ) technology has manifested its capability in achieving the
microstructural examination. The damage majorly existed along above objective [13]. Ultrasonic PWJ peening process is one such
the grain boundaries. With the increase in the jet pass (from 2 to method which uses acoustically generated pressure pulsations
6) and jet pressure (from 100 MPa to 300 MPa), the hardness of for strengthening the surface properties and enhancing the life of
the specimen was enhanced from 145 HV to 245 HV. Azhari the materials [14] at pressures below 100 MPa. The PWJ technol-
et al. [9] also studied the influence of WJP parameters on the sur- ogy used in this study was first introduced by Foldyna [15] where
face of aluminium alloy 5005. Surface methodology using experip- the electromechanical transducer is utilized to generate the pres-
mental design was used to develop the empirical model for sure pulsations. This system is integrated with acoustic generator
predicting the surface roughness and hardness values. The results which consists of cylindrical waveguide inside the acoustic cham-
revealed the increament in hardness value from 53.58 HV0.01 ber. Initially the electrical signal is converted into the mechanical
(untreated) to 58–60 HV0.01. The initial surface roughness of vibrations using electromechanical transducer which is transmit-
0.49 mm (untreated) was increased up to 16.42 mm after treatment ted to the liquid medium through the cylindrical waveguide. The
process with the increament in the number of passes from 1 to 3, pressure pulsations generated inside is amplified using a cone
pressure from 50 MPa to 150 MPa and standoff distance from shaped mechanical amplifier. The amplified pulsations are trans-
20 mm to 60 mm. The maximum hardness depth was recorded mitted to the liquid waveguide till the nozzle exit [15]. The repet-
approximately between 80 and 120 mm. itive impact of these pulses on the target surface generates impact
To reduce the energy consumption and to enhance the surface pressure which is multiple times the stagnation pressure initiated
quality of the treated surface the continuous WJP has been modi- by the effect of the continuous water jet (CWJ) [15]. These pulsa-
fied into different forms: cavitation peening, ultrasonic pulsating tions induces fatigue stress in the material as a result of the cyclic
water jet peening. Recently, works have been reported to utilize loading which exceeds the ultimate strength of the material and
cavitation phenomenon in the continuous water jet peening pro- hence causes deformations (elastic-plastic) on the surface [15].
cess to accomplish the above objectives. Hutli et al. [10] used sub- The plastic deformation caused on the impacting surface is respon-
merged water cavitation phenomenon to control the surface sible for enhancing the surface properties in terms of residual
morphology and roughness of metallic biomaterials (austenitic stress, hardness and surface roughness. Major part of the work
stainless steel 316). For characterizing the surface morphology reported (Table 1) is concerned with exploring the erosion phe-
optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic micro- nomenon during the PWJ impact, less efforts were made for
 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92 83

exploring the surface treatment application. Though the works surface was subjected to peening phenomenon under different
reported were related to peening phenomenon but its major focus parametric conditions and the strengthening effect was observed
was to study the effect of nozzle geometry during the treatment of in terms of surface residual stress measurements, surface and
AISI 304 [16] and also on finding the effect of treatment of PWJ as sub-surface micro-hardness measurements and surface rough-
post weld treatment process on welded AISI 304 joints [14]. But ness measurements. Also, the surface topography of the peened
the detailed study of influence of the parametric variations on region were observed by the microstructural analysis using scan-
the residual stress and surface strengthening characteristics is still ning electron microscopy. The study demonstrated that signifi-
not appropriately addressed. cant changes in the surface integrity parameters can be
In this work the effect of variation of pressure of the jet, noz- attained by varying the parameters: jet pressure, standoff dis-
zle traverse speed and standoff distance on the surface integrity tance and traverse speed, which enhances the performance of
parameters has been investigated. The stainless steel (AISI 304) the component.

Table 1
Related works on PWJ using the method of acoustic generator for pulse generation.

Reference Material Parameters Application

[13] Aluminium Pressure: 20, 30, 40 MPa Surface treatment and preparation
Frequency: 20 kHz
Nozzle type: Flat (15°)
Diameter of nozzle: 2.05 mm
Shift in the acoustic chamber: 3,5,7 mm
Standoff distance: 20–90 mm
Traverse speed of nozzle: 0.1 mm/s
[14] AISI 304 Welded Pressure: 20, 40, 60 MPa Peening application
joints Frequency: 20 kHz
Nozzle type: Circular
Diameter of nozzle: 1.9 mm
Standoff distance: 45, 70, 100 mm
Traverse speed: 0.25, 1.0, 2.0 mm/s (z = 45 mm) , 3.0, 4.0 mm/s
(z = 70 mm), 5.0, 6.0 mm/s (z = 100 mm)
[16] AISI 304 Pressure: 20 MPa Peening application
Frequency: 20 kHz
Nozzle type: Circular, Flat
Diameter of nozzle: 1.9 mm (Circular), 1.19 (10°) (Flat)
Standoff distance: 30 mm (circular), 45 mm (flat)
Traverse speed: 0.25, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 mm/s
[17] Palacos R + GÒ Pressure: 8–16 MPa Re-implantation of cemented endoprosthesis, for bone cement
bone cement Frequency: 21.90 kHz removal from femoral canal
Nozzle type: Flat, Circular
nozzle diameter of: 0.8 mm (10°)(Flat), 0.7 mm (Circular)
Shift in the acoustic chamber: 7 mm
Standoff distance: 4 mm
Traverse speed of nozzle: 1 mm/s
[18] Brass Pressure: 40 MPa Metal erosion in the automotive and engineering industries
Bronze Frequency: 20.38 kHz
Nozzle type: Flat
nozzle diameter of: 2 mm
Distance between nozzle exit and workpiece: 55 mm
Traverse speed of nozzle: 2.4 mm/s
[19] CW004A Pressure: 38 MPa PWJ disintegration efficiency for metallic materials.
CW614N Frequency: 20.29 kHz
Nozzle type: Circular
Diameter of nozzle: 1.6 mm
Standoff distance: 48 mm
Traverse speed: 0.75 mm/s
[20] Aluminium alloy Pressure: 20 MPa For coating layer with good adhesion or for overlay material on
EN AW 5083 Frequency: 20.09 kHz substrate surface.
H111 Nozzle type: Flat
Diameter of nozzle: 2 mm
Shift in the acoustic chamber: 7 mm
Standoff distance: 55 mm
Traverse speed: 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 mm/s
[21] CNT/Concrete Pressure: 20, 40 MPa Erosion effects on concrete and CNTs/concrete composite using
Composite Frequency: 20 kHz continuous and pulsating water jets.
Nozzle type: Circular
Diameter: 1.9 mm
Shift in the acoustic chamber: 7 mm
Standoff distance: 25, 35 mm
Traverse speed: 10–80 (for z = 25 mm), 50–160 (for z = 35 mm)
[22] Aluminium Pressure: 100 MPa Erosion phenomenon on aluminium surface with the variation
Frequency: 20.18 kHz in standoff distance
Nozzle type: Circular
Diameter of nozzle: 0.9 mm
Standoff distance: 25–125 mm
Traverse speed: 10 mm/s
Chamber length = 6 mm
84 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92

2. Materials and methods ted regions to avoid the overlapping between the different peening
conditions. The austenitic stainless steel sample was treated using
The austenitic stainless steel of grade SS 304 having chemical PWJ with jet positioning a t right angle to the treated surface
composition and mechanical properties (as specified by the manu- (Fig. 1). Fig. 3 shows the samples after the treatment process. As
facturer) mentioned in Tables 2 and 3 [23] was selected as the the samples were disintegrated at pressure p = 20 MPa so the mea-
specimen. The stainless steel has wide application in mechanical, surements were performed for the samples treated between pres-
chemical, automotive and nuclear industries due to its attractive sure range p = 40 MPa to 100 MPa. The topography of the
properties (corrosion resistance, drawability, formability and high disintegrated sample at 20 MPa is discussed in the microstructural
ductility) [16]. analysis using FESEM.
The treatment process was performed on PWJ machine consist-
ing of a HAMMELMANN HDP 253 plunger pump with working 2.1. Surface residual stress measurement
pressure of 250 MPa (maximum) and flow rate of 40 l/min. For
controlling the motion of the PWJ head an ABB robot IRB 6640- The surface residual stress were measured by X-ray diffraction
180/2.55 was used and an ultrasonic generator ECOSON WJ-UG- technique using sin2w method. The m-X360 machine was used for
630-40 with frequency of 20 kHz was used for pulse generation. the measurement in the present study. The measurement was
Fig. 1 shows the experimental setup and Fig. 2 shows the experi- made at five different points on each treated surface with consec-
mental scheme adopted in this study. utive distance of 4 mm between the points. The mean and standard
The samples of size 1000 mm* 100 mm* 5 mm was subjected to deviation of these points under each conditions was plotted.
the ultrasonic water jet treatment using the conditions stated in A X-ray beam with chromium (k alpha) cathode tube of diame-
Table 4 (Fig. 1). The range of the parameters was selected on the ter 1 mm, wavelength 2.290 Å, voltage 30 kV and amperage
basis of the previous experiments. The diameter of the nozzle for 1.00 mA was used for the measurements. The stress was calculated
the peening application was selected on the basis of the study using [3 1 1] FCC diffraction phase. The Young’s modulus and Pois-
directed on water droplet erosion where the wide range of incuba- son’s ratio of the samples was E = 193 GPa and m = 0.3 respectively.
tion region was observed for nozzle diameters <1.6 mm [24]. The At each point the tilt angles of ±30° at the three phi angles of 0°,
consecutive distance of 10 mm was maintained between the trea- 45°, and 90°, with a Bragg angle of 148.51° was used for scanning.

Table 2
Material composition [23].

Elements C Mn Si S Cr Ni P
Percentage 0.08 2 1 0.03 18–20 8–10.5 0.04

Table 3
Mechanical properties [23].

Properties Hardness(Brinell) l E [GPa] Tensile strength, yield [MPa] Tensile strength, ultimate [MPa] Elongation
Value 88 0.3 193 210 500 45%

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92 85

2.2. Surface roughness measurement plots of the maximum principal stress as the function of the jet
pressure and standoff distance at traverse speed v = 5 mm/s,
A contact type of surface roughness tester, Mitutoyo 178-923E 15 mm/s and 25 mm/s is shown in Fig. 4(a), (b) and (c). The max-
SJ210 series was used for the measurement. Initially, the calibra- imum principal stress recorded on the surface of the initial sample
tion of surface roughness tester was done using the reference sam- was 69 MPa (tensile). It is evident from the Fig. 4(a) that the initial
ple with surface roughness Ra = 2.97 mm. After the calibration, the tensile residual stress was converted to maximum value of approx-
surface roughness of the samples (after and before the treatment) imately 540 MPa (compressive) at a pressure of p = 40 MPa and
was measured five times on the surface subjected to the treatment z = 31 mm when treated at v = 5 mm/s. As the pressure was
process and the mean and error bar for the roughness values was increased from p = 40 MPa to p = 100 MPa, the compressive resid-
plotted on the graph. ual stress values was decreased from 540 MPa to 287 MPa (at
z = 31 mm for v = 5 mm/s). This decrement in the residual stress
2.3. Surface and sub surface micro-hardness values with the increase in the pressure (from 40 MPa to
100 MPa) was the result of the changing jet structure with the
The measurement of the surface and sub-surface hardness was change in pressure at standoff distances ranging between 15 mm
carried across the cross-section using Vickers hardness tester at a and 31 mm. At p = 40 MPa the flow rate is sufficient to create
load of 10 gf for indentation time of 10 s. Before the measurements velocity fluctuation (after exiting the nozzle) which is responsible
the samples were polished on Bainplo Metco semi-automatic for the generation of successive clusters of water. These clusters of
grinding. The micro-hardness was measured at a depth of 20 mm water creates repeated hammer effect [25] resulting into strength-
from the surface up to the depth of 1000 mm. To analyze the influ- ening of surface and sub-surface regions due to the deformations
ence of the PWJ treatment, the micro-hardness of the untreated on the surface. These deformations induce compressive residual
surface was also measured along the depth in similar manner as stresses and is present in the form of crystalline defects (such as
for the treated samples. The graph was plotted by taking average vacancies, dislocations, slip bands, and twinning) [14,12]. At pres-
of five measurement at each depth with the standard deviation sure p = 100 MPa, the motion of the cylindrical waveguide is
bars of these measurements. resisted inside the acoustic chamber thereby, the formation of dis-
crete clusters does not take place. This results into the reduced
2.4. Microstructural morphology of the treated surface hammer effect in comparison to pressure, p = 40 MPa, where the
jet gets enough space to form distinct clusters between standoff
The microstructural morphology of the treated region was distance, z = 15 mm 31 mm.
examined using field emission scanning electron microscopy A similar effect was observed at all standoff distance, where the
(FESEM). The FESEM Supra 55 has been used in the present study. maximum principal residual stress (540 MPa at v = 5 mm/s and
p = 40 MPa) obtained was at z = 31 mm. Initially, when the standoff
3. Results and discussion distance was z = 15 mm the clusters of the jet with low velocity
amplitude (travelling wave) strikes the surface. On increasing the
3.1. Surface residual stress measurements standoff distance (from z = 15 mm to 31 mm) formation of pulses
of water with increased velocity amplitude started taking place.
The residual stress measurement was carried out at five This is responsible for creating impact pressure on the striking
equidistance points on the treated surface. The mean and error surface and thereby, strengthening it. With the increase in the

Fig. 2. Experimental scheme.

Table 4
Experimental conditions.

f [kHz] p [MPa] d [mm] z [mm] v [mm/s] Material lc [mm] P [W] F [N] vw [m/s] Qm [kg/s] As [mm]
20 100 1.19 15, 23, 31 5, 15, 25 Stainless steel AISI 304 22 200 180.14 402.89 0.447 3
80 210 144.12 360.36 0.399
60 225 108.08 312.08 0.346
40 224 70.05 254.81 0.283
86 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92

Fig. 3. Samples after the PWJ treatment.

Fig. 4. Effect of variation of standoff distance on residual stress measurement at traverse speed (a) v = 5 mm/s (b) v = 15 mm/s (c) v = 25 mm/s.
 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92 87

traverse speed of the nozzle from v = 5 mm/s to v = 25 mm/s, the the surface. When the high speed water pulses (clusters) impinge
improvement in the residual stress decreases from 540 MPa to the target surface, at the point of impact the localized water ham-
506 MPa respectively (at p = 40 MPa). At lower traverse speed mer pressure acts. This allows the transmission of longitudinal and
(v = 5 mm/s) the jet get more exposure time to interact with the traverse waves into the impacted surface. The impingement causes
surface of the sample which results into more elastic plastic defor- the expansion of compressive longitudinal waves which interact
mations. The basic strengthening mechanism responsible for with the microstructural discontinuities [27] and changes the
inducing compressive residual stress is the localized elastic plastic roughness of the target surface.
deformation. This delays the fatigue crack initiation and propaga- With the increase in the standoff distance from z = 15 mm to
tion and strengthens the near surface region [26]. 31 mm, the amplitude of the discrete pulses of the jet increases
which is responsible for increasing the roughness from
3.2. Surface roughness measurements Ra = 4.34 mm to 5.34 mm (at p = 40 MPa). The increased amplitude
of the discrete pulses causes hydraulic impact resulting into defor-
The variation of pressure and standoff distance on the rough- mations in form of surface asperities. It must also be noted that the
ness of the peened surface at different traverse speed is shown in surface roughness variation was similar at each traverse speed. The
Fig. 5(a), (b), (c). The initial surface roughness of the initial sample maximum average surface roughness (Ra) recorded at the traverse
measured was approximately 2.19 mm. After the pulsating water speed of v = 5 mm/s, v = 15 mm/s and v = 25 mm/s was 5.34 mm,
jet treatment, the maximum average surface roughness (Ra) 3.55 mm and 3.2 mm, respectively. With the increase in the traverse
recorded was 5.34 mm at pressure of p = 40 MPa, standoff distance speed (from v = 5 mm/s to 25 mm/s) the roughness values
z = 31 mm and at a traverse speed of v = 5 mm/s. It was observed decreases (Ra = 5.34 mm to 3.2 mm) due to the interaction time of
that as the pressure changes from 40 MPa to 100 MPa the surface the pulsed jet with the surface of the material. The exposure time
roughness decreases from 5.34 mm to 2.83 mm (at v = 5 mm/s). This of the jet with the surface decreases as the traverse speed of the
nature of the surface under changing parametric conditions was nozzle increases from v = 5 mm/s to v = 25 mm/s.
observed due to the characteristics of the jet formed at different
pressure levels. At low pressure of p = 40 MPa the jet flow rate 3.3. Surface and sub-surface micro-hardness measurements
results into discrete formation of the clusters of water as compare
of high pressure, p = 100 MPa up to standoff distance z = 31 mm. Figs. 6–8 shows the variation of hardness along the sub-surface
The formation of these discrete pulses of water with increased of the treated region (depth) at pressure levels of p = 40 MPa,
amplitude at p = 40 MPa causes the repeated hammer effect on p = 60 MPa and p = 80 MPa at each traverse speed (v = 5 mm/s,

Fig. 5. Surface roughness at traverse speed (a) v = 5 mm/s (b) v = 15 mm/s (c) v = 25 mm/s.
88 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92

Fig. 6. Sub-surface hardness measurements of the samples treated at traverse speed, v = 5 mm/s (a) p = 40 MPa (b) p = 60 MPa (c) p = 80 MPa.

v = 15 mm/s and v = 25 mm/s). It is evident from the results that pare to higher pressure (p = 100 MPa) which causes hammer effect
the hardness values shows significant changes up to a depth of and strengthening of the surface layers. With the increase in the
200 mm 300 mm under each condition. After significant improve- traverse speed of the nozzle from v = 5 mm/s to 25 mm/s the max-
ment in the hardness up to certain depth (200 mm 300 mm) the imum hardness decreases from 572 HV to 542 HV (at z = 31 mm,
hardness values tends towards the hardness of the initial base p = 40 MPa). This change in the hardness values is the result of
material. The average maximum hardness of the untreated sample the exposure time available for the interaction of the jet with the
(347 HV) was increased maximum up to 572 HV, 516 HV and 492 target surface.
HV (at z = 31 mm, p = 40 MPa) on treating the samples at traverse
speed of v = 5 mm/s, v = 15 mm/s and v = 25 mm/s, respectively. 3.4. Microstructural topography
It is evident from the results that on increasing the standoff dis-
tance from z = 15 mm to z = 31 mm, the maximum hardness Surface erosion is necessary phenomenon to analysis the sur-
increases from 492 HV to 572 HV (at p = 40 MPa and v = 5 mm/s). face treatment application as it affects the service life of the com-
This trend is attributed to the characteristic of the jet formed at ponent [16]. The stress concentration in the micro-craters can act
the standoff distance of z = 31 mm. With the increase in standoff as source of crack propagation which ultimately affects the compo-
distance (z = 15 mm to 31 mm) the amplitude of the pulse of the nents life. So, it is important to examine the topographies of the
jet enhances which on repeated impact (hammer effect) causes treated regions. Here, the samples treated at the pressure of
elastic plastic deformations on the surface and sub-surface layers. p = 40 MPa with changing traverse speed of the nozzle (from
This plastically deformed material causes the movement of the dis- v = 5 mm/s to v = 25 mm/s; at z = 31 mm) has been analyzed.
locations resulting into the work hardening of the surface layers. The Fig. 9 (a1,b1,c1) shows the surface morphology of the sam-
Thus, the peened surfaces plastically deforms the treated region ple in different regions treated at the jet pressure of p = 40 MPa,
and alters the properties along the depth with the maximum gra- v = 5 mm/s and z = 31 mm. The width of the treated region was
dient of work hardening obtained at the near surface layers [28]. It measured as 1166.72 mm (Fig. 9(a1)). The micrograph image
must also be noted that the lower pressure (p = 40 MPa) resulted (Fig. 9(b1) shows the evolved damage in form of deep cavities
into the maximum improvement of the hardness (572 HV). This due to the impact of the individual clusters. The formation of deep
result corresponds to the surface roughness and residual stress cavities was the result of the combination of pits formed by the
measurements. The reason for such behavior of the surface is the individual fractures. At pressure of p = 40 MPa and standoff dis-
characteristics of the jet formed under the low (p = 40 MPa) and tance z = 31 mm the jet completely separates into individual clus-
high pressure (p = 100 MPa) conditions. A discrete formation of ters of water which impacts the surface periodically (water
the clusters of water occurs at lower pressure (p = 40 MPa) as com- hammering [25]) at a certain impact energy. This impact energy
 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92 89

Fig. 7. Sub-surface hardness measurements of the samples treated at traverse speed v = 15 mm/s (a) p = 40 MPa (b) p = 60 MPa (c) p = 80 MPa.

results in the deformation of the material as the impact strength velocity therefore, it causes further irregularities on the surface.
exceeds the yield strength of the material. The edges of the trace At lower traverse speed of v = 15 mm/s, this interaction of the jet
shows deeper erosion due to the shear stresses formed during with the surface was increased so the presence of surface irregular-
the lateral outflow of the jet. The local stresses generated due to ities was observed. It must also be noted that the width of the trea-
water hammering effect leads to crack propagation and degramen- ted region increases from 1166.72 mm to 2037.66 mm with the
tation, which results into the formation of micro-voids (Fig. 9(c1)). increase in the traverse speed of the nozzle from v = 5 mm/s to
Similarly, the Fig. 9(a2) and 9(a3) shows the FESEM topography v = 25 mm/s. This is again the result of the interaction time which
of the sample treated at pressure p = 40 MPa with traverse speed causes deeper penetration of the stresses along the surface at lower
v = 15 mm/s and 25 mm/s, at a standoff distance of z = 31 mm. traverse speed of v = 5 mm/s as compare to higher traverse speed
The treated width was measured as 1930.37 mm and 2037.66 mm of v = 25 mm/s.
at v = 15 mm/s and 25 mm/s, respectively. As compared to previ- The above results can be well compared with the previous stud-
ous treatment condition no visible changes in the topography of ies. Azhari et al. [29] performed WJP on the stainless steel surface
the surface was found in this case. This is because the exposure (AISI 304) at jet pressure ranging between 100 MPa and 300 MPa;
time of the pulsations with the increase in traverse speed traverse speed 1000 mm/min to 3000 mm/min and number of
(v = 5 mm/s to v = 25 mm/s) is not sufficient enough to exceed passes between 2 and 6. The hardness was improved up to 280
the yield strength of the stainless steel and form deep cavities as HV as compare to base material (145 HV) with the hardening depth
in case of traverse speed, v = 5 mm/s. However, some difference ranging between 100 mm and 150 mm along the cross-section of the
in the irregularities of the surface was observed when the traverse treated region. The surface roughness was increased from 0.49 mm
speed was changed (v = 15 mm/s and v = 25 mm/s). These features to a maximum value of 10 mm. Arola et al. [7] also examined the
were observed due to the characterstic of the jet. When the jet hits strength of the AISI 304 material using abrasive WJP process at
the surface it induces the stresses (compressive and shear) on the pressures ranging between 103 MPa and 262 MPa and traverse
surface via impact pressure. The major deformation occurs on the speed of 1020 mm/min to 2030 mm/min. The obtained roughness
surface during this impact. With the increase in the traverse speed varied between 5 and 14 mm and the average residual stress was
from v = 5 mm/s to 25 mm/s, the interaction time is decreases ranging between 203 MPa and 228 MPa. However, in the present
which limits the stress propogation along the surface, thereby lim- study the AISI 304 surface was peened using PWJ at pressure rang-
iting the deformations on the surface. This only results in some ing between 40 MPa and 100 MPa and traverse speed 5 mm/s to
surface irregularities at distinct locations. During the lateral out- 25 mm/s. The initial surface roughness (Ra) was increased from
flow of the jet the velocity of the jet is higher than the impact 2.19 mm to 5.34 mm and the hardness depth of approximately
90 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92

Fig. 8. Sub-surface hardness measurements of the samples treated at traverse speed v = 25 mm/s (a) p = 40 MPa (b) p = 60 MPa (c) p = 80 MPa.

200 mm was achieved. Also, the average surface residual stress of  The surface residual stress improvement is the result of the jet
69 MPa (tensile) was relieved up to 540 MPa (compressive). Thus, characteristic formed under different parametric conditions. At
surface treatment by PWJ resulted in improvement of the surface lower standoff distance (z = 15 mm), clusters of low velocity
strengthening properties at much lower pressures (ranging amplitude are formed. On increasing te standoff distance to
between 40 MPa and 100 MPa) as compare to continuous water z = 31 mm the velocity amplitude of the clusters of jet increases.
jet and abravsive water jet. Therefore, by using PWJ technology This increased amplitude of the clusters is responsible for
for the surface treatment application the overall cost incurred in strengthening the surfaces.
high pressure pumps (>150 MPa) and its maintenance is reduced.  At lower pressure of p = 40 MPa, the velocity fluctuation created
Also, a compact system which can be operational in complex forms successive clusters of water. The clusters of water creates
regions can be advantageous from the economical point of view. repeated hammer effect resulting into strengthening of the sur-
face and sub-surface layers. These velocity fluctuations are sig-
4. Conclusion nificantly low upto standoff distance of z = 31 mm at higher
pressure of p = 100 MPa.
The study determines the influence of variation of PWJ param-  The initial hardness of 347 HV was increased maximum up to
eters (jet pressure, standoff distance and traverse speed) on the 570 HV when the surface was treated at pressure of 40 MPa
surface integrity of the stainless steel surface. The surface integrity with the lower traverse speed of v = 5 mm/s and higher standoff
was analyzed in terms of surface residual stress measurements, distance of z = 31 mm. Significant improvements in the hard-
micro hardness and surface roughness measurements. The analysis ness to a depth of 200 mm 300 mm were observed under all
of the study is revealed in following conclusions: the conditions.
 With the increase in jet pressure from p = 40 MPa to 100 MPa
 The tensile residual stress of 69 MPa was relieved up to maxi- and decrease in traverse speed from v = 25 mm/s to 5 mm/s
mum 540 MPa (compressive) at v = 5 mm/s, p = 40 MPa and the surface roughness was decreased (5.34 mm to 2.83 mm) at
z = 31 mm. The surface residual stress decreases from 540 MPa all standoff distance. The maximum increase in the surface
to 287 MPa (compressive) with the increase in jet pressure from roughness, Ra = 5.4 mm was recorded at higher standoff distance
40 MPa to 100 MPa and increases on decreasing the traverse of 31 mm.
speed of the nozzle from v = 25 mm/s to 5 mm/s. Also, the max-  The microstructural topography shows the surface erosion fea-
imum residual stress of 540 MPa (compressive) was obtained at tures under different parametric conditions. The irregularities
higher standoff distance of z = 31 mm. at distinct regions on the surface was observed due to the
 M. Srivastava et al. / Measurement 143 (2019) 81–92 91

Fig. 9. FESEM micrograph of the sample treated at pressure, p = 40 MPa (a1) at v = 5 mm/s, (b1) magnified view of section marked in (a1), (c1) magnified view of section
marked in (b1); (a2) at v = 15 mm/s, (b2) magnified view of section marked in (a2), (c2) magnified view of section marked in (b2); (a3) at v = 25 mm/s (b3) magnified view of
section marked in (a3), (c3) magnified view of section marked in (c3).

inhomgeneous plastic deformation caused by the repeated Materials for Energy Use – Sustainability Program, Reg. No.
water hammering effect and impact pressure of the PWJ. LO1406 financed by Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports, of
the Czech Republic, and with the support for the long-term con-
This study revealed the potential parameters that can be used ceptual development of the research institution RVO: 68145535.
for the treatment application using PWJ technology. These param- The authors would also like to acknowledge ARRS (Slovenian
eters can also be used for the treatment application of the stainless Research Agency) Research Program P2-0137 for the support pro-
steel welded joints and detailed response of these components in vided during this research.
terms of fatigue life is required.

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