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History Alive - Chapter 34

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History Alive - Chapter 34

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Demon Boi
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chapter 34 Origins of World War II Could World War II have been prevented? 34.1 Introduction ‘The Great Depression in the United States led to a worldwide depression. This depression and the effects of World War I had left the German economy in tat- tes. In the 1930s, a German dictator, Adolf Hitler, took advantage of Germany's troubles to str up German nationalism. He rearmed the country, violating the Treaty of Versailles, and began to threaten his neighbors. In 1936, German troops occupied the Rhineland, a German region on te border with France. Although the Versailles Treaty banned military activities inthis region, the League of Nations did nothing in response. ‘wo years later, Hitler demanded that the Sudetenland, a German-speak- ing region of Czechoslovakia, be turned over to Germany. At this point, ‘any Buropeans feared that Hitler was pushing Europe toward war France and Great Britain still bore the scars of World War I and would 2010 great lengths to prevent another conflict. In September 1988, British Prine Minister Neville Chamberlain flew to Germany to tale with Hitler. At the meeting, Chamberlain asked Hitler if he would be satisfied with the Sudetenland and leave the rest of Czechoslovakia alone. Hitler convinced Chamberlain that his aims were peaceful and that he had no desire to control other countries. France and Britain distrusted Hitler, Yet they had already docided on a pol- ‘cy of appeasement— yielding to an enemy's demands in order to maintain Peace, Germany would get the Sudetenland, despite Czechoslovakia’s objec- ‘ons. Chamberlain told the British people that it did not m € sense t0 go 10 ‘ha small territory, “If we have to fight, it must be on k Has that” he suid. Chamberlain and Hitler then worked out the details of what Same noma the Meh Pact, Togs wit the adr of France nd ‘ly they signed the agreement in Munich, Germany, on September 29, 1938. Chambertain flew home with doubts about the pact. But he also had hope. " Nevite Chamberlain and Ado Hitler shake hands, September 30,1938 1917-1941 Remanter.One More Lally nd Then You All Go Hew ‘Theodore Geisel, own as Dr. Seuss, won fame as an author of children’s books. During World War I, however, he drew hundreds of political cartoons. His cartoon "The ‘Appeaser” shows a man offering candy to ‘monstors bearing the swastika, the symbol of Hitler's Germany. Itwas a clear eriticism of efforts to appease Hier. eS ,S!tsté=‘é‘(SOmsé*é*é‘ lo ne and individual liberty is secondary. Fascists are strongly opposed to commu: nism and democracy. They favor military values, the use of violence, and a jeader who is strong and ruthless. One fascist slogan in Ttaly called on youth to Another claimed, lifetime of peace.” Fascism often arises during a time of crisis, promising to revive an earlier era of glory. In Italy's case, that era was anci Mussolini used his extraordinary skill at public speaking to promote fascism, He did not speak with the calm, soothing voice of Franklin Roosevelt in a fire- side chal. Instead, Mussolini agitated crowds with emotional outbursts and dra malic gestures. At these rallies, tough young men wearing black shirts provided security. These supporters also formed violent Blackshirt squads that broke up political meetings and labor strikes, assaulted socialists and communists, and terrorized local populations By 1922, fascists dominated several areas of Italy, and Mussolini prepated to take control of the whole country. In October, he and thousands of Blackshirts threatened to march on Rome. Influential business and army leaders persuaded taly’s king, Emmanuel II, that Mussolini might be able to solve the nation’s problems. The king asked Mussolini to form a government. As prime ministe Mussolini quickly took charge, taking the name 1! Duce, Italian for “the leude Within a few years, he turned Italy into a fascist dictatorship. He banned labor unions, outlawed opposing political parties, and censored the press. He also employed spies and secret police to keep an eye on the people. Mussolini wanted to build Italy's economy, and his industrial development and public works programs had some success, He also hoped to turn Italy into « great European power, using the Roman Empire as @ model. Like the ancient Romans, he sought glory through military conquest vpelieve, obey, fight ‘minute on the battlefield is worth a nt Rome. Hitlor Leads the Riso of Nazism in Germany Like Italy, Germany also turned to fascism after World Wat I. In 1919, Adolf Hitler—Germany's future leader— joined a simall political party that later became known as the Nazi Party, Under his leadership, this party would direct a mass ‘movement based on a form of fascism known as Nazism Nazis believed that Germans and other Nordic peoples— Hitler catled them Aryans—were physically and morally Superior to other races. Nazis wanted o purify Germany by removing other races, especially Jews Hitler laid out the Nazi philosophy in his book Mein Kampf, or “My Struggle.” He started the book in 1924, While spending a year in prison for trying to overthrow ‘the government of the German state of Bavaria. In Mein Kampf, Hitler said that the superior Aryan race was locked in a struggle with other races. He introduced the idea of Lebensraum, of “living space,” declaring that Aryan settlers could raise lage families. Those families, in turn, would conquer "ote territory, expanding the German empire. Eventually, Germany and the Aryan race would rule the world. Germany needed land on whi The Nazis held mass rallas to mativata the Gorman army and to inflame nationalist spit Tons of thousands of Germans would attend these events, Hitler spoke at this rally in Nuremberg in Saptember 1934 Origins of World War iI 437 > Germany's economic depression gave Hitler the opportunity to spre! hig soverniment could not cope with the crisis, ideas. The country’s parliamentary g | Huy an looking for a leader who could save the | nation from ruin. Hitler addressed large crowds, blaming the Jews for nearly , unemployed Germans b every German problem, from the world war tothe depression, le promised ig restore Germany's economy and empire. At these Nazi ais, bodyguards | protected Hite. Hitler's extreme nationalism appeated to many voters. n the 1932 elec tions the Nazi Party won more seats nthe parfament than any other politica | party in Germany. As a result, Hitler was named chancellor, or prime minis } ter, He moved quickly to dissolve the republic, replacing German democracy Jh—the successor t0 bo, earlier German empires. They passed new laws targeting Jews, barring them | from certain jobs and exposing them to persecution. Jews and other “undesir | ables” were shipped off to concentration camps. Hitler also centralized the government, placing Nazis in the main positions of authority. In 1934, he ‘Civil liberties abolished. became both president and chancellor, giving himself the title der Fidhrer; or + Force used to eliminate opposition ‘the leader.” Hitler now had complete command of Germany. He set about building Germany’s military into a powerful war machine ‘The Military Takes Control of the Government in Japan Like Germany, Japan had a mixed history of military rule and democracy. Before World ‘War I, Japan hiad begun to industrialize. Lacking raw materials for industry, it relied on a strong military to obtain natural resources from other countries, After the war, however, Japan became less aggressive. It helped form the ied the Kellogg-Briand Pact, joining sments peacefully. Civilians League of Nations in 1920. It also 14 other nations in a pledge to resolve disas aa SE gained more power in the government, although Japan's emperor continued Characteristics of Militarism to play a strong role. in Japan Under Tojo. In the 1930s, however, the worldwide economic depression undermined civilian rule and caused Japan to move toward a policy of militarism. The Japanese military began to increase its power and to play a greater role in polities. Japan's growing militarism was combined with an extreme form of and | Shnraced ation values and clue, Ras! nationaisaso called oF mote aggressive military action abroad to acquire territory and raw materials Like Hitler, they wanted to expand Japan’s “living space” and acquire oil and ‘other vital resources. ‘Some nationalists joined with a group of army officers in efforts to ove! assassinated the prime minist dow ies eo | throw the civilian government. In 1932, they nia | More assassinations and upheaval followed in 1936. The government put ‘itary contol of civilian ‘government fearing for their ives, gave up more power to the military. | sTortoilexpension to obtain | Japanese militarism got another boost in 1941, when General Hideki | aw materials | “Tojo became prime minister, replacing these rebellions and executed the rebels. Nevertheless, civilian politicians. a civilian leader. Tojo, an aggressiN® miflitarist, continued (0 develop the military and prepare the nation for W#" 438 Chapter 34 he a for rials. and iowa oa | i 34.3 Military Aggression Meets a Weak Response During the early 1930s, Americans still strongly favored isolationism. With the bitter memory of the first world war and the challenge of economic problems athome, they did not want the nation to become entangled in another wat. For this reason, President Franklin Roosevelt took no direct action against aggressive dictators in Asia and Europe. He did, however, speak out against aggression in principle. In his 1933 inaugural address, Roosevelt vowed that the United States would be a “good neighbor” who “respects the rights of others.” This pledge was meant to send a message to aggressor nations. But it also reflected his desire to end U.S. intervention in Latin America and improve relations with that region, Ata conference later in the year, 21 nations in the Western Hemisphere signed on to Roosevelt's “Good Neighbor Policy.” They declared, “No state has the right to intervene in the intemal or external affairs of another.” Over the next few years, the United States would encourage Japan, Germany, and Italy to abide by this principle, but it still would not back up its words with action. Militarists Expand Japan’s Empire One of the first examples of blatant aggression came in 1931, when Japan seized a portion of China. Japan and. other imperialist powers had previously established spheres of influence in China, where they exploited the country’s land and resources, Japan's sphere of influence was Manchuria, a region in northeastern China. When China's nationalist government threatened to expel foreign powers, the Japanese army invaded Manchuria and took control of the region. ‘The takeover of Manchuria had several major consequenes It gave Japan ‘large piece of territory that was rich in resources. In addition, it began an era in which the military dominated the Japanese government. It also isolated Japan from most other nations. In 1932, the League of Nations ordered Japan ‘o withdraw its army from the region. Japan refused, choosing to withdraw from the League instead, SECU Ci =n Un a ELL) | = ‘Throughout the 1830s, Japan's quest for raw materials drove its imperial expansion. In 1940, however, it stil dd not have a secure source of oi Without oi, Japan could not expand, nor could i fight a war. Japan's mitarsts began eyeing the Dutch East Indies, which had abun- dant oit supplies. Origins of World Wer tI 439 y More aggression followed in 1937. In July, the Japanese army clashed with Chinese forces outside Beijing, China’s capital. The clash soon became a full. fledged war. The Chinese army pulled back, but the Japanese caught up with them at the city of Nanjing. After capturing the city, Japanese soldiers went on a six-week rampage known as the Rape of Nanjing. They massacred as many as 300,000 Chinese civilians and brutally raped about 20,000 Chinese women, ‘The war did not stop there. By the end of the year, Japan's military occupied China's main cities and much of its fertile land Jolted by Japan's aggression, Roosevelt called on “peace-loving nations” to end the “epidemic of world lawlessness.” He spoke of the need to quaran- tine aggressor nations, In international relations, a quarantine is a blockade or boy- ott, Roosevelt's “quarantine” speech did nothing to stop Japan. By 1941, Japan, had added French Indochina to its Asian empire to go along with Formosa (now called Taiwan), Korea, large areas of China, and several small Pacific islands, ‘As part of Mussolini's plan to create a Europe's Dictators Test the League of Nations Japan's aggression tested [New Roman Empite, aly invaded and the League of Nations, The League was intended to serve as an instrument of ‘occupied Ethiopia in 1935. taian forces international law. In theory, it could impose boycotts and other economic sanc- also occupied Albania tions of use the combined military force of its members to keep unruly nations in line, In practice, however, it was a weak organization, partly because the United States was not a member. The League failed to respond effectively to Japan's challenge. Throughout the 1930s, Germany and Italy would also test the League’s will, Like Japan, Germany pulled out of the League of Nations in 1933. At the same time, Hitler began rebuilding the German military. In 1935, he announced Emperor Haile Selassie fed Ethiopia just the formation of an air force and the start of compulsory military service. Both before hay annexed his county Selessighad actions went against the Treaty of Versailles. The League of Nations lodged a pleaded with the League of Nations to take formal protest, but it refused to consider sanctions against Germany, The next strong action against italy, He lator tld the year, Hitler openly challenged France by sending troops into the Rhineland, League, “iis us today. twilbe youtomorrov.” This was another test of the League's resolve to stand up to aggression. Meanwhile, Mussolini began his quest to build a New Roman Empire. In October 1935, the Italian army invaded the African nation of Ethiopia. The poorly equipped Ethiopian forces could not stop the invaders. Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations, which voted to impose economic sanctions ‘on the aggressor. The sanctions were mild, and few League members seriously applied them. In May 1936, Italy officially annexed Ethiopia. Hitler heartily approved of the invasion. In Cctober, he and Mussolini joined in a treaty of friendship that forged an alliance, known as the Rome-Berlin axis, between their countries. Events in Spain also aided the growth of fascism. In July 1936, a military rebellion started the Spanish Civil War. Led ‘by General Francisco Franco, the Spanish military and its right™ wing allies, known as the Nationalists, sought to overthrow Spain's democratic republic. Italy and Germany backed the rebels with supplies, weapons, and troops. Various left-wing, 440 Chapter 34 known as the Republicans, battled to save the repub- ours with aid from the Soviet Union and volunteer fighter wher countries. Although some 3,000 Americans vol- Jintered, the U.S. government stayed out of the conflict. At fiom oF ir war. In the. {east half a tillion people died in the three ad, Franco and the Nationalists won and established a right wing dictalorship, Great Britain and France Seek to Appease Hitler Encour- aged by events in Italy and Spain, and by his own successful cccupation of the Rhineland, Hitler continued his campaign ofexpansion, During this time, Britain and France did little to stop him, choosing instead to follow a policy of appeasement. Hitler next set his sights on neighboring Austria, the country of his birth. At the time, Austria had an unstable government with fascist elements, Hitler pressured its leaders to join the Third Reich. Finally, in 1938, a member of the ‘Austrian Nazi Party took over as chancellor of Austria. On March 12 of that year, Hitler's army crossed the border into ‘Austria without opposition. The following day he proclaimed Anschluss, or “political union,” with Austria. Britain and France remained passive spectators to this German expansion. Hitler next wanted to take over Czechoslovakia. By signing the Munich Pact in September 1938, he acquired the Czech region of the Sudetenland. Hitler told Chamberlain that this would be his “last territorial demand.” Chamberlain chose to believe Hitler, declaring that he had achieved “peace with honor” and adding, “I believe it is peace in our time.” Another ‘member of Parliament, Winston Churchill, disagreed. He wrote, “By this time next year we shall know whether the policy of appeasement has appeased, or whether it has only stimulated a more ferocious appetite.” ‘The U.S. Congress Legislates Neutrality During this period, the United States di little to thwart aggression. When Mussolini invaded Ethio ‘example, the League of Nations considered establishing an oil embargo, or suspension of trade, against Italy. Ialy’s offensive would grind to a halt with- ut oil. The League asked the United States, a major oil supplier, if it would Join the embargo. Roosevelt said no, pointing out that he had just signed the Neutrality Act of 1935. This act prevented the United States from supplying “arms, ammunition, or implements of war” to nations in conflict. Because the law said nothing about oil, Roosevelt chose not to block oil shipments to Italy. Congress passed additional neutrality acts in 1936 and 1937, all designed ‘o keep the country out of conflicts brewing in Europe, such as the Spanish Civil War. Americans passionately supported this isolationism. Like Europeans, they recalled the horrors of World War I and wanted to avoid getting drawn into 4 new conflict. Roosevelt did, however, devote enormous energy to preserving Peace. He wrote letters to the aggressors and to League members, urging them 1 settle their differences through negotiation, for ‘Adolf Hitler declared that he had no interest in European expansion. The leaders of Great Britain and France wanted to believe him. Others, ike Winston Churchil, were more skeptical of Hitle’s ims. Origins of World War II 441 Bltakriag tactics made the German army ‘80m unstoppable. The Nazi wer machine ‘00k just a month to crush Poland. It then ‘turned its aggression on other European countries. 442 Chapter 34 34.4 Hitler Plunges Europe into War Great Britain and France chose to avoid war with Germany by allowing Hith, to behave as he pleased. But Hitler had no interest in avoiding war and grey, bolder with every aggressive step he took, In March 1939, he broke the Munici Pact by invading Czechoslovakia and seizing control of Prague, the Czech cap, ital, As Churchill suspected, appeasement only made Hitler more eager to egg, {quer new territory. The takeover of Czechoslovakia finally caused Britain ang Franee to draw a line in the sand. They declared that if Germany made any further attacks on small states, then they would declare war, Hitler Signs a Nonaggression Pact with Stalin Part of Hitler’s plans for war involved Stalin, the communist leader of the Soviet Union. Communists and Nazis despised each other and had litle reason to cooperate. Yet Hitler sought ‘an agreement with Stalin to keep the Soviet Union neutral in the coming war. Hitler offered Stalin a nonaggression treaty, and Stalin acceptéd it. ‘The German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, signed in August 1939, served the interests of both leaders. Hitler planned to attack Poland, an action that was likely to ignite a broader war in Europe. The geography of that war concerned him. The Soviet Union lay to the east. Britain and France lay to the west. Hitler could not afford to fight a war on two fronts, east and west, at the same time For that reason, Soviet neutrality was vital. The pact helped Stalin, too. The Soviet dictator wanted more power and secure borders. As part of the pact, Hitler secretly promised to give Stalin part of Poland and grant him a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. But Hitler already had plans to attack the Soviet Union, which had vast, fertile farmlands that were a key to fulfilling the quest for Lebensraum. Hitler also understood that Nazi Germany could not coexist for long with the com- munist USSR to its east. German Armies Roll Across Europe With the Soviet Union neutra Hitler sprang into action. On September 1, 1939, the German army marched cast into Poland. Two days later, France and Britain—the Allied powers— declared war on Germany. World War II had begun. In Poland, the German armed forces relied on a strategy of blitzkrieg, ot “lightning war.” Without any warning, German bombers launched attacks on railroads, airfields, communications networks, military bases, and other strate gic sites. These attacks helped prevent Polish mobilization, the assembling of {oops and equipment for war. Meanwhile, waves of infantry, supported by tanks and artillery, pushed toward key cities. Germany's method was to out- flank, surround, and destroy. Motorized units quickly swept around and encit- led the Polish army. Warplanes rained bombs and bullets on the enemy. Then the foot soldiers moved in to finish the job. l-equipped and overwhelmed, the Polish forces quickly collapsed. On September 17, the Soviet army invaded Poland from the east. By the first of October, Germany and the USSR had complete control of the country. “How Did Germany Garmany's blitzkrieg tacties ai warfare of World War | The objective was weakest points and then rush forward the lines, Pockets af enemy ra izkrieg attack unfolded ini © German aitackers identity ‘a weak spat in the enemy's efensive line. = @ Infaritry troops create a escraen to hicle tho gathering for a breakthrough, ‘® Planes bomb military and civilian targets behind:the | ines, Paratroopers disrapt ‘communications and slow the movement of enerny reinforcements, istance could x stages. @ Tanks bleak through the weak spot, spreading, pante, among troops and civilians © Motoiizad divisions move through the opening and ircle back to surround the © enemy forces from behind. “1 Jotaney rdops sve to DE Se elak ron rei atdaeot tls ea Origins of World War Il 443 Germany had enormous success inthe frst your and half of World Wer Il, Except for neutral nations, nearly al of Europe fell under ‘Axis control, Only Great Britain managed to hold off Hitlers invading armies. Ti Maier xi powers Major Aled powers P|) neutral nations [Ti Aroes under Axis control s Borders shown ara 1857 borders ‘Battle of Britain ome age | atl of | Tae om / | [ermany invades Low criay ric |Ssmilettes s0 OCEAN 444 Chapter 34 ee oS ea Hitler now switched his focus to the west. He moved soldiers to Germany, border with France and the Low Countries—Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, France relied for its main defense on the Maginot Line, a string of heavily armed fortresses along the German border. Most French troops ‘massed here, while others gathered along the border with Belgium. British forces crossed the English Channel, prepared to aid France and the Low Countries, For the next few months, not much happened on the western front, "American newspapers began referring to this as the “Phony War.” ‘Then suddenly, in a series of lightning actions, the Germans struck. In April 1940, they launched a surprise attack on Deniiark and Norway. Within a few weeks, Germany had conquered these two Scandinavian countries. Nex, on May 10, the Germans invaded the Low Countries. In just 18 days, these three countries would fall into German hands. Using blitzkrieg tacties, the main German foree burst through Luxembourg and southem Belgium into France in just four days. Then it began a dramatic drive toward the French coast. Skirting the Maginot Line, the Germans sped westward, encircling defenders, Hundreds of thousands of French and British troops found themselves trapped in a shrinking pocket of French countryside. ‘They retreated toward the port of Dunkirk on the northwest coast of France Britain sent every boat it could find across the English Channel to evacuate the soldiers. The daring rescue saved some 338,000 men. Meanwhile, Paris was about to fall to the Germans. Mussolini took this opportunity to declare war on Britain and France. Italy and Germany became known as the Axis powers, On June 22, France surrendered to Germany. Under the terms of the armistice, Germany would occupy three fifths of the country “T Germany invades Denmark 7) Sad orvay, 140 ‘Germany invades Potond 138 Section 299

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