AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications SI Units Second Edition 1998 Published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249 Washington, D.C. 20001 ©1998 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, AU Rights Reserved. Primed in the United States of America. This book. or parts thereof, ‘may not be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publishers. ISBN: 1-56061-194-3AASHTO Executive Committee 1997-1998 Voting Members Officers: President: David L. Winstead, Maryland Vice President: Dan Flowers, Arkansas Secretary-Treasurer: Clyde Pyers, Maryland Regional Representatives: Region |: Anne Canby, Delaware Glenn Gershaneck, Vermont Region Il: Elizabeth S. Mabry. South Carolina James C. Codell, IN, Kentucky Region III: Charles Thompson, Wisconsin James Denn, Minnesota Region IV: Dwight M. Bower, Idaho ‘Thomas R. Wame, Utah Nonvoting Members Immediate Past Presient: Darrel Rensink, lowa AASHTO Executive Director: Francis B. Francois iHIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES 1998 DAVID POPE, WYOMING, Chairman JAMES E. ROBERTS, CALIFORNIA, Vice Chairman DAVID DENSMORE, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary ALABAMA, William F. Conway ALASKA, Steve Bradford, Ray Shumway: ARIZONA. William R. Brucsch. F, Daniel Davis ARKANSAS. Dale Loe CALIFORNIA, James E. Roberts COLORADO, Stephen Horton ‘CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton DELAWARE, Chao H. Hu D.C., Donald Cooney FLORIDA. Jerry Potter GEORGIA. Paul Liles HAWAII, Donald C. Ornelas IDAHO, Matthew M, Farrar ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson INDIANA. Mary Jo Hamman IOWA, William A. Lundquist KANSAS. Kenneth F. Hurst KENTUCKY. Stephen E. Goodpaster LOUISIANA. Norval Knapp. Wayne Aymond MAINE, James E. Tukey MARYLAND. Earle S. Freedman MASSACHUSETTS. Alexander K. Bardow MICHIGAN. Sudhakar Kutkami MINNESOTA. Donald J. Flemming MISSISSIPPI, Witbur F. Massey MISSOURI. Allen F. Laffoon MONTANA. William S. Fullerton NEVADA. William C. Crawford. Jr NEW HAMPSHIRE. lames A, Moore NEW JERSEY. Harry A. Casper. Jr NEW MEXICO, Jimmy D. Camp. NEW YORK. James O'Connell NORTH CAROLINA. William J. Rogers NORTH DAKOTA. Steven J. Miller OHIO. Brad W. Fagrell OKLAHOMA, Robert J. Rusch OREGON, Terry J. Shike PENNSYLVANIA, Scott Christie PUERTO RICO, Hector Camacho RHODE ISLAND. Kazem Farhoumand SOUTH CAROLINA, Randy R. Cannon SOUTH DAKOTA, John Cole TENNESSEE, Ed Wasserman ‘TEXAS, Richard Wilkison USS. DOT, David Densmore, (FHWA), ‘Nick E. Mpras (USCG) UTAH. P. K. Mohanty VERMONT. Warren B. Tr VIRGINIA. Malcolm T. Kerley: WASHINGTON, Myint Lwin WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods WYOMING. B. Patrick Collins ALBERTA. Dilip K. Dasmohapatra BRITISH COLUMBIA. Peter Brett MANITOBA. W. Saltzberg MARIANA ISLANDS. Elizabeth H. Salas-Balajadia NEW BRUNSWICK. G. A. Rushton NEWFOUNDLAND. Peter Lester NORTHWEST TERRITORIES. Jivko Jivkov NOVA SCOTIA. Al MacRae ONTARIO. Ranjit. Reel ‘SASKATCHEWAN, Lome J. Hamblin MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM.. David Lenhardt NJ. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY. Wallace R, Grant PORT AUTHORITY OF N.Y. AND N.., Joseph K Kelly N.Y. STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William Moreau BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS. Wade Cosey U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE- FOREST SERVICE. Nelson Hernandez MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ‘COMMAND. Robert D. Franz USS. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS- DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY. Paul C. T.TanFOREWORD “The first broadly’ recognized national standard for the design and construction of bridges in the United State vas published in 1931 by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO). the sedecessor to AASHTO. With the advent of the automobile andthe establishment tf highway departments in all of the American states dating back to just before the rary of the century, the design, construction and maintenance of most U.S. bridges was the responsibility of these deparments and. more specifically. the chef bridge engineer within each department t was vrral ierefore, that these engineers. acting collectively as the Subcommittee on Bridges and ‘Structures. would become the author and guardian of this first bridge standard. “This first publication was entitled Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures. Ve quickly became the de facto national ‘standard and. as such, was adopted and deed by not only the state highway depariments but also other bridge-owning authorities and azencies in the United States and abroad. Rather early onthe last three words of the orginal ile vere dropped and it has been reissued in consecutive editions at approximately four year intervals ever sinve as Siandard Specifications for Highway Bridges, withthe 16th Edition appearing in 1996. “The body of knowledge related to the design of highway bridges has grown enormously since 1931 and continues to do so. Theory and practice have evolved greatly reflecting advances through research in understanding the properties of materials, in improved materials, in more rational and curate analysis of structural behavior, in the advent of computers and rapidly advancing computer technologs: in the stody of extemal events representing particular hazards to bridges such as seismic rents and stream scour. and in many other areas, The pace of advances in these areas has, if srvthing stepped up in recent years. To accommodate this growth in bridge engineering knowledge, the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures has been granted the authority under AASHTO's overing documents to approve and issue Bridge Interims each year, not only with respect t¢ Stondard Specifications but also to incrementally modify and enhance the rwenty-odd additional documents on bridges and structures engineering that are under its guidance and sponsorship. ‘In 1986. the Subcommittee submitted a request to ‘the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research to undertake an assessment of U.S. bridge design specifications, review foreign design specifications and codes. consider design philosophies altemative to those underlying ‘Standard Specifications, and to tender recommendations based on these investigations. This work was sccomplished under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program. an applied research program direcied by the AASHTO Standing Commitee on Research and administered on behalf of PIRSHTO by the Transportation Research Board. The work was completed in 1987, and, as might be expected witha standard incrementally adjusted over the yeas, the Standard Specifications were judged to include discemible gaps, inconsistencies, and even some conflicts. Beyond this the Specifiaton di not reflector incorporate the most recently developing design philosophy, load and resistance factor design (LRFD), a philosophy which has been gaining ground in other areas of structural engineering and in other parts of the world such as Canada and Europe.From its inception until the early 1970s, the sole design philosophy embedded within Standard Specifications was one known as working stress design (WSD). WSD establishes allowable stresses as a fraction or percentage of a given material's load-carrying capacity, and requires that calculated design stresses not exceed those allowable stresses, Beginning in the early 1970s, WSD began to be adjusted to reflect the variable predictability of certain load types. such as ‘vehicular loads and wind forces, through adjusting design factors. a design philosophy referred to ‘as load factor design (LFD). Both WSD and LFD are reflected in the current edition of Standard Specifications. ‘A further philosophical extension results from considering the variability in the properties of structural elements. in similar fashion to load variabilities. While considered to a limited extent in LED, the design philosophy of load and resistance factor design (LRFD) takes variability in the ‘behavior of structural elements into account in an explicit manner. LRFD relies on extensive use of statistical methods, but sets forth the results in a manner readily usable by bridge designers and analysts. ‘The principal recommendation of the assessment completed in 1987. therefore, was the development of an entirely new LRFD bridge design standard. A multi-year, exceptionally comprehensive NCHRP project to accomplish this goal was subsequently approved by the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research. Once underway, NCHRP Project 12-33 took five years to complete. and resulted in this document. the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Under the frequent review of the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures and its, twenty Technical Committees. the specifications were developed by a team of more than 50 members. including some of the best bridge engineering talent in the U.S. and elsewhere, guided by a distinguished project panel. The effort included the incorporation of state-of-the-art knowledge. and the cooperation and input of industry groups. It has passed through five successive drafts, painstaking reviews. and it has been systematically tested in trial designs in bridge design division of fourteen AASHTO member deparments, as well as informally tested in many others. It represents ‘a major step forward in improved bridge design and more accurate analysis methods, which will lead to bridges exhibiting superior serviceability. enhanced long-term maintainability, and more uniform levels of safety. A discussion of the evolution of the specifications and commentary. including the genesis of the NCHRP project. the research participants. the review process for the specifications, and selected major technical advances in the specifications. is presented in NCHRP Research Results Digest 198 (available from the Transportation Research Board), With the advent of these specifications. bridge engineers now have a choice of two standards to guide their designs. the long-standing AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. and these sltemative. newly adopted AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. and its companion AASHTO LRED Bridge Construction Specifications.AASHTO LRED Bridge Design Specifications Second Edition System International Units (SI) Edition Preface “The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications has the following 14 sections and an Index: Introduction General Design and Location Features Loads and Load Factors Structural Analysis and Evaluation Concrete Structures Steel Structures Aluminum Structures ‘Wood Structures Decks and Deck Systems Foundations Abutments. Piers and Walls Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners Railings Joints and Bearings SEMA wae Bes po Tables of Contents precede each section. References are listed following each section. Equations. figures and tables are denoted by their home article number and an extension. for example 5-1, but when they are referenced in their home article or its commentary they are identified only by the extension. For example. in Article 1.2.3.4.5. Equation 1.2.3.4.5-2 would simply be called “Equation 2.” When this equation is referenced anywhere else other than its home article, itis identified by its whole nomenclature, in other words. “Equation 1.2.3.4.5-2." The same convention applies to tables and figures. System International Units (SI) EditionSECTION 11S) TABLE OF CONTENTS 4.4. SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS .... 4.2 DEFINITIONS. 4.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 4.3.4 General .. 41.3.2 Limit States... 1.32.1 GENERAL 132.2 SERVICE LIMIT STATE 113.233 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE - 132.4 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ...... 4132.5 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES .. 433 Ductility 13.4 Redundancy . 4.3.5 Operational Importance . Oobradsecan‘Section 1 - Introduction (SI) SPECIFICATIONS A. SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS “The provisions of these Specifications are intended {or the design, evaluation, and rehabilitation of both fixed and movable highway bridges. Mechanical, electrical ‘and special vehicular and pedestian safety aspects of movable bridges. however, are net covered. Provisions tre not included for bridges used solely for railway, rail- transit, or public utities. For bridges not fully covered herein, the provisions of these Specifications may be ‘applied, as augmented with additional design criteria where required "These Specifications are rot intended to supplant proper training or the exercise of judgment by the Besigner, and state only the minimum requirements necessaty to provide for public safety. The Owner or the Designer may require the sophistication of design or the ‘quality of materials and construction to be higher than “he minimum requirements. ‘The ‘concepts of safety through redundancy and ductility and of protection against scour and calision are emphasized. "The design provisions of these Specifications employ the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) methodology. The factors have been developed from the theory of reliability based on current statistical know.edge of loads and structural performance. ‘Methods of analysis other than those included in previous Specifications and the modeling techniques fperent in them are Included, and thelr use ts encouraged. “The commentary is not intended to provide a ‘complete historical background concerning the development of these or previous Specifications, nor is itintended to provide a detailed summary of the studies ‘and research data reviewed in formulating the provisions of the Specifications. However, references to some of the research data are provided for those who wish 10 “uy the background material in depth. ‘The commentary directs attention to other documents that provide suggestions for carrying out the Tequtements and. intent of these Specifications However, those documents and this commentary are nat intended tobe part of these Speciications. Construction specifications. consistent with these design specifications are the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications. 4.2 DEFINITIONS Bridge - Any structure having an opening not less than 6100 rm that forms for under a highway. ‘COMMENTARY ett Curved girders ate not fully covered and were not part of the calibration database. ‘The term ‘rotional” is often used in these specications to indicate an idealization of a physical phenomen in "notional load’ or “notional Fesistance." Use ofthis term strengthens the separation ‘of an engineers “notion” or perception of the physical world in the context of design from the physical realy itsett ‘The term “shall” denotes a requirement for compliance with these Speciicatons. “The torm "should? indicates a strong preference for a given ettrion. "The term "may" indicates a criterion that is usable, but other local and suitably documented, verifed, and approved efierion may also be used in a manner consistent with the LRFD approach to bridge design. part of a highway or that is located over Collapse -A major change in the geometry of the bridge rendering it unfit for use.a Section 1 - Introduction (SI) Component - Either a discrete element of the bridge or 2 combination of elements requiring individual design ‘consideration. ‘Design - Proportioning and detailing the components and connections of a bridge. Design Life - Period of time on which the statistical derivation of transient loads is based: 75 years for these Specifications. Ductility - Property of a component or connection that allows inelastic response. Engineer - Person responsible for the design of the bridge. Evaluation - Determination of load-carrying capacity of an existing bridge. Extreme Event Limit States - Limit states relating to events such as earthquakes, ice load, and vehicle and vessel colision, with return periods in excess of the design Ife ofthe bridge. Fixed Bridge - A bridge with a fixed vehicular or navigational clearance. Force Effect - A deformation, stress, or stress resultant (Le., axial foree, shear force, torsional, or flexural moment) ‘caused by applied loads, imposed deformations, or volumetric changes. Limit State - A condition beyond which the bridge or component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was ‘designed. Load Factor - A factor accounting primarily for the variability of loads, the lack of accuracy in analysis, and the probability of simultaneous occurrence of diferent loads, Dut also related to the statistics of the resistance through the callration process, Load Modifier - A factor accounting for cuctilty, redundancy, and the operational importance of the bridge. An idealization of 2 structure for the purpose of analysis. Movable Bridge - A bridge with a variable vehicular or navigational clearance. ‘Muitiple-Load-Path Structure - A structure capable of supporting the specified loads following loss of ai main load- carrying component or connection, Nominal Resistance - Resistance of a component or connection to force effects, as indicated by the dimensions specified in the contract documents and by permissible stresses, deformations, or specified strength of materials. ‘Owner - Person oF agency having jurisdiction over the bridge. Regular Service - Condition excluding the presence of special permit vehicles, wind exceeding 80 knvh, and extreme ‘events, including scour. 7 Rehabilitation -A process in which the resistance of the bridge is either restored or increased, Resistance Factor - A factor accounting primarily for variability of material properties. structural dimensions and workmanship, and uncertainty in the prediction of resistance, but also related to the statistics ofthe loads through the calibration process. Service Life - The period of time that the bridge is expected to be in operation. Service Limit States - Limit states relating to stress, deformation, and cracking,Section 1 - Introduction (S!) ‘SPECIFICATIONS COMMENTARY ‘strength Limit States - Limit states relating to strength and stability, 4.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 4.34 General Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of constuctiblty, safety, and Serviceabilty. with due regard to issues of inspecibiity, economy, and aesthetics. 38 specified in Article 2 ‘Regardless of the type of analysis used, Equation 4.3.2.1 shall be satisfied for all specified force effects and combinations thereof 1.32 Limit States 4.32.1 GENERAL Each component and connection shall satisfy Equation 1 for each limit state, unless otherwise specified. For service and extreme event limit states, Fesistance factors shall be taken as 1.0, except for bolts, for which the provisions of Artcie 6.5.5 shall apply. All limit states shall be considered of equal importance. EnyQ2 RAR (1.324) forwtich For toads for which a maximum value of is appropriate: Tote 095 ae (1324-2) For loads for which a minimum value of y, is appropriate: 1 ne 1.0 324 Tenn (1324-3) where load factor, a statistically based muttiplier applied to force effects resistance factor: a statistically based mutiplier ‘applied to nominal resistance, as specified in Sections 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 12 = lead modifier: a factor relating to ductiity, redundancy, and operational importance 134 ‘The resistance of components and connections is determined, in many cases. on the’ basis of inelastic behavior, although the force effects are determined by Using elastic analysis. This inconsistency is common to most current bridge specifications as a result of incomplete knowledge of inelastic structural action. 1324 Equation 1 is the basis of LRFD methodology. ‘Assigning resistance factor @ = 1.0 to all nonstrength fit states is temporary measure; development work is in progress. ‘Ducity, redundancy, and operational, importance are significant aspects affecting the margin of safety of bridges. Whereas the first two direct relate to physical strength, the last concems the consequences of the bridge being out of service. The grouping of these aspects on the load side of Equation 1 is, therefore, arbitrary. However, it consttuies a fist effort at oaification. In the absence of mote precise information, ach effect, except that for fatigue and fracture, estimated as #5 percent, accumulated geometricaly, @ Clearly subjective approach. With time, improved ‘cuantiication of ductility, redundancy, and ‘operational Importance, and their interaction and system synergy, ray be attained, possibly leading to a rearrangement of Equation 1, in which these effects may appear en elther ‘side of the equation of on both sides. NCHRP Project 42-36 is currently addressing the ssue of redundancy. “The influence of 7 on the relablity index, B, can be estimated by observing its effect on the minimum values ff B calculated in a database of girder-type bridges. For discussion purposes, the girder bridge data used in the Calibration of these Specifications was modified by ‘uttipying the total factored loads by n= 0.95, 1.0, 1.08, fend 1.10. The tesuiting minimum values of 6 for 95 combinations of span, spacing, and type of construction were determined fo be approximately 3.0, 3.5, 3.8, and 4.0, respectively ‘A further approximate representation of the effect of 1 values can be obtained by considering the percent of 1-3Section 4 - Introduction (Si) ‘SPECIFICATIONS ‘a factor relating to ductility, 28 specified in Article 133 iq = @ factor relating to redundancy as specified in Attcle 1.3.4 ‘a factor relating to operational importance as ‘specified in Article 1.3.5 force effect Ne = nominal resistance ‘factored resistance: @R, R= 1.32.2 SERVICE LIMIT STATE ‘The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions con stress, deformation, and crack width under reguiar ‘service conditions. 4.32.3 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE ‘The fatigue limit state shall be taken as restrictions fon stress range as a result of a single design truck ‘eceurring at the number of expected stress range cycles. The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set of ‘material toughness requifements of the AASHTO Material Specifications. 4.3.24 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ‘Strength limit stato shall be taken to ensure that strength and stability, both local and global, are provided to resist the specified stalstically significant load ‘combinations that a bridge is expected to experience in its design ie. 4.3.2.8 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES ‘The extreme event limit state shall be taken to censure the structural survival of a bridge during a major earthquake or flood, or when collided by a vessel, vehicle, orice flow, possibly under scoured conditions 12.3 Ductility The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strongth and extreme event mit states prior to failure. may be assumed that the requirements for ductility are satisfied for @ concrete structure in which the resistance of a connection is not less than 1.3 times the COMMENTARY random normal data less than of equal to the mean value plus A 0, where A is a multiplier, and ois the standard deviation ofthe data. IA is taken as 30, 35, 38, and 40, the percent of values less than or equal to the mean value plus A 0 would be about 88.865 percent, 99977 percent, $8.83 percent and 98.897 percent respectively. 01.322 ‘The service limit state provides certain experience- related provisions that cannot always be derived solely from strength or statistical considerations. 01.323 ‘The fatigue limit state is intended to limit crack ‘growth under repetitive loads to prevent fracture during the design lfe of the bridge. 1324 Extensive distress and structural damage may occur ‘under strength limit state, but overall structural integrity is expected to be maintained. 01325 Extreme event limit states are considered to be Unique occurrences whose retum period may be signifcanty greater than the design life of the bridge. c133 ‘The response of structural cc.nponents or ‘connections beyond the elastic mit can be characterized by either brite or ductile behavior. Britle behavior is, Undesirable because it implies the sudden loss of load- carrying capacity Immediately when the elastic limit is exceeded, Ductile behavior is characterzed by significant inelastic deformations before any loss of load- carrying eapacity occurs. Ductile behavior provides 104Section 1 - Introduction (81) SPECIFICATIONS. _naximum force effect imposed on the connection by the jnelastic action of the anjacent components, Energy-cissipating devices may be accepted as means of providing ductility For the strength imit state: no 2 1405 for nonductle components and connections = 1.00 for conventional designs and details ‘complying with these Specifications > 0.95 for components and connections for which ‘additional ductiy-enhancing measures have been specified beyond those required by these Specifications For all other jimit states: ng = 1.00 COMMENTARY warning of structural failure by large inelastic Ceformations. Under repeated seismic. loading. targe reversed cycles of inelastic deformation dissipate energy ‘and have a beneficial effect on structural survival If, by means of confinement or other measures, a structural component or connection made of britte materials can sustain inelastic deformations without significant loss of load-carrying capacity, this component can be considered ductile, Such ductile performance ‘shall be verified by testing. In otder to achieve adequate inelastic behavior the system should have a sufficient number of ductile ‘members and either: ‘» Joints and connections that arc also ductile and can provide energy dissipation without loss of capacity, or ‘* Joints and connections that have sufficient excess: ‘strength £0 as to assure that the inelastic response ‘occurs at the locations designed to provide ductile, ‘energy absorbing response. Statcally ductile, but dynamically nonductile response characteristics should be avoided. Examples (of this behavior are shear and bond failures in concrete embers and loss of composite action in flexural Past experience indicates that typical components. designed in accordance with these provisions generally exhibit adequate duclity. Connection and joints require ‘special attention to detailing and the provision of toad paths. "The Owner may speciy a minimum ductility factor as ‘an assurance that ductile failure modes will be obtained. ‘The factor may be defined as: (e133) where: 4,- deformation at ultimate 4, - deformation atthe elastic limit The ductility capacity of structural components oF ‘connections may either be established by ful oF targe- Seale testing or with analytical models based on documented material behavior. ‘The ductility capacity for ‘2 structural system may be determined by integrating focal deformations over the entire structural system.‘Section 1 - Introduction (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS 434 Redundancy Muitiple-oad-path and continuous structures should ‘be used unless there are compelling reasons not to use them, ‘Main elements and components whose failure is expected to cause the collapse of the bridge shall be designated as feilure-crcal and the associated structural system as nonredundant Attematively, failure~ critical members in tension may be designated fractura- ctical ‘Those elements and components whose fallure is rot expected to cause collapse of the bridge shall be esignated as nonfallure-citical and the associated ‘structural system as redundant. For the strength limit state: tq = 1.08 for nonredundant members = 1,00 for conventional levels of redundancy 2 0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy For all other limit states: Me = 1.00 4.38 Operational importance ‘This article shall apply to the strength and extreme event imit states only. ‘The Owner may dectare a bridge or any structural component and connection thereof to be of operational importance. For the strength lit state: 1.05 for important bridges 1.00 for typical bridges = 0.95 for retatively less important bridges a For all other imit states: a = 100 COMMENTARY ‘The special requirements for energy dissipating devices are imposed because of the rigorous demands placed on these components. 134 For each load combination and limit state under consideration, member redundancy classification (redundant oF nonredundant) should be based upon the Member contribution to the bridge safely. Several ‘redundancy measures have been proposed (Frangopol ‘and Naki 1991). crs Such classification should be based on socialsurvival andlor securityidefence requirements, The commentary to Anicle 3.10.3. provides some guidance on selecting importance categories as they felate to design for earthquakes. This information can be generalized for other situations. “Three levels of importance are specified in Art 3.10.3 with respect to seismic design: — “eritical “essential” and “other.” For the purposes of this artcie, bridges classified as “critical” or “essential” in Article 3.10.3 should be considered of “operational importance.” 1-6‘Section 4 - Introduction (5!) REFERENCES rangopol, D. M. and R. Nakib. “Redundancy in Highway Bridges.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 28, No. 1. 1881 pp. 45-50.‘SECTION 2 iS) - TABLE OF CONTENTS 2A SCOPE ....e.ceecetetreeeeeees 22 DEFINITIONS . 2.3 LOCATION FEATURES .. 23.1 Route Location 2.3.1.1 GENERAL 23.1.2 WATERWAY AND FLOODPLAIN CROSSINGS 2.32 Bridge Site Arrangement . 232.1 GENERAL .. 2322 TRAFFIC SAFETY 002... 2.3.2.2.1 Protection of Structures 2:32.22 Protection of Users .... 2:32.23 Geometric Standards 2.32.24 Road Surfaces 2.32.25 Vessel Colisions 2.3.3 Clearances ... 23.31 NAVIGATIONAL 2.3.3.2 HIGHWAY VERTICAL 2.3.2.3 HIGHWAY HORIZONTAL -. 2.3.3.4 RAILROAD OVERPASS: Environment 2.4 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION . 244 General ..... : 2142 Topographic Studies... 28 DESIGN OBJECTIVES .. 25. Satety Seas 25.2 Servicoabllity =... 22.2. i 2.52.1 DURABILITY Bo 252.11 Materials : 2.52.12 Sell-Protecting Measures. 252.2 INSPECTABILITY 21523 MAINTAINABILITY 2524 RIDEABILITY ... 25285 UTILITIES... 25.2.8 DEFORMATIONS | 2.5.26.1 General... 28262 Criteria for Deflection... 2526.3 Optional Criteria for Spanvto-Derth Ratios 2.52.7 CONSIDERATION OF FUTURE WIDENING 2527.1 Extto Beams on Mutbeam Bridges 28272 Substructure ... 25.3 Constructibiity 254 Economy ..... 28.4.1 GENEF 2.54.2 ALTERNATIVE PLANS |. 2.88 Bridge Aesthetics ...... 2.6 HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS «0.0.0.0... 284 General . 2.8.2 Site Data... 28.3 Hydrologic Analysis 26:4 Hydraulle Analysis 2.64.1 GENERAL2.6.42 STREAM STABILITY 2.643 BRIDGE WATERWAY 2.6.44 BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS 2.8.4.4.1 General 2.64.42 Bridge Scour . 216.45 ROADWAY APPROACHES TO BRIDGE 2.68 Culvert Location, Length, and Waterway Ares - 26.6 Roadway Drainage . 2.68.1 GENERAL 2.682 DESIGN STORM .... 2.68.3 TYPE, SIZE AND NUMBER OF DRAINS 2.6.64 DISCHARGE FROM DECK DRAINS .. 2.6.6.5 DRAINAGE OF STRUCTURES .. Prrarrrrririe RRPRPBRVBBBSSection 2 - General Design and Location Features (St) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. ‘COMMENTARY af SCOPE 2s Minimum requirements are provided for clearances, _ This section is intended to provide the Designer with ‘envionmental protection, aesthetics, geological studies, suficient information to determine the configuration and Sconomy, rideability, durability, constructiblity, overall mensions of a bridge, inspectability, end maintainability. Minimum requirements for trafic safety are referenced. ‘Minimum requirements for drainage faciliies and self-protecting measures against water, ice, and water bbome saits are incluced. in reeegnition that many bridge failures have been caused by scour, hydrology and hydraulies are covered in detail 2.2 DEFINITIONS ‘Agoradation - A general and progressive buldup or rising of the longitudinal pote ofthe channel bed a8 a resut of sediment deposition. “check Flood for Bridge Scour - Check flood for scour. The flood resuiting from storm, storm surge, andlor tide: having 2 flow rate in excess of the design flood for scour, but in no case a flood with a recurrence interval exceeding the peal used 509 years. The check Rood for bridge scour i used inthe investigation and assessment of a briige feurdotion to determine whether the foundation can withstand that flow and its associated scour anc remain stable with no reserve. See also superfiood. Clear Zone = An unobstructed, relatively flat area beyond the edge of the traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles. The traveled way does not include shoulders or auxiliary lanes. Clearance - An unobstructed hotizontal or verticat space. Degradation - A goneral and progressive lowering ofthe longitudinal profile of he channel bed as 2 resultof longterm ‘erosion, Design Discharge - Maximum ow of water a bridge is expected to accommodate without exceeding the adopted design constraints Design Flood for Bridge Scour - The flood flow equal to of less than the 100-year fled that creates the deepest gout at bridge foundations. The highway or bridge may be inundated at the stage of the design flood for bridge scour, ‘The worst-case scour condition may occur for the overtopping flood a8 @ result of the potential for pressure ow, Design Flood for Waterway Opening - The peak discharge, volume, stage, or wave crest elevation and its associated probebilty of exceedence that are selected for the design of a highway or bridge over @ watercourse or floodplain, By detiniton, the highway or bridge will not be inundated at the stage of the design flood for the waterway opening, Detention Basin - A stormwater management facility that impounds rundif and temporarily discharges it through & hydraulic outlet structure to a downstream conveyance system. Drip Groove - Linear depression in the bottom of components to cause water flowing on the surface to drop, Five-Hundred-Year Flood - The flood due to storm andlor tide having a 0.2 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year.‘Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) Goneral or Contraction Scour - Scour in a channel or on a floodplain that is not localized at a pier or other obstruction to flow. In a channel, generalicontraction scour usually affects all or most of the channel width and is typically caused bby a contraction of the flow. Hydraulics - The science concerned with the behavior and flow of liquids, especialy n pipes and channels, Hydrology - The science concemed with the occurrence, distribution, and circutation of water on the earth, including precipitation, runoff, and groundwater. Local Scour - Scour in a channel or on a floodplain that is localized at a pier, abutment, or other obstruction to flow. Mixed Population Flood - Flood flows derived from two or more causative factors. e, huricane-generated onshore winds or rainfall on a snowpack. 2 spring tide driven by ‘One-Hundred-Year Flood - The ficod due to storm andlor tide having a 1 pertent chance of being equalled or ‘exceeded in any given year. COvertopping Flood - The flood flow that, if exceeded, results in flow over a highway or bridge, over watershed divide, oF through structures provided for emergency reliet. The worst-case scour condition may be caused by the ‘overtopping flood. Relief Bridge - An opening in an embankment on a floodplain to permit passage of overbank flow. River Training Structure - Any configuration constructed in a stream or placed on, adjacent to, or inthe vicinity of a streambank to deflect current, induce sediment deposition, induce scour, or in some other way alter the fow and ‘sediment regimens of the stream. ‘Scupper- A device to drain water through the deck. ‘Sidewalk Width - Unobstructed space for exclusive pedestrian use between barriers or between a curb and a barrier. ‘Spring Tide - A tide of increased range that occurs about every two weeks when the moon is full or new. Stable Channel - A concition thet exists when a stream has a bed slope and cross-section that allows its channel to transport the water and sediment delivered from the upstream watershed without significant degradation, aggradation, ‘or bank erosion. Stream Geomorphology - The study of 2 steam and its floodplain with regard to its land forms, the general ‘configuration ofits surface, and the changes that take place due to erosion and the buildup of erosional debrs. ‘Suporelevation - A tilting of the roadway surface to partially counterbalance the centrifugal forces on vehicles on horizontal curves. ‘Superflood - Any flood oF tidal flow with a flow rate greater than that ofthe 100-year flcod but not greater than a S00- year flood. ‘Tide - The periodic vise and fall of the earth’s ocean that results from the effect of the moon and sun acting on a rotating earth. Watershed - An area confined by drainage divides and often having only one outlet for dlacharge: the total drainage ‘area contributing runoff to a single point. Waterway - Any stream, river, pond, lake, or ocean, Waterway Opening - Width or area of bridge opening at a specified stage and measured normal to principal direction of flow.‘Section 2 - General Design and Location Feature (St) SPECIFICATIONS 13 LOCATION FEATURES 2:34 Route Location 23.1.1 GENERAL “The choice of location of bridges shall be supported by analyses of alternatives with consideration given to economs, engineering, social, and environmental ‘concerns as well as costs of maintenance and inspecton Sesoviated with the structures and with the relative Importance of the above-noted concems, “Attention. commensurate withthe risk involved, shall be directed toward providing for favorable bridge locations that: ‘¢ Fit the conditions created by the obstacle being crossed: Facilitate practicat cost effective design, construction, operation, inspection and ‘maintenance; © Provide for the desired level of traffic service and safety: and ¢ Minimize adverse highway impacts. 2.3.1.2. WATERWAY AND FLOODPLAIN CROSSINGS, Waterway crossings shall be located with regard to initial capital costs of construction and the optimization of total costs, including river channel training works and the fraintenance measures necessary to reduce erosion. Studies of alternative crossing locations should include assessments of: '* ‘The hydrologic and hydraulic characteristics of the walenvay and its floodplain, including channel ‘tabilly, flood history, and, in estuarine crossings, {idal ranges and cycles: = The effect of the proposed bridge on flood flow pattems and the resulting scour potential at bridge foundations, ‘©The potential for creating new or augmenting existing food hazards: and ‘© Environmental impacts on the waterway and its floodplain. Bridges and their approaches on floodplains should bbe located and designed with regard to the goels and ‘objectives cf floodplain management, inctuding: COMMENTARY 2312 Detailed guidance on procedures for evaluating the location of bridges and their approaches on flocdplains is contained in Federal Regulations and the Planning ‘and Location Chapter of the AASHTO Manual (see Commentary on Article 2.8.1), Engineers: Mii knowledge and experience in applying the guidance land procedures in the AASHTO Mode! Drainage Manual should be involved in location decisions. It ts generally Saler and more cost effective to avoid hydraulic problems through the selection of favorable crossing locations than ‘to attempt to minimize the problems at a tater time In the Evaluation of te performance of existing bridges during past foods is cften helpful in selecting the type, size, and focation of new bridges. 2-3Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) “SPECIFICATIONS: © Prevention of uneconomic, hazardous, or Incompatitie use and development of ficadpiains; ‘© Avoidance of significant transverse and longitudinal ‘encroachments, where practicable: © Minimization of adverse highway impacts and ‘mitigation of unavoidable impacts, where practicable; © Consistency with the intent of the standards and cfiteia of the National Flood Insurance Program. where applicable: © Long-term aggradation or degradation: and made to obtain environmental © Conimitments, approvals, 2.3.2 Bridge Site Arrangement 2321 GENERAL ‘The location and the alignment of the bridge should be selected to satisfy both on-bridge and under-bridge traffic requirements. Consideration should be given to possible future variations in alignment or width of the ‘waterway, highway, or railway spanned by the bridg ‘Where appropriate, consideration should be given to future addition of masstransit faciities or bridge widening. 2322 TRAFFIC SAFETY 2.3.22.1 Protection of Structures Consideration shall be given to sale passage of vehicles on or under a bridge. The hazard to errant vehicles within the clear zane should be minimized by locating obstacles at a safe distance from the travel iones. Pier columns or walls for grade separation structures shoud be located in conformance with the clear 20n8 concept 2s contained in Chapter 3 of the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide. 1896, Where the practical limits of siructure costs, ‘ype of structure, volime and design speed of trough trafic. span arrangement skew, ‘and train make conformance withthe Roadside Design ‘Guide impractical the pier or wall should be protected by the use of guaréral or other barier devices. The ‘uardral or other device should, If practical. be Independently supported, with its roscway face at least 600 mm fom the face of pie or abutment unless a rigid barter is provided “The face of the guarcall or other device should be atleast 600 mm outside the normal shoulder ine ‘COMMENTARY 023.221 The intent of providing structurally independent barriers is to prevent transmission of force effects from the barrier to the structure to be protected.Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) SPECIFICATIONS 3.2.2.2 Protection of Users Railings shall be provided along the edges of tructures conforming to the requirements of Section 13. ‘Al protective structures shall have adequate surface features and transitions to safely redirect erant trafic. in the case of movable bridges, waming signs, ight, ‘signal ball gates, barriers, and other safety devices ‘hall be provided for the protection of pedestrian, yelists. and vehicular trafic, These shall be designed {0 operate prior to the opening of the movable span and to remain operational until the span has been completely Closed. The devices shall conform to the requirements for "Traffic Conivol at Movable Bridges." in the Manual on ke ‘or as shown on plans. ‘Where specified by the Owner, sidewalks shall be protected by barters. 7 32.2.3, Geometric Standards Requirements of the AASHTO publication & Policy is Ki ‘shall tlther be satisfied or exceplions thereto shall be justified ‘and documented. With of shoulders and geometry of {faffc barriers shall meet the specifications of the Owner. 23.224 Road Surfaces Road surfaces on a bridge shall be given antskid characteristics. crown, drainage, end superelevation in accordance with A Poly on Geometric Design of os ‘0 eal requirement. 232.25 Vessel Colisions Bridge structures shall either be protected against ‘sssel colision forces by fenders, dikes. or dolphins, or al be designed to withstand colision force effects 25 specified in Article 3.14.15, 2.3.3 Clearances, 2.3.3.1 NAVIGATIONAL Peimits for construction of a bridge over navigable waterways shall be obtained from the U.S, Coast Guard ‘nolo ether agencies having jurisciction. Navigational Gearences, both vertical and horizontal, shall be ished in eooperation with the U.S. Coast Guard, COMMENTARY 623222 Protective structures include those that provide a ssafe and controlled separation of trafic on multimodal facities using the same right-of-way. Special conditions, such as curved alignment, impeded visibility, etc., may justily barier protection, ‘even with low design velocities, 023225 “The need for doiphin and fender systems can be eliminated at some bridges by. judicious placement of 2.33.4 Where permits are coordination should be initiated with the U.S. Coast Guard to evaluate the needs of navigation and the. corresponding location and design requirements for the bridge. 2-5‘Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. 23.32 HIGHWAY VERTICAL ‘The vertical clearance of highway structures shall be conformance with the AASHTO publication A Policy on Geometiic Design of Highways _and Streets for the Functional Classification of the Highway or exceptions thereto shall be justified. Possible reduction of vertical clearance, due to settiement of an overpass structure. shal be investigated If the expected settlement exooeds 26 mm, it shall be added to the specified clearance. ‘The vertical clearance to sign supports and pedestrian overpasses should be 300 mm greater than the highway structure clearance, and the vertical clearance from the roadway to the overhead cross bracing of through-truss structures should not be less than £200 mm. 2.3.3.3 HIGHWAY HORIZONTAL ‘The bridge width shall not be less than that of the ‘approach roadway section. including shoulders or curbs, ‘gutters, and sidewalks. Horizontal clearance under a bridge should meet the requirements of Article 2.3.22. 'No object on or under a bridge, other than a barter should be located closer than 1200 mm to the edge of Gesignated traffic lane, The inside face of a barter ‘should not be closer than 600 mm to either the face of the objector the edge of a designated traffic lane. 23.34 RAILROAD OVERPASS Structures designed to pass over a railroad shall be in accordance with standards established and used by the affected railroad in its normal practice. These ‘overpass structures shall comply with appicable federal, state, county. and municipal laws. Regulations, codes, and standards should, as a ‘minimum, meet the specifications and design standards fof the American Railway Engineering Association, the Association of American Railroads, and AASHTO. COMMENTARY Procedures for addressing navigational requirements for bridges, including coordination withthe Coast Guard, are set forth in the Code of Federal Reaulatons, 23 CFR, Part 650, Subpart H, "Navigational Clearances for Bridges", and 33 U.S.C 401, 491, 511, et seq 23.32 ‘Tho specified minimum clearance should include 1150 mm for possible future overlays. if overlays are not contemplated by the Owner, this requirement may be ulified, Sign supports, pedestian bridges, and overhead ‘cross bracings require the higher clearance because of their lesser resistance to impact. 23.3.3 ‘The usable wieth of the shoulders should generally be taken as the paved width. ‘The specified minimum distances between the edge ofthe traf lane and fied object are intended to prevent collision with slightly errant vehicles and those carrying ‘wide loads, c2334 Attention is particulary called to the following chapters in the Manual for Railway Engineering (AREA 901) ‘© Chapter 7- Timber Structures, + Chapter 8- Concrete Stuctures end Foundations, © Chapter 9 - Highway-Ralroad Crossings. © Chapter 15 Stee! Structures, and Chapter 18 - Clearances. The provisions of the individual railroads and the ‘AREA Manual should be used to determine: 2-6‘Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) SPECIFICATIONS. 2.3.4 Environment ‘The impact of a bridge and its approaches on local communities, historic stes, wetlands, and other 2estheticaly, environmentally, and ecologically sensitive ‘teas shall be considered. Compliance with state water laws: federal and state regulations concerning encroachment on floodplains, fish, and widife habitats; ‘and the provisions of the National Flood Insurance ‘gram shall be assured, Stream geomorphology, nsequences of riverbed scour, removal of embankment stabilizing vegetation, and, where ‘appropriate, impacts to estuarine tidal dynamics shall be considered. 2.4 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION 244 General ‘A subsurface investigation, including borings and soit tests, shall be conducted in accordance with the provisions of Aricle 10.4 to provide pertinent and sufficient information forthe design of substructure units, ‘The type and cost of foundations should be considered in the economic and aesthetic studies for location and bridge alternate selection. > 4.2 Topographic Studies ‘Current topography of the bridge site. shall be established via contour maps and photographs. Such ‘studies shall include the history of the site in terms of movement of earth masses, soll and rock erosion, and ‘meandering of waterways. 2.5 DESIGN OBJECTIVES 25.4 Safety ‘The primary responsibilty of the Engineer shall be providing for the safety ofthe publ. COMMENTARY + ctearances, + Loacgs, Per gotecn, ‘© Waterproofing, and ‘© Blast protection. ca3a snot oo imaten Se cote ones at et flow th tres of water For purposes of toe secon, this’ involves evaluating the streams’ potential for aggradation, degradation, oF lateral migration. 254 Minimum requirements to ensure the structural safety of bridges as conveyances are included in these Specifications. The philosophy of achieving adequate structural safety is outlined in Article 1.3. 2-7Section 2- General Design and Location Features (Si) SPECIFICATIONS 2.62 Sorvceabilty 2.52.1 DURABILITY 252.11 Matfals ‘The contract documents shall call for quality ‘materials and for the application of high standards of fabrication and erection ‘Structural steel shall be selt-protecting, or have long- lite coating systems or cathodic protection. Reinforcing bars and prestiessing stands in concrete components, which may be expected to be exposed to airborne or waterbome salts, shall be protected by an appropriate combination of epoxy andlor galvanized coating, concrete cover, dansity, oF chemical composition of concrete, including air-entrainment and a nonporous painting of the concrete surface or cathodic protection. Prestress strands in cable ducts shall be grouted or otherwise protected against corrosion. ‘Atachments and fasteners used In wood construction shall be of stainless steel, malleable iron, ‘aluminum. of stes! that is galvanized, cadmiumplated, Gr otherwise coated, Wood componenis shall be treated ‘with preservatives. ‘Aluminum products shall be electrically insulated from steel and concrete components, ‘Protection shall be provided to materials susceptible to damage from solar radiation andlor air pollution. ‘Consideration shall be given to the durability of ‘materials indirect contact with soil andlor water. 25.2.1.2 Self-Protecting Measures Continuous drip grooves shall be provided along the underside of a concrete deck at a distance not exceeding 250 mm from the fascia edges, Where the deck is intemupted by a sealed deck joint, all top surfaces of fiers and abuments, other than bearing seats, shall have a minimum slope of 5 percent toward their edges. For open deck joints. this minimum slope shall be increased to 15 percent. In the case of open deck joins. the bearings shall be protected against contact with salt and debris. COMMENTARY 25.244 The intent of this Anicle is to recognize the significance of corrosion and deterioration of structural ‘matefials to the long-term performance of a bridge. Other provisions regarcing durability can be found ia Article 5.12. ‘Other than the deterioralion of the concrete deck Itself, the single most prevalent bridge maintenance problem is the disintegration of beam ends, bearings, pedestals; piers, and abutments due to percolation of waterbome road salts through the deck joints. Experience appears to indicate that a structurally continuous deck provides the best protection for ‘components below the deck. The potential ‘consequences ofthe use of road salts on structures with Unfiled steel decks, and unprestressed wood decks ‘should be taken into account. ‘These Specifications permit the use of discontinuous decks in the absence of substantial use of road salts. “Transverse saw-cut relief joints in cast-in-place concrete decks have been found to be of no practical value where ‘composite action is present. Economy, due to structural continuity and the absence of expansion joints, will usualy favor the application of continuous decks, regardless of location. Stringers made simply supported by sliding joints, ‘with oF without slotted bolt holes, tend to “freeze” due to the accumulation of corrosion products and cause maintenance problems. Because of the general availabilty of computers, analysis of continuous decks is ‘no longer a problem. Experience indicates that, from the perspective of 165mm CIP Box Beams 2.045. 2.0401, prestressed |-Prorast -Beame. 2.0451, 0.040, Concrete Pedestrian o.033t. ‘.030t Structure Beams ‘Adjacent Box .o30L. 0.0251. Beams, Overall Depth of .040t, o.032t Stee! |_ Composite I-Beam Depth of Beam o.03at ooze Portion of (Composite -Beam Trusses. 28.2.7 CONSIDERATION OF FUTURE WIDENING 2.5.2.7.4 Exterior Beams on Multibeam Bridges 2527.4 Uniess future widening is vitally inconceivable, the _THs provision applies. to any longitudinal fexurat tpad-canying capacity of exterior beams shallnot be less members radttonally considered to be stringers, Beams than the load-carrying capacity of an interior beam. or girders. 25.272 Substructure When future widening can be anticipated, ‘consideration should be given to designing the Substructure for the widened condition, 2-13Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. 28.3 Constructibilty Bridges should be designed in a manner such that fabrication and erection can be performed without undue diffcutty or distress and that locked-in construction force ‘effects are within tolerable limits ‘When the method of construction of a bridge is not seltevident or could induce unacceptable locked-in stresses, atleast one feasible method shall be indicated in the contract documents. If the design requires some strengthening andlor temporary bracing or support during erection by the selected method. indication of the need thereof shall be indicated in the contract documents. Details that require welding in restricted areas or placement of concrete through congested reinforcing ‘should be avoided ‘Climatic and hydraulic conditions that may affect the ‘construction ofthe bridge shall be considered. 2.54 Economy 2.84.1 GENERAL Structural types, span lengths, and materials shall be selected with due consideration of projected cost. The cost of future expenditures curing the projected service life ofthe bridge should be considered. Regional factors, such as avaiabity of material, fabrication, location, shipping, and erecton constraints, shal be considered. 2.64.2 ALTERNATIVE PLANS: In instance’s where economic studies do not indicate 8 clear choice, the Owner may require that alleratve contract plans be prepared and bid competitively Designs for alternative plans shall be of equal safety. serviceability, and aesthatic value. Movable bridges aver navigable waterways should be avoided to the extent feasible. Where movable bridges are proposed. at least one fixed bridge alternative should be included in the economic comparisons, 2.5.5 Bridge Aesthetics Bridges should complement their surroundings, be ‘graceful in form, and present an appearance of adequate strength, COMMENTARY 253 Al other factors being equal, designs that are seit. ‘supporting or use standardized falsework systems are normally prefered to those requiring unique and ‘complex falsework. ‘Temporary falsework within the clear zone should be adequately protected trom trafic. 2.8.4.4 If data for the trends in labor and material cost fluctuation are available, the effect of such trends should be projected 10 the time the bridge wil Ikely be constructed, Cost comparisons of structural altematives should be based on long-range considerations, including inspection, maintenance, repair, and/or replacement. Lowest frst cost does net necessa‘ly lead to lowest total cost. 28.5 Significant improvements in sppearance can often be made with small changes in shape or position of structural members at negligible cost For prominent bridges, however. additional cost to achieve improved appearance is often justified, considering that the bridge 214Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (St) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. Engineers should seek mote pleasant appearance by improving the shapes and ‘relationships of ‘the structural component themselves. The application of ‘extraordinary and nonstructural embelishment should be avoided. “The following guidelines should be considered: ‘¢Altemative bridge designs without piers or with few ppiers should be studied during the site selection and focation stage and refined duting the preliminary design stage. + Pier form should be consistent in shape and detail with the superstructure. ‘© Abrupt changes in the form of components and Structural type should be avoided. Where the interface of different structural types cannot be ‘voided. @ smooth transition in appearance from one type to another should be attained. ‘© Attention to detals, such as deck drain downspouts, ‘should not be overlooked, © it the use of a through structure is cictated by performance andior economic considerations, the Structural system should be selected to provide an ‘open and uncluttered appearance. ‘© The use of the bridge as a support for message oF directonal signing of lighting should be avoided wherever possible. ‘© Transverse web stiffeners, other than those located at bearing points, should not be visible in elevation. © For spanning deep ravines, archiype structures ‘should be preferred. COMMENTARY will fikely be a feature of the landscape for 75 or more years, ‘Comprehensive guidelines for the appearance of bridges are beyond the scope of these Specifications. Engineers may resort to such documents asthe Transportation Research Boars Bridge Aesthetics 1991) for guidance. "The most admired modem structures are those that rely for thei good appearance on the forms of the structural component themselves: ‘* Components are shaped to respond to the étructurat function, They are thick where the stresses are ‘greatest and thin where the stresses are smaller. ‘¢ The function of each part and how the function is performed is visible. ‘* Components are slender and widely spaced, preserving views through the structure. © The bridge is seen as a single whole, with all ‘members consistent and contvibuting to that whole: for example, all elements should come from the ‘same family of shapes, such as shapes with rounded ‘edges. ‘= The bridge full its function with a minimum of material and minimum number of elements. ‘© The size of each member compared with the others is cleaty related to the overall structural concept and the ob the component does, and fe The bridge as a whole has a clear and logical felationship to its surroundings. ‘Several procedures have been proposed to integrate aesthetic thinking into the design process (Gottemoeller 1991). ‘Because the major structural components are the targest parts of a bridge and are seen first they determine the appearance of a bridge. Consequently, engineers should seek excellent appearance in bridge parts in the following order of importance: ‘© Horizontal and vertical alignment and position in the ‘environment, © Superstructure type, ‘* Pier placement: arch. girder, ete: '* Abutment placement and height,Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. 2.6 HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS 26.1 General Hydrologic and hydraulic studies and assessments of bridge sites for stream crossings shall be completed {8 part ofthe preliminary plan development. The detail of these studies should be commensurate with the importance of and risks associated withthe structure. “Temporary structures for the Contractor's use or for accommodating traffic during construction shall be: ‘designed with regard to the safety of the traveling public and the adjacent propery owners, as well as minimization of impact on floodpiain natural resources. ‘The Owner may permit revised design requirements consistent with the intended service period for, and flood hazard posed by, the temporary structure. Contract documents for temporary structures shall delineate the respective responsibilities and risks to be assumed by the highway agency and the Contractor. Evaluation of bridge design altematives shall consider seam sabliy, backwater. ow datiaton: sam velocities, scour potential, food hazards, tidal Gynamice. (where appropri) and. consistency ath established criteria for the National Flood Insurance Program, COMMENTARY © Supersiructure shape, Le., ‘depth: © Pier shape: © Abutment shape; haunched. tapered, ‘© Parapet and railing details; © Surface colors and textures; and © Omament. ‘The Designer should determine the likely position of the majority of viewers of the bridge. then use that information as @ guide in judging the importance of vvariqus elements in the appearance of the structure, Perspective drawings of photographs taken from the important viewpoints can be used to analyze ‘appearance of proposed structures. Models useful ‘The appearance of standard details should be reviewed to make sure they fit the bridge's design ‘concept. iso 264 ‘The provisions in this Article incorporate improved practices and procedures for the hydraulic design of bridges. Detaled guidance for applying these practices ‘and procedures afe contained in the AASHTO Model Drainage Manual. This document contains guidance and references on design procedures and computer software for hydroigic and hysraule design It also Incorporates guidance and relerences from tne AASHTO Drainage Guidelines. which is a companion document to the ‘AASHTO Mode! Drainage Manual information on the Natonal Flcod Insurance Program is contained in 42 USC 4001 -4128, The Natonal Flood Insurance Act (see also 44 CFR 59 through 77) and 23 CFR 650, Subpart A. “Location and Hysraulc Design of Encroachment on Floodplains” Hydtotepie, hydraulic. scour, and stream stability stucies are concerned wih the prediction of food flows ‘and frequencies, and with the complex physical processes involving the actions and interactions of water 4nd soil during the occurrence of predicted food flows. ‘These studies should be performed by the Engineer wit the knowedge and experience 1 make. practical judgments regarding the scope of the studies to be performed and the significance of the results obtained. ‘The design of bridge foundations is best accomplished 2-16Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) SPECIFICATIONS: 26.2 Sito Data ‘A site-specific data collection plan shall include nsideration of: © Collection of aerial endior ground survey data for ‘appropriate distances upstream and downsveam from the bridge for the main stream channel and its floodplain: ‘* Estimation of roughness elements for the stream and the floodplain within the reach of the stream under study; ‘© Sampling of streambed material to a depth sufficient to ascertain material characteristics for scour analysis: ‘© Subsurface borings: COMMENTARY by an interdiscipinary team of structural. hydraulic, and ‘geotechnical engineers. ‘The AASHTO Model Drainage. Manual also contains ‘guidance and references on: '® Design methods for evaluating the accuracy of hydraulic. studies, including elements of a data collection plan; ‘® Guidance on estimating flood flow peaks and volumes, including requirements for the design of Interstate highways as per 23 CFR 650, Subpart A, Eneroachments; © Procedures or references for anelysis of tidal waterways, fegulated streams, and urban watersheds; © Evaluation of stream stabilty; © Use of recommended design procedures and ‘software for sizing bridge waterways; ‘© Location and design of bridges to resist damage from scour and hydraulic loads created by stream ‘current, ice, and debris '* Caloulation of magnitude of contraction scour, focal scour, and countermeasures thereto; '* Design of relict bridges, road overtopping, guide banks, and other rver training works; and ‘© Procedures for hydraulic design of bridge-size culverts, 262 superfoods. ‘expected to change with the seasons, ‘weather conditions, and long-term natural and man- made changes in surface conditions. The abity to ‘Statistically project long recurrence interval floods is & function of the adequacy of the database of past floods, ‘and such projections often change as @ result of new experience. ‘The above investigation of scour an important, but highly variable, ‘salety erterion that may be expected to be dificult to Teproduce, unless ali of the Designers assumptions are used in 2 posidesign scour 2-17Soction 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. (© Factors affecting water stages, including high water from streams, reservoirs, detention basins, tides, ‘and flood control structures and operating procedures; ‘© Existing studles and reports, including those ‘condusted in accordance with the provisions of the ‘National Flood Insurance Program or other flood control programs; «© Avalable historical information on the behavior ofthe ‘ream and the performance of the structure during past foods, including observed scour, bank erosion 2nd stuctural damage due to debris oF ice flows: and © Possible geomorphic changes ir channel flow. 2.6.3 Hydrologie Analysia ‘The Ouner shall determine the extent of hydrologic. studies on the basis of the functional highway Classification, the applicable federal and state and the flood hazards at the site, “The following floed flows should be investigated, as ‘appropriate. in the hydrologic studies: © For assessing flood hazards and meeting floodplain ‘management requirements - the 100-year flood: ‘© For assessing risks to highway users and damage to the bridge and its roadway approaches - the ‘overtopping flood andor the design fleod for bridge scour, ‘© For assessing catastrophic flood damage at high risk sites - a check flood of a magnitude selected by the ‘Owner, 2s appropriate forthe site conditions and the perceived risk; ‘© For investigating the adequacy of bridge foundations to resist scour - the check food for bridge scour, © To salisy agency design policies and criteria - design floods for waterway opening and bridge scour {for the various functional classes of highways: © To calibrate water surface profiles and to evaluste the performance of existing structures - historical floods. and ‘© To evaluate environmental conditions - low or base flow information, and in estuarine crossings, the spring and tide range. ‘COMMENTARY Investigation. Obviously, those original assumptions ‘must be reasonable siven the data, conditons, and projections available a the tine ofthe original design 283 ‘The return petiod of tidal flows should be correlated to the hurricane or storm tide elevations of waler as reported in studies by FEMA or other agencies. Particular attention should be given to selecting design and checking flooding discharges for mixed ‘population flood events. For example, fow in an estuary ‘may consist of both tidal ow and runoff from the upland watershed. It mixed population flows are dependent on the occurrence of a major meteorological event, such a8 a hurricane, the relatve timing of the individusl peak flow events needs to be evaluated and considered in ‘selecting the design discharge, This is likely to be the ‘case for flows in an estuary. If the events tend to be independent, as might be the ‘case for floods in @ mountainous region caused by rainfall runoff or snow malt, the Designer should evaluate both events independently end then consider the probability of their occurrence at the same time,‘Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (Si) SPECIFICATIONS Investigation of the effect of sea level rise on tidal ranges should be specified for structures spanning ‘marine/estuarine resources. 2.6.4 Hydraulic Analysis 26.4.1 GENERAL ‘The Engineer shall utilize analytical models and techniques that have been approved by the Owner and that are consistent withthe required level of analysis. 2.8.4.2 STREAM STABILITY ‘Studies shall be carried out to evaluate the stability of the waterway and to assess the impact of construction fon the waterway. The following items shall be considered: 1+ Whether the stream reach is degrading, aggrading, (in equilibrium; ‘¢ For stream crossing near confluences, the effect of the main stream and the tributary on the flood stages, velocties, flow distribution, vertical and lateral movements of the siream, and the effect of the foregoing conditions on the hydraulic design of the bridge; ‘© Location of favorable stream crossing, taking into ‘account whether the stream is straight, meandering, braided, or vansitional, or control devices to protect. the bridge from existing or anticipated future stream conditions: '¢ The effect of any proposed channel changes; '¢ The effect of aggregate mining or other operations in the channel; © Potential changes in the rales or volurhes of runoff due to land use changes; ‘© The effect of natural geomorphic stream patter ‘changes on the proposed structure; and © The effect of geomorphic changes on existing structures in the vicinity of, and caused by, the ‘proposed structure. For unstable streams or flow conditions, special studies shall be carried out to assess the probable future changes to the plan form and profile of the stream and to Setermine countermeasures 10 be Incorporated in the ‘COMMENTARY 2-19Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) SPECIFICATIONS. design, or at a future time, for the safety of the bridge ‘and approach roadways. 2.8.4.3 BRIDGE WATERWAY ‘The design process for sizing the bridge waterway shall include: © The evaluation of flood flow pattems in the main ‘channel and floodplain for existing conditions, and © The evaluation of trial combinations of highway profiles, alignments, and bridge lengths for ‘consistency with design objectives. Where use is made of existing flood studies, their accuracy shall be determined. 26.44 BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS 26.441 General ‘The structural, hydraulic. and geotechnical aspects ‘of foundation design shall be coordinaled and ferences resoived prior to the approval of preliminary plans. ‘COMMENTARY 2643 Trial combinations should take the following into ‘aceount: ‘© Increases in flood water surface elevations caused by the bridge, © Changes in flood flow patterns and velocities in the ‘channel and on the fecdplain, Location of hydraulic controls affecting flow through the structure or long-term stream stability, ‘© Clearances between the flood water elevations and low sections of the euperstructure to allow passage of ice and debris, ‘© Need for protection of bridge foundations and stream ‘channel bed and banks, and © Evaluation of capital costs and flood hazards associated with the candidate bridge alternatives through risk assessment or risk analysis procedures, 26.441 ‘To reduce the vulnerability of the bridge to damage from scour and hydraulic loads, consideration should be given tothe folowing general design concepts: ‘© Set deck elevations as high as practical forthe given site conditions to minimize inundation by foods. ‘Where bridges are subject to inundation, provide for overtopping of roadway approach sections, and streamline the superstructure to minimize the area subject to hydraulic loads and the collection of ice, debris. and drifts ‘© Utilize relief bridges, guide banks, dikes, and other river training devices to reduce the turbulence and hydraulic forces acting at the bridge abutments, ‘© Utilize continuous span designs. Anchor superstructures to their substructures where subject to the effects of hydraulic loads, buoyancy, ice, o {debris impacts or accumulations, Provide for venting ‘and draining of the superstructure. © Where practical, imit the number of piers in the ‘channel, streamline pier shapes, and align piers withSection 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS 2.84.42 Bridge Scour ‘As requifed by Atle 3.7.5, scour at bridge foundations is investigated for two conditions: ‘© For the design flood for scour, the streambed material in the scour prism above the total scour line Shall be assumed to have been removed for design conditions. The design flood storm surge, tide, oF trixed population flood shall be the more severe of the 100-year events or from an overtopping flood of lesser recurrence interval, '* For the cheek flood for scour: the stabilty of bridge foundation shall be investigated for scour conditions resulting from a designated flood storm surge, tide, ‘or mixed population flood not to exceed the 500-year ‘event of from an overtopping flood of lesser Fecurrence interval. Excess reserve beyond that requited for stability under this condition isnot necessary. The extreme event limit state shat! apply. If the site conditions, due to ice or debris jams, and tow tailwater conditions near stream confiuences dictate the use of @ more severe flood event for either the ‘design of check flood for scour, the Engineer may use such flood event. ‘Spread footings on soll or erodibie rock shall be fecated s0 that the bottom of footing is below scour depths determined for the check flood for scour. Spread footings on scour-resietant rock shall be designed and COMMENTARY the direction of flood flows. Avoid pier types that collect ice and debris. Locate piers beyond the immediate vicinity of stream banks. ‘© Locate abutments back from the channel banks ‘where significant problems with ice/debris buildup ‘scour, o channel stability are anticipated, or where special environmental of regulatory needs must be ‘met, ¢9,, spanting wetlands, ‘¢ Design piers on foodplains as river piers. Locate their foundations at the appropriate depth if there is 2 likelhood that the stream channel wil shit during the life of the structure or that channel cutotis are likely to occur. ‘© Where practical, use debris racks or ice booms to stop debrs and ice before it reaches the bridge Where significant ice ot debris buildup. is unavoidable, its effects should be accounted for in determining scour depths and nycrauiic loads. 26442 ‘A majorty of bridge failures in the United States and elsewhere are the resutt of scour. "The added cost of making a bridge less vulnerable: te damage from scour is small in comparison fo the total cost of a bridge failure. “The design flood for scour shal be determined on the basis of the Engineer's judgment of the hydrologic ‘and hydraulic flow conditions at the site. The Tecommended procedure is to evaluate scour due to the ‘specified flood flows and to design the foundation forthe event expected to cause the deepest total scour. "The recommended procedure for determining the total scour depth at bridge foundations is 3 follows: ‘© Estimate the long-term channel profile aggradation (oF degradation over the service life of the bridge: © Estimate the long-term channel plan form changes, ‘over the service life ofthe bridge: Asa design check, adjust the existing channel and ‘loodplain eross-rections upstream and downstream of bridge as necessary to reflect anticipated changes jn the channel profile and plan form: © Determine the combination of existing oF likely future ‘conditions and flood events that might be expected to result in the deepest scour for design conditions; ‘© Determine water surtace profiles for a stream reach ‘that extends both upstream and downstream of the 2-21‘Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS constructed to maintain the integrity of the supporting rock. Deep foundations with footings shall be designed to Place the top of the footing below the estimated contraction scour depth where practical to minimize bstruction to food fiows and resulting local scour. Even lower elevations should be considered for pile-supporied footings where the piles could be damaged by erosion and corrosion from exposure to stream currents. Where ‘conditions dictate a need to construct the top of a footing to an elevation sbove the streambed, attention shall be given tothe scour potential ofthe design. ‘When fendering or other pler protection systems are used, their effect on pier scour and collection of debris ‘Shall be taken into consideration inthe design ‘The stability of abutments in areas of turbulent flow shall be thoroughly investigated. Exposed embankment slopes should be protected with appropriate scour countermeasures. 26.4.5 ROADWAY APPROACHES TO BRIDGE ‘The design of the bridge shall be coordinated with tne design of the roadway approaches to the bridge on the floodplain so that the entire flood flow pattern is, developed and analyzed as a single, interelated entity ‘COMMENTARY bridge site for the various combinations of conditions ‘and events under consideration; © Determine the magnitude of contraction scour and local scour at piers and abutments; and © Evaluate the resutts of the scour analysis, taking into ‘account the variables in the methods used the available information on the behavior of the watercourse, and the performance of existing structures during past floods. Also consider present ‘and anticipated future flow patterns in the channel and its floodplain. Visualize the effect of the bridge fon these flow patterns and the effect of the flow on the bridge. Modily the bridge design where necessary to satisfy concems raised by the scour ‘analysis and the evaluation of the channel plan form. Foundation designs should be based on the total ‘scour depths estimated by the above procedure, taking into account appropriate geotechnical safety factors. ‘Where necessary, bridge modifications may include: ‘© Relocation or redesign of piers or abutments to avoid _areas of deep scour or overtapping scour holes from ‘adjacent foundation elements, ‘© Addition of guide banks, dikes, or other river training works to provide for smoother flow transitions of to control lateral movement ofthe channel, ‘© Enlargement of the waterway area, or © Relocation of the crossing to avoid an undesirable Tecation Foundations should be designed to withstand the ‘conditions of scour for the design flood and the check flood. In general, this will result in deep foundations. “The design of the foundations of existing bridges that are being rehabilitated should consider underpinning if scour indicates the need. Riprap_and other scour ‘countermeasures may be appropriate if underpinning is ot cost effective. Available technology has not developed sufciently to provide reliable scour estimates for some conditions, ‘such as bridge abutments located in areas of turbulence ‘due to converging or diverging flows, 28.45 Highway embankments on floodplains serve to redirect overbank flow, causing it to flow generally parallel to the embankment and retun to the main ‘channel at the bridge. For such cases. the highway 2-22‘Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) SPECIFICATIONS. mere roadway approaches on the foodpiain obstruct overbank flow, he highway segment within the foadpiain limits shall be designed to minimize flood hazards. ‘Where diversion of flow to another watershed occurs ‘as a result of backwater and obstruction of flood flows. ‘an evaluation of the design shall be caried out o ensure compliance with legal requirements in regard to ood hazards in he other watershed, 2.8.5 Culvert Location, Length, and Waterway Area In addition to the provisions of Ariicles 2.6.3 and 7.8.4, the following conditions should be considered: © Passage of fish and wife, © Effect of high outlet velocities and flow Concentrations on the culvert outlet, the downstream. channel, and adjacent property, ‘© Buoyancy effects at culvert inlets, © Trafic safety, and ‘¢ The effects of high talwater conditions as may be caused by downstream contvols or storm tides. COMMENTARY designs shall include countermeasures where necessary to limit damage to highway fils and bridge abutments ‘Such countermeasures may include: ‘© Relief bridges. © Retarding the velocity of the overpank flow by promoting growth of trees and shrubs on the floodplain and highway embankment within the highway right-of-way or constructing small dikes along the highway embankment, ‘© Protecting fil slopes subject to erosive velocities by Use of iran oF ather erosion protection materials on highway fils and spilthrough abutments, anc © Use of guide banks where overbank flow is large to protect abutments of main channel and relief bridges: from turbulence and resulting scour. Although overtopping may result in failure of the ‘embankment, this consequence is preterred to failure of the bridge. The low point of the overtopping section should not be located immediately adjacent to the bridge because its falure at this location could cause damage to the bridge abutment if the low point of the ‘overtopping section must be tocated close to the ‘abutment, due to geometric constraints, the scouring ‘effect of the overtopping flow should be considered in the ‘design of the abulment. Design studies for overtopping should also inelude evaluation of any flood hazards Created by changes to existing flood flow pattems or by flow concentrations in the vicinity of developed properties. 28s The eéscussion of site investigations and hydrologic ‘and hydraulic analyses for bridges is generally applicable to large culvert installations classified as bridges. “The use of safety grates on culvert ends to protect. ‘vehicles that run off the road is generally discouraged for large culverts, including those classified as bridges. because of the potential for clogging and subsequent ‘unexpected increase in the flood hazatd to the roadway ‘and adjacent properties. Prefered methods of providing {for traffic safety include the installation of barriers or the extension of the culvert ends to increase the vehicle recovery zone at the site, 2-23Sectlon 2- General Design and Location Features (SI) SPECIFICATIONS 256 Roadway Drainage 2864 GENERAL ‘The bridge deck and its highway approaches shall bbe designed to provide safe and efficent conveyance of surface runoff from the traveled way in a manner that minimizes damage to the bridge and maximizes the safely of passing vehicles. Transverse drainage of the deck, including roadway, bicycle paths. and pedestrian walkways, shall be achieved by providing a cross slope or superelevation sufficient for positive drainage. For wide ‘bridges with more than three lanes in each direction, special design of bridge deck drainage andlor special rough road surfaces may be needed to reduce the potential for hydroplaning. Water flowing downgrade in the roadway gutter section shall be intercepted and ‘ot permitted to run onto the bridge. Drains at bridge ends. shall have sufficient capacity to cay all contributing runof In those unique environmentally sensitive instances where it is not possible to discharge into the underying watercourse, consideration should be given to conveying the water in a longitudinal storm orain affixed to the underside of the bridge and discharging it. into ‘appropriate facilities on natural ground at bridge end. 28.6.2 DESIGN STORM ‘The design storm for bridge deck drainage shall not be less than the storm used for design of the pavement drainage system of the adjacent’ roadway, unless otherwise specified by the Owner. 26.6.3 TYPE, SIZE AND NUMBER OF DRAINS ‘The number of deck drains should be kept to a ‘minim consistent with hydraulic requirements, In the absence of other applicable guidance, for bridges where the highway design speed is tess than 75 kh, the size and number of deck drains should be such that the spread of deck drainage does not encroach on ‘more than one-half the wicth of any designated trafic lane. For bridges where the highway design speed is not less than 75 km/h. the spread of deck drainage should fot enercach on any portion of the designated traffic lanes. Gutter fw should be intercepted at cross slope transitions to prevent flow across the bridge deck. Scuppers or inlets of a deck drain shall be hydraulically efficient and accessible for cleaning. ‘COMMENTARY 268.4 Where feasible, bridge decks should be watertight ‘and all of the deck drainage should be carried to the lends ofthe bridge. ‘A longitudinal gradient on bridges should be maintained, Zero gracients and sag vertical curves: should be avoided. Design of the bridge deck and the approach roadway drainage systems should be coordinated. Under certain conditions, open bridge railings may be desirable for maximum discharge of surface runoff from bridge decks, ‘The "Storm Drainage" chapter of he AASHTO Modet Drainage Manual contains guidance on recommended values for cross slopes. ©2863 For further guidance or design criteria on bridge deck drainage, see the "Storm Drainage” chapter of the AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Policy on is ‘and Geometric _Desian_of Highways and Steets, ‘AASHTOIFHWA Research Report RO-87-014, Bridae Deck Drainage Guidelines ‘The minimum internal dimension of a downspout ‘should not normally be fess than 160 mm, but not less tan 200 mm where ice aceretion on the bridge deck IsSection 2 General Design and Location Features (St) ‘SPECIFICATIONS: 2.6.6.4 DISCHARGE FROM DECK DRAINS Deck drains shall be designed and located such that surface water from the bridge deck or road surface is Gireciod away from the bridge superstructure elements and the substructure. I te Owner has no. specisic requirements for controling the effluent from drains and pipes, ‘consideration should be given to ‘© A minimum 100 mm projection below the lowest ‘adjacent superstructure component, «© Location of pipe outlets such that @ 45-degree cone ‘of splash will ot touch structural components, Use of free drops or slots in parapets wherever practical and permissible, + Use of bends not greater than 45 degrees, and Use of cleanouts. Runoff from bridge decks and deck drains shall be disposed of in @ manner consistent with envi and safety requirements. 2.66.5 DRAINAGE OF STRUCTURES Cavities in structures where there is a likelihood for entrapment of water shall be drained at their towest point, Decks and wearing surfaces shall be designed to revert the ponding of water, especially at deck jomts. For bridge decks with nonintegral wearing surfaces oF ‘say.in-place forms, consideration shall be given to the evacuation of water that may accumulate at the interface, ‘COMMENTARY cze64 Consideration should be given to the effect of drainage systems on bridge aesthetics. For bridges where fee drops are not feasibe, attention should be given to the design of the cutet piping eyster to: ‘© Minimize clogging and other maintenance problems, ‘and © Minimize the intrusive effect of the piping on the bridge symmetry and appearance. Free drops should be avoided where runoff creates problems with trafic, rail, or shipping lanes. Riprap or Pavement should be provided under the free drops t© ‘prevent erosion. c2665 ‘Weep holes in concrete decks and drain holes in stay-in-place forms can be used to permit the egress of water.Section 2 - General Design and Location Features (SI) REFERENCES ‘AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Washington, 0.C., p. 1968, 1901 Bridge Aesthelis Around the Word. TRB, National Researeh Councl, Washington, D.C., 1981 ‘Bridge Deck Drainage Guidelines, AASHTOIFHWA Research Report RD-87-014, Washington, .C., 1987. ‘Deflection Limitations of Bridges, Progress Report of the Committee on Deflection Limitations of Bridges of the Struciural Dvsion. Jouma of he Stuctural Division, ASCE, Vol 84, No, ST 3, May 1958. ing‘ FHWA-1P-80-017. Hydraulic Engineering Circular 18. FHWA. U.S. Deparment of ‘Transportation, 1991 Gotternosiler, F. "Aesthetics and Engineers: Providing for Aesthetic Quality in Bridge Design.” In Bridge Aesthotice ‘Around the World, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1981, pp. 80-88. Guide Specifcation and Commentary for Vessel Colision Desian of Hichway Bridaes, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., February 1991. “Location and Hydraulic Design of Encroachment on Floodplains." Code of Federal Regulations. 23 CFR 650, Subpart A. Manual foc Ralway Engineering, AREA, Washington. ©. National Flood Insurance Act U.S, Code, Tite. 42, Sees, 4001-28. Code, Highway Engineering Division, Ministy of Transportation and Communications, . 1981. Toronto, Canada, 1991. iter, M. A. Timber Bridges, Design, Construction, Inspection and Maintenance, EM7700-B. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1990. Roadside Desian Guide. AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 19896 ‘Stream_Stabllly_al_Highway Structures. FHWA-P.90.014. Hydraulic Engineering Circular 20. FHWA U.S. Deparment of Transportation, 1981 Wright. R. N.. and W. H. Walker. "Criteria for the Deflection of Stee! Bridges." AISI Bulletin, No, 19, November 1971.3A SCOPE .....- : patel 7 Sea set 2 DEFINITIONS 3.3 NOTATION . 331 General 3132 Load and Load Designation 3.4 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS ..... 3.41 Load Factors and Load Combinations 3.42 Load Factors for Construction Loads . 3.43 Load Factors for Jacking and Peettensioning Forces ‘3.43.1 JACKING FORCES . 34.3.2 FORCE FOR POSTTENSIONING ANCHORAC 3.8 PERMANENT LOADS 3.8.4 Dead Loads: DC, DW, and EV 3.6.2 Earth Loads: EH, ES, and DD 3.6 LIVE LOADS: i ‘364 Gravity Loads: LL and PL. 36.1.1 VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD 36.1.1.1 Number of Design Lanes . .. 3.61.12 Mulliple Presence of Live Load 36.1.2 DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD 3641.21 General 3.6.4.2 Design Truck 36.123 Design Tandem 36.124 Design Lane Load 36.125 Tire Contact Area... 36.126 Distibuton of Whee! Loads Thvough Earth Fils 36.1.3 APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS 36.1.3. General... 3.6:1.32 Loading for Opitonal Live Load Detection Evaluation 36.133 Design Loa for Deak, Deck Systems, and he Top Slabs of Box Culverts 36.1134 Deck Overhang Load ..... 36.14 FATIGUE LOAD ... '3.6.1.4.1 Magnitude and Configuration . 38:4.42 Frequency 2.6.1.4. Load Distribution for Fatigue - 3.61.48 Refined Methods 13.6.1.4.30 Approximate Methods ... 3.6.1.8 RAIL TRANSIT LOAD 36.1.8 PEDESTRIAN LOADS 3.8.2 Dynamic Load Allowance: IM ‘3621 GENERAL . 3622 BURIED COMPONENTS 3.62.3 WOOD COMPONENTS: 3.8.3 Centrifugal Forces: CE . 3.64 Braking Force: BR 3.6.5 Vehicular Collision Force: CT - 365.1 PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES. 36.62 VEHICLE AND RAILWAY COLLISION WITH STRUCTURES... 365.3 VEHICLE COLLISION WITH BARRIERS. n ee RRREERBB 3 3 ae n3 na U3 3 3 3+) 13) 3 13) 13) 13. 3 3 3. SESBBRSR BBEES 3.7 WATER LOADS: WA3.74 Static Pressure 3.7.2 Buoyancy " 3.73 Stream Pressure 3.7.3.1 LONGITUDINAL... 3732 LATERAL .. 3.74 Wave Load ..... : 37.5 Change in Foundations Due to Limit tate for Scour .... BSSSSRBB 3.8 WIND LOAD: WL AND WS 3.8.1 Horizontal Wind Pressure .. 38.1.1 GENERAL . 3.8.1.2 WIND PRESSURE ON STRUCTURES: \ ws: 38.1.21 General . 38.122 Loads trom Superstructures | 3.8.1.23 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure -- 3.8.1.3 WIND PRESSURE ON VEHICLES: Wt Vertical Wind Pressure : Acroolastic instability 8.3.1 GENERAL .. 3.83.2 AEROELASTIC : 38.3.3 CONTROL OF DYNAMIC RESPONSES | 3.8.3.4 WIND TUNNEL TESTS . a SSISSRBRRRESEE 3.9 ICE LOADS: Ic as 39.1 General . 3.9.2 Dynamic ice Forces on Flere. 8.92.1 EFFECTIVE ICE STRENGTH | : 39.22 CRUSHING AND FLEXING 100000000001 3.9.23 SMALL STREAMS .. 3.92.4 COMBINATION OF LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE FORCES 3.9.24.1 Piers Parallel 10 Flow ..........-+5 39.242 Piers Skewed to Flow 3.92.5 SLENDER AND FLEXIBLE PIERS. 3.8.3 Static Ice Loads on Piers . 3.94 Hanging Dams and Ice Jams 3.85 Vertical Forces due to lee Adhesion... 13966 lee Accretion and Snow Loads on Superstructures | 3.40 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS: EQ ‘ ‘ 3404 Goneral .... 0. eeeeee ens a 3.10.2 Acceleration Gootficient 3.10.3 Importance Categories . 3.40.4 Seismic Performance Zones 3.10.5 Site Ettects 3.10.1 GENERAL 3.10.52 SOIL PROFILE TYPE | 3.1053 SOIL PROFILE TYPE II 3.1054 SOIL PROFILE TYPE Moo. 0 1.0.0. 7 ate 3.1055 SOIL PROFILE TYPE IV ae 3.40.6 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient . : 3406.1 GENERAL «2.0.02... ee uesiees entra eater tee 3.1062 EXCEPTIONS 3.40.7 Response Modification Factors. geet iet 3:10.71 GENERAL 3.10.72 APPLICATION |. 3.40.8 Combination of Seismic Force Effects BULELSSSSRRSSLSSsH SFRRRSSSSRSSSSS‘TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) 2.40.8 Caleulation of Design Forces . . 3-58 '3.40.8.1 GENERAL... 318s 3.10.82 SEISMIC ZONE 1 13-56 3.0.9.3 SEISMIC ZONE 2 3-57 30.8.4 SEISMIC ZONES 3 13587 3.10.9.4.1 General... a 310242 Mod\fed Design Forces 3-57 3.10.9.43 Inelastic Hinging Forces 13-87 3.10.9. LONGITUDINAL RESTRAINERS 3-58 3.10.98 HOLD-DOWN DEVICES .... 3-58 43.10.10 Requirements for Temporary Bridges and Stage Construction . 3-59 3.14 EARTH PRESSURE: EH, 3.44.1 General .. 3.11.2 Compaction 3.11.3 Presence of Water 3.41.4 Etfect of Earthquake ‘3.11.5 Earth Pressure: EH... ‘31151 BASIC EARTH PRESSURE 31152 AT-REST PRESSURE COEFFICIENT. K, 3:11.53 ACTIVE PRESSURE COEFFICIENT. hy 3:11.84 PASSIVE PRESSURE COEFFICIENT. ky 34136 EQUIVALENT-FLUID METHOD OF ESTIMATING EARTH PRESSURES 3.41868 APPARENT EARTH PRESSURES FOR ANCHORED WALLS SI1E7 EARTH PRESSURES FOR MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALLS . 3.14.6 Surcharge Loads: ES and LS ........--- 3.11.6.1 GENERAL .. aa 341.82 LIVE LOAD SURCHARGE: LS 3.11.6.3 REDUCTION OF SURCHARGE 3.14.7 Reduction due to Earth Pressure 3.11.8 Downdrag ete Ls, and DD Bese Ewasaas?22aess 2.42 FORCE EFFECTS DUE TO SUPERIMPOSED DEFORMATIONS: TU, TG, $H,R, SE 342.1 General ..... a 3.12.2 Uniform Temperature... : 3122.1 TEMPERATURE RANGES 3.12.22 SETTING TEMPERATURE 3122.3 SEASONAL TEMPERATURE VARIATION 3.423 Temperature Gradient .. 3.124 Diterontiat Shrinkage - 3.425 Creep ......-.- 3426 Settlement Besssssssa 3,43 FRICTION FORCES: FR 3.14 VESSEL COLLISION: CV ca a 3.44.1 General . sad i Tua 3.142 Owner's Responsibility 311433 Importance Categorie 344.4 Design Vessel 3.445 Annual Frequency of Collapse. 3145.1 VESSEL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION 3.1452 PROBABILITY OF ABERRANCY 3145.21 General. 314522 Stalstical Method ... 3.14.5.2.3 Approximate Method SASQRReeess & Sei‘TABLE OF CONTE! 3:14.83 GEOMETRIC PROBABILITY 3.14.54 PROBABILITY OF COLLAPSE 3.446 Design Collision Velocity . 3.147 Vessel Collision Energy . 3.448 Ship Collision Force on Pier 3.149 Ship Bow Damage Length ..... 3.44.10 Ship Collision Force on Supersructure '3.44,10.1 COLLISION WITH BOW .. 3:14.10.2 COLLISION WITH DECK HOUSE - 3.14.10.3 COLLISION WITH MAST ...... 3.14.41 Barge Collision Force on Pier te 3.44.12 Barge Bow Damage Length : See 3.1413 Damage at the Extreme Limit State ‘ fituisadtdttbet 3.44.14 Application of Impact Forces. au ‘3.14.14. SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN .....- a 3.14.14.2. SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN = 3.44.48 Protection of Substructuras S8egsseegagaeesesSection 3 - Loads and Lead Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS 34 SCOPE This section specifies minimum requirements for loads and forces, the limits of tneit application, load factors, and load combinations used for the design of new bridges. The lead provisions may aiso be applied to the structural evaluation of existing bridges. ‘Where multiple performance levels are provided, the selection of the design performance level is the responsiblity of the Owner ’A minimum load factor Is specified for force effects ‘that_may develop during constuction. Additional requirements for construction of segmental concrete bridges are specified in Article 5.14.2. 3.2 DEFINITIONS. COMMENTARY cat “This section includes, in addition to traditional loads. the force effects duo to colisions, earthquakes. and ‘setiement and distortion ofthe structure. Vehicle and vessel colisions, earthquakes, and aeroetastic instability develop force effects that are dependent upon structural response. Therefore, such force effects cannot be determined without analysis andlor testing. ‘With the exception of segmental concrete bridges, construction feads are not provided, but the designer should obtain pertinent information from prospective contractors. Active Earth Pressure - Lateral pressure resulting from the retention of the earth by a structure or component that 3 tending to move away from the soll mass. ‘Active Earth Wedge - Wedge of earth with a tendeney to become mobile if not retained by a structure oF ‘component. ‘Aeroelastic Vibration - Periodic, elastic response of a structure to wind, ‘Axle Unit - Single axle or tandem axe. Berm - An earthwork used to redirect or slow dawn impinging vehicles or vessels and to stabilize fil, embankment, fF soft ground and cut slopes. Centrifugal Force -A lateral force resulting from a change inthe direction of a vehicle's movement, op Draft Waterways - A navigable waterway used by merchant ships with loaded drafts of 4200 to 18 000+ mm. Design Lane - A notional trafic lane positioned transversely on the roadway. ‘Design Water Depth - Depth of water at mean high water. Distortion - Change in structural geometry. Dolphin - Protective object that may have its own fender system and that is usually cireuiar in plan and structurally independent from the bridge. Dynamic Load Allowance - An increase in the applied static force effects to, account for the dynamic interaction between the bridge and moving vehicles. Equivalent Fluid - A notional substance whose density is such that it would exert the same pressure as the soll itis ‘seen to replace for computational purposes. ‘Exposed - A condition in which 2 portion of a bridge's substructure or superstructure is subject to physical contact by any portion of a coliding vessets bow, deck house, or mast. ‘Extreme -A maximum or a miniraum.Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) Fender - Protection hardware attached to the structural component to be protected of used to delineate channels or toredirect aberrant vesseis. Fraall ee - le resulting trom turbulent water fo. Global - Pertinent othe entire superstructure orto the whole bridge. Permanent Loads - Loads and forces that are, of are assumed tobe, constant upon completion of constuction. Influence Surface - A continuous or discretized function over a bridge deck whose value at a point, multiplied by a load aeting normal to the deck at that point, yields the force effect being sought. Lever Rule - The statical summation of moments about one point to calculate the reaction at a second point. ‘Liquefaction - The loss of shear strength in a saturated soil due to excess hydrostatic pressure. In saturated, cohesionless sols, such a strength loss can result from loads that are applied instantaneously or cyclicy, particularly in loose fine to medium sands that are uniformly graded. Load - The etfect of acceleration, including that due to gravity, imposed deformation, or volumetric change. Local - Pertinent to @ component or subassembly of components. ‘Megagram (Mg) - 1000 kg (a unit of mass). ‘Mode of Vibration - A shape of dynamic deformation associated with a frequency of vibration. Navigable Waterway - A waterway, determined by the U.S. Coast Guard as being suitable for interstate or foreign ‘commerce, as described in 33CFR205-25. ‘Nominal Load - An arbitrarily selected design load level Normally Consolidated Soll - A soil for which the current overburden pressure is the greatest that has been experienced. Overeonsolidated Soil - A soll that has been under greater overburden pressure than currently exists ‘Maximum Preconsolidation Pressure verconsolidation Ratio- OCR = . idation Rati ee ney crrer Passive Earth Pressure - Lateral pressure resulting from the earth’s resistance tothe lateral movement ofa structure ‘or component into the scil mass. Parmit Vehicle - Any vehicle whose right to travel is administratively restricted in any way due to its weight or size, Reliability Index - A quantitative assessment of safely expressed as the ratio of the difference between the mean resistance and mean force effect to the combined standard deviation cf resistance and force effect. Roadway Width - Clear space between barriers andior curbs. Setting Temperature - A structure's average temperature, which is used to determine the dimensions of a structure when a component is added or set in place. ‘Shallow Dratt Waterways - A navigable waterway used primarily by barge vessels with loaded drafts of ess than 2700 © 3000 mm, ‘Structurally Continuous Barrier - A bartier, of any part thereof, that is interrupted only at deck joints. 3-2Section 3- Loads and Load Factors (S!) ‘substructure - Structural pants ofthe bridge that suppor the horizontal span. “uperstructure - Svuetura pas of te bridge that provide te horizon span. surcharge -Aload used to model he weight of en lor cther loa apped to he top of he retained mati ‘Tandem ~Two closely spaced axles, usually connected 10 an under-caiage, which aiés In distributing the load equally Walt Friction Angle -An angle whose aclangent represents tne apparent fcfon between 9 wal and = soll mass. ‘Wheel - Single or dual tire at one end of an axle. Whee! Line - A transverse or longitudinal grouping of wheels. 3.3 NOTATION 33.1 General plan area of ice foe: (ry: selamic acceleration coeficient (C3923) (9.10.2) eran at frequency of bridge element collapse (Number/Year) (C3.14.4) jength of uniform deceleration at braking (mm) (C364) bow damage length of standard hopper barge (mmm) (3.14.11) bow damage width of ship (rum) (3.14.9) ‘beeen (with) for barge, barge tows, and ship vessels (mm) (C3.14.6.1) width of bridge pier (mm) (3.14.5.3) Wthicsiar bracking force: base rate of vessel aberrancy (3.14.5.2.3) braicing force coefficient (3.2.2) (C3.8.4) ‘coefficient to compute centrifugal forees (3.6.3) Coefficient fo force due to crushing of ice (3.8.2.2) rag coefficient (5? Nimm*) (3.7.3.1) hydrodynamic mass coefficient (3.14.7) lateral drag coefficient (C3.7.3.1) ‘Coefficient for nose inclination to compute F, (3.8.2.2) Steet seismic response coefficient for the m® mode of vibration (3.10.61) ‘unit cohesion (MPa) (3.17.5.4) ‘bow depth (mm) (C3.145.1) minimum depth of earth cover (mem) (3.6.2.2) Size of vessel based on deadweight tonnage (Ng) (C3.14.1) ‘deformation eneray (joule) (C3.14.11) Tongitucina force on pier due to ice floe (N) 3.9.2.4.) ocrontal force due to failure of ice flow due to bending (N) (3.9.2.2) harizontal force due to erushing of ice (N) (3.8.2.2) factor of safety against basal heave (C3.11.5.6) traneverse force on pler due to ice low (N) (3.9.2.4:1) vertical ice force due to adhesion (N) (3.9.5) ‘gravitational acceleration (m/s*) (3.6.3) Sraviatlge clement strength (Ny, frat height of retaining wall (rw); resistance of bridge ‘component {0 2 horizontal force (N) (3.14.5.4) (C3.11.1) (3.14.84) Hi depth of barge head-block on its bow (mm) (3.44.44.1) 4 a a & a Bu a BR > c c 3. co a Cn De Oe He tutimate bridge pier resistance (N) (3.14.5.4) K timate bridge superstructure resistance (N) (3.14.6.4) h notional height of earth pressure diagram (mm) (3.11.5.7) be ‘equivalent height of sol for vehicular load (mm) (3.11.6.2) ma ‘dynamic load allowance (3.6.1.2.5) KE design impact energy of vessel colision (joule) (3.14.7) 3-3Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (S!) BORER EAR Z 8 BP PrP wezas PPPPPP 7P20 © SEKK<7 AMON SESS<77 Se Ice force reduction factor for small streams (N) (3.9.2.3) coefficient of earth pressure (3.11.6.2) coefficient of active lateral earth pressure (3.11.5.1) coeficient of lateral earth pressure (3.11.6.1) coeficient of earth pressure at rest (3.11.5.1) coeficient of passive pressure (3.11.5.4) coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge (3.14.6.1) length overall of ship or barge tow including the tag or tow boat (mm) (3.14.42) ‘mass of vessel (Mg) (C3.14.1) (C3.14.5.1) (3.14.7) ‘muiple presence factor (3.6.1.12) ‘number of one-way passages of vessels navigating through the bridge (Number/Year) (3. coverconsolidation rato (8.1.5.2) toads resting from vessel impact (N): concentrated wheel load (N); live load intensity; load (N)(3.14.5.4) (884.25) (C3.1162) 2.116.1) probability of vessel aberrancy (3.14.5) Epparent ear pressure (MPa): force resultant per unit width of wall (Nimm) (3.11.6.6) (2.11.5.7), barge collision impact force for head-on colision between barge bow and a rigid object (N}: base wind pressure corresponding to a wind speed of 160 kmh (MPa) (3.14.11) (3.6.1.2) average equivalent static barge impact force resulting from Melr-Domberg Study (C3.14.11) ship colsion impact force between ship bow and a rigid superstructure (N)(3.14.10.1) probability of bridge colapse (3.14.5) {sign wind pressure (MPa) (3.8.1.2) ship collision impact force between ship deck house and a right superstructure (N) (3.14 10.2) ‘geometric probability of vessel colison with bridge piet/span (2.14.6) Frorizontal component of force per unt length of wall due to earth pressure (Nem) (3.11.5.5) ship colision impact force betwen ship mast and a rigid superstructure (N) (3.14.10.3) ‘normal component of wind pressure (MPa) (3.8.1.4) passive earth pressure (MPa) (3.11.54) ‘hip colision impact force for haad-on collision between ship bow and a rigid object (N) (2.14.8) vertical component of force per unit length of wall due to earth pressure (Nimm) (3.11.5.5) fffecive ice crushing strength (Pa): stream pressure (MPa); basic earth pressure (MPa); fraction of tuck tatfc na single lane; load intensty (MPa) (3.9.2.2) (37.3.1) (2.11.6.1) (36.1.4.2) (8.11.6.1) {oad intensity (Nimm) (3.11.6.1) ‘generalized load (3.4.1) maximum applied surcharge (MPa) (3.11.6.1) radius of curvature (mm), radius of crcular pier (mm): seismic response modification factor, racial distance from point of load application to a point on the wall (3.6.3) (3.8.5) (3.10.7.1) (3.11.6.1) A correction facor for bridge tocation (3.14.52.3) ratio of exposed superstructure depth tothe total ship bow depth (3.14.10.1) PA correction factor for currents parallel to vessel ransit path (3.14 5.2.3) PA correction factor for vessel traffic density (3.14.5.2.3) Feducton facior for ship deck house colsion force (3.14, 10.2) PA correction factor for cross-currents acting perpendicular to vessel transit path (3.14.5.2.3) radius of pier nose (mm) (C3.9.2.3) coefficient related to site conditons for use in determining seismic loads (3.10.5) freezing index (C3822) ‘mean daily ar temperature (°C) (C3.9.2.2) period of vibration for m® mode (s)(3.10.6.1) thickness of ice (mm): thickness of deck (mm) (3.9.2.2) (9.12.3) design velocity of water (evs): design impact speed of vessel (vs) (3.7.2.1) (3.14.6) base wind velocity taken as 160 krvh (3.8.1.1) waterway current component acting parallel tothe vessel transit path (knvh) (3.14.5.2.3), design wind velocity at design Elevation Z (krvh) (3.6.1.1) ‘minimum design impact velocity taken not less than the yearly mean current velocity for the bridge location kvh) (3.146) veszal transit spe in the navigable channel (kn) (3.14 6) waterway current component acting perpendicular to the vessel transit path (km/h) (3.14.5.2.3) 5) 364‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS. ‘COMMENTARY NREMR XESS g aun e 10 000 mm: depth below surface of soll (mim): depth Foire ground surace to @ point on the wall under consideration (mm): vefical distance from point of Trad sopisation to the elevation of a point on the wall under consideration (mi) (38.1.1) (3.11.5.4) Gite’) {Fiction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic (mm) (3.6.1.1) ‘depth below surface of backfl (mm) (2.11.5.1) Heer terrain condtions in relation fo wand approach; coefficient for local ice contin; incination Crper nose wir respect fo a vertical axis (DEG); angle between foundation wall and a ne connecting Te Bhnron the wall under consideration and a point on the boom comer of the footing nearest tothe wall (RAD) (C3.8.1.1)(C39.2.2) (38.22) ‘otional slope of backil (DEG) (3.11.7) ‘nue nose angle In a horizontal plane used to calcuate transverse ice forces (DEG): slope of back uriace behind retaining wall (DEG) (3.4.1) (3.8.24.1) (3.11.53) density of materials (kgin); densty of sol (kg?) (3.5.1) (3.11.8.1) effective soll density (kgm (3.11.58) {oad factor for ive loae applies simataneously with seismic loads (3.4.4) cequivalent-fuid density (kgf?) (3.11.5.5) tose factor (2.4.1) toed factor for permanent loading (3.4.1) {oat factor for settlement (34.1) cad factor fr temperature gradient (34.1) CStoment of fop of wall required 10 reach minimum active or maximum passive pressure by siting OF {ateral transition (mm) (C3.1%.1) constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge (MPa) (3.11..1) horizontal pressure cision (MPa) (3.11.6.1) hction angle between fil and wal (DEG); angle between foundation wall anda line connecting the point Ortho wall under consideration and a poi on the bottom corner of the footing furthest from the wall (RAD) (3.11.5.3)(C3.11.62) toad modifier specited in Aricle 1.3.2 (3.41) ‘Stole of wind drecon (DEG): angle of backfl of wall tothe vtical (DEG): angle of channel tum or bend {DEY angle between drecton of steam flow and the longitucinal ax of pier (DEG) (3.8.1.4) (8.11.53) (6145.23) (87.32) friction angle between ice foe and pier (DEG) (3.9.2.4.1) standard deviation of normal distribution (3.14.53) Poisson's Ratio (OI) (3.17.1) resistance factors (C3.4.1) {ng of internal frtion of drained soit (OG) (3.11.52) effective angle of interna ficion (DEG) (3.11.53) 3.3.2 Load and Load Designation ‘The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered 3-5Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. ‘© Permanent Loads po be ow EH EL es, EV downdrag COMMENTARY dead load of structural components and onstructural attachments dead load of wearing surfaces and utlties horizontal earth pressure load accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process ‘earth surcharge load vertical pressure from dead load of earth ‘il © “Transient Loads BR ce cR cr cv EQ FR ic ™ u ts PL Se SH 1S wu wa, we ws: Vehicular braking force vehicula centitugal force: creep vehicular collision force vessel collision force earthquake friction ice load vehicular dynamic load allowance Vehicular ive load live load surcharge Pedestrian live load settlement shrinkage temperature gradient ‘uniform temperature water load and stream pressure wind on tive load wind load on structure 3,4 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS 3.4.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations ‘The total factored force effect shall be taken a: Q=Eny,Q, where: 344 ‘The background forthe load factors specified herein, ‘and the resistance factors specified in other sections of these Specifications is developed in Nowak (1992). 414) load moditer specified in Article 1.3.2 a Q = force effects from loeds specified herein y= load factors specified in Tables 1 and 2 3-8Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS: Components and connections of a bridge shall satiety Equation 1.3.2.1-1 for the applicable Combinations of factored extreme force effects af ‘Specified at each ofthe folowing limit states Basic load combination felaling to the normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind. © STRENGTHI- © STRENGTH II- Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ‘Owner-specified special design vehicles, evaluation permit vehicles, or both ‘without wind. © STRENGTH I~ Load combination relating 10 ‘the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 krvh. © STRENGTHIV- Load combination relating 10 very high dead load to live lad force effect ratios. COMMENTARY ‘A reduced value of 0.50. applicable to all strength {oad combinations. specified for TU, CR. and SH. used when calculating force effects other than sisplacements at the strength limit state, represents fan expected reduction of these fores effects in Conjunction with the inelastic response of the Structure, The calculation of displacements for these loads uilizes a factor greater than 1.0 to avoid Undersized joints and bearings. The effect and significance of the temperature gradient remains Unclear at this writing. Consult Article C3.12.3 for further Information ‘The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the bridge unless so assured by traffic contr. Otherwise, the other lanes should be ‘assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live toad as specified herein. For bridges longer than the permit Vehicle, the presence of the design lane led, Preceding and following the permit load in its lane, should be considered. Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. ‘Therefore, high winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the bridge. ‘The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of trying out various combinations ‘of load and resistance factors on a number of bridges and their components. Combinations that yield a safety index close to the target value of B = 2 are retained for potential application, From these are selected constant load factors y and Corresponding resistance factors q for each type of ‘structural component reflecting its use. ‘This calibration process had been carried cut for a large number of bridges with spans not exceeding {60 000 mm. For the primary components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and lve load force effects je rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors different from those found acceptable for ‘small- and medium-span bridges, It is believed to be more practical to Investigate one additional load ‘Case than to require the use of two sets of resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength ‘Load Combination |. depending on other permanent foads present. Spot checks had been mede on & few bridges with up to 183 000 mm spans, and it ‘appears that Load Combination IV wall govern whereSection 3 - Loads and Load Factors (Si) ‘SPECIFICATIONS © STRENGTHV- ¢ EXTREME EVENTI- © EXTREME EVENT It © SERVICE I- © SERVICE II- ‘COMMENTARY Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 90 krvh velocity. ‘Load combination including earthquake, Load combination relating to ice load, collision by vessels ‘and vehicles, and certain hydraulic events with a reduced lve load other than that which is part of the ‘vehicular colision load, CT. Load combination relating 10 ‘the normal eperational use of the bridge with a $0 kmh wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to defection contro! in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced concrete structures. This load combination should also be used for the investigation of slope stability. Load combination intended to contral yielding of steel structures and slip of sip- critcal connections due to vehicular lve load, the dead load to live load force effect ratio exceeds about 7.0, This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major flood and an earthquake ‘occurring at the same time is very small, Therefore, consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on mean discharges may be warranted. Live load coincident with an earthquake is discussed elsewhere in this artce, ‘The recurrence interval of extreme events is thought to exceed the design ite ‘The joint probabilty ofthese events is extremely low, ‘and, therefore, the events are specified to be applied separately. Under these extreme conditions, the structure is expected to undergo considerable Inelastic deformation by which locked-in force effects due te TU, TG, CR, SH, and SE are expeced to be ‘The 0.80 live load factor signifies a low probability of the concurrence of the maximum vehicular live load (other tran CT) and the extreme events. ‘Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this toad combination. Service Il is used to investigate tensile stresses in prestressed ‘concrete components. This load combination corresponds 10 the overload provision for steel structures in past editions of the ‘AASHTO Specifications, and itis applicable only to Stee! structures. From the point of view of load level this combination is approximately halway between that used for Service | and Strength | Limit States.Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (5!) SPECIFICATIONS, © SERVICE I Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures with the objective (of erack contro. © FATIGUE - Fatigue and fracture toad combination relating to repetitive gravitational vehicular five load and ‘dynamic responses under a single design tuck having the axle spacing specified in Article 36.1.4.1. ‘The load, factors for various loads comprising a esign toad combination shall be taken as specified in ‘Table 1. All relevant subsets of the toad combinations shall be investigated. For each load combination, every toad that is indicated to be taken into account and that is germane to the component being designed, inciuding all significant effects due to distortion, shall be mutipied by the appropriate load factor and multiple presence factor specified in Article 3.6.1.1.2, It applicable. The products shall be summed as specified in Equation 1.3.2.1-1 and, ‘multiplied by the load modifiers specified in Arice 1.3.2. “The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each load ‘combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated. ‘in load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value shall be ‘applied to the load reducing the force effect For permanent force effects, the load factor that produces the more cilical combination shall be selected from Table 2. Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of 2 component or bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for that permanent load shall also be investigated. "The larger of the two values provided for load factors of TU. CR, and SH shall be used for deformations and the smaller values for al other effects. ‘The evaluation of overall stably of earth slopes with cr without a foundation unit should be investigated at the Service limit state based on the Service | Load Combination and an appropriate resistance factor. In COMMENTARY ‘The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among other. things, current. exciusion ‘weight limits mandated by various jurisdictions. Vehicles permitted under these limits have been in service for many years prior to 1993. There is no atonwide physical evidence that these vehicles have caused detrimental cracking in existing prestressed concrete components. The statistical significance of the 0.80 factor on ive load is that the fevent is expected to occur about once a year for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for bridges ‘with more than two traffic lanes.-and about once a day for bridges with a single trafic lane. ‘The load factor, applied to a single design tuck, reflects a toad level found to be representalive of the truck population with respect to a large number of return cycles of stresses and to their cumulative ‘effects in steel elements, components, “and ‘connections. This article reinforces the traditional method of toad combinations to obtain realistic extreme ‘effects and is intended to claniy the issue of the ‘ariablty of permanent loads and their effects. As has ‘always been the case, the Owner or Designer may Gelermine that not all of the loads in a given load ‘combination apply to the situation under investigation. itis recogrized herein that the actual magnitude of permanent loads may also be less than the nominal Value, This becomes important where the permanent load reduces the effects of transient loads. thas been observed that permanent loads are more likely to be greater than the nominal value than to be less than this valve. In the appiication of permanent toads, force effects for each of the specified six load types should be ‘computed separately. It is unnecessary to assume that ‘one type of load varies by span, length, or component ‘within a bridge. For example, when investigating upfit at 2 bearing in a continuous beam, it would appropriate to use the maximum load permanent loads in spans that produce @ negative feaction and the minimum toad factor in spans that Specifications, ‘combination. Where @ permanent load produces upiit, that load would be multiplied by lead factor, regardless of the span in which itis located. i ‘another permanent load reduces the uplit, it would be ‘multiplied by the minimum load factor, regardless of the 3-9Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (Si) ‘SPECIFICATIONS lieu of better information, the resistance factor, @, may be taken as: When the geotechnical parameters are wel defined, andthe slope does. not support or contain a structural element soca OB ‘© When the geotechnical parameters are based on limited information, or the slope contains or supports, a structural element vee O85 For structural plate box structures complying with the provisions of Article 12.9, the live load factor for the Vehicular lve loads LL and ld shall be taken as 2.0 COMMENTARY span in which itis located. For example, at Stiength Limit State where the permanent load reaction is postive and lve load ean cause a negative reacton, the lead ‘combination would be 0,8DC + 0.85DW + 1.75(LLtIM) If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be 1.2500 + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL*IM). For each force effect. both extreme combinations may need to be investigated by applying either the high or the low load factor as appropniate, The algebraic. sums of these products are the total force effects for which the bridge ‘and its components should be designed. Water ioad and friction are included in all strength lead combinations at their respective nominal values, For creep and shrinkage, the specified nominal values should be used. For thction. settlement. and water toads, both minimum and maximum values need to be investigated to produce extreme load combinations. Table 3.4,1-1 - Load Combinations and Load Factors Toad Gombnaton| DC | WL | WA] WS| WL| FR | TU |TG]SE| Use Oneof Theseata oo | m cr Time ow | ce SH cH | BR fv | pe €a] iC ] cT]ov uimtstae | Es | Ls EL [STRENGTH vw | 475 [100] - | - | 100]oson20[welvel- | - | - | - [unless noted) | [STRENGTH vas [100 | - | - | 00 fosorzo| ves [vel | - | -1- istReNcTan fy, | _- [100] 140] - | 100 [0.60720] wolvse] - | - | - | - ISTRENGTHAV -|- enev.es.ow | y, | - [100] - | - | 100 Joson20 -f ope]. JOC ONLY a5 isTRENcTHY |v, | 14.38 | 100[ 040| 10 | 100 [050720] wolve| - | - | - [= [EXTREME ve | Yeo | 100 soo] | -|-|roo) - | - | - |EVENT-| [EXTREME % | oso proof - | - [100] - | -|-| - | 100/4.00]100 [EVENT SERVICE too | 100 | 100 [030] 10 | 100 |100720| vs [veel - | - | - | - [SERVICE +00 [430] 100] - | - | 100 {r00n20[ -}-|-]}-|-1- [SERVICE 00 | 080 | 100] - | - | 100] 4.00720|vielvael-| - | - | - JFATIGUE-LL. mA& \CE ONLY -fos}|-|-|-[-| - J-[-|-|-|-J]-Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS COMMENTARY ‘Table 3.4.1-2 - Load Factors for Permanent Loads, Lead Factor Type of Load Maximum _| _ Minimum Dc: Component and Attachments 4125 0.80 DO: Downdrag 1.80 4s DW: Wearing Surtaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65, EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure © Active 150 090 a AtRest 438 080 EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 410 10 EV: Vertical Earth Pressure © Overall Siabiity 1.35, NA © Retaining Structure 435 41.00 © Rigid Buried Structure 430 090 © Rigid Frames 135 0.80 © Flexible Buried Structures other 488 0.80 than Metal Box Culverts Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 2.90 ES: Earth Surcha 150 075 ‘The load factor for temperature gradient, Yro, and settlement, se, should be considered on @ project= specific basis. In lieu of project-specific information to the contrary, Yrq may be taken as: © 2.0atthe strength and extreme event limit states, © 1.0 at the service limit state when live load is not considered, and (0.50 at the service fmt state when live load is considered. For segmentally constructed bridges. the following combination shall be investigated at the service limit state: OC +OW+EH+EV+ES+WA+CRY SH+TG+EL (412) “The load factor for live load in Extreme Event Load Combination |, Yeo, shall be determined on a project- specific basis. “The load factor for temperature-gradient should be determined on the basis of the: © Typeot structure and ‘© Limit state being investigated. ‘Open girder construction and mulliple steel box irders have traditionally, but peraps not necessarily Correctly, been designed without consideration of temperature gradient Le. Yro = 0.0 Past editions of the Standard Specifications used Yeo = 0.0. This issue is not resolved. The possibilty of partial ve load, Le., Yeq < 1.0, with earthquakes should be considered, Application of Turkstra's rule for combining uncorrelated loads indicates that Yeq = 0.50 is reasonable for a wide range of values of average daily ‘tuck trafic (ADT). BontSection 3 - Loads and Load Factors (S1) SPECIFICATIONS 3.42 Load Factors for Construction Loads Load factors for the weight of the structure and ‘appurtenances shall not be taken to be less than 1.25. Unless otherwise specitied by the Owner, the load. factor for construction loads, for equipment and for dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The toad factor for wind shal not be less than 1.28. All other load factors chall be taken 35 1.0. 3.4.3 Load Factors for Jacking and Posttensioning Forces 3.43.1 JACKING FORCES Uniess otherwise specified by the Owner, the design forces for jacking in service shall not be less than 1.3 times the permanent oad reaction at the bearing, ‘adjacent to the point of jacking. ‘Where the bridge will not be closed to trafic during the jacking operation, the jacking load shall also contain a live load reaction consistent with the maintenance of ‘rafic plan, multiplied by the load factor for lve load. 3.4.3.2 FORCE FOR POSTTENSIONING ANCHORAGE ZONES “The design force for postensioning anchorage ‘zones shail be taken as 1.2 tes the maximum jacking force. 3.5 PERMANENT LOADS 3.61 Dead Loads: DC, DW, and EV Dead load shall include the weight ofall components of the structure, appurtenances and utiiies attached thereto, earth cover. wearing surface, future overiays, and planned widenings. In the absence of more precise information. the densities, specified in Table 1, may be used for dead Toads, COMMENTARY ‘A joad factor for passive earth pressure is not given in Table 2 because, strictly speaking, passive earth pressure is a resistance and not a load. For discussion Of the selection of a passive earth pressure resistance factor see Article C1054. 342 ‘The load factors presented hete should not relieve the contractor of responsibility for salety and damage ‘control during construction cast ‘Table 1 provides traditional densities. The density of granular materials depends upon the degree of compaction and water content. The density of concrete is primarily affected by that of the aggregate, which varies by location and design. The values provided for ‘wood include the mass of mandatory preservatives. The mass of transit rail, etc., is to be used only for preliminary design. 3-12Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS COMMENTARY Table 35.11 - Densities Densities shown with the units Kgim? and kg/mm are in mass units, not force units. To convert to force unts ‘of Nin? mutipty by the gravitation at constant 9 = 9.8086 ‘misect and collect the units kgmsec? as a Newton. MATERIAL Aluminum Alloys 2800 Bituminous Wearing 2250 Surfaces Cast kon 7200 Cinder Filing 960 Compacted Sand, Sit. or 1925 Gay Concrete || Lowsdensity 4778 Sahd.ow. 1928 density Normst 2400 Loose Sand, Sit of Gravel 41600 Soft Clay 1800 Rolled Gravel, Macadam, oF 2250 Ballast Stool 7050 Stone Masonry | 27 Wood | Hard 960 Sot 800 water | Fresh +000 Salt 1035 MASS PER Tem UNIT LENGTH tn Trensit Rails, Tes, and 030 Fastening per Track 3.82 Earth Loads: EH, ES, and DD Earth pressure, earth surcharg loads shall be as specified in Atile 3.11. ‘and _downdrag‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (St) ‘SPECIFICATIONS 3.6 LIVE LOADS, 361 Gravity Loads: LL and PL. 36.1.1 VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD 36.1.1.1. Number of Design Lanes Generally, the number of design lanes should be cletermined by taking the integer part of the ratio w’3800, ‘where w is the clear roacway width in mm between curbs andlor Baris. Posble future changes in he physical Cr functional clear readway width ofthe bridge should be considered. In cases where the trafic lanes are less than 2600 mm wide, the number of design lanes shall be equal to the number of traffic lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be taken as the width ofthe traffic lane Roadway widths from 6000 to 7200 mm shall have two design lanes, each equal to one-half the roadway with 3.6.1.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load ‘The provisions of this article shall not be applies to the fatigue limit state for which one design truck is used, regardiess of the number of design lanes. Where the singlelane approximate distribution factors in Articles 48.22 and 46.23 are used. other than the lever rule ‘and statical method. the force effects shall be divided by 120. “The extreme live load force effect shall be determined by considering each possible combination of ‘number of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor specified in Table 1. For the purpose of determining the number of lanes when the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads specified in Amiele 3.6.1.5 combined with one or more lanes of the ‘venicular lve load, the pedestrian loads may be taken to ‘be one loaded lane. “The factors specified in Table 1 shall not be applied in conjunction with approximate load distribution factors specified in Articles 4.8.2.2 and 46.2.3, except where the lever rule is used or where special requirements for exterior beams in beam-siab bridges. specified in Article 462.224, are used. COMMENTARY c3ea44 Itis not the intention ofthis article to promote bridges with narrow trafic fanes. Wherever possible. bridges should be built to accommodate the standard design lane and appropriate shoulders. 36.442 ‘The multiple presence factors have been included in the approximate equations for distribution factors in ‘Aticles 48.2.2 and 46.2.3, both for single and multiple teaded lanes, The equations are based on evaluation of several combinations of loaded lanes with their appropriate multiple presence factors and are intended {© account for the worst case scenario. Where use of the lever rule is specified in Aricle 46.22 and 4.6.23, the Engineer must determine the number and location of vehicles and lanes, and, therefore, must include the ‘mukiple presence. Stated another way, If a sketch is required to determine load distribution, the Engineer is responsible for including multiple presence factors and selecting the worst design case. The factor 1.20 trom ‘Table 1 has already been included in the approximate equations and should be removed for the purpose of fatigue investigations. "The entry greater than 1.0 in Table 1 results from statistical calibration of these Specifications on the basis of pairs of vehicles instead of a single vehicle. ‘Therefore, when 9 single vehicle is on the bridge. it can be heavier than each one of a pair of vehicles and stil, have the same probability of occurrence. ‘The consideration of pedestrian loads counting as “toaded lane" for the purpose of determining a multiple presence factor (m) is based on the assumption that Simultaneous occupancy by 2 dense loading of people Combined with a 75-year design ive load is remate. For the purpose of this provision, it has been assumed that if a bridge is used as a viewmng stand for eight hours each year for a total time of about one month, tne 3-14‘Section 3- Loads and Load Factors (Si) ‘SPECIFICATIONS fable 2.6:1.1.2-4 - Multiple Presence Factors *m" 36.1.2 DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD 3.6.1.2. General Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges oF incidental structures, designated HL-93, shall consist of ‘2 combination of the: ‘© Design truck or design tandem, and ‘© Design lane load, ‘COMMENTARY appropriate live toad to combine with it would have a ‘one-month recurrence interval, This is reasonably approximated by use of the multiple presence factors. feven though they are originally developed for vehicular live load ‘Thus. if a component supported a sidewalk and one lane. it would be investigated for the vehicular live load alone with m = 1.20, and for the pedestrian loads Combined with the vehicular lve load with m= 4.0. fa Component supported @ sidewalk and two lanes of vehicular lve load, t would be investigated for: ‘© One lane of vehicular live load, m= 1.20: © The greater of the more significant tane of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads or two lanes of ‘vehicular live load, m = 1.0 appited to the governing case: and, ‘¢ Two lanes of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads, m= 0.85. “The multiple presence factor of 1,20 for a single lane ‘does not apply to the pedestrian loads. Therefore, the ase of the pedestrian loads without the vehicular Ive {oad is a subset of the second buleted tem. ‘The multiple presence factors in Table 1 were developed on the basis of an ADTT of 5000 trucks in one irection. The foree effect resuiting from the appropriate umber of lanes may be reduced for sites with lower ADT 28 follows: ‘#11 100 s ADTT < 1000; 95 percent of the specified force effect may be used: and '* ILADTT < 100; 90 percent of the Specified force ‘effect may be used. ‘This adjustment is based on the reduced probability of attaining the design event during 2 75-year design ite with reduced truck volume. 26.121 ‘Consideration should be given to site-specific modifications to the design truck, design tandem, andlor the design lane load under the following conditions: ‘* The degal load of a given jurisdiction is significanty ‘greater than typical: ‘© The roadway is expected to camry unusually high percentages of truck traf:Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS Except as modified in Atticte 3.8.1.3.1, each design lane under consideration shall be occupied by either the design truck or tandem, coincident with the lane load, where applicable. The loads shall be assumed to ‘occupy 3000 mm ransversely within a design lane. COMMENTARY '* Flow control, such as a stop sign, traffic signal. o tol ‘booth, causes tucks to collect on certain areas of a bridga oF 1 not be interrupted by light trate: or (© Special industrial loads ere common due to the ‘eeaton of the bridge. See also discussion in Anticle 3.6.1.3, ‘The live food model, consisting of either @ truck or tandem coincident with @ uniformly cistbuted load. was. developed as a notional representation of shear and moment produced by a group of vehicles routinely permited on highways of various states under "grandfather" exclisions to weight laws. ‘The vehicles considered to be representative of these exclusions were based on 2 study conducted by the Transportation Research Board (Cohen 1950). The load model is called national" because it is not intended to represent any particular truck In the ini development of the notional tive load made, no atiempt was made to relate o escorted permit leads. illegal overloads, oF short duration special permits. The moment and shear effects were subsequently ‘compared to the results of tuck weight studies (Ceagoly ‘and Knobel 1981; Nowak 1992) selected WIM data, and the 1891 OHBDC live joad model. These subsequent ‘comparisons showed that the notional load could be ‘scaled by appropriate load factors to be representative lof these other load spectra. ‘The following nomenclature applies to Figures C1 ‘through C8, which show results of live toad studies Involving two equal continuous spans or simple spans: Mposo4t positive moment at 4/10 point in ‘either span MNEGO4AL = negative moment at 4/10 point nether span MSUPPORT = moment a interior support Va = shear adjacent to either exterior ‘support Voa = shoar adjacent to interior support Mss = midspan moment in a simply supported span’ ‘The “span’ isthe length of the simple-span or of ane of each of the two continuous spans. The comparison is, in the form of ratios ofthe load effects produced in either simple-span of two-span continuous grders. A ratio greater that 1.0 indicates that one or more of the ‘exclusion vehicles produces 2 larger load effect than the 120 loading. The figutes indicate the degree by which 3-16Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (St) SPECIFICATIONS ‘COMMENTARY the exclusion loads deviate from the HS loading of designation, ¢.g.. HS25. Figures C1 and C2 show moment and shear comparisons between the envelope of effects caused by 22 ‘truck configurations chosen to be representative of the exclusion Vehicles and the HS20 loading, either the HS20 truck or the lane load, or the interstate load ‘consisting of two 710 000 N axles 1200 mm apart, as Used in previous editions of the AASHTO Standard Specifcations. The largest and smallest of the 22 jons can be found in Kulick’ and Mertz (1991). In the case of negatve moment at an interior support the results presented are based on two identical fexctusion vehicles in tandem and separated by at least 115 000 mm. oa ‘SPAN METERS = M P08 OAL +N NEG.OAL +6 SUPPORT —~Mas Figure C361.2.1-1 - Moment Ratios: Exclusion ‘Vehicles to HS20 (tuck or lane) or Two 110 000 N Axes, at 1200 mm AN WN METERS = ven-P0s —Ven-Nec + Voe “MEG Figure C3.6.1.2.1-2 - Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles fo HS20 (ruck or lane) or Two 110 000 N Axes at 1200 mm 3-17Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS COMMENTARY Figures C3 and C4 show comparisons between the force effects produced by a single exclusion truck per lane and the notional load model. except for negative ‘moment, where the tandem exclusion vehicles ware used, In the case of negative moment at a support, the provisions of Aricle 36.1.3.1 requiring investigation of 80 percent of the effect of two cesigh trucks, plus 90 percent of the design lane load, has been included in Figures C3 and CS. ‘Compared with Figures C1 and C2, ‘ne range of ratios can be seen as more closely grouped: © Over the span range, '* Both for shear and moment, and ‘© Both for simple-span and continuous spans. ‘The implication of close grouping is thatthe notional load ‘Model with a single-load factor has general appiicabliy. . 7% © SPAN Iv METERS MPS ot 6 NEGo4L =m SUPPORT Mes Figuré C3.8.12.1-3 - Moment Ratios: Exclusion Vehictes to Notional ModelSection 3 - Load SPECIFICATIONS. rd Load Factors (S1) COMMENTARY 7 a bo id | os (SPAN METERS =Vee-Pos + Vab-nga + vee -NES Figure C3.6.1.2.1-4 - Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles te Notional Mode! Figures C5 and CS show the ratios of force effects produced by the notional load model and the greatest of fhe HS20 truck of lane loading, or Alternate Miltary women RATIO ‘SPAN IY METERS wos oa, +m NecedL =u eupPoRT =Mm Figure €3.6.1.2.1-5 - Moment Ratios: Notional Model to |H820 (truck or lane) or Two 110 000 N Axies at 1200 em,‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS 38.1.2.2 Design Truck The weights and spacings of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as specified in Figure 1. A dynamic load allowance shall be considered a8 specified InAticle 36.2. Except as specified in Ales 361.31 and 3.6.1.4.1. the spacing between the two 145 000 N axles. shall be varied between 4300 and 9600 mm to produce extreme force effects, COMMENTARY 7 ‘6 Bu He i: 7 or oe ° or 7 ir SPAN IV METERS = Vab-P08 — Vib NEG + Von ene Figure C3.6.1.2.1-6 - Shear Ratios: Notional Model to 1520 (Qruck and lane) or Two 110 000 N Axles at 1200 mm In reviewing Figures C5 and C8, it should be noted that the total design force effect is also a function of load factor, load modifier, load distribution, and dynamic load allowance.‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. el ul") © 145 000N 35000N {430mm __|4300 to 9000mm, 145 000N 600mm General: "700mm 300mm Deck Overhang Design Lane 3600 mm Figure 36.1.2.2-1 - Characteristics ofthe Design Truck. 364.23 Design Tandem ‘The design tandem shall consist of a pair of 4110000 N axles spaced 1200 mm apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1800 mm. A ‘dynamic load allowance shall be considered as specified in Aticle 36.2. 3.8.1.24 Design Lane Load ‘The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 Nimm, uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction. Traneversely, the design lane load shall be ‘sumed to be uniformly distributed over 2 3000 mm. ‘din, The force effects from the design lane load shall ‘not be subject to a dynamic load allowance. 36.1.25 Tre Contact Area The tite contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tires shall be assumed to be a single rectangle. ‘whose wiath is 610 mm and whose length in mm shall be taken as: 28 x 10° y (1+ IM/100) P (35.1.25-1) where: y= load factor COMMENTARY €3.6.1.25 ‘The implication of extending the length of the tre patch by the load factor is that the contact pressure ‘remains nearly constant as load varies. ‘The assumed ‘contant pressure built into this article is 0.862 MPa. ‘The actual distribution of tre pressure is variable, ‘with higher values under the tire walls. However, the ‘area of high pressure is so small that the variation can bbe safely neglected in practical design. “The load factor shown in the equation should be that ‘specified forthe limit state under consideration.‘Section 2 - Loads and Load Factors (St) SPECIFICATIONS: IM = dynamic load allowance percent pe ‘72 500 N for the design truck and 55 000 N for the design tandem ‘The te pressure shall be assumed to be uniformiy distributed over the contact area. The tre pressure shall bbe assumed to be distributed as follows: © On continuous surfaces. uniformly over the specified contact area, and 5) On interrupted surtaces, uniformly over the actual ‘contact area within the footprint with the pressure increased in the ratio of the specified to actual ‘contact areas, 36.126 Distibution of Wheel Loads Through Earth Fils ‘Where the depth of fil is less than 600 mm, the cetfect of the fil on the distribution of live load shall be neglected. Live load dietribution for culvert tops may be bbased on provisions for deck slabs spanning parallel to traffic as specified in Articles 46.2.1 and 46.32 In lieu of a more precise anaiysis, cr the use of other acceptable approximate methods of load distribution permitted in Section 12, where the depth of fil exceeds 600 mm, wheel loads may be considered to be uniformly distributed over a rectangular area with sides equal to the dimension of the tire contact area, as specified in Anicle 3.1.2.5. and increased by elther 1.15 times the depth of the fil in select grenutar backfill or the depth of the fil in all other cases. The provisions of Articles 3.8.1.1.2 and 3.6.1.3 shall apply Where such areas from savera! wheels overiap, the toa load shail be uniformly distributed over the area, For single-span culverts, the effects of ive load may bbe neglected where the depth of fills more than 2400 mm and exceeds the span length: for mutiple span culverts, the effects may be neglected where the depth ‘of fil exceeds the distance between faces of end walls. Where the live load and impact moment in concrete slabs, based on the distribution ofthe wheel icad through earth fils, exceeds the live load and impact moment ‘akculated according to Articles 46.2.1 and 46.3.2, the later moment shall be used. 36.1.3 APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS 38.131 General Uniess otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the larger of the following: COMMENTARY 36126 Elastic solutions for pressures produced within an infinite half-space by loads on the ground surface can be found In Poulos and Davis (1974), NAVFAC DM7.1 (1982) and soll mechanics textbooks. ‘This approximation is similar to the 60° rule found in ‘many texts on soil mechanics. The dimensions of the tire contact area are determined at the surface based on the dynamic load allowance of 33 percent at depth = 0. “They afe projected through the soil as specified. The pressure intensity on the surface is based on the wheel load without dynamic load allowance. A dynamic load allowance is added to the pressure on the projected area. The dynamic load allowance also varies with depth as specified in Article 3.6.22. The design lane load is applied where appropriate and muttiple presence factors apply. ‘This provision applies to relieving slabs below grade and to top slabs of box culverts. ca6.134 ‘The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load ‘are superposed in order to obtain extreme values. This 3-22‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS. 4 The effect of the design tancem combined with the effect of the design lane load, or ‘©The effect of one design truck with the variable axe ‘spacing specified in Article 3.6.1.2.2, combined with the effect of the design lane load, and ‘© For both negative moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform load on all spans, and reaction at interior piers only. 90 percent ofthe effect fof two design tucks spaced a minimum of 415.000 mm between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the other truck, combined with 80 percent of the effect of the design lane toad. The Gistance between the 145 000 N axles of each truck ‘shall be taken as 4300 men, ‘Axles that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration shal be neglected. Both the design lanes and the 3000 mm loaded width in each lane shal be positioned to produce extreme force effects. The design truck or tandem shall be postionad transversely such that the center of any whee! load is not closer than: ‘© For the design of the deck overhang - 300 mm from the face of the curb or raling, and ‘© For the design of all ctner components - 600 mm {rom ne edge of the design lane. Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, for parts thereot, that coniribute to the extreme force teffect under consideration, shall be loaded with the design lane loat 361.32 Loading for Optonal Live Load Deflection Evaluation If the Owner invokes the optional tive load deflection ctiteria specified in Article 2.5.2.6.2, the deflection should be taken as the larger of: ‘9+ That resulting from the design truck alone, or © That resutting from 25 percent of the design truck taken together with the design lane load, COMMENTARY {s a deviation from the traditional AASHTO approach. in ‘which elther the truck or the lane load. with an additional concentrated load, provided for exreme effects. ‘The lane load fs not interrupted to provide space for the ayle sequences of the design tandem or the design truck; interruption is needed only for patch loading pattems to produce extreme force effects. ‘The notional design loads were based on the information described in Aricle C36.1.2.1, which contained data on “low boy" type vehicles weighing up to ‘about 490 000 N. Where multiple ianes of heavier ‘versions of this type of vehicle are considered probable, ‘consideration should be given to investigating negative ‘moment and reactions at interior cupports for pairs of the design tandem spaced from 8000 mm to 12 000 mm apart, combined with the design lane load specified in Aricle 26.1.2.4. This is consistent with Article 36.1.2.1 and should ‘not be considered a replacement for the ‘Strength ll Load Combination. ‘Only those areas or parts of areas that contibute to the same extreme being sought should be loaded. The toaded length should be determined by the points where the influence surtace meets the centerline of the design lane, ‘Where a sidewalk is not separated from the roadway by a crashworthy traffic barter, consideration should be siven to the possibilty that vehicles can mount the sidewalk. 0361.32 As indicated in €2.52.8.1, lve load deflection is 2 service issue, not 2 strength issue. Experience with bridges designed under previous editions of the ‘AASHTO Standard Specifications indicated no adverse effects of live load deflection per se. Therefore, there ‘appears to be litle reason to require that the past criteria be compared to a deflection based upon the heavier ive load required by these Specifications. ‘The provisions of this article are intended to produce apparent live load dellections similar to those used in the past. The current design truck is identical to the HS20 truck of past Standard Specifications. For the span lengths where the design lane load controls, the design lane load together with 25 percent of the design truck, ‘fe. three concentrated loads totaling 80 000 N, is similar‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS 6.1.3.3 Design Loads for Decks, Deck Systems, and the Top Siabs of Box Culverts ‘The provisions of this article shall not apply to dacks designed under the provisions of Artie 9.7.2, Empincal Design Method. ‘Where the approximate strip method is used to ‘analyze decks and top slabs of box cuvens, force eftects shall be determined on the folowing basis: © Where primary strips are transverse and their span does not exceed 4600 mm - the tansverse strips shal be designed for the wheels of the 145 000 N axe, © Where primary strips are transverse and their span ‘exceeds 4600 mm - the transverse stips shall be designed for the wheels of the 145 000 N axle and te lane load. © Where primary strips are longitudinal = the transverse strips shall’ be designed for all loads specified in Article 3.8.12, Including the lane foad ‘Where tne refined methods are used. all ofthe loads ‘specified in Anicle 3.6.1.2. including the lane load. shall be considered. Deck systems. including slab-type bridges. shall be ‘designed for all of the Ive loads speciied in Article 36.1.2, including the lane load, ‘Whee! loads shall be arsumed to be equal within an ‘axle unit, and amplification of the wheel loads due to ‘centrifugal and braking forces need not be considered for he design of decks, 36.1.3.4 Deck Overhang Load For the design of deck overhangs witn a cantlever. rot exceeding 1800 mm from the centering of the fexerior girder to the face of a structurally continuous conerete railing, the outside row of wheel loads may be taplaced with a uniformly distibuted line load of 146 Nimm intensity, located 300 mm from the face of the caling Horizontal toads on the overhang resulting from vehicle coliston with barriers shall be in accordance with the provisions of Section 13. 36.1.4 FATIGUE LOAD 36.1.4.1 Magnitude and Configuration ‘The fatigue lead shall be one design truck or axles ‘hereof specified in Anicle 36.1.2.2. but with 2 constant spacing of 9000 mm between the 145 000 N axles. COMMENTARY 3 load with its single concentrated load of ‘Tris article clarifies the selection of whee! loads to be ‘used in the design of bridge decks, stab bridges, and top ‘slabs of box culverts ‘The design load is always an axie load; single whee! toads should not be considered. It is theoretcally possible that an exreme force ‘effect could result rom a 145 000 N axle in one lane and ‘2 220 000 N tandem in a second lane, but such ‘sophistication is not warranted in practical desion, ca6134 Structurally continuous barriers have been observed to be effective in aistibuting wheel loads in the ‘overhang. Implicit inthis provieion isthe assumption that the 110 000 Ni half weight of a design tandem is distributed over @ longitudinal length of 7600 mm, and that there is a cross beam or other appropriate component at the end of the bridge supporting the barrier which is designed for the naif tandem weight. This provision does not apply if the barrier is not structurally continuous.Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS “The dynamic load allowance specified in Article 36.2 shall be applied tothe fatigue load, 36.142 Frequency ‘The frequency of the fatigue load shall be taken 2s the single-lane average dally tuck trafic (ADTT,). This frequency shall be applied to all components of the badge. even to those located under lanes that camry @ lesser numberof trucks. in the absence of better information. the singlelane ADT shal be taken as: ADTT., = PXADTT B61424) where: ADTT — = the number of trucks per day in one direction averaged over the design life ADTT, © the number of trucks per day in a single- lane averaged over the design ile = taken as specified in Table 1 ‘Table 3.6.1.42-1 Fraction of “Truck Trafic ina Single Lane. p Number of Lanes Available to Tucks 4 4.00 2 0.85 3ormore | 0.80 2.6.1.4.3 Load Distbution for Fatigue 9.6 1.4.3a Refined Methods ‘Winere the bridge is analyzed by any refined method. as specified in Article 463, a single design truck shall be positioned tranaversely and longitudinally to maximize ‘tress range atthe detail under consideration, regardless the position of tafe or design lanes on the deck. ‘COMMENTARY ca61.42 Since the fatigue and fracture limit state Is defined in ‘terms of accumulated stress-range cycles, specifcaton Of load alone ts not adequate. Load should be specified ‘along with the frequency of load occurrence. ‘For the purposes of this article. a truck is defined 2s ‘any vehicle with more than either two axles of four wheels ‘The single-lane ADTT is that for the trafic tane in which the majority ofthe truck trafic crosses the bridge. ‘On typical Bridge with no nearby entrancelesit ramps. the shoulder lane carries most ofthe tuck taf ‘Since future traffic pattems on the bridge are uncertain, the frequency of the fatigue load for a single ane is assumed 10 appiy to all lanes. Research has shown that the average daily traffic (ADT), including all vehicles, Le., care and trucks, is physically limited to about 20 000 Vehicles per fone per Gay under normal conditions. This limiting value of trafic ‘should be considered when estimating the ADTT. The ‘ADTT can be determined by multiplying the ADT by the fraction of trucks in the traffic. In leu of site-specinic fraction of truck taffic data, the values of Table C1 may ‘be applied for routne bridges. ‘Table €3.6.1.4.2-1 - Fraction of Trucks in Trafic 036.1.438 I Rwere assured thatthe trafic nes would ‘as they ate indicated at the opening of throughout its entre service Ife. i ‘appropriate to place the truck st the Tane that produces maximum stress Under consideration. But because future traf fon the bridge are uncertain and in the frinimizing the number of calculations requit esigner. the position of the tuck is made independent of the foration of Both the trafic lanes and the design lanes. il a Fo ot 3-25Section 3 - Loads and Load Factor (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. 2.6.1.4.98 Approximate Methods ‘Where the bridge is analyzed by approximate load distribution, as specified in Anicle 4.6.2, the cistrbution factor for one trafic lane shail be used. 36.1.5 RAIL TRANSIT LOAD Where a bridge also cartes ral-transit vehicles, the Owner shall specity the transit load characteristics and the expected interaction between transit and highway wie. 36.1.8 PEDESTRIAN LOADS ‘A pedestrian load of 3.6x10° MPa shall be applied to all sidewaiks wider than 600 mm and considered ‘simultaneously withthe vehicular design live load. ‘Bridges for only pedestian. and/or bicycle traffic shall be designed for a ive load of 41x10° MPa, Where sidewalks, pedestrian, andior bicycle bridges are intended to be used by maintenance andlor other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be considered in the design, The dynamic load allowance need not be ‘considered for these vehicles. 3.8.2 Dynamic Load Allowance: IM 362.1 GENERAL Unless otherwise permitted in Articles 362.2 and 36.23, the static effects of the design truck or tandem, biner thon centrtugal and braking forces. shall be increased by the percentage specified in Table 1 for dynamic load allowance. “The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).. ‘The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads orto the design lane load. ‘COMMENTARY 36.15 If rail ransitis designed to occupy an exclusive tane, transit loads should be included in the design, but the bridge should not have less strength than if it had been designed as a highway bridge of the same wiatn. * if the rail transit Is supposed to mix with regular highway traffic, tne Owner should specity or approve an ‘2ppropriate combination of transit and highway loads for the design. ‘Transit load characteristics may include: © Loads, © Load cistibuton, © Load frequency. Dynamic alowance, nd © Dimensional requirements cass ‘See the provisions of Article 3.6.1.1.2 for applying the pedestrian loads in combination with the vehicular live load. The conservatism in this article reflects the unpredictable nature of pedestrian load, which gains significance where it becomes a primary load. ‘Snow removal and other maintenance vehicles ‘sometimes have access to pedestrian bridges. The slow ‘speed of such vehicles justifes the omission of dynamic effects, 3624 Page (1976) contains the basis for some of these provisions. "The dynamic load allowance (IM) in Table 1 is an increment 10 be applied to the static whee! toad to ‘zccount for whee! load impact from moving vehicles. ‘Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles may be attributed to two sources: 3-26secton 3 - onda and Load Factor (80 SPECIFICATIONS ave362.-1- Dye Loud Aowanc. [—cxrooren Tm | [onccions-atumisiue | rox | i Ail Other Components | ‘© Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 2_AllOther Limit ‘The application of dynamic load allowance for buried ‘components, covered in Section 12, shall be as specified in Article 36.22. ‘Dynamic load allowance need not be applied 10: |s Retaining walls not subject 0 vertical reactions from the superstructure, and ‘® Foundation components that are entirely below ‘ground level. ‘The dynamic load allowance may be reduced for components, other than joints, if justiied by sufficient evidence, in accordance with the provisions of Article aT24 3.62.2 BURIED COMPONENTS ‘The dynamic toad allowance for culverts and other buried structures covered by Section 12, in percent, shall bbe taken as: IM=93(1.0-4.1%10D,) 2 0% (3822-4) here: Og = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (cnn) 3.62.3 WOOD COMPONENTS: For wood bridges and wood components of bridges, the dynamic load allowance specified in Article 36.2.1 may be reduced to 50 percent of the values speciied for Min Table 36.2.1-1 3.6.3 Centrifugal Forces: CE Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem and the factor C, taken 3s: COMMENTARY ‘¢ Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the ‘wheel assembly to riding surface discontinuities such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, “and delaminations. and '* Dynamic response of the bridge @s a whole to passing. vehicles, which may be due to long Endulations in the roadway pavement, such as those ‘caused by settlement of fil, orto resonant excitation ae a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle. Field tests indicate that in the majority of highway ‘the dynamic component of the response does, ot exceed 25 pereent of the static response to vehicles. his is the basis for dynamic load allowance with the exception of deck joints. However, the specified live load combination of the design truck and lane load. Tepresents a group of exclusion vehicles that are atleast ‘273 of those caused by the design truck alone on short- ‘Sha medium-epan bridges. The specified value of 33 percent in Table 1 isthe product of 4/3 and the basic 25 percent. “This article recognizes the damping effect of soi ‘when in contact with some buried structural components, ‘such a6 footings. To qualify for relief fromm impact, the ‘Sntie component must be buried. For the purpose of ‘article, a retaining type component is considered to ‘be buried tothe top ofthe fil 3623 ‘Wood structures are known to experience reduced dynamic. wheel load effects due 10 intemal triton between the components and the damping characteristics of wood. 363 Lane load is neglected in computing the centitugal fore, es the spacing of vehicles at high speed is 3-27‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS. cA som (3631) where: y= highway design speed (mvs) 9 = gravitational acceleration: 8.807 (mis*) R= radius of curvature of traffic tane (n) Highway design speed shall not be taken to be less than the value specified in AASHTO publication A Policy, ‘Gear ighvay (1390). “The multiple presence factors specified in Article 3.6.1.1.2 shall apply. Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a ‘distance 1800 mm above the roadway surface. 3.64 Braking Force: BR Braking forces shall be taken as 25 percent of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem per lane Paced in all design lanes which are considered to be foaded in accordance with Anice 3.6.1.1.1 and which are earying Wwafic headed in the same direction. These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway surface in elther longituinal direction to cause extreme force effec. All design lanes shall be simultaneously loaded for bridges likely to become one-directonal in the future “The multiple presence factors speciied in Article 361.12 shal apply 3.6.5 Vehicular Collision Force: CT 36.5.1 PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES ‘The provisions of Article 3652 need not be considered for structures which are protected by: © An embankment: © A stucturaily independent, crashworthy ground mounted 1370 mm tigh barter, foceted within '3000 mm from the component being protected: or © A 1070 mm high barrier located at more than '3000 mm from the component being protected. COMMENTARY assumed to be large, resuiling in a low density of ‘vehicles following andlor preceding the design tc. The specified live load combination of the design tuck and lane load, however, represents a group of exclusion vehicies that produce force effects of at least 4/3 of those caused by the design truck alone on shor and medium-span bridges. This ratio is indicated in Equation 1. Thus, the provision is not technically perfect, yet it reasonably models the representative exciusion Vehicle traveling at design speed with large headways 10 other vehicles. The approximation attributed to this Convenient representation is acceptable in the framework of the uncertainty of centrifugal force from random traffic pattems. 1.0 fs = 3.60 keh cist Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration, the braking force determined asa traction of vehicle weight i: ie (364-1) Where "a" is the length of uniform deceleration and "bis the fraction. Calculations using a braking length of 122 mand a speed of 90 krnfh (25 ms) yield b = 0.28 for 2 horizontal force that will act for a period of about 10 seconds. The factor "b" applies to all lanes in one rection because all vehicles may have reacted within this time frame. Only the design truck or tandem are to bbe considered because other vehicles, represented by the design lane load, are expected to brake out of phase. 0385.1 For the purpose of this sitcle, a barrier may be ‘considered structurally independent if it does not transmit, loads to the bridge. Full-scale crash tests have shown that some vehicles. have a greater tendency to lean over or partially cross ‘over a 1070 mm high barter than a 1370 mm high barier. This behavior would allow a significant colision of the vehicle with the component being protected if the ‘component is located within a meter or so of the barrier. IW the component is more than about 3000 mm behind 3-28Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (Si) SPECIFICATIONS fn order to qualify for this exemption. such barrier shall be structurally and geometrically capable of surviving the crash test for Performance Level 3. 28 specified in Section 13. 36.82 VEHICLE AND RAILWAY COLLISION WITH ‘STRUCTURES: Uniess protected as specified in Article 2.6.5.1. abuiments and piers located within a distance of ‘8000 mm to the edge of roaaway. or within @ distance of 45.000 mm to the centerline of a rallway track, shall be 10.000 mm ccharactetisti taken, as specified in Table 1, for 2, = friction length of upstream fetch, 9 meteorological wind characteristic taken es ‘specified in Table 4 (mm) COMMENTARY ‘Typically, a bridge stucture should be examined separately under wind pressures ffom two or more diferent crections in order to ascertain those windward leeware, and side pressures producing the most crcal toads on the structure. Equation 1 is based on boundary layer theory ‘combined vith empirical observations and represents the frost recent approach to defining wind speeds for ‘Various conditions a& used in meteorology. In the past ‘an exponential equation was sometimes used to relate Wind speed to heights above 10 000 mm. This {eormulaton was based solely on empirical observations ‘and had no theoretical basis. ‘The purpose of the term C and exponent “a” was to ‘adjust the equation for various ‘surface conditions, similar to the use of Table 1. Further fnformation ean be found in Liu (1881) and Simiu (1973, 1978). ‘The following descriptions for the terms “open country’, “suburban’, and "city" in Table 1 are paraphrased from ASCE-7-93: © Open County - Open terrain with scattered ccbstructions having heights generally less than 10.000 mm. This category includes fiat open country ‘and grasstands. © Suburban = Urban and suburban ereas, wooded ‘reas, of other terrain with numerous closely spaced ‘Obstructions having the size of single-family or larger ‘dwellings, Use of this category shall be limited to those areas for which representative terrain prevails jn the upwind direction atleast 500 000 mn. © City - Large eity centers with at least 60 percent of the buildings having a height in excess of 2100 mm. Use of this category shall be limited to those areas for which fepresentative terrain prevails in the upwind direetion at least 800 000 mm. Possible channeling effects of increased velocity pressures ‘ove to the bridge or structure's location in the wake, of adjacent structures shall be taken into account. 3-33‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS Toble 3.8.1.1-1 - Values of V, and Z, for Various Upsteam Surface Conditions. OPEN COUNTRY ‘SUBURBAN Vso may be established trom: Basic Wind Speed charts availabe in ASCE 7-88 for ‘© Site-specific wind surveys, and © In the absence of better criterion, the assumption that Vio = Va = 160 kmh, 3.8.1.2 WIND PRESSURE ON STRUCTURES: WS 3.8.1.2.1 General {tjustiied by local conditons, a different base design wind velocity may be selected for load combinations not involving wind on live load. The direction of the design wind shail be assumed to be horizontal, unless otherwise specified inArticle 3.8.3. In the absence of more precise data, design wind pressure, in tAPa, may be determined as 8124-4) , = base wind pressure specified in Tabie 1 (MPa) Table 3.8.1.2.1-1 - Base Pressures, Py ‘Corresponding to V, = 160 kruh STRUCTURAL |WINDWARD| LEEWARD COMPONENT | LOAD. MPa |LOAD. MPa| [Trusses, Jeoiumns, and lAcches [ooze [Beams Large Fiat [Surtaces ‘The wind loading shall not be taken less than 44 Nimm in the plane of a windward chord and COMMENTARY csa124 The stagnation pressure assccisted with a wind velocity of 160 knvh is 1.23x10° MPa, wich is signficanlly less than the vaiues specified in Table 1. ‘The difference reflects the effect of gusting combined ‘with some tradition of long-time usage. ‘The pressures specified in Nimm or MPa (= Nim?) should be chosen to produce the greater net wind load ‘onthe structure. Wind tunnel tests may be used to provide more Precise estimates of wind pressures. Such testing should be considered where wind is a major design load. 3-34‘Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS. COMMENTARY 122 Nimm in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and ‘rch components. and not less than 4.4 Nimm on beam ‘oF girder components. 3.8.1.2 Loads trom Superstructures 381.22 Where the wind is not taken as normal to the structure, the base wind pressures. P, for various ‘angles of wind direction may be taken as specified in ‘Table 1 and shall be applied to a single place of exposed area. The skew angle shall be taken as measured from @ perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The wind irection for design shall be that which produces the extreme force effect on the component under investigation, ‘The transverse and longitudinal pressures shall be applied simultaneously. Table 3.8.1.2.2-1 - Base Wind Pressures, Py, for Various, ‘angles of Attack and Vq = 160 km/hr Columns and Arches Girsers | Skew Angle| Lateral| Longitudinal | Laterat | Longitudinal cof Wind | toad |_Load | Load | _Load yees | mPa | MPa __| MPa | _Mpa o _|oooss} 0 __|o.00z4| _o 15__|0.0034| 0.0008 _|0.0021| 0.0003, 30___|o.0031| 0.0013 {0.0020} _ 0.0006. 45 |0.0023| 0.0020 |0.0016| 0.0008 60.10.0011] 0.0024 _|o.cove| _ 0.0009 3.8.1.2 Forces Applied Directly o the Substructure ‘The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied Girectly to the substructure shall be calculated from an ‘assumed base wind pressure of 0.0019 MPa.’ For wind directions taken skewed to the substructure, this force shall be resoived into components perpendicular to the fend, and front elevations of the substructure. |The ‘component perpendicular to the end elevation shall act fn the exposed substructure area as seen in end elevation, and the component perpendicular to the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas and shall be ‘ppled simultaneously with the wind loads from the superstructure, pressures specified. in Table 1 are pressures applied to both the windwa areas. For trusses, columns. and arches, the base wind ‘sum of the nd leewardSection 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS 3.8.1.3 WIND PRESSURE ON VEHICLES: WL ‘When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure ‘shall be applied to both structure and vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an interruptable, moving force of 1.46 Nimm acting normal te, and 1800 mm above, the roadway and shall be: transmitted to the structure. ‘When wind on vehicles is not taken as normal to the structure, the components of normal and parallel force ‘applied to the lve load may be taken 28 specified in ‘Table 1 withthe skew angle taken as referenced normal to the surface. ‘Table 3.8.1.3+1 - Wind Components on Live Load Normal Porallel Skew Angle | Component | Component ees Nim Nir © 1.48 ® 45. 4128 018 30 4120 0.38 45 0.96 047, 60. 20.50 oss 3.8.2 Vertical Wind Pressure Unless otherwise determined in Aricle 38.3. a verical upward wind force of 86x10* MPa tmes the width of the deck, including parapets and sidewalks, Shall be considered to be a longituina ine load. This force shall be applied only for limit siates that do not involve wind on lve load, and only when the direction of thind is taken to be perpendicular tothe longitudinal axis ot he brage. This lineal force shall be applied al the vwndward quarter-point of te deck wicth in conjunction wi the horizontal wind loads specined in Artic 3.8.1. 3.83 Aeroelastic Instabiilty 3.83.1 GENERAL Aeroelastic force effects shall be taken into account ‘nthe design of bridges and structural components apt {0 be winc-sensitve. For the purpose of this atice, al COMMENTARY 38.13 ‘Based on practical experience, maximum Ive loads ‘are not expected to be present on the bridge when the wind velocity exceeds 80 kmh. The load factor ‘corresponding fo the treatment of wind on structure only in Load Combination Strength Ill would be (80/160)? (1.4) = 0.44, which has been rounded to 0.40 in the ‘Strength IV’ Load Combination. This load factor ‘corresponds to 0.3 in Service L ‘The 1.48 Nimm wind load is based on a long row of randomly sequenced passenger cars, commercial vans, ‘and trucks exposed to the 80 km/h design wind. This horizontal ive toad, similar to the design lane load, should be applied enly to the tnbutary areas producing a force effect of the same kind. 382 ‘The intent ofthis article is to account for the effect resulting from interruption of the horizontal flow of air by the superstructure. This load is to be applied even to discontinuous bridge decks, such as grid decks. This load may govem where overtuming of the bridge is investigated. 3834 Because of the complexity of analyses often ‘necessary for an in-depth evaluation of structural ‘aeroelastcity, this article is intentionally kept to 2 simple 3-38Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) [SPECIFICATIONS “ridges, and structural components thereof with a span Tengtn to width or depth ratio exceeding 30.0 shall be ‘deemed to be wind-sensiive. ‘The vibration of cables due to the interaction of wind ‘and rain shail also be considered. 3.832 AEROELASTIC PHENOMENA ‘The aeroelastic phenomena of vortex excitation, gatoping, flutter, and divergence shall be considered where applicable. 3.8.3.3 CONTROL OF DYNAMIC RESPONSES ‘Bridges dnd structural components thereof, including ‘cables. shall be designed to be free of fatigue damage ‘due fo vortex-induced or galloping oscillations. Bridges shall be designed to be free of divergence and alastrophie flutler up to 1.2 times the design wind ‘elocty epplicable at bridge deck height ‘COMMENTARY statement. Many bridges, decks, oF individual structural ‘components have been shown to be aeroelastcally insensitive I their length-owidth or length-to-depth ratios are under about 30.0, a somewhat arbitrary value helpful ony in identiying likely wind-sensitive cases. Flexible bridges, such 2s cable-supported or very long spans of any type, may require special studies based on wind tunnel information. In general wind tunnel tests involve simulation of the Wind environment local to the bridge site, Details of his fre part of the existing wind tunnel state of the art and fare beyond the scope of this commentary. 3832 Excitation due to vortex shedding is the escape of wind-induced vortices behind the member, which tend t0 ‘excite the component at its fundamental natural frequency in harmonic motion. itis important to keep stresses due to vortex-induced oscilations below the "infinite ile" fatigue stress. Methods exist for estimating ‘such stress amplitudes, but they are cutside the scope of this commentary. "Tubular components can be protected egainst vortex-induced oscillation by adding bracing, strakes, of tuned mass dampers or by attaching horizontal flat plates parallel o the tube axis above andlor below the Central third of their span. Such aerodynamic damper plates should lie about one-third tube diameter above or below the tube to allow free passage of wind. The width ofthe plates may be the diameter of the tube or wider. Galloping is a high-amplitude oscillation associated with icedaden cables or fong, flexible members having berodynamically unymmetrical cross-sections. Cable- Stays, having cieular sections, wil not gallop uness theit circumferences are deformed by ice, dropping water, OF ‘accumulated debris. exible bridge decks, as in very tong spans and some pedestrian bridges, may be prone to wind-induced flutier, a wind-excited oscillation of destructive amplitudes, of, on some occasions, divergence, an inreversible twist under high’ wind. Analysis methods, including wind tunnel studies leading to adjustments of the deck form, are available for prevention of both futtr ‘and divergence. 3.833 Cables in stayed-girder bridges have _ been ‘successfuly stablized against excessive dynamic Tesponses by attaching automotive dampers to Ihe bridge at deck level of by cross-tying multiple cable- stays.Section 3 -Loads and Load Factors (SI) ‘SPECIFICATIONS 3.8.3.4 WIND TUNNEL TESTS: Representative wind tunnel tests may be used to satisfy the requirements of Anicies 3.8.3.2 and 3.8.3.3. 3.9.4 General Ice forces on piers shall be determined with regard to site conditions and expected modes of ice action as, follows: ‘© Dynamic pressure due to moving sheets or floes of ice being cartied by stream flow, wind, or currents; © Static pressure due to thermal movements of ice sheets; Pressure resulting from hanging dams or jams of ice; ‘and ‘© Static uplit|or vertical load resuiting from adhering Ice in waters of fluctuating level ‘The expected thickness of ice, the direction of its ‘ovement, and the height of its action shall be determined by field investigations, review of public records, aerial surveys, or other suitable means. ‘COMMENTARY 3.8.34 ‘Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil engineering structures is a highly developed fi which may be used to study the wind response characteristics of a structural model or to verity the results of analysis (Simiu 1976), cast Most ofthe information for ice loads was taken from ‘Montgomery et al. (1984), which provided background for the clauses on ice loads for Canadian Standards ‘Association (1988). A useful additional source has been Nell (1981). It is convenient to classity ice forces on piers as ‘dynamic forces and static forces, Dynamic forces occur when a moving ice foe strikes ‘a bridge pier. The forces imposed by the ice foe on 2 per are dependent on the size of the fe, the strength ‘and thickness of the ce, and the geometry of the per. The following types of ice fallure have been ‘observed (Montgomery et al. 1984): © Crushing. where the ice falls by local crushing across the width of a pier. The crushed ice is continually cleared from a zone around the pier as the floe moves past. ‘© Bending, where a vertical reaction component acts ‘on the ice floe impinging on a pier with an inclined ose. This reaction causes the floe to rise up the pier nose, as flexural cracks form. ‘© Spiiting, where a comparatively small foe strikes 2 ler and is split into smaller parts by stress cracks propagating ftom the pier. ‘© Impact, where a small foe is brought to 2 halt by impinging on the nose of the pier before it has crushed over the fullwicth ofthe pier. bent or spit ‘© Buckling, where compressive forces cause a large floe to fail by buckling in front of the nose of a very wide pier. For bridge piers of usual proportions on larger bodies cof water, crushing and bending failures usually control the magnitude of the design: dynamic ice force. On ‘smaller streams, which cannot carry large ice floes, ‘impact failure can be the controlling mode,Section 3 - Loads ard Loaid Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS ‘COMMENTARY {In all three cases, it is essential to recognize the effects of resonance between the pier and the ice forces. Montgomery et al. (1980) have shown that for a massive pier with a damping coefficient of 20 percent of critical, the maximum dynamic effect is approximately equal to the greatest force, but for lesser damping values there is considerable amplification. ‘Montgomery and Lipsett (1980) measured damping of a massive pier at 19 percent of critical, but it is expected that slender piers and individual piles may have damping values of 5 percent or less. In the discussion of impacttype ice failure above. the inication is that the fie is "small" Small is extremely dificult to define and is site-specific. Floes up to 23000 mm long have been observed to fail by spliting ‘when driven by water velocities of 3000 mis (Haynes 1996). Static forces may be caused by the thermal ‘expansion of ice in which a pier is embedded or by Irregular growth of the ice field. This has typically been observed downstream of a dam, ot hydroelectric plant or other channel where ice predominantly forms only on ‘one side of the river or pier lee jams can arch between bridge plers. The breakup ice jam is a more ot less cohesionless accumulation of ice fragments (Montgomery et al. 1964). Hanging dams are created when frazl ice passes under the surface layer of ice and accumulates under te surface ice at the bridge site. The frazil ice comes ‘ypically fom rapids or waterfalls upstream. The hanging dam can cause a backup of water, which exerts pressure on the pier and can cause scour around or ‘under plers as water flows at an increased velocity. Dynamic lee Forces on Piers 392.1 EFFECTIVE ICE STRENGTH cas24 In the absence of more precise information, the _It should be noted that the effective ice strengths wtlowing values may be used for effective ice crushing glven herein are for the purpose of entering into a strength formula to arrive at forces on piers. Different formulas right requie diferent effective ice strengths to ative at * 0.28 MPa, where breakup occurs at melting the same result temperatures and the fee structure i substantsly As a guide, the 0.38 MPa strength is approprite for disintegrated. piers where long experience indicates that ce forces are Trim, but gome allowance is requed for lee effects, + 0.77 MPa, where breakup occurs at melting the 1.53 MPo strength is considered to be a reasonable temperatures ‘and the ice strucute is somewhal upper limit based onthe observed history of bridges that dismegrated have survived ice condtons (Nell 1981). Effective ice strengths of up to 2.76 MPa have been used in the © 1.18 MPa, where breskup or major ice movement design of some bridges in Alaska (Haynes 1986). occurs at melting temperatures, but the ice moves in ‘The effective ice strength depends mostly on the terge pieces ands intemaly sound: and temperature and gain size ofthe ie (Montgomery et al. 4904). For example, laboratory measured compressive strengths at O°C vary trom about 2.9 MPa for grain sizes 3-39Section 3 - Loads and Load Factors (SI) SPECIFICATIONS © 1.53 MPa, where breakup or major ice movement ‘occurs when the ice temperature, averaged over its ‘depth, is measurably below the melting point. 3922 CRUSHING AND FLEXING ‘The horizontal force, F, resulting from the pressure of moving ice shall be taken as of 60 her f= laser of eter Fo wen ie fate by forte is condor appiesble as described herein, F,, and ee 2 > 60 ten Pek font F,>C,ptw (3.9.2.2-1) F,9C, pt? asa2y ola] 39229) 0s e+ tig aie BI asa24 ‘COMMENTARY ‘of 1 min to 1.3 MPa for grain sizes of S mm, and at 5° Jee strengths are approximately double the values given, ‘Thus, the effective ice strengths given herein are not necessafly representative of laboratory tests or actual ice strengths, and, in fact are on the order of one-half of ‘observed values (Neill 1981). ‘The compressive strength of the ice depends upon temperature, but the tensile strength is not sensitive to temperature, Because much ice failure is the result of spilting or tensile failure in bending. and because grain ‘izes. cracks, and other imperfections vary in the field, ‘nly crude approximations of ice strengths can be made, ‘Thus, temperature is not a consideration for setting effective ice strengths in these Specifications, ‘Some of the most severe ice runs in the United States occur during a rapid January thaw, when the ait temperature is about 10°C, but the average ice temperature can still be below O°C because of an insulating snow cover (Haynes 1996). ca922 ‘The expression of Fis based on field measurements of forces on two bridge piers in Alberta (Lipsett and Gerard 1980; see also Huiskamp 1983, with a Cy proposed by Afanas’ Ev et al. 1971, and verified by Neill 4976), ‘The expression for F, Is taken from Lipsett and Gerard (1980), Wit = 6.0 is a rough estimate of the upper limit of wit at which ice that has falled by bending will be washed ‘around the pier tis assumed that the force on the pier is governed by the crushing or bending strength of the ice, and thus there is not a term in Equations 1 or 2 relating to velocity fof the ice. The interaction between an ice foe and a pier ‘depends on the size and strength of the floe and how ‘squarely it stikes the pier. It has been reported that an ice foe 60 000 mm in size wil usually fall by crushing if {hits a pier squarely. Ifa floe 30 000 mm in size does ‘ot hit the pler squarely It wil usually impact the pier and fotate around the pier and pass downstream with only litle local rushing. ‘Although no ecount is taken of the shape of the rose of the pier, laboratory tests at tne U.S. Army Corps of Engineers! Cold Regions Research and Engineering ‘Laboratory (CRREL) have shown the bullet-shaped pier ‘nose can reduce ice forces the most compared to other types of geometry. Pointed angular noses, as shown in Figure C2.9.2.4.1-1, have been found to cause lateral vibrations of the pier without reducing the streamwise force. CRREL has measured lateral of torsional Vibrations an the pointed nose Yukon River Gridge piers. ‘The long-term ramifications of these vibrations are not known at ths time (Haynes 1996). 3-40