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Approximations and Simplified Equations

The document discusses various approximations and simplified equations commonly used in fluid dynamics modeling, including reducing problems to steady-state or 2D, neglecting compressibility or viscosity, using averaged equations, and introducing approximations like hydrostatic pressure or Boussinesq density variations. It also covers the differences between compressible and incompressible, viscous and inviscid, and turbulent and non-turbulent flows.

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Hassan Ali
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49 views19 pages

Approximations and Simplified Equations

The document discusses various approximations and simplified equations commonly used in fluid dynamics modeling, including reducing problems to steady-state or 2D, neglecting compressibility or viscosity, using averaged equations, and introducing approximations like hydrostatic pressure or Boussinesq density variations. It also covers the differences between compressible and incompressible, viscous and inviscid, and turbulent and non-turbulent flows.

Uploaded by

Hassan Ali
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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3.

Approximations and
Simplified Equations
Common Approximations
• Reduction of dimension:
‒ steady-state
‒ 2-dimensional

• Neglect of some fluid property:


‒ incompressible
‒ inviscid

• Simplified forces:
‒ hydrostatic
‒ Boussinesq approximation for density

• Averaging:
‒ depth-averaging (shallow-water flows)
‒ Reynolds averaging (turbulent flows)
Time-Dependent vs Steady-State

• Use time-dependent calculations for:


‒ time-dependent problems (waves, pumps, turbines, …)
‒ flows with a natural instability (vortex shedding, ... )
‒ time-marching to steady state (high-Mach or high-Froude flows)

• Time-dependent calculations:
‒ “parabolic” or “hyperbolic” equations
‒ 1st-order in time; solved by forward-marching in time

• Steady-state calculations:
‒ “elliptic” equations
‒ 2nd-order in space: implicit, iterative solution methods
Marine Current Turbine
Vortex Shedding From a Cylinder
2- or 3-Dimensional

• Determined by geometry and boundary conditions


– but flow instabilities can still lead to 3-dimensionality

• Significant computational implications

• 2-d flows difficult to achieve in the laboratory

• Axisymmetric flows also “2-d”


Incompressible Flow

• Definition: a flow is incompressible if flow-induced pressure and


temperature changes don’t cause significant density changes

• Usually requires velocity ≪ speed of sound (Ma ≪ 1 )

• “Incompressible” does not necessarily mean “uniform density”


‒ Environmental flows driven by density differences in atmosphere or ocean can still
be regarded as incompressible
Compressible vs Incompressible CFD
Compressible flow:
• density changes along a streamline due to large pressure or temperature changes;

• requires an equation for internal energy 𝑒 (or enthalpy ℎ):


change in energy = heat input + work done on fluid

• mass equation → density 


energy equation → temperature 𝑇
equation of state → pressure 𝑝 (e.g. ideal gas law, 𝑝 = ρ𝑅𝑇)

Incompressible flow:
• density constant along a streamline; volume conserved

• mechanical energy equation:


change in kinetic energy = work done on fluid
can be derived from momentum equation: no separate energy equation

• a pressure equation arises from the requirement that solutions of the momentum
equation also be mass-consistent
Compressible vs Incompressible CFD

Compressible CFD:
• requires an energy equation
• pressure determined by equation of state

Incompressible CFD:
• does not require a separate energy equation
• pressure arises from mass-consistency
Viscous vs Inviscid
y
U

• Viscous (Navier-Stokes) equations: viscous


‒ dynamic (“no-slip”) boundary condition: (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) = 0

•
y
Inviscid (Euler) equations: U

‒ no 2nd-order derivatives (one less b.c.)


inviscid
‒ kinematic (“slip-wall”) boundary condition: 𝑢𝑛 = 0

• Inviscid approximation OK only if boundary layer is:


‒ thin (high Re)
‒ attached (no flow separation)

• Inviscid approximation implies no drag, no heat transfer, no


sediment transport, … and no flow separation.
Potential Flow
• Approximation: inviscid, incompressible

• Velocity derived from a velocity potential ϕ:


𝜕ϕ 𝜕ϕ 𝜕ϕ
𝑢= , 𝑣= , 𝑤=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕2ϕ 𝜕2ϕ 𝜕2ϕ
+ + =0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Laplace’s Equation
u = ∇ϕ

∇•u=0  ∇2 ϕ = 0

• Consequences:
‒ entire flow field determined by a single scalar
‒ very common equation; plenty of good solvers around
‒ ignores boundary-layer effects: no drag or flow separation
Hydrostatic Approximation
z
• Approximation: patm
‒ pressure forces balance weight:
𝜕𝑝 h-z
= −ρ𝑔 Δ𝑝 = −ρ𝑔Δ𝑧
𝜕𝑧 h(x) p = patm+  g(h-z)

•
x
Validity:
‒ always true in stationary fluid
‒ good approximation if vertical acceleration ≪ 𝑔

• Consequence:
‒ pressure is determined everywhere from the depth below the free-surface:
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ρ𝑔(ℎ − 𝑧)
Boussinesq Approximation for Density
• Application: variable-density environmental flows:
‒ atmosphere (temperature);
‒ oceans (salinity).
D𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
ρ =− − ρ𝑔 + ⋯ =− − ρ0 𝑔 − (ρ − ρ0 )𝑔 + ⋯
D𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

• Approximation:
‒ retain density changes in buoyancy force
‒ neglect density changes in inertial term (mass  acceleration)
D𝑤 𝜕𝑝∗
ρ0 =− − (ρ − ρ0 )𝑔 𝑝∗ = 𝑝 + ρ0 𝑔𝑧
D𝑡 𝜕𝑧

• Comments:
‒ sometimes needed in theoretical work (to linearise equations);
‒ usually unnecessary in general-purpose CFD (included in iteration).
Density-Determining Scalar
D𝑤 𝜕𝑝∗
Vertical momentum equation: ρ0 =− − (ρ − ρ0 )𝑔 + ⋯
D𝑡 𝜕𝑧

Density-determining scalar θ (e.g. temperature or salinity):


ρ − ρ0
= −α(θ − θ0 )
ρ0

D𝑤 𝜕𝑝∗
ρ0 =− + ρ0 α(θ − θ0 )𝑔 + ⋯
D𝑡 𝜕𝑧
buoyancy force
Atmospheric Boundary Layer

stable boundary layer

 u
mixing depth

convective boundary layer

 u
Fresh-Water Outfall
Shallow-Water Equations
• Application: open-channel hydraulics
z

• Approximation: depth-averaged h(x,t)

‒ horizontal velocities 𝑢, 𝑣 u

‒ water depth ℎ
𝜕ℎ 𝜕
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑢ℎ = 0 x
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 2 𝜕 1 2 1
(𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚) (𝑢ℎ) + (𝑢 ℎ) = − (2𝑔ℎ ) + (𝜏𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑑 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ρ

• Compressible-flow analogy:
‒ discontinuity: hydraulic jump  shock
‒ wave speed: 𝑐 = 𝑔ℎ ↔ 𝑐= γ𝑝/ρ
‒ ratio of current to wave speed: Froude number Fr  Mach number Ma
Turbulent Flow

Instantaneous Average
Reynolds Averaging
Application: turbulent flows

𝑢 = 𝑢lj + 𝑢′
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Averaging produces an additional effective stress in the mean flow equations:


𝜏𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = −ρ𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ Reynolds stress

Common modelling practice:


𝜕𝑢ത
𝜏𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = μ𝑡 μ𝑡 = eddy viscosity
𝜕𝑦

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