METHODS OF RESEARCH

The basic qualities of a researchers are

1. Open-minded and must also adopt a critical way of thinking.

2. Intelligence, the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.

3. Hard working, diligent, Research requires critical analysis, logical

reasoning, and common sense

4. focused and devoted to his/her specific field of interest.

5. Updating his/her knowledge is of utmost importance and can be

accomplished in several ways, such as following the current literature,
attending conferences or exchanging ideas with colleagues working in
a relevant field.

6. Resourceful and inventive in order to transform his/her scientific queries and hypotheses into a realizable protocol.

What is a variable?

A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are trying to measure in
some way. The best way to understand the difference between a dependent and independent variable is that the
meaning of each is implied by what the words tell us about the variable you are using. "The [independent variable]
causes a change in [dependent variable] and it is not possible that [dependent variable] could cause a change in
[independent variable]." Researchers may be interested in the relationship between education (the independent
variable) and yearly spending (the dependent variable).

In particular, they find that individuals who have

more education tend to spend more.

However, without realizing it the researchers have

failed to take note of the intervening variable
income. It turns out that individuals who have higher levels of education tend to hold higher-paying jobs, which means
they naturally have more money to spend.

In particular, they find that more impoverished

individuals tend to have lower life expectancies.

However, without realizing it the researchers have

failed to take note of the intervening variable
healthcare. It turns out that individuals who are more impoverished have less reliable access to healthcare, which
naturally means that they have lower life expectancies.

Step – 1: Identifying the Problem

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is
to identify a research problem.

A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-

important phases of the research process, starting from setting
objectives to the selection of the research methodology.

But the core question is: whether all problems require research.

We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do

not qualify as research problems, and thus, these do not need to be
researched. Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a
research problem and a non-research problem.

Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the researcher to formulate
his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has not been so far researched.

Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of knowledge but also equips him with enhanced
knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between the results of his
study and those of the other.

Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement of the
problem leading to research objectives.

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of information that should be
collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The best expression of a research objective is a well-
formulated, testable research hypothesis.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by empirical data.
Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step -4: Choosing the study design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research questions.

It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the collected data.
There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to conduct his or her study; survey, experiment,

secondary data study, and observational study.

Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is that it involves
any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population)
to conclude the whole population.

It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is included.
Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.
 A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inference or generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain statistical
procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population as a whole.
These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a sample from the population and the
estimating technique, vis-a-vis formula for computing the sample statistics.

Step – 6: Collecting data

The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined population.
There are many ways to collect data.

The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time,
money, and personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of data collection
also varies.

The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-
administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected.

Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such as the census, vital registration
records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, KII, and
observational studies.

Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure consistency
across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and
inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses
to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer offers an excellent opportunity in
data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries,
searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings in the light of
the research questions.

Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings are consistent with the formulated
hypotheses and theories.

The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to very complex
multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design employed, and the nature of data
collected.

As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation may not be
appropriate for another.
Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer, a statement of intent or commitment from an
individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential client or sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep in view the sequence presented in the research process. The proposal
tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of the study (the
research objectives) or a definition of the problem.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures that will be utilized at
each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions

What is Research?

 Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and
creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis
and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.
 Research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either the development of new
concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories, leading to a new understanding that was not
previously known.
 The purpose of research is to further understand the world and to learn how this knowledge can be applied to
better everyday life. It is an integral part of problem solving.

Characteristics of Research

There are 8 core characteristics that all research projects should have. These are:

1. Empirical – based on proven scientific methods derived from real-life observations and experiments.
2. Logical – follows sequential procedures based on valid principles.
3. Cyclic – research begins with a question and ends with a question, i.e. research should lead to a new line of
questioning.
4. Controlled – vigorous measures put into place to keep all variables constant, except those under investigation.
5. Hypothesis-based – the research design generates data that sufficiently meets the research objectives and can
prove or disprove the hypothesis. It makes the research study repeatable and gives credibility to the results.
6. Analytical – data is generated, recorded and analyzed using proven techniques to ensure high accuracy and
repeatability while minimizing potential errors and anomalies.
7. Objective – sound judgement is used by the researcher to ensure that the research findings are valid.
8. Statistical treatment – statistical treatment is used to transform the available data into something more
meaningful from which knowledge can be gained.

Types of Research

1. Basic Research - also known as pure research, is an original investigation into the reasons behind a process,
phenomenon or particular event. It focuses on generating knowledge around existing basic principles.
- Basic research is generally considered ‘non-commercial research’ because it does not focus on
solving practical problems, and has no immediate benefit or ways it can be applied.
-While basic research may not have direct applications, it usually provides new insights that can
later be used in applied research.
2. Applied Research - Applied research investigates well-known theories and principles in order to enhance
knowledge around a practical aim. Because of this, applied research focuses on solving real-life problems by
deriving knowledge which has an immediate application.
 Methods of Research

1. Inductive research methods focus on the analysis of an observation and are usually associated with qualitative
research.
2. Deductive research methods focus on the verification of an observation and are typically associated with
quantitative research.
a. Qualitative Research - is a method that enables non-numerical data collection through open-ended methods
such as interviews, case studies and focus groups.
- It enables researchers to collect data on personal experiences, feelings or behaviors, as
well as the reasons behind them. Because of this, qualitative research is often used in fields such as social
science, psychology and philosophy and other areas where it is useful to know the connection between what has
occurred and why it has occurred.

b. Quantitative Research - is a method that collects and analyses numerical data through statistical analysis.
- It allows us to quantify variables, uncover relationships, and make generalizations
across a larger population. As a result, quantitative research is often used in the natural and physical sciences
such as engineering, biology, chemistry, physics, computer science, finance, and medical research, etc.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Growth:

1. Growth refers to increase in physical aspects of the organization.

2. Growth is structural.
3. Growth is quantitative.
4. Growth is cellular.
5. Growth stops when the organization reaches the stage of maturity.
6. Growth involves body changes.
7. Growth influences the process of development, but not always.

Development:

1. Development refers to overall changes in the whole of the organism.

2. Development is functional.
3. Development is qualitative.
4. Development is organizational.
5. Development is a lifelong process.
6. Development involves changes from origin to maturity.
7. Development occurs without growth.

Differences Between Growth and Development

1) Growth mainly focuses on quantitative improvement while development is associated with both qualitative
and quantitative improvement. For instance, growth is associated with measurable changes in weight and
height. On the other hand, development is identified when substantial changes in IQ are recorded in your
child’s brain power. For instance, your child’s IQ level is relatively low during childhood but can improve
significantly into adulthood. Your child’s IQ level can improve from 50 to 90 after honing their creative and
critical thinking skills.
2) Growth ends at maturation while development continues until an individual’s demise. As a teacher or parent,
it is important to note that growth ends at maturation. Your child will experience various changes associated
with growth between childhood and maturation at adolescence.
 Development is a consistent process and continues throughout life. Your child has the unique potential
to absorb as much knowledge and skills to handle various life challenges into adulthood. Even at 50 years, they
can exhibit advanced skills such as oratory and problem-solving skills based on their vast experience.
3) Growth is dependent on cellular changes while development is dependent on organizational transformation.
Growth begins at conception and progresses into adulthood.
Development is often witnessed at a home or school environment when your child experiences skillset
changes. This simply means that any skills learnt such as reading or arithmetic are indicative of your child’s
development changes. The older they get, the more likely they are to understand complex skills associated with
computation and reasoning.
4) Growth is associated with the progressive physical change from one stage to another. On the other hand,
development is the gradual transformation of behavioral and skill set changes.
5) Growth is external while development is internal in nature. Unlike growth, development is an internal process
and isn’t visible by the naked eye. Instead, it requires a comprehensive evaluation of your child’s reasoning,
creativity and innovation to ascertain their development status.
6) Growth dictates changes in physical appearance while development dictates change in the character of an
individual.
7) Growth takes place within a limited scope of time while development takes place within a vast scope of time.
This means that growth spans from conception to adolescence depending on your child’s growth rate. The best
part about skill acquisition is that it can still happen beyond 35 year old if the determination and commitment
exists.
8) Growth focuses on one aspect of your child’s life. On the other hand, development focuses on several aspects
of your child’s life such as emotional state, intelligence and interpersonal skills. Naturally, growth is a size-
oriented process from conception to adulthood. On the other hand, development is an all-inclusive process
designed to analyze various aspects of your child’s life. This usually stems from the need to evaluate their
capacity to interact with their peers and adults in an effective way.

 Growth is more on the physical aspect while development is more on the mental aspect. These two processes are
highly correlated with each other. If a child has good physical health, most likely the child also has above average
mental capacity. With good physical growth, a child can be more sociable with other people, too.

Summary:

a. “Growth” and “development” always come in pairs. Psychology defines “growth” as “the physical change that a
particular individual undergoes.”
b. Psychology defines “development” as “the overall growth of humans throughout their lifespan.” Development
includes the understanding of how and why people change in terms of physical growth, intellectual, emotional,
social, and other aspects of human growth.

Theories of Learning

Learning theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can acquire, retain and recall new information.

a. Cognitive learning theory.

 The cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an important part in
understanding how we learn.
 The cognitive theory understands that learners can be influenced by both internal and external elements.
 Plato and Descartes are two of the first philosophers that focused on cognition and how we as human beings
think.
 Jean Piaget is a highly important figure in the field of cognitive psychology, and his work focuses on
environments and internal structures and how they impact learning.
 At the most basic level, the cognitive theory suggests that internal thoughts and external forces are both an
important part of the cognitive process. And as students understand how their thinking impacts their learning
and behavior, they are able to have more control over it.
  The cognitive learning theory impacts students because their understanding of their thought process can help
them learn. Teachers can give students opportunities to ask questions, to fail, and think out loud. These
strategies can help students understand how their thought process works, and utilize this knowledge to
construct better learning opportunities.
 Examples of how teachers can include cognitivism in their classroom include linking concepts together, linking
concepts to real-world examples, discussions and problem-solving.

b. Behaviorism learning theory.

 The behaviorism learning theory is the idea that how a student behaves is based on their interaction with their
environment.
 It suggests that behaviors are influenced and learned from external forces rather than internal forces.
 Positive reinforcement is a popular element of behaviorism—classical conditioning observed in Pavlov’s dog
experiments suggests that behaviors are directly motivated by the reward that can be obtained.
 Teachers in a classroom can utilize positive reinforcement to help students better learn a concept. Students who
receive positive reinforcement are more likely to retain information moving forward, a direct result of the
behaviorism theory.
 I use a similar approach to classroom management.
 I have taught my students that if I stand in a specific place in the classroom with my arms folded, they know
that I’m getting frustrated with the level of noise and they start to quieten down or if I sit cross-legged on
my desk, I’m about to say something important, supportive and they should listen because it affects them
directly.
 Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for
establishing rules, especially for behavior management.

c. Constructivism learning theory.

 The constructivism learning theory is based on the idea that students actually create their own learning based
on their previous experience.
 Students take what they are being taught and add it to their previous knowledge and experiences, creating a
unique reality that is just for them.
 This learning theory focuses on learning as an active process, personal and unique for each student.
 Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each student will bring their own past to the
classroom every day. Teachers in constructivist classrooms act as more of a guide to helping students create
their own learning and understanding. They help them create their own process and reality based on their own
past. This is crucial to helping many kinds of students take their own experiences and include them in their
learning.
 Examples of constructivism in the classroom include problem-based learning, research and creative projects and
group collaborations.

d. Humanism learning theory.

 Humanism is very closely related to constructivism.

 Humanism directly focuses on the idea of self-actualization.
 Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs. Self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy of needs—it is the
brief moments where you feel all of your needs are met and that you’re the best possible version of yourself.
Everyone is striving for this, and your learning environment can either move toward meeting your needs or away
from meeting your needs.
 Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get closer to their self-actualization. Educators
can help fulfill students’ emotional and physical needs, giving them a safe and comfortable place to learn, plenty
of food, and the support they need to succeed. This kind of environment is the most conducive to helping
students learn.

e. Connectivism learning theory.

  Connectivism is one of the newest educational learning theories. It focuses on the idea that people learn and
grow when they form connections.
 This can be connections with each other, or connections with their roles and obligations in their life.
 Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that influence learning.
 Teachers can utilize connectivism in their classroom to help students make connections to things that excite
them, helping them learn. Teachers can use digital media to make good, positive connections to learning. They
can help create connections and relationships with their students and with their peer groups to help students
feel motivated about learning.

 These ranked subdivisions are what we commonly refer to as Bloom’s taxonomy. The
original subdivisions are as follows (knowledge is the lowest with evaluation being the
most cognitively difficult):
1. Knowledge
2. Understanding
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
 However, there was a major revision of the subdivisions in 2000-01 by Bloom’s original
partner, David Krathwohl and his colleague, Lorin Anderson (Anderson was a former
student of Bloom’s).
Gardner’s 7
Intelligences.
1. Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and use
language in written and spoken forms to express
oneself.
2. Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve
problems logically, to solve mathematical
problems and to perform scientific investigations.
3. Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation,
composition and performance of musical patterns,
including the ability to recognize tone, pitch and
rhythm.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental abilities to coordinate body movements to solve problems.
5. Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognize and use patterns in a wide or confined space.
6. Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand the desires, motivations and intentions of other people.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand your own fears, feelings and motivations.

Describing the Marginal and the Good Teacher

 The marginal teacher lacks skills to ensure an efficient orderly classroom and safe learning environment for
students.
 According to Fuhr (1990) a marginal teacher is one whose performance borders incompetency but who is not
incompetent. Marginal teachers raise their performance enough to be judged ‘average’ to protect themselves
from dismissal in evaluation period but in the following days they will slip back into their chronic pattern of poor
teaching (Fuhr, 1990). In the research of Sweeney and Manatt (1984) school principals defined the ‘marginal
teacher’ as one who appears to have sufficient command of subject matter but whose lack of classroom
management skills hinders the student learning.
 Fuhr (1990) claims that marginal teachers could be categorized into three main types:
(1) Lack of training: Incompetent teachers who doesn’t grasp basic teaching techniques,
 (2) Personal reasons: Teachers who have serious personal problems for exhibiting chronic inadequacies in
classroom management and so slipped back into marginal category and
(3) Poor Attitude: Teachers who have negative or poor attitudes about teaching. Teachers in this category know
what is expected but refuse to do it.

Concept of teaching:

a. Teaching as a Ministry - ministry is an

activity carried out by Christians to
express or spread their faith, the
prototype being the Great
Commission. The Encyclopedia of
Christianity defines it as "carrying
forth Christ's mission in the world",
indicating that it is "conferred on each
Christian in baptism.
b. Teaching as a Profession - Teaching is the specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed to
provide unique service to meet the educational needs of the individual and of society. The choice of learning
activities whereby the goals of education are realized in the school is the responsibility of the teaching
profession. A teacher has professional knowledge and skills gained through formal preparation and experience.
Teachers provide personal, caring service to students by diagnosing their needs and by planning, selecting and
using methods and evaluation procedures designed to promote learning. The processes of teaching include
understanding and adhering to legal and legislated frameworks and policies; identifying and responding to
student learning needs; providing effective and responsive instruction; assessing and communicating student
learning; developing and maintaining a safe, respectful environment conducive to student learning; establishing
and maintaining professional relationships; and engaging in reflective professional practice. These processes
must be free of discriminatory practices and should contribute to the holistic development of students who are
actively engaged, responsible and contributing members of a democratic society. The educational interests of
students are best served by teachers who practice under conditions that enable them to exercise professional
judgment. Teachers have a right to participate in all decisions that affect them or their work, and have a
corresponding responsibility to provide informed leadership in matters related to their professional practice.
c. Teaching as a Science - It is a science in that there are strategies and practices that a body of research has
shown to be effective in enhancing learning. Just like doctors, teachers should use research to inform their
practice. On the individual level teaching is a science also in that teachers are constantly collecting data by
observing their students in order to see if learning is taking place and how they learn best. And, like scientists,
teachers experiment with new techniques or strategies to see how they work.
d. Teaching as a Vocation - Teaching is a career where people get paid for the job. ... We consider teaching a
vocation because of the dedication that one exerts to provide quality learning atmosphere to their students. A
teacher spends most of his or her time teaching inside and outside the four walls of the classroom. Even if he or
she goes home, teaching is always in his or her mind because of the need to prepare for the activities of the
coming days unlike in other professions where the activities end up inside the four walls of their offices or in
their places of work.
 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

What is curriculum development?

 Today, the most simple definition of the word “curriculum” is the subjects that make up a course of study at
schools, universities or colleges.
 The word curriculum has roots in Latin. It originally meant “racing chariot” and came from the verb currere, “to
run.”
 Curriculum development is synonymous with course planning or course development.

It’s important to recognize that differences in course design exist: a math course taken at one university may cover the
same material, but the educator may teach it in a different way. However, the core fundamentals of curriculum
development remain the same.

 curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which includes the
learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers teach;
the assignments and projects given to students; the books, materials, videos, presentations, and readings used
in a course; and the tests, assessments, and other methods used to evaluate student learning
 curriculum refers to an interactive system of instruction and learning with specific goals, contents, strategies,
measurement, and resources.

What are the different categories of curriculum development?

 Current curriculum can be broken down into two broad categories:

a. product category - is results-oriented. Grades are the prime objective, with the focus lying more on the
finished product rather than on the learning process.
b. process category - is more open-ended, and focuses on how learning develops over a period of time. These
two categories need to be taken into account when developing curriculum.

What is curriculum planning?

 Curriculum planning involves implementing different instructional strategies and organizational methods that
are focused on achieving optimal student development and student learning outcomes.
 Instructors might structure their curriculum around daily lesson plans, a specific assignment, a chunk of
coursework, certain units within a class, or an entire educational program.
 During the curriculum planning phase, educators consider factors that might complement or hinder their lesson.
These include institutional requirements, for example. Each administrator at a university or college will have
guidelines, principles and a framework that instructors are required to reference as they build out their
curricula.
 Educators are responsible for ensuring that their curriculum planning meets students’ educational needs, and
that the materials used are current and comprehensive.
 Educators should employ the curriculum process that best incorporates the six components of effective
teaching. These components are applicable at both the undergraduate and graduate level:

1. To demonstrate knowledge of content

2. To demonstrate the knowledge of students
3. To select suitable instructional strategy goals
4. To demonstrate knowledge of resources
5. To design coherent instruction
6. To assess student learning

What is curriculum design?

  Curriculum design is the deliberate organization of course activities and delivery within a classroom. When
higher ed instructors design their curriculum, they identify:
1. Learning objectives
2. Timely and relevant bridge-ins
3. Course content and readings
4. Both low- and high-stakes assessments
 Remember that the curriculum contains the knowledge and skills that a student needs to master in order to
move to the next level. By thinking about how their curriculum is designed, teachers ensure they’ve covered all
the necessary requirements. From there, they can start exploring various approaches and teaching methods that
can help them achieve their goals.

What are the three models of curriculum design?

1. Subject-centered curriculum design

 revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline, such as mathematics, literature or biology.
 This model of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject, rather than the student.
 It is the most common model of standardized curriculum that can be found in K-12 public schools.
 not student-centered, and the model is less concerned with individual learning styles compared to other forms
of curriculum design.
 This can lead to problems with student engagement and motivation and may cause students who are not
responsive to this model to fall behind.
2. Learner-centered curriculum design,
 revolves around student needs, interests and goals.
 It acknowledges that students are not uniform but individuals, and therefore should not, in all cases, be subject
to a standardized curriculum.
 This approach aims to empower learners to shape their education through choices.
 This form of curriculum design has been shown to engage and motivate students.
 The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it can create pressure to form content around the
learning needs and preferences of students. These insights can be challenging to glean in a largely online
learning environment. Balancing individual student interests with the course’s required outcomes could prove to
be a daunting task.
3. Problem-centered curriculum design
 teaches students how to look at a problem and formulate a solution.
 helps students engage in authentic learning because they’re exposed to real-life issues and skills, which are
transferable to the real world.
 has been shown to increase the relevance of the curriculum and encourages creativity, innovation and
collaboration in the classroom.
 The drawback to this model is that the individual needs and interests of students aren’t always accounted for.

How to create your own curriculum

1. Before your lesson - consider your learning objectives and source meaningful content
2. During your lesson - administer relevant formative assessments to gauge pre-existing—and current—
understanding of course concepts
3. After your lesson - determine what students have learned by facilitating summative assessments
4.

What does a teacher do to deserve the label as curricularist?

• The classroom is the first place of curricular engagement. The first school experience sets the tone to understand the
meaning of schooling through the interactions of learners and teachers that will lead to learning. Hence, curriculum is
the heart of schooling

Describing teacher as curricularist

 1. Knows the curriculum
 Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the
subject matter or the content. As a teacher, one has to master what are included in the curriculum. It is
the acquiring academic knowledge about formal (disciplines, logic) or informal (derived from
experiences). It is mastery of the subject matter. Knower
2. Writes the curriculum
 A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge concepts, subject matter or content. These need to be
written or preserved. The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and
reference materials in paper or electronic media. Writer
3. Plans the curriculum
 A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan
of the curriculum.
 The teacher takes into consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These are: learners,
support material, time, subject matter or content, desired outcomes, context of the learners among
others. Planner
4. Initiates curriculum
 In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO,
UNICEF or other educational agencies for improvement of quality education, the teacher is obliged to
implement.
 Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open mindedness of the teacher, and the full belief
that the curriculum will enhance learning. Initiator
5. Innovates the curriculum
 Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence
keeps on changing. From the content strategies, ways of holding, blocks of time, ways of evaluating,
kinds of students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal curriculum that would
perpetually fit.
6. Implements the curriculum
 The curriculum that remains recommended or written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to
implement it.
 Heart of schooling is the curriculum.
 It is this role where the teacher becomes the implementor of the curriculum.
 She is at the height of an engagement with the learners , with support materials in order to achieve the
desired outcome. It is where teaching, guiding and facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to be the
highest level.
7. Evaluates the curriculum
 How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes have been achieved?
 Is the curriculum working?

5 Steps to Curriculum Making

1. Analysis of human experience - This is about separating all of human experience into major fields.

2. Job analysis - This step is where the fields were broken down into more specific activities.

3. Deriving objectives - The third step was to form the objective from the abilities needed to perform the activities.

4. Selecting objectives - This is where the objectives are selected from to find ones that would serve as the basis for
planning activities for the students.

5. Planning in detail - This is where teachers lay out activities, experiences, and opportunities that would be needed to
obtain the objectives.
Who is a Curricularist?

 A professional who is curriculum specialist

 A person who is involved in curriculum knowing, writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and
initiating
 A teacher’s role is broader and inclusive of other functions and so teacher is a curricularist.

What does a teacher do to deserve the label as curricularist?

 The first school experience sets the tone to understand the meaning of schooling through the interactions of
learners and teachers that will lead to learning.
 Hence, curriculum is the heart of schooling.

CURRICULUM MAPPING

 is the process indexing or diagramming a curriculum to identify and address academic gaps, redundancies, and
misalignments for purposes of improving the overall coherence of a course of study and, by extension, its
effectiveness (a curriculum, in the sense that the term is typically used by educators, encompasses everything
that teachers teach to students in a school or course, including the instructional materials and techniques they
use).
 How is it mapped?
Curriculum mapping aims to achieve success over four goals:
1. Vertical coherence - what students learn in one lesson, course, or grade level prepares them for the next
lesson, course, or grade level. Curriculum mapping aims to ensure that teaching is purposefully structured and
logically sequenced across grade levels so that students are building on what they have previous learned and
learning the knowledge and skills that will progressively prepare them for more challenging, higher-level work.
2. Horizontal coherence - what students are learning in one ninth-grade biology course, for example, mirrors
what other students are learning in a different ninth-grade biology course. Curriculum mapping aims to ensure
that the assessments, tests, and other methods teachers use to evaluate learning achievement and progress are
based on what has actually been taught to students and on the learning standards that the students are
expected to meet in a particular course, subject area, or grade level.
3. Subject-area coherence - When a curriculum is coherent within a subject area—such as mathematics,
science, or history—it may be aligned both within and across grade levels. Curriculum mapping for subject-area
coherence aims to ensure that teachers are working toward the same learning standards in similar courses (say,
three different ninth-grade algebra courses taught by different teachers), and that students are also learning the
same amount of content, and receiving the same quality of instruction, across subject-area courses.
4. Interdisciplinary coherence - When a curriculum is coherent across multiple subject areas—such as
mathematics, science, and history—it may be aligned both within and across grade levels. Curriculum mapping
for interdisciplinary coherence may focus on skills and work habits that students need to succeed in any
academic course or discipline, such as reading skills, writing skills, technology skills, and critical-thinking skills.
Improving interdisciplinary coherence across a curriculum might entail teaching students reading and writing
skills in all academic courses, not just English courses.

Why is curriculum mapping important?

 it allows teachers and administrators to focus on balance between the content across curricula. It allows them
to look into each classroom and see what children learn, and helps them gather data on redundancies or gaps in
the course content.
 helps teachers and administrators assess the structure of the course, and the time-scale plan of when specific
lessons or concepts are taught.
 One important thing to remember, curriculum maps are never considered “done”. They are an ongoing
development seeking to improve student learning and content quality across schools. As long as teachers have
new students, new classes, and new school years, the content and structure should be continually assessed and
 revised (if need be) to ensure students get the most out of their education, and for teachers to use the most
effective strategies in their lessons.

Educational Philosophies Definitions and Comparison Chart

1. Perennialism
 the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western
civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era.
 The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not
changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change.

2. Essentialism
 Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a
systematic, disciplined way.
 The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach.
The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational
philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may
change.
 Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on
facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute
clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies.
 Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline.
 Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness.
3. Progressivism
 Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher.
 This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation.
 Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive.
 The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the
physical and cultural context.
 Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from
student interests and questions.
 The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events
systematically and first hand.
 The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know.

Curriculum Approaches

 It is a way of dealing with a curriculum, a way of doing/creating/designing/ thinking about a curriculum.

1. Behavioral Approach - anchored on the behaviorist principle. Based on a blueprint – goals and objectives
are specified; contents and activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives.
- Behavioral Approach Learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and
objectives set at the beginning.
- AIM – to achieve efficiency PROPONENT – Frederick Taylor In education, behavioral
approach begins with educational plans that start with the setting of goals and
objectives.
2. Managerial Approach - General Manager – sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of
change and innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction.
- School Administration – less concerned about the content than about organization
and implementation; less concerned about subject matter, methods, and materials
than improving the curriculum.
 - Curriculum Managers – look at the curriculum changes and innovations as they
administer the resources and restructure the schools.
3. Systems Approach - Influenced by systems theory. The parts of the total school district or school are
examined in terms of how they relate to each other
- Organizational chart – represents a systems approach; shows the line-staff
relationships of personnel and how decisions are made.
- the systems theory of education see the following to be of equal importance: 1.
ADMINISTRATION 2. COUNSELING 3. CURRICULUM 4. INSTRUCTION 5. EVALUATION
4. Humanistic Approach - Rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement Considers the
formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum.
- Considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of
the individual is the prime consideration.
- The LEARNER is at the CENTER of the curriculum.
5. Technical/Scientific - This type of approach view curriculum development as something similar to
engineering or architecture.
- use instruments and empirical methods in preparing a blueprint with well – defined
elements, orderly sequenced procedures, and quality control measures to increase
the probability of success in its implementation

Various Laws Affecting Teachers and Schools

a. BATAS PAMBANSA 232 Education act of 1982 - Teachers and school heads are deemed persons in authority
while in the discharge of lawful duties and responsibilities, and shall, therefore, be accorded due respect and
protection
b. REPUBLIC ACT 4670 (MAGNA CARTA FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS)
Rights and privileges of teachers
1. Consent for transfer
2. Safeguards in disciplinary procedure
3. Confidentiality of case
4. Academic freedom
5. Teaching hours
6. Prohibition of deduction on salaries
7. Leave privileges
8. Salary increase upon retirement
9. Freedom to organize
10. Right to discipline students
c. CIVIL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES Republic Act no 386
a) Teachers shall be liable for damages caused by their pupils and students so long as they remain in their
custody
b) The student is in the custody of the school authorities as long as he is under the control and influence of the
school and within its premises.
c) This responsibility shall cease if the teacher proves that she observed the diligence of a good father of a family
to prevent damage.
d. Republic Act 5546 amending RA 4206
Q. Are the teachers and the school collect contributions or sell ticket to the students? -The law prohibits the sale
of ticket and/or the collection of contributions. Exception: membership fees (red cross, gsp/bsp,donation, id
card, etc.) -Teachers and students have the right to be free from involuntary contributions
e. Republic act 7079 Campus Journalism Act
Q. What are the possible sources of fund for the student publication? -Funding of students publication may
include the savings of the respective school’s appropriations, student subscriptions, donations, and other
sources of funds
f. REPUBLIC ACT 7610 Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act
Q. What constitutes child abuse? -’’Child abuse’’- refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not. Of the
child which includes any of the ff: Psychological and physical abuse, neglect, cruelty, sexual abuse and emotional
maltreatment; Any act by deeds or words which debases, degrades or demeans the intrinsic worth and dignity
of a child as a human being ; Unreasonable deprivation of his basic needs for survival, such as food and shelter;
or Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an injured child resulting in serious impairment of his
growth and development or in his permanent
g. REPUBLIC ACT 7877 Anti-Sexual Harassment act of 1995 - acts are considered sexual
Q. What harassment? -Sexual harassment is an act, or a series of acts, involving any unwelcome sexual advance,
request or demand for a sexual favor or other verbal or physical behavior of a sexual nature, comitted by a
government employee or official in a work related, training or education related environment of the person
complained of.
h. REPUBLIC ACT 9710 Magna Carta of Women
Q. What is the policy of the state as regards women? -The state reaffirms the right of women in all sectors to
participate in policy formulations; -The state condemns discrimination against women in all its forms; -The state
affirms women’s rights as human rights; -The state affirms the role of women in nation building and ensures the
substantive equality of women and men
i. Sec. 18 Special Leave Benefits for Women - A woman employee having rendered continuous aggregate
employment service of at least 6 months for the last twelve months shall be entitled to a special leave benefit of
2 months with full pay based on her gross monthly compensation following surgery caused by gynecological
disorder
j. Republic Act 7836 Philippine Teachers Professionalization act of 1994
Q. Who are allowed to teach? -Only those who are registered with the PRC. Grounds for suspension/cancellation
-Conviction, dishonourable conduct, insane, malpractice , etc.
k. Republic Act 6713 Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials And Employees ‘’Public office is a
public trust’’

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

He referred to self-actualization

To achieve this objective, the person must work his way up to the succeeding steps of a hierarchy of needs.
 What is Human Behavior?

 Human Behavior refers to the physical actions of a person that can be seen or heard.
 It is exhibited with thoughts, feelings, emotions and sentiments.
 It can be similar or different when he is in or out of organizations.

What is Organizational Behavior?

 The study of human behavior in organization, of the interaction between individuals and the organization, and
of the organization itself.

The Goals of Organizational Behavior

 To explain/understand behavior;
 OB needs to systematically describe how people behave under a variety of conditions, and understand why
people behave as they do.
 To predict behavior; and
 To control behavior.

The elements of Organizational Behavior

 People
 Structure
 Technology
 Environment

The benefits of studying Organizational Behavior

 Development of people skills;

 Personal growth;
 Enhancement of organizational and individual effectiveness; and
 Sharpening and refinement of common sense.

A person who is much adept in the performance of his work may be successful up to a certain extent, but he will require
another skill to make other people believe that he should be more successful than his current achievement.

Personal Growth

 It makes a person highly competitive in the workplace.

 A person who strives to know himself better is entering the realm of intrapersonal intelligence.

12 Conflict Resolution Techniques for Dealing with Conflict in The Workplace

1. Forget About Winning or Being Right - Conflict, when approached in a mutual respective atmosphere, can bring
better insights about your team or client’s expectations, communication styles, which can arm you with the best
information to find a resolution that’s best for the client, the team, and the project.
2. Don’t Look For A Person To Blame – Look For A Root Cause - Focusing on the process instead of chewing
someone out helps prevent mistakes in the future, and can leave your team confidence that you have their back
when things go awry. After all, everyone makes mistakes – even Project Managers.
3. Name Your Emotions Before Meeting - Naming your emotions helps you get to that root cause. You may feel
angry, upset, maybe even betrayed – but what’s at the heart of those feelings? You may feel angry because key
aspects of a decision were not communicated to you or your team, or not communicated at the right time – so
you may feel disappointed that you were left out of the loop. This gives you a tangible example, as well as a
relatable emotion, to aid in your communication and get to the root cause of conflict.
4. Collaborate With The Other Party On How To Handle Conflict - Inviting the other party to collaborate offers
them an olive branch, showing that you’re open to their needs, are willing to listen, and that you understand
that dealing with conflict in the workplace is a two-way street. And let us not forget that they may actually
 deliver some actionable insight on how to best communicate with them, and overall approach team conflict
resolution.
5. Keep Your Conversation Goal-Oriented
6. Meet Face To Face
7. Legitimize & Echo Their Feelings Back To Them
8. Find An Opportunity To Admit You Were Wrong, Or What You Could Have Done Better
9. Never Tell Someone What They Said, How They Felt, Or What They Did
10. Focus On Behavior, Not Personality
11. Communicate The Takeaways And Apply Learnings For Next Time
12. Create Space For Conversation And Have Open Channels To Address Conflict