3 DIFFERENTIATION

3.1 Definition of the Derivative

Preliminary Questions
1. Which of the lines in Figure 10 are tangent to the curve?

D
A

B
C

FIGURE 10

solution Lines B and D are tangent to the curve.

2. What are the two ways of writing the difference quotient?
solution The difference quotient may be written either as

f (x) − f (a)
x−a
or as
f (a + h) − f (a)
.
h

f (a + h) − f (a)
3. Find a and h such that is equal to the slope of the secant line between (3, f (3)) and (5, f (5)).
h
f (a + h) − f (a)
solution With a = 3 and h = 2, is equal to the slope of the secant line between the points (3, f (3))
h
and (5, f (5)) on the graph of f (x).
 
tan π4 + 0.0001 − 1
4. Which derivative is approximated by ?
0.0001
tan( π4 + 0.0001) − 1
solution is a good approximation to the derivative of the function f (x) = tan x at x = π4 .
0.0001

5. What do the following quantities represent in terms of the graph of f (x) = sin x?
sin 1.3 − sin 0.9
(a) sin 1.3 − sin 0.9 (b) (c) f  (0.9)
0.4
solution Consider the graph of y = sin x.
(a) The quantity sin 1.3 − sin 0.9 represents the difference in height between the points (0.9, sin 0.9) and (1.3, sin 1.3).
sin 1.3 − sin 0.9
(b) The quantity represents the slope of the secant line between the points (0.9, sin 0.9) and (1.3, sin 1.3)
0.4
on the graph.
(c) The quantity f  (0.9) represents the slope of the tangent line to the graph at x = 0.9.

Exercises
1. Let f (x) = 5x 2 . Show that f (3 + h) = 5h2 + 30h + 45. Then show that

f (3 + h) − f (3)
= 5h + 30
h

and compute f  (3) by taking the limit as h → 0.

101

May 25, 2011

102 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

solution With f (x) = 5x 2 , it follows that

f (3 + h) = 5(3 + h)2 = 5(9 + 6h + h2 ) = 45 + 30h + 5h2 .

Using this result, we find

f (3 + h) − f (3) 45 + 30h + 5h2 − 5 · 9 45 + 30h + 5h2 − 45 30h + 5h2

= = = = 30 + 5h.
h h h h
As h → 0, 30 + 5h → 30, so f  (3) = 30.
In Exercises 3–6, compute f  (a) in two ways, using Eq. (1) and Eq. (2).
Let f (x) = 2x 2 − 3x − 5. Show that the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (2 + h, f (2 + h)) has slope 2h + 5.
3. Then
f (x) use 2 + formula
= xthis 9x, a = to 0compute the slope of:
(a) The secant
solution line=through
Let f (x) x 2 + 9x.(2,Then
f (2)) and (3, f (3))
(b) The tangent line at x = 2 (by taking a limit)
f (0 + h) − f (0) (0 + h)2 + 9(0 + h) − 0 9h + h2
f  (0) = lim = lim = lim = lim (9 + h) = 9.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

Alternately,

f (x) − f (0) x 2 + 9x − 0
f  (0) = lim = lim = lim (x + 9) = 9.
x→0 x−0 x→0 x x→0

5. f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x + 2, a = −1
f (x) = x 2 + 9x, a2 = 2
solution Let f (x) = 3x + 4x + 2. Then

f (−1 + h) − f (−1) 3(−1 + h)2 + 4(−1 + h) + 2 − 1

f  (−1) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3h2 − 2h
= lim = lim (3h − 2) = −2.
h→0 h h→0

Alternately,

f (x) − f (−1) 3x 2 + 4x + 2 − 1
f  (−1) = lim = lim
x→−1 x − (−1) x→−1 x+1
(3x + 1)(x + 1)
= lim = lim (3x + 1) = −2.
x→−1 x+1 x→−1

In Exercises 7–10,3 refer to Figure 11.

f (x) = x , a = 2

y
3.0
2.5 f (x)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
FIGURE 11

7. Find the slope of the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)). Is it larger or smaller than f  (2)?
Explain.
solution From the graph, it appears that f (2.5) = 2.5 and f (2) = 2. Thus, the slope of the secant line through
(2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)) is
f (2.5) − f (2) 2.5 − 2
= = 1.
2.5 − 2 2.5 − 2
From the graph, it is also clear that the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)) has a larger slope than the tangent
line at x = 2. In other words, the slope of the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)) is larger than f  (2).
9. Estimate f  (1) and f  (2).
f (2 + h) − f (2)
solutionEstimate
From the graph, it appears h =the
forthat −0.5. What
tangent does
line = 1quantity
at xthis would berepresent? Is itThus,
horizontal.  (1)
largerfor ≈ 0. The
smaller f  (2)?
thantangent
h
at x = 2 appears to pass through the points (0.5, 0.8) and (2, 2). Thus
line Explain.
2 − 0.8
f  (2) ≈ = 0.8.
2 − 0.5

f (2 + h) − f (2)
Find a value of h for which = 0.
h
May 25, 2011
 S E C T I O N 3.1 Definition of the Derivative 103

In Exercises 11–14, refer to Figure 12.

y
5
4
3
2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 12 Graph of f (x).

11. Determine f  (a) for a = 1, 2, 4, 7.

solution Remember that the value of the derivative of f at x = a can be interpreted as the slope of the line tangent
to the graph of y = f (x) at x = a. From Figure 12, we see that the graph of y = f (x) is a horizontal line (that is, a line
with zero slope) on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 3. Accordingly, f  (1) = f  (2) = 0. On the interval 3 ≤ x ≤ 5, the graph of
y = f (x) is a line of slope 12 ; thus, f  (4) = 12 . Finally, the line tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at x = 7 is horizontal,
so f  (7) = 0.
13. Which is larger, f  (5.5) or f  (6.5)?
For which values of x is f  (x) < 0?
solution The line tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at x = 5.5 has a larger slope than the line tangent to the graph of
y = f (x) at x = 6.5. Therefore, f  (5.5) is larger than f  (6.5).

In Exercises
Show15–18,
that f use
(3) the
doeslimit
not definition
exist. to calculate the derivative of the linear function.

15. f (x) = 7x − 9
solution

f (a + h) − f (a) 7(a + h) − 9 − (7a − 9)

lim = lim = lim 7 = 7.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

17. g(t) = 8 − 3t
f (x) = 12
solution

g(a + h) − g(a) 8 − 3(a + h) − (8 − 3a) −3h

lim = lim = lim = lim (−3) = −3.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

19. Find an equation of the tangent line at x = 3, assuming that f (3) = 5 and f  (3) = 2?
k(z) = 14z + 12
solution By definition, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 3 is y = f (3) + f  (3)(x − 3) =
5 + 2(x − 3) = 2x − 1.
21. Describe the tangent line at an arbitrary point on the “curve” y = 2x + 8.
Find f (3) and f (3), assuming that the tangent line to y = f (x) at a = 3 has equation y = 5x + 2.
solution Since y = 2x + 8 represents a straight line, the tangent line at any point is the line itself, y = 2x + 8.
1 1 1 1
f (x) = that
23. LetSuppose . Does f (−2 + h) equal2 + 5h. Calculate:
or + ? Compute the difference quotient at a = −2 with
x f (2 + h) − f (2) = 3h −2 +h −2 h
h = (a)
0.5. The slope of the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (6, f (6))
(b) f  (2)
solution Let f (x) = x1 . Then

1
f (−2 + h) = .
−2 + h
With a = −2 and h = 0.5, the difference quotient is

− 1 1
f (a + h) − f (a) f (−1.5) − f (−2) 1
= = −1.5 −2 = − .
h 0.5 0.5 3

√
x. Compute f  (5) by showing
25. Let f (x) = 1/ √ √ that √ √
Let f (x) = x. Does f (5 + h) equal 5 + h or 5 + h? Compute the difference quotient at a = 5 with
h = 1. f (5 + h) − f (5) 1
= −√ √ √ √
h 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5)

May 25, 2011

104 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

√
solution Let f (x) = 1/ x. Then

√1 − √1 √ √
f (5 + h) − f (5) 5+h 5 5− 5+h
= = √ √
h h h 5 5+h
√ √ √ √ 
5− 5+h 5+ 5+h
= √ √ √ √
h 5 5+h 5+ 5+h
5 − (5 + h) 1
= √ √ √ √ = −√ √ √ √ .
h 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5) 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5)
Thus,
f (5 + h) − f (5) 1
f  (5) = lim = lim − √ √ √ √
h→0 h h→0 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5)
1 1
= −√ √ √ √ =− √ .
5 5( 5 + 5) 10 5

 √
In Exercises
Find 27–44, use the
an equation limittangent
of the definition
lineto the graphf of(a)
tocompute and=find
f (x) 1/anxequation
at x = 9.of the tangent line.
27. f (x) = 2x 2 + 10x, a = 3
solution Let f (x) = 2x 2 + 10x. Then

f (3 + h) − f (3) 2(3 + h)2 + 10(3 + h) − 48

f  (3) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
18 + 12h + 2h2 + 30 + 10h − 48
= lim = lim (22 + 2h) = 22.
h→0 h h→0

At a = 3, the tangent line is

y = f  (3)(x − 3) + f (3) = 22(x − 3) + 48 = 22x − 18.

29. f (t) = t − 2t 2 , 2a = 3
f (x) = 4 − x , a = −1
solution Let f (t) = t − 2t 2 . Then

f (3 + h) − f (3) (3 + h) − 2(3 + h)2 − (−15)

f  (3) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3 + h − 18 − 12h − 2h2 + 15
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (−11 − 2h) = −11.
h→0

At a = 3, the tangent line is

y = f  (3)(t − 3) + f (3) = −11(t − 3) − 15 = −11t + 18.

31. f (x) = x 3 + x, a=0

f (x) = 8x 3 , a = 1
solution Let f (x) = x 3 + x. Then

f (h) − f (0) h3 + h − 0
f  (0) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (h2 + 1) = 1.
h→0

At a = 0, the tangent line is

y = f  (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = x.

33. f (x) = x −1 , 3 a = 8
f (t) = 2t + 4t, a = 4
solution Let f (x) = x −1 . Then
 
1 − 1 8−8−h
f (8 + h) − f (8) 8+h 8 −h 1
f  (8) = lim
8(8+h)
= lim = lim = lim =−
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 (64 + 8h)h 64

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.1 Definition of the Derivative 105

The tangent at a = 8 is
1 1 1 1
y = f  (8)(x − 8) + f (8) = − (x − 8) + = − x + .
64 8 64 4

1
35. f (x) = = x +, x −1
f (x) a= , −2
a=4
x+3
solution 1 . Then
Let f (x) = x+3

1 −1 1 −1
f (−2 + h) − f (−2) −h −1
f  (−2) = lim = lim −2+h+3 = lim 1+h = lim = lim = −1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h(1 + h) h→0 1 + h

The tangent line at a = −2 is

y = f  (−2)(x + 2) + f (−2) = −1(x + 2) + 1 = −x − 1.

√
37. f (x) = x + 4, a = 1
2
f (t) = , a√= −1
t = x + 4. Then
solution Let1f−(x)
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (1 + h) − f (1) h+5− 5 h+5− 5 h+5+ 5
f  (1) = lim = lim = lim ·√ √
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h+5+ 5
h 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √ .
h→0 h( h + 5 + 5) h→0 h+5+ 5 2 5
The tangent line at a = 1 is
1 √ 1 9
y = f  (1)(x − 1) + f (1) = √ (x − 1) + 5 = √ x + √ .
2 5 2 5 2 5

1√
39. f (x) ==
f (t) √ , 3t a+=5,4 a = −1
x
1
solution Let f (x) = √ . Then
x
√ √
√1 2−√ 4+h 2+√4+h √ 4−4−h
f (4 + h) − f (4) − 12 ·
f  (4) = lim
4+h 2 4+h 2+ 4+h 4 4+h+2(4+h)
= lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
−1 1
= lim √ =− .
h→0 4 4 + h + 2(4 + h) 16

At a = 4 the tangent line is

1 1 1 3
y = f  (4)(x − 4) + f (4) = − (x − 4) + = − x + .
16 2 16 4

41. f (t) = t 2 + 1,1 a = 3
f (x) = √ , a=4
solution Let f2x (t)+
=1 t 2 + 1. Then
 √
f (3 + h) − f (3) 10 + 6h + h2 − 10
f  (3) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
 √  √
10 + 6h + h2 − 10 10 + 6h + h2 + 10
= lim · √
h→0 h 10 + 6h + h2 + 10
6h + h2 6+h 3
= lim  √ = lim  √ = √ .
h→0 h( 10 + 6h + h2 + 10) h→0 10 + 6h + h2 + 10 10

The tangent line at a = 3 is

3 √ 3 1
y = f  (3)(t − 3) + f (3) = √ (t − 3) + 10 = √ t + √ .
10 10 10

f (x) = x −2 , a = −1

May 25, 2011

106 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

1
43. f (x) = 2 , a=0
x +1
1
solution Let f (x) = 2 . Then
x +1
1 −1 −h2
 f (0 + h) − f (0) (0+h)2 +1 h2 +1 −h
f (0) = lim = lim = lim = lim 2 = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h + 1

The tangent line at a = 0 is

y = f (0) + f  (0)(x − 0) = 1 + 0(x − 1) = 1.

45. Figure 13 displays data collected by the biologist Julian Huxley (1887–1975) on the average antler weight W of male
= t −3 , of
red deerfas(t)a function = 1t. Estimate the derivative at t = 4. For which values of t is the slope of the tangent line equal
a age
to zero? For which values is it negative?

Antler 8
Weight 7
(kg) 6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Age (years)
FIGURE 13

solution Let W (t) denote the antler weight as a function of age. The “tangent line” sketched in the figure below passes
through the points (1, 1) and (6, 5.5). Therefore
5.5 − 1
W  (4) ≈ = 0.9 kg/year.
6−1
If the slope of the tangent is zero, the tangent line is horizontal. This appears to happen at roughly t = 10 and at t = 11.6.
The slope of the tangent line is negative when the height of the graph decreases as we move to the right. For the graph in
Figure 13, this occurs for 10 < t < 11.6.
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

4 √
47. f (x) =
Let14(A)
Figure shows the. graph of f (x) = x. The close-up in Figure 14(B) shows that the graph is nearly a
1 + 2x
straight line near x = 16. Estimate the slope of this line and take it as an estimate for f  (16). Then compute f  (16)
(a) Plot f (x) over [−2, 2]. Then zoom in near x = 0 until the graph appears straight, and estimate the slope f  (0).
and compare with your estimate.
(b) Use (a) to find an approximate equation to the tangent line at x = 0. Plot this line and f (x) on the same set of axes.
solution
4 over [−2, 2]. The figure below at the right is a close-up
(a) The figure below at the left shows the graph of f (x) = 1+2x
near x = 0. From the close-up, we see that the graph is nearly straight and passes through the points (−0.22, 2.15) and
(0.22, 1.85). We therefore estimate
1.85 − 2.15 −0.3
f  (0) ≈ = = −0.68
0.22 − (−0.22) 0.44
y y

3
2.5 2.4
2 2.2
1.5 2.0
1
0.5 1.8
x x
−2 −1 1 2 −0.2 −0.1 0.1 0.2

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.1 Definition of the Derivative 107

(b) Using the estimate for f  (0) obtained in part (a), the approximate equation of the tangent line is

y = f  (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = −0.68x + 2.

The figure below shows the graph of f (x) and the approximate tangent line.
y

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
x
−2 −1 1 2

  on which the derivative in Figure 15 is positive.

49. Determine the intervals along the x-axis
Let f (x) = cot x. Estimate f  π2 graphically by zooming in on a plot of f (x) near x = π2 .
y
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
FIGURE 15

solution The derivative (that is, the slope of the tangent line) is positive when the height of the graph increases as we
move to the right. From Figure 15, this appears to be true for 1 < x < 2.5 and for x > 3.5.
 
In Exercises 51–56, each limit represents a derivative f  (a). Find f (x) and a.
Sketch the graph of f (x) = sin x on [0, π] and guess the value of f π2 . Then calculate the difference quotient
at x = π2 for3two small positive and negative values of h. Are these calculations consistent with your guess?
(5 + h) − 125
51. lim
h→0 h
(5 + h)3 − 125 f (a + h) − f (a)
solution The difference quotient has the form where f (x) = x 3 and a = 5.
h h
 
sin π + h − 0.5
53. lim x 36 − 125
h→0lim h
x→5 x − 5
sin( π6 + h) − .5 f (a + h) − f (a)
solution The difference quotient has the form where f (x) = sin x and a = π6 .
h h
52+h−1
− 25
55. lim x −4
h→0lim h
1
x→ 14 x − 4
5(2+h) − 25 f (a + h) − f (a)
solution The difference quotient has the form where f (x) = 5x and a = 2.
h h
 
57. Apply the method of Example 6 to f (x) = sin x to determine f  π4 accurately to four decimal places.
h
5 −1
lim
solution
h→0 Wehknow that
√
f (π/4 + h) − f (π/4) sin(π/4 + h) − 2/2
f  (π/4) = lim = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

Creating a table of values of h close to zero:

h −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001

√
sin( π4 + h) − ( 2/2)
0.7074602 0.7071421 0.7071103 0.7071033 0.7070714 0.7067531
h

Accurate up to four decimal places, f  ( π4 ) ≈ 0.7071.

 
Apply the method of Example 6 to f (x) = cos x to determine f  π5 accurately to four decimal places. Use a
graph of f (x) to explain how the method works in this case.

May 25, 2011

108 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

59. For each graph in Figure 16, determine whether f  (1) is larger or smaller than the slope of the secant line
between x = 1 and x = 1 + h for h > 0. Explain.

y y

y = f(x)
y = f(x)

x x
1 1

(A) (B)
FIGURE 16

solution
• On curve (A),f  (1) is larger than

f (1 + h) − f (1)
;
h
the curve is bending downwards, so that the secant line to the right is at a lower angle than the tangent line. We say
such a curve is concave down, and that its derivative is decreasing.
• On curve (B), f  (1) is smaller than

f (1 + h) − f (1)
;
h
the curve is bending upwards, so that the secant line to the right is at a steeper angle than the tangent line. We say
such a curve is concave up, and that its derivative is increasing.

61. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x 5/2 on [0, 6].

Refer to the graph of f (x) = 2x in Figure 17.
(a) Use the sketch to justify the inequalities for h > 0:
(a) Explain graphically why, for h > 0,
f (4) − f (4 −−h) f (4 + h) − f (4)
f (−h) ≤ f≤ (4)
f (0)
f ≤ ≤ f (h) − f (0)
 (0)
h −h hh
 (4) to four decimal
(b) Use to showfthat
(a) to(a)compute
(b) Use 0.69314 ≤ f  (0)places.
≤ 0.69315.

(c) Use a graphingcompute
(c) Similarly,  (x)fto
utility tofplot (x) anddecimal
four the tangent foratxx==1,4,2,using
line
places 3, 4. your estimate for f (4).
(d) Now compute the ratios f  (x)/f  (0) for x = 1, 2, 3, 4. Can you guess an approximate formula for f  (x)?
solution
(a) The slope of the secant line between points (4, f (4)) and (4 + h, f (4 + h)) is

f (4 + h) − f (4)
.
h

x 5/2 is a smooth curve increasing at a faster rate as x → ∞. Therefore, if h > 0, then the slope of the secant line is
greater than the slope of the tangent line at f (4), which happens to be f  (4). Likewise, if h < 0, the slope of the secant
line is less than the slope of the tangent line at f (4), which happens to be f  (4).
(b) We know that

f (4 + h) − f (4) (4 + h)5/2 − 32
f  (4) = lim = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

Creating a table with values of h close to zero:

h −0.0001 −0.00001 0.00001 0.0001

(4 + h)5/2 − 32
19.999625 19.99999 20.0000 20.0000375
h

Thus, f  (4) ≈ 20.0000.

(c) Using the estimate for f  (4) obtained in part (b), the equation of the line tangent to f (x) = x 5/2 at x = 4 is

y = f  (4)(x − 4) + f (4) = 20(x − 4) + 32 = 20x − 48.

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.1 Definition of the Derivative 109

80
60
40
20
x
−20 1 2 3 4 5 6
−40
−60

x 
63.  =x to estimate the value c such that f (c) = 0. Find c to sufficient accuracy so that
Use a plot of f (x)
Verify that P = 1, 12 lies on the graphs of both f (x) = 1/(1 + x 2 ) and L(x) = 12 + m(x − 1) for every
slope m. Plot f (x) and L(x) on fthe + h) −
(c same for several values of m until you find a value of m for which y = L(x)
f (c)
axes
appears tangent to the graph of f (x). What
h is your ≤estimate
0.006 for h = ±0.001
for f  (1)?

solution Here is a graph of f (x) = x x over the interval [0, 1.5].

y

2
1.5
1
0.5
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

The graph shows one location with a horizontal tangent line. The figure below at the left shows the graph of f (x) together
with the horizontal lines y = 0.6, y = 0.7 and y = 0.8. The line y = 0.7 is very close to being tangent to the graph of
f (x). The figure below at the right refines this estimate by graphing f (x) and y = 0.69 on the same set of axes. The point
of tangency has an x-coordinate of roughly 0.37, so c ≈ 0.37.
y y

2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
x x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

We note that

f (0.37 + 0.001) − f (0.37)
≈ 0.00491 < 0.006
0.001

and

f (0.37 − 0.001) − f (0.37)
≈ 0.00304 < 0.006,
0.001

so we have determined c to the desired accuracy.

In Exercises 65–71, estimate derivatives using the symmetric difference quotient (SDQ), defined as the average of the
Plot f (x) = x x and y = 2x + a on the same set of axes for several values of a until the line becomes tangent
difference quotients at h and −h:
to the graph. Then estimate the value c such that f  (c) = 2.


1 f (a + h) − f (a) f (a − h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a − h)
+ = 4
2 h −h 2h
The SDQ usually gives a better approximation to the derivative than the difference quotient.
65. The vapor pressure of water at temperature T (in kelvins) is the atmospheric pressure P at which no net evaporation
takes place. Use the following table to estimate P  (T ) for T = 303, 313, 323, 333, 343 by computing the SDQ given by
Eq. (4) with h = 10.

T (K) 293 303 313 323 333 343 353

P (atm) 0.0278 0.0482 0.0808 0.1311 0.2067 0.3173 0.4754

solution Using equation (4),

P (313) − P (293) 0.0808 − 0.0278
P  (303) ≈ = = 0.00265 atm/K;
20 20

May 25, 2011

110 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

P (323) − P (303) 0.1311 − 0.0482

P  (313) ≈ = = 0.004145 atm/K;
20 20
P (333) − P (313) 0.2067 − 0.0808
P  (323) ≈ = = 0.006295 atm/K;
20 20
P (343) − P (323) 0.3173 − 0.1311
P  (333) ≈ = = 0.00931 atm/K;
20 20
P (353) − P (333) 0.4754 − 0.2067
P  (343) ≈ = = 0.013435 atm/K
20 20

In Exercises 67 and
Use the SDQ68, traffic
with h =speed S along
1 year a certain
to estimate road
P  (T ) in(in
thekm/h)
yearsvaries
2000,as a function
2002, of traffic
2004, 2006, P (Tq) (number
density
where of
is the U.S.
carsethanol
per km production
of road). Use the following data to answer the questions:
(Figure 18). Express your answer in the correct units.
q (density) 60 70 80 90 100
S (speed) 72.5 67.5 63.5 60 56

67. Estimate S  (80).

solution Let S(q) be the function determining S given q. Using equation (4) with h = 10,

S(90) − S(70) 60 − 67.5

S  (80) ≈ = = −0.375;
20 20
with h = 20,
S(100) − S(60) 56 − 72.5
S  (80) ≈ = = −0.4125;
40 40
The mean of these two symmetric difference quotients is −0.39375 kph·km/car.

Exercises 69–71: The current (in amperes) at time t (in seconds) flowing in the circuit in Figure 19 is given by Kirchhoff’s
Explain why V = qS, called traffic volume, is equal to the number of cars passing a point per hour. Use the
Law:
data to estimate V  (80).
i(t) = Cv  (t) + R −1 v(t)

where v(t) is the voltage (in volts), C the capacitance (in farads), and R the resistance (in ohms, ).

+
v
R C
−

FIGURE 19

69. Calculate the current at t = 3 if

v(t) = 0.5t + 4 V

where C = 0.01 F and R = 100 .

solution Since v(t) is a line with slope 0.5, v  (t) = 0.5 volts/s for all t. From the formula, i(3) = Cv  (3) +
(1/R)v(3) = 0.01(0.5) + (1/100)(5.5) = 0.005 + 0.055 = 0.06 amperes.
71. Assume that R = 200  but C is unknown. 
Use the following data to estimate v  (4) (by an SDQ) and deduce an
Use the
approximate following
value for the data C. v (10) (by an SDQ). Then estimate i(10), assuming C = 0.03 and R = 1000.
to estimate
capacitance

t 9.8 9.9 10 10.1 10.2

t 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2
v(t) 256.52 257.32 258.11 258.9 259.69
v(t) 388.8 404.2 420 436.2 452.8
i(t) 32.34 33.22 34.1 34.98 35.86

solution Solving i(4) = Cv  (4) + (1/R)v(4) for C yields

i(4) − (1/R)v(4) 34.1 − 420200 .

C= =
v  (4) v  (4)

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 111

To compute C, we first approximate v  (4). Taking h = 0.1, we find

v(4.1) − v(3.9) 436.2 − 404.2
v  (4) ≈ = = 160.
0.2 0.2
Plugging this in to the equation above yields
34.1 − 2.1
C≈ = 0.2 farads.
160

Further Insights and Challenges

73. Explain how the symmetric difference quotient defined by Eq. (4) can be interpreted as the slope of a secant line.
The SDQ usually approximates the derivative much more closely than does the ordinary difference quotient. Let
solution
f (x) = 2The symmetric
x and differencethe
a = 0. Compute quotient
SDQ with h = 0.001 and the ordinary difference quotients with h = ±0.001.
Compare with the actual value, which is f  (0) =+
f (a 2. − f (a − h)
lnh)
2h
is the slope of the secant line connecting the points (a − h, f (a − h)) and (a + h, f (a + h)) on the graph of f ; the
difference in the function values is divided by the difference in the x-values.

75. Which Show that

of the two f (x) is ainquadratic
if functions Figure 20polynomial,
satisfies thethen the SDQ at x = a (for any h = 0) is equal to f  (a).
inequality
Explain the graphical meaning of this result.
f (a + h) − f (a − h) f (a + h) − f (a)
solution Let f (x) = px 2 + qx + r be a quadratic polynomial. ≤ We compute the SDQ at x = a.
2h h
2 + q(a + h) + r − (p(a − h)2 + q(a − h) + r)
for h f>(a0?+Explain
h) − f (ain − h) of p(a
terms =
+ h)
secant lines.
2h 2h
pa 2 + 2pah + ph2 + qa + qh + r − pa 2 + 2pah − ph2 − qa + qh − r
=
2h
4pah + 2qh 2h(2pa + q)
= = = 2pa + q
2h 2h
Since this doesn’t depend on h, the limit, which is equal to f  (a), is also 2pa + q. Graphically, this result tells us that the
secant line to a parabola passing through points chosen symmetrically about x = a is always parallel to the tangent line
at x = a.

Let f (x) = x −2 . Compute f  (1) by taking the limit of the SDQs (with a = 1) as h → 0.
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
Preliminary Questions
1. What is the slope of the tangent line through the point (2, f (2)) if f  (x) = x 3 ?
solution The slope of the tangent line through the point (2, f (2)) is given by f  (2). Since f  (x) = x 3 , it follows that
f  (2) = 23 = 8.
2. Evaluate (f − g) (1) and (3f + 2g) (1) assuming that f  (1) = 3 and g  (1) = 5.
solution (f − g) (1) = f  (1) − g  (1) = 3 − 5 = −2 and (3f + 2g) (1) = 3f  (1) + 2g  (1) = 3(3) + 2(5) = 19.
3. To which of the following does the Power Rule apply?
(a) f (x) = x 2 (b) f (x) = 2e
(c) f (x) = x e (d) f (x) = ex
(e) f (x) = x x (f) f (x) = x −4/5
solution
(a) Yes. x 2 is a power function, so the Power Rule can be applied.
(b) Yes. 2e is a constant function, so the Power Rule can be applied.
(c) Yes. x e is a power function, so the Power Rule can be applied.
(d) No. ex is an exponential function (the base is constant while the exponent is a variable), so the Power Rule does not
apply.
(e) No. x x is not a power function because both the base and the exponent are variable, so the Power Rule does not apply.
(f) Yes. x −4/5 is a power function, so the Power Rule can be applied.
4. Choose (a) or (b). The derivative does not exist if the tangent line is: (a) horizontal (b) vertical.
solution The derivative does not exist when: (b) the tangent line is vertical. At a horizontal tangent, the derivative is
zero.
5. Which property distinguishes f (x) = ex from all other exponential functions g(x) = bx ?
solution The line tangent to f (x) = ex at x = 0 has slope equal to 1.

May 25, 2011

112 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Exercises
In Exercises 1–6, compute f  (x) using the limit definition.

1. f (x) = 3x − 7
solution Let f (x) = 3x − 7. Then,

f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h) − 7 − (3x − 7) 3h

f  (x) = lim = lim = lim = 3.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

3. f (x) = x 3 2
f (x) = x + 3x
solution Let f (x) = x 3 . Then,

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)3 − x 3 x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh2 + h3 − x 3

f  (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
3x 2 h + 3xh2 + h3
= lim = lim (3x 2 + 3xh + h2 ) = 3x 2 .
h→0 h h→0

√
5. f (x) = x − x
f (x) = 1 − x −1 √
solution Let f (x) = x − x. Then,
√ √ √ √ √ √ 
f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x + h − (x − x) x+h− x x+h+
x
f  (x) = lim = lim = 1 − lim · √ √
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h x+h+ x
(x + h) − x 1 1
= 1 − lim √ √ = 1 − lim √ √ =1− √ .
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x + h + x 2 x

In Exercises 7–14,−1/2use the Power Rule to compute the derivative.

f (x) = x

d 4
7. x
dx x=−2

d  4 3 d 4
solution x = 4x so x = 4(−2)3 = −32.
dx dx x=−2

d 2/3
9. td −3
dt t
dt t=8
d  2/3  2 −1/3
t=4
d 2/3 2 1
solution t = t so t = (8)−1/3 = .
dt 3 dt t=8 3 3
d 0.35
11. xd −2/5
dx t

dt d t=1 
solution x 0.35 = 0.35(x 0.35−1 ) = 0.35x −0.65 .
dx
√
d
13. t d 17 14/3
dt x
dx
d  √17  √ √17−1
solution t = 17t
dt
In Exercises
d −π 15–18,
2 compute f  (x) and find an equation of the tangent line to the graph at x = a.
t
dt= x 4 , a = 2
15. f (x)
solution Let f (x) = x 4 . Then, by the Power Rule, f  (x) = 4x 3 . The equation of the tangent line to the graph of
f (x) at x = 2 is

y = f  (2)(x − 2) + f (2) = 32(x − 2) + 16 = 32x − 48.

√
17. f (x) = 5x − 32 x, a = 4
−2
f (x) = x , a = 5
solution Let f (x) = 5x − 32x 1/2 . Then f  (x) = 5 − 16x −1/2 . In particular, f  (4) = −3. The tangent line at x = 4
is

y = f  (4)(x − 4) + f (4) = −3(x − 4) − 44 = −3x − 32.

√
f (x) = 3
x, a=8

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 113

19. Calculate:
d d d t−3
(a) 12ex (b) (25t − 8et ) (c) e
dx dt dt
Hint for (c): Write et−3 as e−3 et .
solution
d d
(a) 12ex = 12 ex = 12ex .
dx dx
d d d
(b) (25t − 8et ) = 25 t − 8 et = 25 − 8et .
dt dt dt
d t−3 d
(c) e = e−3 et = e−3 · et = et−3 .
dt dt

In Exercises
Find 21–32, calculate
an equation of thethe derivative.
tangent line to y = 24ex at x = 2.
21. f (x) = 2x 3 − 3x 2 + 5
d  3 
solution 2x − 3x 2 + 5 = 6x 2 − 6x.
dx
23. f (x) = 4x 5/3 3− 3x −2 − 12
f (x) = 2x − 3x 2 + 2x
d  5/3  20
solution 4x − 3x −2 − 12 = x 2/3 + 6x −3 .
dx 3
25. g(z) = 7z−5/14 + z−5 + 9
f (x) = 5/4 + 4x −3/2 + 11x
d x −5/14 5
solution 7z + z−5 + 9 = − z−19/14 − 5z−6 .
dz 2
√ √
27. f (s) = s +
4 3
√ s 1
√ √
h(t) =
solution f (s) t=+4 √
6 s t+ 3 s = s 1/4 + s 1/3 . In this form, we can apply the Sum and Power Rules.

d  1/4  1 1 1 1
s + s 1/3 = (s (1/4)−1 ) + (s (1/3)−1 ) = s −3/4 + s −2/3 .
ds 4 3 4 3

29. g(x) = e2
W (y) = 6y 4 + 7y 2/3
d 2
solution Because e2 is a constant, e = 0.
dx
31. h(t) = 5et−3 x
f (x) = 3e − x 3
d t−3 d
solution 5e = 5e−3 et = 5e−3 et = 5et−3 .
dt dt
In Exercises 33–36, calculate the derivative by expanding or simplifying the function.
f (x) = 9 − 12x 1/3 + 8ex
33. P (s) = (4s − 3)2
solution P (s) = (4s − 3)2 = 16s 2 − 24s + 9. Thus,

dP
= 32s − 24.
ds

x 2 + 4x 1/2
= = (1 2− 2r)(3r + 5)
Q(r)
35. g(x)
x
x 2 + 4x 1/2
solution g(x) = = 1 + 4x −3/2 . Thus,
x2
dg
= −6x −5/2 .
dx

In Exercises 37–42,
1 − 2tcalculate the derivative indicated.
s(t)
= 1/2
dT t
37. , T = 3C 2/3
dC C=8
dT
solution With T (C) = 3C 2/3 , we have = 2C −1/3 . Therefore,
dC

dT
= 2(8)−1/3 = 1.
dC C=8

dP 7
, P =
dV V =−2 V

May 25, 2011

114 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

ds
39. , s = 4z − 16z2
dz z=2
ds
solution With s = 4z − 16z2 , we have = 4 − 32z. Therefore,
dz

ds
= 4 − 32(2) = −60.
dz z=2

dr
41. dR , r = t − et π
dt t=4 , R=W
dW W =1
dr
solution With r = t − et , we have = 1 − et . Therefore,
dt

dr
= 1 − e4 .
dt t=4

43. Match the functions in graphs (A)–(D) with their derivatives (I)–(III) in Figure 13. Note that two of the functions

have thedp derivative.
same h−2
, p = 7eExplain why.
dh h=4
y y y y
x
x x
x

(A) (B) (C) (D)

y y y

x
x x

(I) (II) (III)

FIGURE 13

solution
• Consider the graph in (A). On the left side of the graph, the slope of the tangent line is positive but on the right
side the slope of the tangent line is negative. Thus the derivative should transition from positive to negative with
increasing x. This matches the graph in (III).
• Consider the graph in (B). This is a linear function, so its slope is constant. Thus the derivative is constant, which
matches the graph in (I).
• Consider the graph in (C). Moving from left to right, the slope of the tangent line transitions from positive to negative
then back to positive. The derivative should therefore be negative in the middle and positive to either side. This
matches the graph in (II).
• Consider the graph in (D). On the left side of the graph, the slope of the tangent line is positive but on the right
side the slope of the tangent line is negative. Thus the derivative should transition from positive to negative with
increasing x. This matches the graph in (III).
Note that the functions whose graphs are shown in (A) and (D) have the same derivative. This happens because the
graph in (D) is just a vertical translation of the graph in (A), which means the two functions differ by a constant. The
derivative of a constant is zero, so the two functions end up with the same derivative.
45. Assign the labels f (x), g(x), and h(x) to the graphs in Figure 15 in such a way that f  (x) = g(x) and g  (x) = h(x).
Of the two functions f and g in Figure 14, which is the derivative of the other? Justify your answer.
y y y

x x x

(A) (B) (C)

FIGURE 15

solution Consider the graph in (A). Moving from left to right, the slope of the tangent line is positive over the first
quarter of the graph, negative in the middle half and positive again over the final quarter. The derivative of this function
must therefore be negative in the middle and positive on either side. This matches the graph in (C).
Now focus on the graph in (C). The slope of the tangent line is negative over the left half and positive on the right
half. The derivative of this function therefore needs to be negative on the left and positive on the right. This description
matches the graph in (B).
We should therefore label the graph in (A) as f (x), the graph in (B) as h(x), and the graph in (C) as g(x). Then
f  (x) = g(x) and g  (x) = h(x).

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 115

47. Use the

According to table of values
the peak of f (x)
oil theory, firsttoproposed
determine
in which of geophysicist
1956 by (A) or (B) inM.Figure 17 is the total
Hubbert, of f  (x).
graphamount Explain.
of crude oil
Q(t) produced worldwide up to time t has a graph like that in Figure 16.
 
x Q (t) 0for 1900
(a) Sketch the derivative 0.5 ≤ t1 ≤ 2150.
1.5 What2 does 2.5Q (t) 3represent?
3.5 4

(b) In which year (approximately) does Q (t) take on its maximum value?
f (x) 10 55 98 139 177 210 237 257 268
(c) What is L = lim Q(t)? And what is its interpretation?
t→∞
(d) What is the value of lim Q (t)?
t→∞
y y

x x
(A) (B)
FIGURE 17 Which is the graph of f  (x)?
solution The increment between successive x values in the table is a constant 0.5 but the increment between successive
f (x) values decreases from 45 to 43 to 41 to 38 and so on. Thus the difference quotients decrease with increasing x,
suggesting that f  (x) decreases as a function of x. Because the graph in (B) depicts a decreasing function, (B) might be
the graph of the derivative of f (x).
49. Compute the derivatives, where c is a constant.
Let R be a variable and r a constant. Compute the derivatives:
d 3 d d
(a) ct d (b) d 2 y 3 − 24c)
(9c (c) d(5z + 4cz2 )
dt
(a) R dy
(b) r (c) dz r 2 R 3
dR dR dR
solution
d 3
(a) ct = 3ct 2 .
dt
d
(b) (5z + 4cz2 ) = 5 + 8cz.
dz
d
(c) (9c2 y 3 − 24c) = 27c2 y 2 .
dy

51. Find the points on the graph of y = x 2 + 3x − 7 at 3which the slope of the tangent line is equal to 4.
Find the points on the graph of f (x) = 12x − x where the tangent line is horizontal.
solution Let y = x 2 + 3x − 7. Solving dy/dx = 2x + 3 = 4 yields x = 12 .

53. Determine a and b such that p(x) = x 2 + ax + b satisfies p(1) = 0 and p (1) = 4.
3.2.52 Find the values of x where y = x 3 and y = x 2 + 5x have parallel tangent lines.
solution Let p(x) = x 2 + ax + b satisfy p(1) = 0 and p (1) = 4. Now, p (x) = 2x + a. Therefore 0 = p(1) =
1 + a + b and 4 = p (1) = 2 + a; i.e., a = 2 and b = −3.
55. Let f (x) = x 3 − 3x + 1. Show that f  (x) ≥ −3 for all x and 2 +that, for every m > −3, there are precisely two points
where fFind
 (x) all
= m.values of x the
Indicate suchposition
that theoftangent
these points y =the
line toand 11x + 2 istangent
4xcorresponding steeperlines
thanfor
theone
tangent
valueline to in
of m x3.
y a=sketch
of the graph of f (x).
solution Let P = (a, b) be a point on the graph of f (x) = x 3 − 3x + 1.
• The derivative satisfies f  (x) = 3x 2 − 3 ≥ −3 since 3x 2 is nonnegative.
• Suppose the slope m of the tangent line is greater than −3. Then f  (a) = 3a 2 − 3 = m, whence

m+3 m+3
a2 = >0 and thus a = ± .
3 3
• The two parallel tangent lines with slope 2 are shown with the graph of f (x) here.

2
−2 1
x
−1 2
−2

57. Compute the derivative of f (x) = x 3/21 using the limit definition. Hint: Show that
Show that the tangent lines to y = 3 x 3 − x 2 at x = a and at x = b are parallel if a = b or a + b = 2.
 
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)3 − x 3 1
=  √
h h (x + h)3 + x 3

May 25, 2011

116 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

solution Once we have the difference of square roots, we multiply by the conjugate to solve the problem.
 √  √ 
 (x + h)3/2 − x 3/2 (x + h)3 − x 3 (x + h)3 + x 3
f (x) = lim = lim  √
h→0 h h→0 h (x + h)3 + x 3
 
(x + h)3 − x 3 1
= lim  √ .
h→0 h (x + h)3 + x 3

The first factor of the expression in the last line is clearly the limit definition of the derivative of x 3 , which is 3x 2 . The
second factor can be evaluated, so
d 3/2 1 3
x = 3x 2 √ = x 1/2 .
dx 2 x 3 2

59. Let f (x) = xex . Use the limit definition to compute f  (0), and find the equation of the tangent line at x = 0. x
Use the limit definition of m(b) to approximate m(4). Then estimate the slope of the tangent line to y = 4 at
x
solution
x = 0 andLet 2. = xe . Then f (0) = 0, and
x f=(x)

f (0 + h) − f (0) heh − 0
f  (0) = lim = lim = lim eh = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

The equation of the tangent line is

y = f  (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = 1(x − 0) + 0 = x.

61. Biologists have observed that the pulse rate P (in beats per minute) in animals is related to body mass (in kilograms)
The average speed (in meters per second) of a gas molecule is
by the approximate formula P = 200m−1/4 . This is one of many allometric scaling laws prevalent in biology. Is |dP /dm|
an increasing or decreasing function of m? Find an equation of  the tangent line at the points on the graph in Figure 18
8RT
that represent goat (m = 33) and man (m = 68). vavg =
πM
Pulse
where T is the temperature (in kelvins),
(beats/min)
M is the molar mass (in kilograms per mole), and R = 8.31. Calculate
dvavg /dT at T = 300 K for oxygen, whichGuinea
has apigmolar mass of 0.032 kg/mol.
200

100 Goat
Cattle
Man

100 200 300 400 500

Mass (kg)
FIGURE 18

solution dP /dm = −50m−5/4 . For m > 0, |dP /dm| = |50m−5/4 |. |dP /dm| → 0 as m gets larger; |dP /dm| gets
smaller as m gets bigger.
For each m = c, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of P at m is

y = P  (c)(m − c) + P (c).

For a goat (m = 33 kg), P (33) = 83.445 beats per minute (bpm) and
dP
= −50(33)−5/4 ≈ −0.63216 bpm/kg.
dm
Hence, y = −0.63216(m − 33) + 83.445.
For a man (m = 68 kg), we have P (68) = 69.647 bpm and
dP
= −50(68)−5/4 ≈ −0.25606 bpm/kg.
dm
Hence, the tangent line has formula y = −0.25606(m − 68) + 69.647.
63. The Clausius–Clapeyron Law relates the vapor pressure of water P (in atmospheres) to the temperature T (in kelvins):
Some studies suggest that kidney mass K in mammals (in kilograms) is related to body mass m (in kilograms) by
the approximate formula K = 0.007m0.85 . Calculate
dP dK/dm P at m = 68. Then calculate the derivative with respect
=k
dT= 68. T 2
to m of the relative kidney-to-mass ratio K/m at m
where k is a constant. Estimate dP /dT for T = 303, 313, 323, 333, 343 using the data and the approximation
dP P (T + 10) − P (T − 10)
≈
dT 20

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 117

T (K) 293 303 313 323 333 343 353

P (atm) 0.0278 0.0482 0.0808 0.1311 0.2067 0.3173 0.4754

Do your estimates seem to confirm the Clausius–Clapeyron Law? What is the approximate value of k?
solution Using the indicated approximation to the first derivative, we calculate

P (313) − P (293) 0.0808 − 0.0278

P  (303) ≈ = = 0.00265 atm/K;
20 20
P (323) − P (303) 0.1311 − 0.0482
P  (313) ≈ = = 0.004145 atm/K;
20 20
P (333) − P (313) 0.2067 − 0.0808
P  (323) ≈ = = 0.006295 atm/K;
20 20
P (343) − P (323) 0.3173 − 0.1311
P  (333) ≈ = = 0.00931 atm/K;
20 20
P (353) − P (333) 0.4754 − 0.2067
P  (343) ≈ = = 0.013435 atm/K
20 20

T 2 dP
If the Clausius–Clapeyron law is valid, then should remain constant as T varies. Using the data for vapor
P dT
pressure and temperature and the approximate derivative values calculated above, we find

T (K) 303 313 323 333 343

T 2 dP
5047.59 5025.76 5009.54 4994.57 4981.45
P dT

These values are roughly constant, suggesting that the Clausius–Clapeyron law is valid, and that k ≈ 5000.
65. In the setting of Exercise 64, show that the point of tangency is the midpoint of the segment of L lying in the first
Let L be the tangent line to the hyperbola xy = 1 at x = a, where a > 0. Show that the area of the triangle
quadrant.
bounded by L and the coordinate axes does not depend on a.
solution In the previous exercise, we saw that the tangent line to the hyperbola xy = 1 or y = x1 at x = a has
y-intercept P = (0, a2 ) and x-intercept Q = (2a, 0). The midpoint of the line segment connecting P and Q is thus
 

0 + 2a a2 + 0 1
, = a, ,
2 2 a

which is the point of tangency.

67. Make a rough sketch of the graph of the derivative of the function in Figure 20(A).
Match functions (A)–(C) with their derivatives (I)–(III) in Figure 19.

y y

3 1
y = x2
2
2

x x
1 2 3 4 −1 0 1 2 3 4

(A) (B)
FIGURE 20

solution The graph has a tangent line with negative slope approximately on the interval (1, 3.6), and has a tangent
line with a positive slope elsewhere. This implies that the derivative must be negative on the interval (1, 3.6) and positive
elsewhere. The graph may therefore look like this:

x
1 2 3 4

May 25, 2011

118 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

69. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x |x|. Then show that f  (0) exists.
Graph the derivative of the function in Figure 20(B), omitting points where the derivative is not defined.
solution For x < 0, f (x) = −x 2 , and f  (x) = −2x. For x > 0, f (x) = x 2 , and f  (x) = 2x. At x = 0, we find

f (0 + h) − f (0) h2
lim = lim =0
h→0+ h h→0+ h

and

f (0 + h) − f (0) −h2
lim = lim = 0.
h→0− h h→0− h

Because the two one-sided limits exist and are equal, it follows that f  (0) exists and is equal to zero. Here is the graph
of f (x) = x|x|.
y
4

x
−2 −1 1 2
−2

−4

 (c) does not exist.

In Exercises 71–76,the
Determine find
values of x atc which
the points (if any)the
such that f in
function Figure 21 is: (a) discontinuous, and (b) nondifferentiable.
71. f (x) = |x − 1|
solution

2
1.5
1
0.5
x
−1 1 2 3

Here is the graph of f (x) = |x − 1|. Its derivative does not exist at x = 1. At that value of x there is a sharp corner.

73. f (x) = x=2/3[x]

f (x)
solution Here is the graph of f (x) = x 2/3 . Its derivative does not exist at x = 0. At that value of x, there is a sharp
corner or “cusp”.

1.5

x
−2 −1 1 2

75. f (x) = |x 2 −3/2

1|
f (x) = x

solution Here is the graph of f (x) = x 2 − 1 . Its derivative does not exist at x = −1 or at x = 1. At these values
of x, the graph has sharp corners.

2
1

x
−2 −1 1 2

f (x) = |x − 1|2

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 119

In Exercises 77–82, zoom in on a plot of f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) and state whether or not f (x) appears to be
differentiable at x = a. If it is nondifferentiable, state whether the tangent line appears to be vertical or does not exist.

77. f (x) = (x − 1)|x|, a=0

solution The graph of f (x) = (x − 1)|x| for x near 0 is shown below. Because the graph has a sharp corner at x = 0,
it appears that f is not differentiable at x = 0. Moreover, the tangent line does not exist at this point.

y
x
−0.2 − 0.1 0.1 0.2
−0.1

−0.2

−0.3

79. f (x) = (x − 3)1/3 ,5/3a = 3

f (x) = (x − 3) , a = 3
solution The graph of f (x) = (x − 3)1/3 for x near 3 is shown below. From this graph, it appears that f is not
differentiable at x = 3. Moreover, the tangent line appears to be vertical.

2.9 2.95 3 3.05 3.1

81. f (x) = | sin x|, a = 0

f (x) = sin(x 1/3 ), a = 0
solution The graph of f (x) = | sin x| for x near 0 is shown below. Because the graph has a sharp corner at x = 0, it
appears that f is not differentiable at x = 0. Moreover, the tangent line does not exist at this point.

0.1

0.08

0.04

x
− 0.1 −0.05 0.05 0.1

83. Plot the derivative f  (x) of f (x) = 2x 3 − 10x −1 for x > 0 (set the bounds of the viewing box appropriately)
f (x) = |x − sin x|, a = 0
and observe that f  (x) > 0. What does the positivity of f  (x) tell us about the graph of f (x) itself? Plot f (x) and confirm
this conclusion.

solution Let f (x) = 2x 3 − 10x −1 . Then f  (x) = 6x 2 + 10x −2 . The graph of f  (x) is shown in the figure below at
the left and it is clear that f  (x) > 0 for all x > 0. The positivity of f  (x) tells us that the graph of f (x) is increasing for
x > 0. This is confirmed in the figure below at the right, which shows the graph of f (x).

y y

400 800
300 600
200 400
100 200
x x
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
−200

Find the coordinates of the point P in Figure 22 at which the tangent line passes through (5, 0).

FIGURE 22 Graph of f (x) = 9 − x 2 .

May 25, 2011
120 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Exercises 85–88 refer to Figure 23. Length QR is called the subtangent at P , and length RT is called the subnormal.

y = f (x)

P = (x, f (x)) Tangent line

x
Q R T

FIGURE 23

85. Calculate the subtangent of

f (x) = x 2 + 3x at x = 2

solution Let f (x) = x 2 + 3x. Then f  (x) = 2x + 3, and the equation of the tangent line at x = 2 is

y = f  (2)(x − 2) + f (2) = 7(x − 2) + 10 = 7x − 4.

This line intersects the x-axis at x = 47 . Thus Q has coordinates ( 47 , 0), R has coordinates (2, 0) and the subtangent is

4 10
2− = .
7 7

87. Prove in general that the subnormal at P is |f  (x)f (x)|.

Show that the subtangent of f (x) = ex is everywhere equal to 1.
solution The slope of the tangent line at P is f  (x). The slope of the line normal to the graph at P is then −1/f  (x),
and the normal line intersects the x-axis at the point T with coordinates (x + f (x)f  (x), 0). The point R has coordinates
(x, 0), so the subnormal is

|x + f (x)f  (x) − x| = |f (x)f  (x)|.


89. Prove the following theorem of Apollonius of Perga (the Greek mathematician born in 262 bce who gave the parabola,
ellipse, Show that P Q their
and hyperbola has length |f The
names): 1 + f  (x)of
(x)| subtangent −2 .
the parabola y = x 2 at x = a is equal to a/2.
solution Let f (x) = x 2 . The tangent line to f at x = a is

y = f  (a)(x − a) + f (a) = 2a(x − a) + a 2 = 2ax − a 2 .

The x-intercept of this line (where y = 0) is a2 as claimed.

(a, a 2)
y = x2

x
(–,a2 0)

n
91. ShowFormulate and proveto
that the subtangent a generalization
y = x 3 at x = of Exercise
a is a. y = x .
equal to9013 for
solution Let f (x) = x n . Then f  (x) = nx n−1 , and the equation of the tangent line t x = a is

y = f  (a)(x − a) + f (a) = na n−1 (x − a) + a n = na n−1 x − (n − 1)a n .

This line intersects the x-axis at x = (n − 1)a/n. Thus, Q has coordinates ((n − 1)a/n, 0), R has coordinates (a, 0) and
the subtangent is
n−1 1
a− a = a.
n n

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 121

Further Insights and Challenges

93. A vase is formed by rotating y = x 2 around the y-axis. If we drop in a marble, it will either touch the bottom point
2 for
Twoorsmall
of the vase arches have
be suspended the shape
above the of parabolas.
bottom by The first
touching the is given
sides by f (x)
(Figure =How
25). 1 − xsmall −1 ≤the
must x≤ 1 andbe
marble thetosecond
touch
by g(x) = 4 − (x − 4)2 for 2 ≤ x ≤ 6. A board is placed on top of these arches so it rests on both (Figure 92). What
the bottom?
is the slope of the board? Hint: Find the tangent line to y = f (x) that intersects y = g(x) in exactly one point.

FIGURE 25

solution Suppose a circle is tangent to the parabola y = x 2 at the point (t, t 2 ). The slope of the parabola at this point
1 (since it is perpendicular to the tangent line of the circle).
is 2t, so the slope of the radius of the circle at this point is − 2t
Thus the center of the circle must be where the line given by y = − 2t 1 (x − t) + t 2 crosses the y-axis. We can find the

y-coordinate by setting x = 0: we get y = 2 + t . Thus, the radius extends from (0, 12 + t 2 ) to (t, t 2 ) and
1 2



2
1 1
r= +t −t
2 2 +t =
2 + t 2.
2 4

This radius is greater than 12 whenever t > 0; so, if a marble has radius > 1/2 it sits on the edge of the vase, but if it has
radius ≤ 1/2 it rolls all the way to the bottom.
95. Negative Exponents Let n be a whole number. Use the Power Rule for x n to calculate the derivative of f (x) = x −n
by showingLet f (x) be a differentiable function, and set g(x) = f (x + c), where c is a constant. Use the limit definition to
that
show that g  (x) = f  (x + c). Explain this result graphically, recalling that the graph of g(x) is obtained by shifting
(x +
the graph of f (x) c units to thefleft c>
(ifh) − 0)
f (x) c < 0). (x + h)n − x n
or right (if −1
= n
h x (x + h)n h

solution Let f (x) = x −n where n is a positive integer.

• The difference quotient for f is

1 1 x n −(x+h)n
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)−n − x −n (x+h)n − x n x n (x+h)n
= = =
h h h h
−1 (x + h)n − x n
= n .
x (x + h)n h

• Therefore,

f (x + h) − f (x) −1 (x + h)n − x n
f  (x) = lim = lim n
h→0 h h→0 x (x + h)n h
−1 (x + h)n − x n d  n
= lim n n lim = −x −2n x .
h→0 x (x + h) h→0 h dx

d  n
• From above, we continue: f  (x) = −x −2n x = −x −2n · nx n−1 = −nx −n−1 . Since n is a positive integer,
dx  
d d  −n  d  k
k = −n is a negative integer and we have xk = x = −nx −n−1 = kx k−1 ; i.e. x = kx k−1
dx dx dx
for negative integers k.

97. Infinitely Rapid Oscillations Define

Verify the Power Rule for the exponent 1/n, where n is a positive integer, using the following trick: Rewrite the
difference quotient for y = x 1/n at x = b in terms ⎧
of u = 1(b + h)1/n and a = b1/n .
⎪
⎨x sin x = 0
f (x) = x
⎪
⎩0 x=0

Show that f (x) is continuous at x = 0 but f  (0) does not exist (see Figure 24).

May 25, 2011

122 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

  
x sin x1 if x  = 0
solution Let f (x) = . As x → 0,
0 if x = 0



1 1
|f (x) − f (0)| = x sin − 0 = |x| sin →0
x x

since the values of the sine lie between −1 and 1. Hence, by the Squeeze Theorem, lim f (x) = f (0) and thus f is
x→0
continuous at x = 0.
As x → 0, the difference quotient at x = 0,
 
x sin x1 − 0

f (x) − f (0) 1
= = sin
x−0 x−0 x

does not converge to a limit since it oscillates infinitely through every value between −1 and 1. Accordingly, f  (0) does
not exist.

For which value of λ does the equation ex = λx have a unique solution? For which values of λ does it have at
least one solution? For intuition, plot y = ex and the line y = λx.
3.3 Product and Quotient Rules
Preliminary Questions
1. Are the following statements true or false? If false, state the correct version.
(a) fg denotes the function whose value at x is f (g(x)).
(b) f/g denotes the function whose value at x is f (x)/g(x).
(c) The derivative of the product is the product of the derivatives.

d
(d) (fg) = f (4)g  (4) − g(4)f  (4)
dx
x=4
d
(e) (fg) = f (0)g  (0) + g(0)f  (0)
dx x=0
solution
(a) False. The notation fg denotes the function whose value at x is f (x)g(x).
(b) True.
(c) False. The derivative of a product fg is f  (x)g(x) + f (x)g  (x).

d
(d) False. (fg) = f (4)g  (4) + g(4)f  (4).
dx x=4

(e) True.

2. Find (f/g) (1) if f (1) = f  (1) = g(1) = 2 and g  (1) = 4.

d
solution (f/g) x=1 = [g(1)f  (1) − f (1)g  (1)]/g(1)2 = [2(2) − 2(4)]/22 = −1.
dx
3. Find g(1) if f (1) = 0, f  (1) = 2, and (fg) (1) = 10.
solution (fg) (1) = f (1)g  (1) + f  (1)g(1), so 10 = 0 · g  (1) + 2g(1) and g(1) = 5.

Exercises
In Exercises 1–6, use the Product Rule to calculate the derivative.

1. f (x) = x 3 (2x 2 + 1)
solution Let f (x) = x 3 (2x 2 + 1). Then

d d
f  (x) = x 3 (2x 2 + 1) + (2x 2 + 1) x 3 = x 3 (4x) + (2x 2 + 1)(3x 2 ) = 10x 4 + 3x 2 .
dx dx

3. f (x) = x 2 ex
f (x) = (3x − 5)(2x 2 − 3)
solution Let f (x) = x 2 ex . Then

d x d 2
f  (x) = x 2 e + ex x = x 2 ex + ex (2x) = ex (x 2 + 2x).
dx dx

f (x) = (2x − 9)(4ex + 1)

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 123

dh
5. , h(s) = (s −1/2 + 2s)(7 − s −1 )
ds s=4
solution Let h(s) = (s −1/2 + 2s)(7 − s −1 ). Then
dh d d  −1/2 
= (s −1/2 + 2s) (7 − s −1 ) + (7 − s −1 ) s + 2s
ds dx ds


1 7 3
= (s −1/2 + 2s)(s −2 ) + (7 − s −1 ) − s −3/2 + 2 = − s −3/2 + s −5/2 + 14.
2 2 2
Therefore,

dh 7 3 871
= − (4)−3/2 + (4)−5/2 + 14 = .
ds s=4 2 2 64

dy 7–12, use the Quotient
In Exercises Rule to calculate the derivative.
,x y = (t − 8t −1 )(et + t 2 )
7. f (x)dt=t=2
x−2
solution Let f (x) = x−2 x . Then

d x − x d (x − 2)
(x − 2) dx (x − 2) − x −2
f  (x) = dx
= = .
(x − 2)2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2

dg x+ t2 + 1
9. f (x) , g(t)
= =4 2
x 2 + x +t 1− 1
dt t=−2
t2 + 1
solution Let g(t) = 2 . Then
t −1
d (t 2 + 1) − (t 2 + 1) d (t 2 − 1)
(t 2 − 1) dt
dg dt (t 2 − 1)(2t) − (t 2 + 1)(2t) 4t
= = =− 2 .
dt (t − 1)
2 2 (t − 1)
2 2 (t − 1)2
Therefore,

dg 4(−2) 8
=− = .
dt t=−2 ((−2)2 − 1)2 9

1
=
11. g(x)dw 2
1 +,ex w = √ z

dz z=9 z1+ z
solution Let g(x) = . Then
1 + ex
d 1 − 1 d (1 + ex )
(1 + ex ) dx
dg dx (1 + ex )(0) − ex ex
= = = − .
dx (1 + ex )2 (1 + ex )2 (1 + ex )2

In Exercises 13–16,excalculate the derivative in two ways. First use the Product or Quotient Rule; then rewrite the function
f (x) =
algebraically and 2apply the Power Rule directly.
x +1
13. f (t) = (2t + 1)(t 2 − 2)
solution Let f (t) = (2t + 1)(t 2 − 2). Then, using the Product Rule,

f  (t) = (2t + 1)(2t) + (t 2 − 2)(2) = 6t 2 + 2t − 4.

Multiplying out first, we find f (t) = 2t 3 + t 2 − 4t − 2. Therefore, f  (t) = 6t 2 + 2t − 4.
t2 − 1
(x) = x 2 (3 + x −1 )
15. h(t)f =
t −1
2 −1
solution Let h(t) = tt−1 . Using the quotient rule,

(t − 1)(2t) − (t 2 − 1)(1) t 2 − 2t + 1
f  (t) = = =1
(t − 1) 2 (t − 1)2
for t  = 1. Simplifying first, we find for t  = 1,
(t − 1)(t + 1)
h(t) = = t + 1.
(t − 1)
Hence h (t) = 1 for t = 1.

May 25, 2011

124 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 17–38, calculate the derivative.

x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x −1
g(x) =3
17. f (x) = (x + 5)(x 3x+ x + 1)
solution Let f (x) = (x 3 + 5)(x 3 + x + 1). Then

f  (x) = (x 3 + 5)(3x 2 + 1) + (x 3 + x + 1)(3x 2 ) = 6x 5 + 4x 3 + 18x 2 + 5.

dy 1
19. =x − x 2 )(x 3 + 1)
(x), = y(4e
dx f x=3 x + 10
solution 1 . Using the quotient rule:
Let y = x+10

dy (x + 10)(0) − 1(1) 1
= =− .
dx (x + 10)2 (x + 10)2
Therefore,

dy 1 1
=− =− .
dx x=3 (3 + 10)2 169
√ √
21. f (x) = ( x + 1)( x − 1)
dz √x √
solution Let f, (x) z == ( 2 x + 1)( x − 1). Multiplying through first yields f (x) = x − 1 for x ≥ 0. Therefore,
dx x=−2 3x + 1
f  (x) = 1 for x ≥ 0. If we carry out the product rule on f (x) = (x 1/2 + 1)(x 1/2 − 1), we get



1 −1/2 1 −1/2 1 1 1 1
f  (x) = (x 1/2 + 1) (x ) + (x 1/2 − 1) x = + x −1/2 + − x −1/2 = 1.
2 2 2 2 2 2

dy x4 − 4
23. , y9x=5/2 2− 2
(x) =
dx fx=2 x −5
x
x4 − 4
solution Let y = 2 . Then
x −5
    
dy x 2 − 5 4x 3 − x 4 − 4 (2x) 2x 5 − 20x 3 + 8x
=   2
=  2 .
dx x2 − 5 x2 − 5

Therefore,

dy 2(2)5 − 20(2)3 + 8(2)
= = −80.
dx x=2 (22 − 5)2

dz 1
25. , zx=
4 + ex
dx f x=1
(x) = x +1
3
x+1
solution Let z = 31 . Using the quotient rule:
x +1

dz (x 3 + 1)(0) − 1(3x 2 ) 3x 2
= = − .
dx (x 3 + 1)2 (x 3 + 1)2
Therefore,

dz 3(1)2 3
= − =− .
dx x=1 (13 + 1)2 4
t
27. h(t) = 3x 3 − x2 + 2
(t
f (x) =+ 1)(t 2 + 1)
√
x t t
solution Let h(t) = = 3 . Then
(t + 1)(t 2 + 1) t + t2 + t + 1
   
t 3 + t 2 + t + 1 (1) − t 3t 2 + 2t + 1 −2t 3 − t 2 + 1
h (t) =  2 =  2 .
t3 + t2 + t + 1 t3 + t2 + t + 1

29. f (t) = 31/2 ·3/2  4

51/2 
f (x) = x 3x + x −1/2
2x √− √

solution Let f (t) = 3 5. Then f (t) = 0, since f (t) is a constant function!

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 125

31. f (x) = (x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 5)

h(x) = π 2 (x − 1)
solution Let f (x) = (x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 5). Using the Product Rule inside the Product Rule with a first factor of
(x + 3) and a second factor of (x − 1)(x − 5), we find

f  (x) = (x + 3) ((x − 1)(1) + (x − 5)(1)) + (x − 1)(x − 5)(1) = 3x 2 − 6x − 13.

Alternatively,
 
f (x) = (x + 3) x 2 − 6x + 5 = x 3 − 3x 2 − 13x + 15.

Therefore, f  (x) = 3x 2 − 6x − 13.

ex
33. f (x) = = ex (x 2 + 1)(x + 4)
f (x) x+1
ex
solution Let f (x) = . Then
(ex + 1)(x + 1)
 
(ex + 1)(x + 1)ex − ex (ex + 1)(1) + (x + 1)ex ex (x − ex )
f  (x) = = .
(ex + 1)2 (x + 1)2 (ex + 1)2 (x + 1)2

  
z2 − 4
x+1 zx2 − 1
35. g(z) = e +e Hint: Simplify first.
g(x) =z − 1 z+2
e+1
solution Let
  


z2 − 4 z2 − 1 (z + 2)(z − 2) (z + 1)(z − 1)
g(z) = = = (z − 2)(z + 1)
z−1 z+2 z−1 z+2

for z = −2 and z  = 1. Then,

g  (z) = (z + 1)(1) + (z − 2)(1) = 2z − 1.


d xt− 4 
37. d (x constant)
2
dt t 2 − x + b)(abx + 1)
(ax (a, b constants)
dx
solution Let f (t) = xt−4 . Using the quotient rule:
2 t −x

(t 2 − x)(x) − (xt − 4)(2t) xt 2 − x 2 − 2xt 2 + 8t −xt 2 + 8t − x 2

f  (t) = = = .
(t 2 − x)2 (t 2 − x)2 (t 2 − x)2

In Exercises 
d 39–42,
ax + bcalculate the derivative using the values:
(a, b, c, d constants)
dx cx + d
f (4) f  (4) g(4) g  (4)
10 −2 5 −1

39. (fg) (4) and (f/g) (4).

 
solution Let h = fg and H = f/g. Then h = fg  + gf  and H  = gf −fg
2 . Finally,
g

h (4) = f (4)g  (4) + g(4)f  (4) = (10)(−1) + (5)(−2) = −20,

and
g(4)f  (4) − f (4)g  (4) (5)(−2) − (10)(−1)
H  (4) = 2
= = 0.
(g(4)) (5)2

41. G (4), where G(x) = g(x)22 .

F (4), where F (x) = x f (x).
solution Let G(x) = g(x)2 = g(x)g(x). Then G (x) = g(x)g  (x) + g(x)g  (x) = 2g(x)g  (x), and

G (4) = 2g(4)g  (4) = 2(5)(−1) = −10.

May 25, 2011

126 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

43. Calculate F  (0), where x

H  (4), where H (x) = .
g(x)f (x) x 9 + x 8 + 4x 5 − 7x
F (x) =
x 4 − 3x 2 + 2x + 1
Hint: Do not calculate F  (x). Instead, write F (x) = f (x)/g(x) and express F  (0) directly in terms of f (0), f  (0), g(0),
g  (0).
solution Taking the hint, let

f (x) = x 9 + x 8 + 4x 5 − 7x

and let

g(x) = x 4 − 3x 2 + 2x + 1.

Then F (x) = fg(x)

(x)
. Now,

f  (x) = 9x 8 + 8x 7 + 20x 4 − 7 and g  (x) = 4x 3 − 6x + 2.

Moreover, f (0) = 0, f  (0) = −7, g(0) = 1, and g  (0) = 2.

Using the quotient rule:

g(0)f  (0) − f (0)g  (0) −7 − 0

F  (0) = = = −7.
(g(0))2 1

d 2x
45. UseProceed
the Product
as inRule to calculate
Exercise e .F  (0), where
43 to calculate
dx
solution Note that e2x = ex · ex . Therefore
  3x 5 + 5x 4 + 5x + 1
F (x) = 1 + x + x 4/3 + x 5/3
d 2x d x x 8x 9 − 7x 4 + 1
e = (e · e ) = ex · ex + ex · ex = 2e2x .
dx dx
47. Plot f (x) = x/(x 2 − 1) (in a suitably
2 + 1)bounded viewing box). Use the plot to determine whether f  (x) is
positive f (x) = x/(x
or negative on its domain {x : x  = ±1}. Thenover
Plot the derivative of [−4, f4]. (x)
compute Use theconfirm
and graph your
to determine thealgebraically.
conclusion intervals on which
f  (x) > 0 and f  (x) < 0. Then plot f (x) and describe how the sign of f  (x) is reflected in the graph of f (x).
x
solution Let f (x) = 2 . The graph of f (x) is shown below. From this plot, we see that f (x) is decreasing on
x −1
its domain {x : x = ±1}. Consequently, f  (x) must be negative. Using the quotient rule, we find

(x 2 − 1)(1) − x(2x) x2 + 1
f  (x) = = − ,
(x 2 − 1)2 (x 2 − 1)2
which is negative for all x  = ±1.
y

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−5

49. Find a > 0 such that the tangent line to the graph of
Let P = V 2 R/(R + r)2 as in Example 7. Calculate dP/dr, assuming that r is variable and R is constant.
f (x) = x 2 e−x at x = a

passes through the origin (Figure 4).

y
f (x) = x 2e−x

x
a

FIGURE 4

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 127

solution Let f (x) = x 2 e−x . Then f (a) = a 2 e−a ,

f  (x) = −x 2 e−x + 2xe−x = e−x (2x − x 2 ),

f  (a) = (2a − a 2 )e−a , and the equation of the tangent line to f at x = a is

y = f  (a)(x − a) + f (a) = (2a − a 2 )e−a (x − a) + a 2 e−a .

For this line to pass through the origin, we must have

 
0 = (2a − a 2 )e−a (−a) + a 2 e−a = e−a a 2 − 2a 2 + a 3 = a 2 e−a (a − 1).

Thus, a = 0 or a = 1. The only value a > 0 such that the tangent line to f (x) = x 2 e−x passes through the origin is
therefore a = 1.
51. The revenue per month earned by the Couture clothing chain at time t is R(t) = N (t)S(t), where N(t) is the number
Current I (amperes), voltage V (volts), and resistance R (ohms) in a circuit are related by Ohm’s Law, I = V /R.

of stores and S(t) is average revenue per store per month. Couture embarks on a two-part campaign: (A) to build new
stores dI per month, and (B) to use advertising to increase average revenue per store at a rate of $10,000
(a)at Calculate
a rate of 5 stores
if V is constant with value V = 24.
per month. AssumedR N (0) = 50 and S(0) = $150,000.
that R=6
that totaldV
(a) Show
(b) Calculate
revenue will increase
if I is at with
constant the rate
value I = 4.
dR R=6
dR
= 5S(t) + 10,000N (t)
dt
Note that the two terms in the Product Rule correspond to the separate effects of increasing the number of stores on the
one hand, and the average revenue per store on the other.

dR
(b) Calculate .
dt t=0
(c) If Couture can implement only one leg (A or B) of its expansion at t = 0, which choice will grow revenue most
rapidly?
solution
(a) Given R(t) = N (t)S(t), it follows that
dR
= N (t)S  (t) + S(t)N  (t).
dt
We are told that N  (t) = 5 stores per month and S  (t) = 10,000 dollars per month. Therefore,
dR
= 5S(t) + 10,000N (t).
dt
(b) Using part (a) and the given values of N (0) and S(0), we find

dR
= 5(150,000) + 10,000(50) = 1,250,000.
dt t=0

(c) From part (b), we see that of the two terms contributing to total revenue growth, the term 5S(0) is larger than the
term 10,000N(0). Thus, if only one leg of the campaign can be implemented, it should be part A: increase the number of
stores by 5 per month.

= 1/(x 2
53. TheThe tip yspeed
curve ratio+of1)a is called(Figure
turbine the witch
5) isofthe
Agnesi
ratio R(Figure
= T /W6) ,after
wheretheT Italian mathematician
is the speed Maria
of the tip of Agnesi
a blade and
(1718–1799),
W is the speed of the wind. (Engineers have found empirically that a turbine with n blades extracts maximum Italian
who wrote one of the first books on calculus. This strange name is the result of a mistranslation of the power
wordfrom
la versiera,
the windmeaning
when R“that which Calculate
= 2π/n.) turns.” Find equations
dR/dt of the tangent
(t in minutes) if W lines x = ±1.
= 35atkm/h and W decreases at a rate of 4
km/h per minute, and the tip speed has constant value Ty = 150 km/h.

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
FIGURE 6 The witch of Agnesi.

1 (x 2 + 1)(0) − 1(2x) 2x
solution Let f (x) = 2 . Then f  (x) = = − 2 .
x +1 (x + 1)
2 2
x2 + 1
• At x = −1, the tangent line is

1 1 1
y = f  (−1)(x + 1) + f (−1) = (x + 1) + = x + 1.
2 2 2

May 25, 2011

128 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

• At x = 1, the tangent line is

1 1 1
y = f  (1)(x − 1) + f (1) = − (x − 1) + = − x + 1.
2 2 2

55. Use the Product Rule to show that (f 2 ) = 2ff  . 

Let f (x) = g(x) = x. Show that (f/g)  = f /g .

solution Let g = f 2 = ff . Then g  = f 2 = (ff ) = ff  + ff  = 2ff  .

Show 3 
) = 3f
that (f and f . 2 
Further Insights Challenges
57. Let f , g, h be differentiable functions. Show that (fgh) (x) is equal to

f (x)g(x)h (x) + f (x)g  (x)h(x) + f  (x)g(x)h(x)

Hint: Write fgh as f (gh).

solution Let p = fgh. Then
 
p = (fgh) = f gh + hg  + ghf  = f  gh + fg  h + fgh .

59. Derivative of the Reciprocal Use the limit definition to prove

Prove the Quotient Rule using the limit definition of the derivative.


d 1 f  (x)
=− 2 7
dx f (x) f (x)
Hint: Show that the difference quotient for 1/f (x) is equal to
f (x) − f (x + h)
hf (x)f (x + h)

solution 1 . We then compute the derivative of g(x) using the difference quotient:
Let g(x) = f (x)



g(x + h) − g(x) 1 1 1 1 f (x) − f (x + h)
g  (x) = lim = lim − = lim
h→0 h h→0 h f (x + h) f (x) h→0 h f (x)f (x + h)



f (x + h) − f (x) 1
= − lim .
h→0 h f (x)f (x + h)
We can apply the rule of products for limits. The first parenthetical expression is the difference quotient definition of
f  (x). The second can be evaluated at h = 0 to give 1
2 . Hence
(f (x))


d 1 f  (x)
g  (x) = =− 2 .
dx f (x) f (x)

61. Use the limit definition of the derivative to prove the following special case of the Product Rule:
Prove the Quotient Rule using Eq. (7) and the Product Rule.
d
(xf (x)) = xf  (x) + f (x)
dx
solution First note that because f (x) is differentiable, it is also continuous. It follows that

lim f (x + h) = f (x).
h→0

Now we tackle the derivative:


d (x + h)f (x + h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
(xf (x)) = lim = lim x + f (x + h)
dx h→0 h h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= x lim + lim f (x + h)
h→0 h h→0

= xf  (x) + f (x).

63. The Power Rule Revisited If you are familiar with proof by induction, use induction to prove the Power Rule for
Carry out Maria Agnesi’s proof of the Quotient Rule from her book on calculus, published in 1748: Assume that
all whole numbers n. Show that the Power Rule holds for n = 1; then write x n as x · x n−1 and use the Product Rule.
f , g, and h = f/g are differentiable. Compute the derivative of hg = f using the Product Rule, and solve for h .
solution Let k be a positive integer. If k = 1, then x k = x. Note that

d  1 d
x = (x) = 1 = 1x 0 .
dx dx

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 129

Hence the Power Rule holds for k = 1. Assume it holds for k = n where n ≥ 2. Then for k = n + 1, we have
d  k d  n+1  d   d  n d
x = x = x · xn = x x + xn (x)
dx dx dx dx dx
= x · nx n−1 + x n · 1 = (n + 1)x n = kx k−1
Accordingly, the Power Rule holds for all positive integers by induction.
Exercises 64 and 65: A basic fact of algebra states that c is a root of a polynomial f (x) if and only if f (x) = (x − c)g(x)
for some polynomial g(x). We say that c is a multiple root if f (x) = (x − c)2 h(x), where h(x) is a polynomial.
65. Use Exercise 64 to determine whether c = −1 is a multiple root:
Show that c is a multiple root of f (x) if and only if c is a root of both f (x) and f  (x).
(a) x 5 + 2x 4 − 4x 3 − 8x 2 − x + 2
(b) x 4 + x 3 − 5x 2 − 3x + 2
solution
(a) To show that −1 is a multiple root of
f (x) = x 5 + 2x 4 − 4x 3 − 8x 2 − x + 2,
it suffices to check that f (−1) = f  (−1) = 0. We have f (−1) = −1 + 2 + 4 − 8 + 1 + 2 = 0 and
f  (x) = 5x 4 + 8x 3 − 12x 2 − 16x − 1

f  (−1) = 5 − 8 − 12 + 16 − 1 = 0

(b) Let f (x) = x 4 + x 3 − 5x 2 − 3x + 2. Then f  (x) = 4x 3 + 3x 2 − 10x − 3. Because

f (−1) = 1 − 1 − 5 + 3 + 2 = 0
but
f  (−1) = −4 + 3 + 10 − 3 = 6 = 0,
it follows that x = −1 is a root of f , but not a multiple root.
d bx = m(b) bx . Use the Product Rule to show that m(ab) = m(a) + m(b).
67. According to Eq. (6) in Section 3.2, dx
Figure 7 is the graph of a polynomial with roots at A, B, and C. Which of these is a multiple root? Explain your
solution
reasoning using Exercise 64.
d d  x x d x d x
m(ab)(ab)x = (ab)x = a b = ax b + bx a = m(b)a x bx + m(a)a x bx = (m(a) + m(b))(ab)x .
dx dx dx dx
Thus, m(ab) = m(a) + m(b).

3.4 Rates of Change

Preliminary Questions
1. Which units might be used for each rate of change?
(a) Pressure (in atmospheres) in a water tank with respect to depth
(b) The rate of a chemical reaction (change in concentration with respect to time with concentration in moles per liter)
solution
(a) The rate of change of pressure with respect to depth might be measured in atmospheres/meter.
(b) The reaction rate of a chemical reaction might be measured in moles/(liter·hour).
2. Two trains travel from New Orleans to Memphis in 4 hours. The first train travels at a constant velocity of 90 mph,
but the velocity of the second train varies. What was the second train’s average velocity during the trip?
solution Since both trains travel the same distance in the same amount of time, they have the same average velocity:
90 mph.
3. Estimate f (26), assuming that f (25) = 43, f  (25) = 0.75.
solution f (x) ≈ f (25) + f  (25)(x − 25), so f (26) ≈ 43 + 0.75(26 − 25) = 43.75.
4. The population P (t) of Freedonia in 2009 was P (2009) = 5 million.
(a) What is the meaning of P  (2009)?
(b) Estimate P (2010) if P  (2009) = 0.2.
solution
(a) Because P (t) measures the population of Freedonia as a function of time, the derivative P  (2009) measures the rate
of change of the population of Freedonia in the year 2009.
(b) P (2010) ≈ P (2009) + P  (2010). Thus, if P  (2009) = 0.2, then P (2009) ≈ 5.2 million.

May 25, 2011

130 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Exercises
In Exercises 1–8, find the rate of change.

1. Area of a square with respect to its side s when s = 5.

solution Let the area be A = f (s) = s 2 . Then the rate of change of A with respect to s is d/ds(s 2 ) = 2s. When
s = 5, the area changes at a rate of 10 square units per unit increase. (Draw a 5 × 5 square on graph paper and trace the
area added by increasing each side length by 1, excluding the corner, to see what this means.)
√
3. Cube root 3 x with respect to x when x = 1, 8, 27.
√ respect to its side s when s = 5.
Volume of a cube with
solution Let f (x) = 3 x. Writing f (x) = x 1/3 , we see the rate of change of f (x) with respect to x is given by
f  (x) = 13 x −2/3 . The requested rates of change are given in the table that follows:

c ROC of f (x) with respect to x at x = c.

1 f  (1) = 13 (1) = 13
8 f  (8) = 13 (8−2/3 ) = 13 ( 14 ) = 12
1

27 f  (27) = 13 (27−2/3 ) = 13 ( 19 ) = 271

5. The diameter of a circle with respect to radius.

The reciprocal 1/x with respect to x when x = 1, 2, 3.
solution The relationship between the diameter d of a circle and its radius r is d = 2r. The rate of change of the
diameter with respect to the radius is then d  = 2.
7. Volume V of a cylinder with respect to radius if the height is equal to the radius.
Surface area A of a sphere with respect to radius r (A = 4πr 2 ).
solution The volume of the cylinder is V = πr 2 h = πr 3 . Thus dV /dr = 3πr 2 .

In Exercises 9–11, refer to Figure 10, the graph of distance s(t) from the origin as a function of√time for a car trip.
Speed of sound v (in m/s) with respect to air temperature T (in kelvins), where v = 20 T .

Distance (km)
150

100

50

t (h)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
FIGURE 10 Distance from the origin versus time for a car trip.

9. Find the average velocity over each interval.

(a) [0, 0.5] (b) [0.5, 1] (c) [1, 1.5] (d) [1, 2]
solution
(a) The average velocity over the interval [0, 0.5] is
50 − 0
= 100 km/hour.
0.5 − 0
(b) The average velocity over the interval [0.5, 1] is
100 − 50
= 100 km/hour.
1 − 0.5
(c) The average velocity over the interval [1, 1.5] is
100 − 100
= 0 km/hour.
1.5 − 1
(d) The average velocity over the interval [1, 2] is
50 − 100
= −50 km/hour.
2−1

11. Match the descriptions (i)–(iii) with the intervals (a)–(c).

At what time is velocity at a maximum?
(i) Velocity increasing
(ii) Velocity decreasing
(iii) Velocity negative

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 131

(a) [0, 0.5]

(b) [2.5, 3]
(c) [1.5, 2]
solution
(a) (i) : The distance curve is increasing, and is also bending upward, so that distance is increasing at an increasing rate.
(b) (ii) : Over the interval [2.5, 3], the distance curve is flattening, showing that the car is slowing down; that is, the
velocity is decreasing.
(c) (iii) : The distance curve is decreasing, so the tangent line has negative slope; this means the velocity is negative.
13. Use Figure 3 from Example 1 to estimate the instantaneous rate of change of Martian temperature with respect to
Use the data from Table 1 in Example 1 to calculate the average rate of change of Martian temperature T with
time (in degrees Celsius per hour) at t = 4 am.
respect to time t over the interval from 8:36 am to 9:34 am.
solution The segment of the temperature graph around t = 4 am appears to be a straight line passing through roughly
(1:36, −70) and (4:48, −75). The instantaneous rate of change of Martian temperature with respect to time at t = 4 am
is therefore approximately
dT −75 − (−70)
= = −1.5625◦ C/hour.
dt 3.2

15. The velocity (in cm/s) of◦blood molecules flowing through a capillary of radius3 t 20.008 cm is v = 6.4 × 10−8 − 0.001r 2 ,
The temperature (in C) of an object at time t (in minutes) is T (t) =
where r is the distance from the molecule to the center of the capillary. Find the − 15t + 180 for
8 rate of change 0 ≤ t ≤ with
of velocity 20. At what
respect
rate is the object
to r when r = 0.004 cm. cooling at t = 10? (Give correct units.)

solution The rate of change of the velocity of the blood molecules is v  (r) = −0.002r. When r = 0.004 cm, this rate
is −8 × 10−6 1/s.
17. Use Figure 12 to estimate dT /dh at h = 30 and 70, where T is atmospheric temperature (in degrees Celsius) and h
Figure 11 displays the voltage V across a capacitor as a function of time while the capacitor is being charged.
is altitude (in kilometers). Where is dT /dh equal to zero?
Estimate the rate of change of voltage at t = 20 s. Indicate the values in your calculation and include proper units.
Does voltage change more Temperature
quickly or more slowly as time goes on? Explain in terms of tangent lines.
(˚C)
250

Thermosphere
Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere
200
150
100
50
0
−50
−100

10 50 100 150
Altitude (km)
FIGURE 12 Atmospheric temperature versus altitude.

solution At h = 30 km, the graph of atmospheric temperature appears to be linear passing through the points (23, −50)
and (40, 0). The slope of this segment of the graph is then
0 − (−50) 50
= = 2.94;
40 − 23 17
so

dT
≈ 2.94◦ C/km.
dh h=30
At h = 70 km, the graph of atmospheric temperature appears to be linear passing through the points (58, 0) and (88, −100).
The slope of this segment of the graph is then
−100 − 0 −100
= = −3.33;
88 − 58 30
so

dT
≈ −3.33◦ C/km.
dh h=70
dT = 0 at those points where the tangent line on the graph is horizontal. This appears to happen over the interval [13, 23],
dh
and near the points h = 50 and h = 90.
19. Calculate the rate of change of escape velocity vesc = (2.82 × 16 107 )r2−1/2 m/s with respect to distance r from the
center ofThe earth.exerts a gravitational force of F (r) = (2.99 × 10 )/r newtons on an object with a mass of 75 kg
theearth
located r meters from the center of the earth. Find the rate of change of force with respect to distance r at the surface
solution  (r) = −1.41 × 107 r −3/2 .
The rate that escape velocity changes is vesc
of the earth.

May 25, 2011

132 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

21. The position of a particle moving in a straight line during a 5-s trip is s(t) = t 2 − t + 10 cm. Find a time t at which
The powervelocity
the instantaneous delivered is by a battery
equal to the to an apparatus
average velocityoffor
resistance
the entire (in ohms) is P = 2.25R/(R + 0.5)2 watts. Find
R trip.
the rate of change of power with respect to resistance for R = 3  and R = 5 .
solution Let s(t) = t 2 − t + 10, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5, with s in centimeters (cm) and t in seconds (s). The average velocity
over the t-interval [0, 5] is
s(5) − s(0) 30 − 10
= = 4 cm/s.
5−0 5
The (instantaneous) velocity is v(t) = s  (t) = 2t − 1. Solving 2t − 1 = 4 yields t = 52 s, the time at which the
instantaneous velocity equals the calculated average velocity.
23. A particle moving along a line has position s(t) = t 4 − 18t 2 m at time t seconds.3At which times does the particle
The height
pass through (in meters)
the origin? of atimes
At which helicopter time t instantaneously
is theatparticle (in minutes) is s(t) = 600t (that
motionless − 3t is,for ≤ zero
it 0has t ≤ 12.
velocity)?
(a) Plot s(t) and velocity v(t). 4 2 2 2
solution The particle passes through the origin when s(t) = t − 18t = t (t − 18) = 0. This happens when t = 0
√ = 8 and t = 10.
(b) and
seconds Findwhen t = 3 2at≈t 4.24
the velocity seconds. With s(t) = t 4 − 18t 2 , it follows that v(t) = s  (t) = 4t 3 − 36t = 4t (t 2 − 9).
The particle is therefore instantaneously motionless when t = 0 seconds and when t = 3 seconds.
(c) Find the maximum height of the helicopter.
25. A bullet is fired in the air vertically from ground level with an initial velocity 200 m/s. Find the bullet’s maximum
velocity andPlot the position
maximum of the particle in Exercise 23. What is the farthest distance to the left of the origin attained by
height.
the particle?
solution We employ Galileo’s formula, s(t) = s0 + v0 t − 12 gt 2 = 200t − 4.9t 2 , where the time t is in seconds (s)
and the height s is in meters (m). The velocity is v(t) = 200 − 9.8t. The maximum velocity of 200 m/s occurs at t = 0.
This is the initial velocity. The bullet reaches its maximum height when v(t) = 200 − 9.8t = 0; i.e., when t ≈ 20.41 s.
At this point, the height is 2040.82 m.
27. A ball tossed in the air vertically from ground level returns to earth 4 s later. Find the initial velocity and maximum
Find the velocity of an object dropped from a height of 300 m at the moment it hits the ground.
height of the ball.
solution Galileo’s formula gives s(t) = s0 + v0 t − 12 gt 2 = v0 t − 4.9t 2 , where the time t is in seconds (s) and the
height s is in meters (m). When the ball hits the ground after 4 seconds its height is 0. Solve 0 = s(4) = 4v0 − 4.9(4)2
to obtain v0 = 19.6 m/s. The ball reaches its maximum height when s  (t) = 0, that is, when 19.6 − 9.8t = 0, or t = 2
s. At this time, t = 2 s,
1
s(2) = 0 + 19.6(2) − (9.8)(4) = 19.6 m.
2
29. Show that for an object falling according to Galileo’s formula, the average velocity over any time interval [t1 , t2 ] is
Olivia is gazing out a window from the tenth floor of a building when a bucket (dropped by a window washer)
equal to the average of the instantaneous velocities at t1 and t2 .
passes by. She notes that it hits the ground 1.5 s later. Determine the floor from which the bucket was dropped if each
solution
floor is 5The simplest
m high way
and the to proceed
window is in is
thetomiddle
computeof both values
the tenth andNeglect
floor. show that
air they are equal. The average velocity
friction.
over [t1 , t2 ] is

s(t2 ) − s(t1 ) (s0 + v0 t2 − 12 gt22 ) − (s0 + v0 t1 − 12 gt12 ) v0 (t2 − t1 ) + g2 (t2 2 − t1 2 )

= =
t2 − t1 t2 − t1 t2 − t1
v (t − t1 ) g g
= 0 2 − (t2 + t1 ) = v0 − (t2 + t1 )
t2 − t1 2 2
Whereas the average of the instantaneous velocities at the beginning and end of [t1 , t2 ] is
s  (t1 ) + s  (t2 ) 1  1 g g
= (v0 − gt1 ) + (v0 − gt2 ) = (2v0 ) − (t2 + t1 ) = v0 − (t2 + t1 ).
2 2 2 2 2
The two quantities are the same.
31. By Faraday’s Law, if a conducting wire of length  meters moves at velocity v m/s perpendicular to a magnetic field
of strengthAn object
B (in fallsaunder
teslas), theofinfluence
voltage size V =of−Bvgravity near theinearth’s
is induced surface.
the wire. AssumeWhich
that of
B= the2 following statements is
and  = 0.5.
true? Explain.
(a) Calculate dV /dv.
(a) Distance
(b) Find traveled
the rate of changeincreases
of V withbyrespect
equal amounts
to time t in
if equal
v = 4ttime
+ 9.intervals.
(b)
solution Velocity increases by equal amounts in equal time intervals.
(c) The derivative
(a) Assuming that B =of velocity
2 and increases
l = 0.5, with time.
V = −2(.5)v = −v. Therefore,
dV
= −1.
dv
(b) If v = 4t + 9, then V = −2(.5)(4t + 9) = −(4t + 9). Therefore, dV
dt = −4.

33. Ethan finds

The voltage that with
V , current h hours
I , and of tutoring,
resistance R in ahe is able
circuit aretorelated
answerbycorrectly S(h) V
Ohm’s Law: = I R,ofwhere
percent the problems
the unitsonarea
 or S  (30)?
mathvolts,
exam.amperes,
Which would you expect
and ohms. Assumetothat voltageSis(3)
be larger: constant V = 12 volts. Calculate (specifying units):
withExplain.
solution One possible
(a) The average rate ofgraph
changeof S(h) is shown
of I with in to
respect theRfigure
for thebelow on from
interval R=
the left. This R = indicates
8 tograph 8.1 that in the early
hours(b)
of The
working with
rate of the tutor,
change of I Ethan makes to
with respect rapid progress
R when R =in8learning the material but eventually approaches either the
limit of his ability to learn the material or the maximum possible score on the exam. In this scenario, S  (3) would be
(c) The rate of change of R with respect to I when I = 1.5
larger than S  (30).

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 133

An alternative graph of S(h) is shown below on the right. Here, in the early hours of working with the tutor little
progress is made (perhaps the tutor is assessing how much Ethan already knows, his learning style, his personality, etc.).
This is followed by a period of rapid improvement and finally a leveling off as Ethan reaches his maximum score. In this
scenario, S  (3) and S  (30) might be roughly equal.

Percentage correct

Percentage correct
Hours of tutoring Hours of tutoring

35. To determine
√ drug dosages, doctors estimate a person’s body surface area (BSA) (in meters squared) using the formula
hm/60,θ (t)
BSA = Suppose measures
where h is thethe angleinbetween
height a clock’s
centimeters and mminute andinhour
the mass hands. What
kilograms. is θ (t)
Calculate the at 3 o’clock?
rate of change of BSA
with respect to mass for a person of constant height h = 180. What is this rate at m = 70 and m = 80? Express your
result in the correct units. Does BSA increase more rapidly with respect to mass at lower or higher body mass?
√ √
solution Assuming constant height h = 180 cm, let f (m) = hm/60 = 105 m be the formula for body surface area
in terms of weight. The rate of change of BSA with respect to mass is
√
 √
 5 1 −1/2 5
f (m) = m = √ .
10 2 20 m
If m = 70 kg, this is
√ √
5 14 m2
f  (70) = √ = ≈ 0.0133631 .
20 70 280 kg
If m = 80 kg,
√
5 1 1 m2
f  (80) =
√ = √ = .
20 80 20 16 80 kg
√
Because the rate of change of BSA depends on 1/ m, it is clear that BSA increases more rapidly at lower body mass.
37. The tangent lines to the graph of f (x) = x 2 grow steeper as x increases. At what rate do the slopes of the tangent
The atmospheric CO2 level A(t) at Mauna Loa, Hawaii at time t (in parts per million by volume) is recorded by
lines increase?
the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The values for the months January–December 2007 were
solution Let f (x) = x 2 . The slopes s of the tangent lines are given by s = f  (x) = 2x. The rate at which these
382.45, 383.68, 384.23, 386.26, 386.39, 385.87,
slopes are increasing is ds/dx = 2.
384.39, 381.78, 380.73, 380.81, 382.33, 383.69
In Exercises 39–46, use Eq. (3) to estimate the unit
y of awere change. at the end of a spring. through one cycle of the oscillation.
(a) Figure 13 shows
Assuming themeasurements
that the height mass oscillating
made on the first of each month, estimate A (t) on the 15th of the months
Sketch √
the graph √ of √
velocity as a √
function of time.
January–November.
39. Estimate 2 − 1 and 101 − 100. Compare your estimates with the actual values.
(b) In which months √ did A (t) take on its largest and smallest values?
solution Let f (x) = x = x 1/2 . Then f  (x) = 12 (x −1/2 ). We are using the derivative to estimate the average rate
(c) In That
of change. which is,month was the CO2 level most nearly constant?
√ √
x+h− x
≈ f  (x),
h
so that
√ √
x+h− x ≈ hf  (x).
√ √ √ √
Thus, 2− 1 ≈ 1f  (1) = 12 (1) = 12 . The actual value, to six decimal places, is 0.414214. Also, 101 − 100 ≈
 
1f  (100) = 12 10
1 = 0.05. The actual value, to six decimal places, is 0.0498756.

41. Let F (s) = 1.1s + 0.05s 2 be the stopping distance as in Example 3. Calculate F (65) and estimate the increase in
Estimate f (4) − f (3) if f (x) = 2−x . Then estimate f (4), assuming that f (3) = 12.
stopping distance if speed is increased from 65 to 66 mph. Compare your estimate with the actual increase.
solution Let F (s) = 1.1s + .05s 2 be as in Example 3. F  (s) = 1.1 + 0.1s.
• Then F (65) = 282.75 ft and F  (65) = 7.6 ft/mph.
• F  (65) ≈ F (66) − F (65) is approximately equal to the change in stopping distance per 1 mph increase in speed
when traveling at 65 mph. Increasing speed from 65 to 66 therefore increases stopping distance by approximately
7.6 ft.
• The actual increase in stopping distance when speed increases from 65 mph to 66 mph is F (66) − F (65) =
290.4 − 282.75 = 7.65 feet, which differs by less than one percent from the estimate found using the derivative.

May 25, 2011

134 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

43. The dollar cost of producing x bagels is C(x) = 300 + 0.25x − 0.5(x/1000)3 . Determine the cost of producing 2000
According to Kleiber’s Law, the metabolic rate P (in kilocalories per day) and body mass m (in kilograms) of an
bagels and estimate the cost of the 2001st bagel. Compare your estimate with the actual cost of the 2001st bagel.
animal are related by a three-quarter-power law P = 73.3m3/4 . Estimate the increase in metabolic rate when body
mass increases from 60 to 61 kg.
solution Expanding the power of 3 yields

C(x) = 300 + 0.25x − 5 × 10−10 x 3 .

This allows us to get the derivative C  (x) = 0.25 − 1.5 × 10−9 x 2 . The cost of producing 2000 bagels is

C(2000) = 300 + 0.25(2000) − 0.5(2000/1000)3 = 796

dollars. The cost of the 2001st bagel is, by definition, C(2001) − C(2000). By the derivative estimate, C(2001) −
C(2000) ≈ C  (2000)(1), so the cost of the 2001st bagel is approximately

C  (2000) = 0.25 − 1.5 × 10−9 (20002 ) = $0.244.

C(2001) = 796.244, so the exact cost of the 2001st bagel is indistinguishable from the estimated cost. The function is
very nearly linear at this point.

45. Demand for a commodity generally decreases as the price is raised. Suppose that the demand for oil (per capita per
year) is Suppose
D(p) =the dollarbarrels,
900/p cost ofwhere p is xthevideo
producing cameras
dollar is C(x)
price per = Find
barrel. 500x the demand +
− 0.003x 2 10−8px 3=. $40. Estimate the
when
(a) Estimate
decrease in demand p rises tocost
theifmarginal $41atand
production levelifx p=declines
the increase 5000 andtocompare
$39. it with the actual cost C(5001) − C(5000).
(b) Compare the marginal cost at x = 5000 with the average cost per camera, defined as C(x)/x.
solution D(p) = 900p−1 , so D  (p) = −900p−2 . When the price is $40 a barrel, the per capita demand is D(40) =
22.5 barrels per year. With an increase in price from $40 to $41 a barrel, the change in demand D(41) − D(40) is
approximately D  (40) = −900(40−2 ) = −0.5625 barrels a year. With a decrease in price from $40 to $39 a barrel, the
change in demand D(39) − D(40) is approximately −D  (40) = +0.5625. An increase in oil prices of a dollar leads to a
decrease in demand of 0.5625 barrels a year, and a decrease of a dollar leads to an increase in demand of 0.5625 barrels
a year.

47. According to rate

The reproduction Stevens’
f of Law in psychology,
the fruit fly Drosophilathe perceived magnitude
melanogaster, grownofin a stimulus
bottles inisaproportional (approxi-
laboratory, decreases
mately)
withtothe
a power
number of ptheofactual
flies in intensity I ofAthe
the bottle. stimulus.has
researcher Experiments
found the show
numberthatofthe perceived
offspring perbrightness
female perB day
of a to
light
be
satisfies B = kI 2/3 f
approximately (p) =I(34
, where − 0.612p)p
is the −0.658
light intensity, whereas
. the perceived heaviness H of a weight W satisfies H = kW 3/2
(k is (a)
a constant thatfis(15)
Calculate different
and f in the two cases). Compute dB/dI and dH /dW and state whether they are increasing or
 (15).
decreasing functions. Then explain the following statements:
(b) Estimate the decrease in daily offspring per female when p is increased from 15 to 16. Is this estimate larger or
(a) A one-unit
smaller thanincrease
the actualin light
valueintensity
f (16) −isffelt more strongly when I is small than when I is large.
(15)?
(c) Plot
(b) Adding another for 5 to≤apload
f (p)pound ≤ 25
W isand
feltverify
morethat f (p)when
strongly W is large function
is a decreasing than when ofWp.isDo you expect f  (p) to be
small.

positive or negative? Plot f (p) and confirm your expectation.
solution
2k −1/3 2k
(a) dB/dI = I = 1/3 .
3 3I
As I increases, dB/dI shrinks, so that the rate of change of perceived intensity decreases as the actual intensity
increases. Increased light intensity has a diminished return in perceived intensity. A sketch of B against I is shown: See
that the height of the graph increases more slowly as you move to the right.

(b) dH /dW = 3k 2 W
1/2 . As W increases, dH /dW increases as well, so that the rate of change of perceived weight
increases as weight increases. A sketch of H against W is shown: See that the graph becomes steeper as you move to the
right.

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 135

Let M(t) be the mass (in kilograms) of a plant as a function of time (in years). Recent studies by Niklas and Enquist
Further Insights and Challenges
have suggested that a remarkably wide range of plants (from algae and grass to palm trees) obey a three-quarter-power
Exercises
growth 49–51: The Lorenz
law—that curve
is, dM/dt y = 3/4
= CM F (r)
forissome
used constant
by economists
C. to study income distribution in a given country (see
Figure 14). By definition, F (r) is the fraction of the total income that goes to the bottom rth part of the population, where
(a) If a tree has a growth rate of 6 kg/yr when M = 100 kg, what is its growth rate when M = 125 kg?
0 ≤ r ≤ 1. For example, if F (0.4) = 0.245, then the bottom 40% of households receive 24.5% of the total income. Note
F (0)If=M0=
that (b) and0.5Fkg,
(1) how
= 1.much more mass must the plant acquire to double its growth rate?

F(r) F(r)
1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
L1
L2
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
P

0.2 0.2 Q

r r
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(A) Lorenz curve for Sweden in 2004 (B) Two Lorenz curves: The tangent
lines at P and Q have slope 1.
FIGURE 14

49. Our goal is to find an interpretation for F  (r). The average income for a group of households is the total
income going to the group divided by the number of households in the group. The national average income is A = T /N,
where N is the total number of households and T is the total income earned by the entire population.
(a) Show that the average income among households in the bottom rth part is equal to (F (r)/r)A.
(b) Show more generally that the average income of households belonging to an interval [r, r + r] is equal to


F (r + r) − F (r)
A
r
(c) Let 0 ≤ r ≤ 1. A household belongs to the 100rth percentile if its income is greater than or equal to the income of
100r % of all households. Pass to the limit as r → 0 in (b) to derive the following interpretation: A household in the
100rth percentile has income F  (r)A. In particular, a household in the 100rth percentile receives more than the national
average if F  (r) > 1 and less if F  (r) < 1.
(d) For the Lorenz curves L1 and L2 in Figure 14(B), what percentage of households have above-average income?
solution
(a) The total income among households in the bottom rth part is F (r)T and there are rN households in this part of the
population. Thus, the average income among households in the bottom rth part is equal to
F (r)T F (r) T F (r)
= · = A.
rN r N r
(b) Consider the interval [r, r + r]. The total income among households between the bottom rth part and the bottom
r + r-th part is F (r + r)T − F (r)T . Moreover, the number of households covered by this interval is (r + r)N −
rN = rN. Thus, the average income of households belonging to an interval [r, r + r] is equal to
F (r + r)T − F (r)T F (r + r) − F (r) T F (r + r) − F (r)
= · = A.
rN r N r
(c) Take the result from part (b) and let r → 0. Because
F (r + r) − F (r)
lim = F  (r),
r→0 r
we find that a household in the 100rth percentile has income F  (r)A.
(d) The point P in Figure 14(B) has an r-coordinate of 0.6, while the point Q has an r-coordinate of roughly 0.75. Thus,
on curve L1 , 40% of households have F  (r) > 1 and therefore have above-average income. On curve L2 , roughly 25%
of households have above-average income.
51. Use Exercise 49 (c) to prove:
The following table provides values of F (r) for Sweden in 2004. Assume that the national average income was
(a) F  (r) is an increasing function of r.
A = 30,000 euros.
(b) Income is distributed equally (all households have the same income) if and only if F (r) = r for 0 ≤ r ≤ 1.
solution r 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a) Recall from Exercise 49 (c) that FF(r) (r)A is0 the0.01
income0.245 0.423 in0.642
of a household 1 percentile. Suppose 0 ≤ r <
the 100r-th 1
r2 ≤(a)
1. Because r > r , a
What was2 the average
1 household
income in
inthe
the100r -th percentile must
2 40% of households?
lowest have income at least as large as a household in the
100r1 -th percentile. Thus, F  (r2 )A ≥ F  (r1 )A, or F  (r2 ) ≥ F  (r1 ). This implies F  (r) is an increasing function of r.
(b) Show that the average income of the households belonging to the interval [0.4, 0.6] was 26,700 euros.
(c) Estimate F  (0.5). Estimate the income of households in the 50th percentile? Was it greater or less than the
national average?

May 25, 2011

136 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

(b) If F (r) = r for 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, then F  (r) = 1 and households in all percentiles have income equal to the national
average; that is, income is distributed equally. Alternately, if income is distributed equally (all households have the same
income), then F  (r) = 1 for 0 ≤ r ≤ 1. Thus, F must be a linear function in r with slope 1. Moreover, the condition
F (0) = 0 requires the F intercept of the line to be 0. Hence, F (r) = 1 · r + 0 = r.

In Exercises 53 and 54, the average cost per unit at production level x is defined as Cavg (x) = C(x)/x, where C(x) is
Studies of Internet usage show that website popularity is described quite well by Zipf’s Law, according to which
the cost function. Average cost is a measure of the efficiency of the production process.
the nth most popular website receives roughly the fraction 1/n of all visits. Suppose that on a particular day, the nth
V (n) = 10 6 n ≤ 15,000).
53. most
Showpopular site
that Cavg (x)had approximately
is equal to the slope of the line/nthrough
visitorsthe
(fororigin and the point (x, C(x)) on the graph of C(x).
Using this interpretation, determine whether average cost or marginal cost isHint:
(a) Verify that the top 50 websites received nearly 45% of the visits. LetatT points
greater (N) denote
A, B, the sum
C, D in of V (n)15.
Figure for
1 ≤ n ≤ N . Use a computer algebra system to compute T (45) and T (15,000).
(b) Verify, by numerical experimentation, that when Eq. (3) is used to estimate V (n + 1) − V (n), the error in the
Cost
D
estimate decreases as n grows larger. Find (again, by experimentation) an N such that the error is at most 10 for
n ≥ N.
(c) Using Eq. (3), show that for n ≥ 100, theAnth B website
C received at most 100 more visitors than the (n + 1)st
website.

Production level
FIGURE 15 Graph of C(x).

solution By definition, the slope of the line through the origin and (x, C(x)), that is, between (0, 0) and (x, C(x)) is

C(x) − 0 C(x)
= = Cav .
x−0 x
At point A, average cost is greater than marginal cost, as the line from the origin to A is steeper than the curve at this
point (we see this because the line, tracing from the origin, crosses the curve from below). At point B, the average cost is
still greater than the marginal cost. At the point C, the average cost and the marginal cost are nearly the same, since the
tangent line and the line from the origin are nearly the same. The line from the origin to D crosses the cost curve from
above, and so is less steep than the tangent line to the curve at D; the average cost at this point is less than the marginal
cost.

The cost in dollars of producing alarm clocks is C(x) = 50x 3 − 750x 2 + 3740x + 3750 where x is in units of
1000.
3.5(a)Higher Derivatives
Calculate the average cost at x = 4, 6, 8, and 10.
(b) Use the graphical interpretation of average cost to find the production level x0 at which average cost is lowest.
Preliminary Questions
What is the relation between average cost and marginal cost at x0 (see Figure 16)?
1. On September 4, 2003, the Wall Street Journal printed the headline “Stocks Go Higher, Though the Pace of Their
Gains Slows.” Rephrase this headline as a statement about the first and second time derivatives of stock prices and sketch
a possible graph.
solution Because stocks are going higher, stock prices are increasing and the first derivative of stock prices must
therefore be positive. On the other hand, because the pace of gains is slowing, the second derivative of stock prices must
be negative.
Stock
price

Time

2. True or false? The third derivative of position with respect to time is zero for an object falling to earth under the
influence of gravity. Explain.
solution This statement is true. The acceleration of an object falling to earth under the influence of gravity is constant;
hence, the second derivative of position with respect to time is constant. Because the third derivative is just the derivative
of the second derivative and the derivative of a constant is zero, it follows that the third derivative is zero.
3. Which type of polynomial satisfies f  (x) = 0 for all x?
solution The third derivative of all quadratic polynomials (polynomials of the form ax 2 + bx + c for some constants
a, b and c) is equal to 0 for all x.
4. What is the millionth derivative of f (x) = ex ?
solution Every derivative of f (x) = ex is ex .

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.5 Higher Derivatives 137

Exercises
In Exercises 1–16, calculate y  and y  .

1. y = 14x 2
solution Let y = 14x 2 . Then y  = 28x, y  = 28, and y  = 0.
3. y =y x=4 −
7−
2
2x + 2x
25x
solution Let y = x 4 − 25x 2 + 2x. Then y  = 4x 3 − 50x + 2, y  = 12x 2 − 50, and y  = 24x.
4 3
5. y =y =πr 3 2
3 4t − 9t + 7
solution Let y = 43 πr 3 . Then y  = 4πr 2 , y  = 8πr, and y  = 8π.

7. y = 20t √
4/5 − 6t 2/3
y= x
solution Let y = 20t 4/5 − 6t 2/3 . Then y  = 16t −1/5 − 4t −1/3 , y  = − 16
5 t
−6/5 + 4 t −4/3 , and y  = 96 t −11/15 −
3 25
16 t −7/3 .
9
4
9. y =y z=−x −9/5
z
solution Let y = z − 4z−1 . Then y  = 1 + 4z−2 , y  = −8z−3 , and y  = 24z−4 .
11. y = θ 2 (2θ−3
+ 7)
y = 5t + 7t −8/3
solution Let y = θ 2 (2θ + 7) = 2θ 3 + 7θ 2 . Then y  = 6θ 2 + 14θ, y  = 12θ + 14, and y  = 12.
x−4
13. y =y = (x 2 + x)(x 3 + 1)
x
Let y = x−4 −1  −2  −3  −4
solution x = 1 − 4x . Then y = 4x , y = −8x , and y = 24x .

15. y = x 5 ex 1
y=
solution 1Let − xy = x 5 ex . Then

y  = x 5 ex + 5x 4 ex = (x 5 + 5x 4 )ex
y  = (x 5 + 5x 4 )ex + (5x 4 + 20x 3 )ex = (x 5 + 10x 4 + 20x 3 )ex
y  = (x 5 + 10x 4 + 20x 3 )ex + (5x 4 + 40x 3 + 60x 2 )ex = (x 5 + 15x 4 + 60x 3 + 60x 2 )ex .

In Exercises e17–26,
x calculate the derivative indicated.
y=
17. f (4) (1), x f (x) = x 4
solution Let f (x) = x 4 . Then f  (x) = 4x 3 , f  (x) = 12x 2 , f  (x) = 24x, and f (4) (x) = 24. Thus f (4) (1) = 24.

d 2 y 
19. g (−1), , y= 4t −3
g(t) + 3t−5
= −4t 2
dt 2 t=1
2
solution Let y = 4t −3 + 3t 2 . Then dy
dt = −12t
−4 + 6t and d y = 48t −5 + 6. Hence
2 dt

d 2 y
= 48(1)−5 + 6 = 54.
dt 2
t=1

d 4 x 4
21. d f , x = t −3/4 9
dt 4 t=16 , f (t) = 6t − 2t 5
dt 4 t=1
solution Let x(t) = t −3/4 . Then dx 3 −7/4 , d 2 x = 21 t −11/4 , d 3 x = − 231 t −15/4 , and d 4 x = 3465 t −19/4 .
dt = − 4 t dt 2 16 dt 3 64 dt 4 256
Thus

d 4 x 3465 −19/4 3465
= 16 = .
dt 4 256 134217728
t=16

23. f  (−3), f (x) = 4ex − x 3

f  (4), f (t) = 2t 2 − t
solution Let f (x) = 4ex − x 3 . Then f  (x) = 4ex − 3x 2 , f  (x) = 4ex − 6x, f  (x) = 4ex − 6, and f  (−3) =
4e−3 − 6.

t
f  (1), f (t) =
t +1

May 25, 2011

138 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

√ w
25. h (1), h(w) = we
√
solution Let h(w) = wew = w1/2 ew . Then



1 −1/2 1
h (w) = w1/2 ew + ew w = w1/2 + w −1/2 ew
2 2

and




1 1 −1/2 1 −3/2 1
h (w) = w1/2 + w −1/2 ew + ew w − w = w1/2 + w−1/2 − w −3/2 ew .
2 2 4 4

7
Thus, h (1) = e.
4
27. Calculate y (k) (0) for 0 s≤ k ≤ 5, where y = x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d (with a, b, c, d the constants).
e
g  (0), g(s) =
solution Applying the s+ 1
power, constant multiple, and sum rules at each stage, we get (note y (0) is y by convention):

k y (k)
0 x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
1 4x 3 + 3ax 2 + 2bx + c
2 12x 2 + 6ax + 2b
3 24x + 6a
4 24
5 0

from which we get y (0) (0) = d, y (1) (0) = c, y (2) (0) = 2b, y (3) (0) = 6a, y (4) (0) = 24, and y (5) (0) = 0.

d 6 −1
29. UseWhich
the result in Example
of the to findf (k)6(x)
following3satisfy x =. 0 for all k ≥ 6?
dx
(a) f (x) = 7x 4 + 4 + x −1 (b) f (x) = x 3 − 2
√
solution The equation in Example 3 indicates that
(c) f (x) = x (d) f (x) = 1 − x 6
(e) f (x) = x 9/5 d 6 −1 (f) f (x) = 2x 2 + 3x 5
x = (−1)6 6!x −6−1 .
dx 6

(−1)6 = 1 and 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720, so

d 6 −1
x = 720x −7 .
dx 6

In Exercises 31–36, √
f (n)=(x).
Calculate thefind
firstafive
general formulaoffor
derivatives f (x) x.
(a) Show that f (n) (x) is a multiple of x −n+1/2 .
31. f (x) = x −2
(b) Show that f (n) (x) alternates in sign as (−1)n−1 for n ≥ 1.
solution f  (x) = −2x −3(n) , f  (x) = 6x −4 , f  (x) = −24x −5 , f (4) (x) = 5 · 24x −6 , . . . . From
2n −this
3 we can conclude
(c) Find a formula for f (x) for n ≥ (n)2. Hint: Verifyn coefficient is ±1 · 3 · 5 · · ·
that the −(n+2) n .
that the nth derivative can be written as f (x) = (−1) (n + 1)!x . 2

33. f (x) = x −1/2

f (x) = (x + 2)−1
solution f  (x) = −1 2 x
−3/2 . We will avoid simplifying numerators and denominators to find the pattern:

−3 −1 −5/2 3×1
f  (x) = x = (−1)2 2 x −5/2
2 2 2
5 3 × 1 −7/2 5 × 3 × 1 −7/2
f  (x) = − x = (−1)3 x
2 22 23
..
.
(2n − 1) × (2n − 3) × . . . × 1 −(2n+1)/2
f (n) (x) = (−1)n x .
2n

f (x) = x −3/2

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.5 Higher Derivatives 139

35. f (x) = xe−x

solution Let f (x) = xe−x . Then

f  (x) = x(−e−x ) + e−x = (1 − x)e−x = −(x − 1)e−x

f  (x) = (1 − x)(−e−x ) − e−x = (x − 2)e−x
f  (x) = (x − 2)(−e−x ) + e−x = (3 − x)e−x = −(x − 3)e−x

From this we conclude that the nth derivative can be written as f (n) (x) = (−1)n (x − n)e−x .
37. (a) Find the 2acceleration at time t = 5 min of a helicopter whose height is s(t) = 300t − 4t 3 m.
f (x) = x ex 
(b) Plot the acceleration h (t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6. How does this graph show that the helicopter is slowing down during this
time interval?
solution
(a) Let s(t) = 300t − 4t 3 , with t in minutes and s in meters. The velocity is v(t) = s  (t) = 300 − 12t 2 and acceleration
is a(t) = s  (t) = −24t. Thus a(5) = −120 m/min2 .
(b) The acceleration of the helicopter for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 is shown in the figure below. As the acceleration of the helicopter is
negative, the velocity of the helicopter must be decreasing. Because the velocity is positive for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6, the helicopter
is slowing down.
y

x
−20 1 2 3 4 5 6
−40
−60
−80
−100
−120
−140

39. Figure 5 shows f , f  , and f  . Determine which is which.

Find an equation of the tangent to the graph of y = f  (x) at x = 3, where f (x) = x 4 .
y y y

x x x
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

(A) (B) (C)

FIGURE 5

solution (a) f  (b) f  (c) f .

The tangent line to (c) is horizontal at x = 1 and x = 3, where (b) has roots. The tangent line to (b) is horizontal at
x = 2 and x = 0, where (a) has roots.
41. Figure 7 shows the graph ofthe position s of an object as a function of time t. Determine the intervals on which the
The second
acceleration derivative f is shown in Figure 6. Which of (A) or (B) is the graph of f and which is f ?
is positive.

Position

10 20 30 40
Time
FIGURE 7

solution Roughly from time 10 to time 20 and from time 30 to time 40. The acceleration is positive over the same
intervals over which the graph is bending upward.
43. Find all values of n such that y = x n satisfies
Find a polynomial f (x) that satisfies the equation xf  (x) + f (x) = x 2 .
x 2 y  − 2xy  = 4y

solution We have y  = nx n−1 , y  = n(n − 1)x n−2 , so that

x 2 y  − 2xy  = x 2 (n(n − 1)x n−2 ) − 2xnx n−1 = (n2 − 3n)x n = (n2 − 3n)y

Thus the equation is satisfied if and only if n2 − 3n = 4, so that n2 − 3n − 4 = 0. This happens for n = −1, 4.

May 25, 2011

140 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

45. According to one model that takes into account air resistance, the acceleration a(t) (in m/s2 ) of a skydiver of mass
Which of the following descriptions could not apply to Figure 8? Explain.
m in free fall satisfies
(a) Graph of acceleration when velocity is constant
(b) Graph of velocity when acceleration is constant k
a(t) = −9.8 + v(t)2
(c) Graph of position when acceleration is zero m

where v(t) is velocity (negative since the object is falling) and k is a constant. Suppose that m = 75 kg and k = 14 kg/m.
(a) What is the object’s velocity when a(t) = −4.9?

(b) What is the object’s velocity when a(t) = 0? This velocity is the object’s terminal velocity.

k v(t)2 for the velocity and taking into account that the velocity is negative since
solution Solving a(t) = −9.8 + m
the object is falling, we find

 
m 75
v(t) = − (a(t) + 9.8) = − (a(t) + 9.8).
k 14

(a) Substituting a(t) = −4.9 into the above formula for the velocity, we find

75 √
v(t) = − (4.9) = − 26.25 = −5.12 m/s.
14

(b) When a(t) = 0,


75 √
v(t) = − (9.8) = − 52.5 = −7.25 m/s.
14

47. A servomotor controls the vertical movement of a drill bit that will drill a pattern of holes in sheet metal. The maximum
vertical speed of the drill
According bitmodel
to one is 4 in./s,
thatand while to
attempts drilling
account thefor
hole,
air itresistance,
must move thenodistance
more than
s(t)2.6
(inin./s to avoid
meters) warping
traveled by a
the metal.
fallingDuring
raindrop a cycle, the bit begins and ends at rest, quickly approaches the sheet metal, and quickly returns to its
satisfies
initial position after the hole is drilled. Sketch possible graphs of the drill bit’s vertical velocity and acceleration. Label


the point where the bit enters the sheet metal. d 2 s 0.0005 ds 2
= g −
dt 2 D dt
solution There will be multiple cycles, each of which will be more or less identical. Let v(t) be the downward vertical
= 9.8 m/s 2 . Terminal velocity v
where
velocity of D
theisdrill
the raindrop diameter
bit, and let thegvertical
a(t) beand acceleration. term is defined
From the narrative, we seeas thev(t)
that velocity at no
can be which the
greater
thandrop
4 andhas
nozero acceleration
greater (one can
than 2.6 while showisthat
drilling velocity
taking place.approaches
During each vterm
cycle, time =
as v(t) 0 initially, v(t) goes to 4 quickly.
proceeds).
√
When (a)theShow
bit hits
thatthe sheet=metal,
vterm v(t) goes down to 2.6 quickly, at which it stays until the sheet metal is drilled through.
2000gD.
As the drill pulls out, it reaches maximum
(b) Find vterm for drops of diameter 10 −3 m and 10
non-drilling −4 m.speed (v(t) = −4) quickly, and maintains this speed until
upward
it returns to rest. A possible plot follows:
(c) In this model, do raindrops accelerate more rapidly at higher or lower velocities?
y

4
Metal
2

x
0.5 1 1.5 2
−2

−4

A graph of the acceleration is extracted from this graph:

40

20
0.5 1
x
1.5 2
−20

−40
Metal

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.5 Higher Derivatives 141

In Exercises 48 and 49, refer to the following. In a 1997 study, Boardman and Lave related the traffic speed S on a
two-lane road to traffic density Q (number of cars per mile of road) by the formula

S = 2882Q−1 − 0.052Q + 31.73

for 60 ≤ Q ≤ 400 (Figure 9).

Speed S
70
(mph)
60
50
40
30
20
10

100 200 300 400

Density Q
FIGURE 9 Speed as a function of traffic density.

49. (a) CalculateExplain

dS/dQintuitively why
and d 2 S/dQ 2 . we should expect that dS/dQ < 0.

(b) Show that d S/dQ > 0. Then use the fact that dS/dQ < 0 and d 2 S/dQ2 > 0 to justify the following statement:
2 2
A one-unit increase in traffic density slows down traffic more when Q is small than when Q is large.
(c) Plot dS/dQ. Which property of this graph shows that d 2 S/dQ2 > 0?

solution
(a) Traffic speed must be reduced when the road gets more crowded so we expect dS/dQ to be negative. This is indeed
the case since dS/dQ = −0.052 − 2882/Q2 < 0.
(b) The decrease in speed due to a one-unit increase in density is approximately dS/dQ (a negative number). Since
d 2 S/dQ2 = 5764Q−3 > 0 is positive, this tells us that dS/dQ gets larger as Q increases—and a negative number which
gets larger is getting closer to zero. So the decrease in speed is smaller when Q is larger, that is, a one-unit increase in
traffic density has a smaller effect when Q is large.
(c) dS/dQ is plotted below. The fact that this graph is increasing shows that d 2 S/dQ2 > 0.

y
100 200 300 400
x
−0.2
− 0.4
− 0.6
− 0.8
−1
−1.2

x+2
51. UseLet f (x) = algebra (k)system to compute the f (k) (x) for 1 ≤ k ≤ 4. Can you find a
. Use a computer algebra
a computer x − 1 system to compute f (x) for k = 1, 2, 3 for the following functions.
general formula for f (k)3(x)? 1 − x4
(a) f (x) = (1 + x )5/3 (b) f (x) =
x+2 1 − 5x − 6x 2
solution Let f (x) = . Using a computer algebra system,
x−1
3 3·1
f  (x) = − = (−1)1 ;
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)1+1
6 3·2·1
f  (x) = = (−1)2 ;
(x − 1)3 (x − 1)2+1
18 3 · 3!
f  (x) = − = (−1)3 ; and
(x − 1)4 (x − 1)3+1
72 3 · 4!
f (4) (x) = = (−1)4 .
(x − 1)5 (x − 1)4+1

From the pattern observed above, we conjecture

3 · k!
f (k) (x) = (−1)k .
(x − 1)k+1
s

May 25, 2011

142 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Further Insights and Challenges

53. What is p (99) (x) for p(x) as in Exercise 52?
Find the 100th derivative of
solution First note that for any integer n ≤ 98, 5
p(x) = (x + x + x 7 )10 (1 + x 2 )11 (x 3 + x 5 + x 7 )
d 99 n
x = 0.
dx 99
Now, if we expand p(x), we find

p(x) = x 99 + terms of degree at most 98;

therefore,

d 99 d 99 99 d 99 99
99
p(x) = 99
(x + terms of degree at most 98) = x
dx dx dx 99
Using logic similar to that used to compute the derivative in Example (3), we compute:

d 99 99
(x ) = 99 × 98 × . . . 1,
dx 99
99
so that d 99 p(x) = 99!.
dx

55. Use the Product Rule to find a formula for (fg) and compare your result with the expansion of (a + b)3 . Then try
find a formula for (fg) in terms of f and g and their first and second derivatives.
Use the Product Rule twice to(n)
to guess the general formula for (fg) .
solution Continuing from Exercise 54, we have

h = f  g  + gf  + 2(f  g  + g  f  ) + fg  + g  f  = f  g + 3f  g  + 3f  g  + fg 

The binomial theorem gives

(a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = a 3 b0 + 3a 2 b1 + 3a 1 b2 + a 0 b3

and more generally

n

 n
(a + b)n = a n−k bk ,
k
k=0

where the binomial coefficients are given by


n k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)
= .
k n!

Accordingly, the general formula for (fg)(n) is given by

n

 n
(fg)(n) = f (n−k) g (k) ,
k
k=0

where p (k) is the kth derivative of p (or p itself when k = 0).

Compute
f (x + h) + f (x − h) − 2f (x)
3.6 Trigonometric Functions
f (x) = lim
h→0 h2
Preliminary Questions
for the following functions:
x sign (+ or −) that yields (b)
(a) f (x) =the
1. Determine x2
f (x) =formula
the correct for the following: (c) f (x) = x 3
d
(a) Based
(sinon
x+these
cosexamples,
x) = ± sinwhat
x ± do x think the limit f represents?
cosyou
dx
d
(b) sec x = ± sec x tan x
dx
d
(c) cot x = ± csc2 x
dx

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.6 Trigonometric Functions 143

solution The correct formulas are

d
(a) (sin x + cos x) = − sin x + cos x
dx
d
(b) sec x = sec x tan x
dx
d
(c) cot x = − csc2 x
dx
2. Which of the following functions can be differentiated using the rules we have covered so far?
(a) y = 3 cos x cot x (b) y = cos(x 2 ) (c) y = ex sin x
solution
(a) 3 cos x cot x is a product of functions whose derivatives are known. This function can therefore be differentiated using
the Product Rule.
(b) cos(x 2 ) is a composition of the functions cos x and x 2 . We have not yet discussed how to differentiate composite
functions.
(c) x 2 cos x is a product of functions whose derivatives are known. This function can therefore be differentiated using
the Product Rule.
d (sin2 x + cos2 x) without using the derivative formulas for sin x and cos x.
3. Compute dx
solution Recall that sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 for all x. Thus,
d d
(sin2 x + cos2 x) = 1 = 0.
dx dx

4. How is the addition formula used in deriving the formula (sin x) = cos x?
solution The difference quotient for the function sin x involves the expression sin(x + h). The addition formula for
the sine function is used to expand this expression as sin(x + h) = sin x cos h + sin h cos x.

Exercises
In Exercises 1–4, find an equation of the tangent line at the point indicated.

1. y = sin x, x = π4
solution Let f (x) = sin x. Then f  (x) = cos x and the equation of the tangent line is
π  π  π  √2  π
√
2
√
2
√ 
2 π
y = f x− +f = x− + = x+ 1− .
4 4 4 2 4 2 2 2 4

3. y = tan x, x = π4 π
y = cos x, x = 3
solution Let f (x) = tan x. Then f  (x) = sec2 x and the equation of the tangent line is
π  π π   π π
y = f x− +f =2 x− + 1 = 2x + 1 − .
4 4 4 4 2

In Exercises 5–24,
y = sec x = π the derivative.
x, compute6
5. f (x) = sin x cos x
solution Let f (x) = sin x cos x. Then

f  (x) = sin x(− sin x) + cos x(cos x) = − sin2 x + cos2 x.

7. f (x) = sin2 x2
f (x) = x cos x
solution Let f (x) = sin2 x = sin x sin x. Then

f  (x) = sin x(cos x) + sin x(cos x) = 2 sin x cos x.

9. H (t) = sin 2
f (x) sec xt + 12 cot x
= 9t sec
solution Let H (t) = sin t sec2 t. Then
d
H  (t) = sin t (sec t · sec t) + sec2 t (cos t)
dt
= sin t (sec t sec t tan t + sec t sec t tan t) + sec t
= 2 sin t sec2 t tan t + sec t.

May 25, 2011

144 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

11. f (θ ) = tan θ sec θ

h(t) = 9 csc t + t cot t
solution Let f (θ ) = tan θ sec θ. Then
 
f  (θ) = tan θ sec θ tan θ + sec θ sec2 θ = sec θ tan2 θ + sec3 θ = tan2 θ + sec2 θ sec θ.

13. f (x) = (2x 42 − 4x −1 ) sec x

k(θ ) = θ sin2 θ
solution Let f (x) = (2x 4 − 4x −1 ) sec x. Then

f  (x) = (2x 4 − 4x −1 ) sec x tan x + sec x(8x 3 + 4x −2 ).

sec θ
15. y =f (z) = z tan z
θ
sec θ
solution Let y = . Then
θ
θ sec θ tan θ − sec θ
y = .
θ2

3 cos y − 4
17. R(y) = 1
G(z) = sin y
tan z − cot z
3 cos y − 4
solution Let R(y) = . Then
sin y

sin y(−3 sin y) − (3 cos y − 4)(cos y) 4 cos y − 3(sin2 y + cos2 y) 4 cos y − 3

R  (y) = = = .
sin2 y sin2 y sin2 y

1 + tan x
19. f (x) = x
f (x) 1=− tan x
sin x + 2
1 + tan x
solution Let f (x) = . Then
1 − tan x
 
(1 − tan x) sec2 x − (1 + tan x) − sec2 x 2 sec2 x
f  (x) = = .
(1 − tan x)2 (1 − tan x)2

21. f (x) = ex sin x

f (θ ) = θ tan θ sec θ
solution Let f (x) = ex sin x. Then f  (x) = ex cos x + sin xex = ex (cos x + sin x).
23. f (θ ) = eθ (5t sin θ − 4 tan θ)
h(t) = e csc t
solution Let f (θ ) = eθ (5 sin θ − 4 tan θ). Then

f  (θ) = eθ (5 cos θ − 4 sec2 θ) + eθ (5 sin θ − 4 tan θ)

= eθ (5 sin θ + 5 cos θ − 4 tan θ − 4 sec2 θ).

In Exercises
f (x) 25–34,
= xex find
cos xan equation of the tangent line at the point specified.
25. y = x 3 + cos x, x=0
solution Let f (x) = x 3 + cos x. Then f  (x) = 3x 2 − sin x and f  (0) = 0. The tangent line at x = 0 is

y = f  (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = 0(x) + 1 = 1.

27. y = sin x + 3 cos x, π x = 0

y = tan θ, θ = 6
solution Let f (x) = sin x + 3 cos x. Then f  (x) = cos x − 3 sin x and f  (0) = 1. The tangent line at x = 0 is

y = f  (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = x + 3.

29. y = 2(sin θ + cos θ ), θ = π3

sin t
= π3 θ + cos θ). Then f  (θ) = 2(cos θ − sin θ) and f  ( π ) = 1 − √3. The tangent line at
y = Let f (θ ), =t 2(sin
solution 1 + cos t 3
x = π3 is
π  π π  √  π √
y = f x− +f = (1 − 3) x − + 1 + 3.
3 3 3 3

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.6 Trigonometric Functions 145

31. y = ex cos x, x = 0
y = csc x − cot x, x = π4
solution Let f (x) = ex cos x. Then

f  (x) = ex (− sin x) + ex cos x = ex (cos x − sin x),

and f  (0) = e0 (cos 0 − sin 0) = 1. Thus, the equation of the tangent line is

y = f  (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = x + 1.

33. y = et (1 x− cos2 t), t = ππ2

y = e cos x, x = 4
solution Let f (t) = et (1 − cos t). Then

f  (t) = et sin t + et (1 − cos t) = et (1 + sin t − cos t),

and f  ( π2 ) = 2eπ/2 . The tangent line at x = π2 is

π  π π   π
y = f t− +f = 2eπ/2 t − + eπ/2 .
2 2 2 2

In Exercises 35–37, use Theorem 1 to verify the formula.

y = eθ sec θ, θ = π4
d
35. cot x = − csc2 x
dx
cos x
solution cot x = . Using the quotient rule and the derivative formulas, we compute:
sin x

d d cos x sin x(− sin x) − cos x(cos x) −(sin2 x + cos2 x) −1

cot x = = 2
= 2
= = − csc2 x.
dx dx sin x sin x sin x sin2 x

d
37. d x = − csc x cot x
csc
dx sec x = sec x tan x
dx
1
solution Since csc x = , we can apply the quotient rule and the two known derivatives to get:
sin x
d d 1 sin x(0) − 1(cos x) − cos x cos x 1
csc x = = = =− = − cot x csc x.
dx dx sin x sin2 x sin2 x sin x sin x

In Exercises
Show39–42, calculate
that both y = sinthe higher
x and y =derivative.
cos x satisfy y  = −y.
39. f  (θ), f (θ ) = θ sin θ
solution Let f (θ ) = θ sin θ. Then

f  (θ) = θ cos θ + sin θ

f  (θ) = θ(− sin θ) + cos θ + cos θ = −θ sin θ + 2 cos θ.

41. y  ,
y  , y = tan x
d2
Let yt = tan x. Then y  = sec2 x and by the Chain Rule,
2
solution2 cos
dt
d
y  = = sec2 x = 2(sec x)(sec x tan x) = 2 sec2 x tan x
dx
y  = 2 sec2 x(sec2 x) + (2 sec2 x tan x) tan x = 2 sec4 +4 sec4 x tan2 x

43. Calculate the first five derivatives of f (x) = cos x. Then determine f (8) and f (37) .
y  , y  , y = et sin t
solution Let f (x) = cos x.
• Then f  (x) = − sin x, f  (x) = − cos x, f  (x) = sin x, f (4) (x) = cos x, and f (5) (x) = − sin x.
• Accordingly, the successive derivatives of f cycle among

{− sin x, − cos x, sin x, cos x}

in that order. Since 8 is a multiple of 4, we have f (8) (x) = cos x.

• Since 36 is a multiple of 4, we have f (36) (x) = cos x. Therefore, f (37) (x) = − sin x.

May 25, 2011

146 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

45. Find the values of x between 0 and 2π where the tangent line to the graph of y = sin x cos x is horizontal.
Find y (157) , where y = sin x.
solution Let y = sin x cos x. Then

y  = (sin x)(− sin x) + (cos x)(cos x) = cos2 x − sin2 x.

When y  = 0, we have sin x = ± cos x. In the interval [0, 2π], this occurs when x = π4 , 3π 5π 7π
4 , 4 , 4 .
47. Let g(t) = t − sin t.
Plot the graph f (θ) = sec θ + csc θ over [0, 2π] and determine the number of solutions to f  (θ ) = 0 in this
(a) Plot the graph of g with a graphing utility for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π.
interval graphically. Then compute f  (θ) and find the solutions.
(b) Show that the slope of the tangent line is nonnegative. Verify this on your graph.
(c) For which values of t in the given range is the tangent line horizontal?
solution Let g(t) = t − sin t.
(a) Here is a graph of g over the interval [0, 4π].
y
12
10
8
6
4
2
x
2 4 6 8 10 12

(b) Since g  (t) = 1 − cos t ≥ 0 for all t, the slope of the tangent line to g is always nonnegative.
(c) In the interval [0, 4π ], the tangent line is horizontal when t = 0, 2π, 4π.

49. LetShow
f (x)that
= (sinno tangent
x)/x forline
x =to0the
andgraph
f (0) of= f1.(x) = tan x has zero slope. What is the least slope of a tangent
line? Justify by sketching the graph of (tan x) .
(a) Plot f (x) on [−3π, 3π].
= tan  = sec 2 = 1 . Note that f  (x) = 1 has numerator 1; the equation
solution
(b) ShowLet that f  (c)
f (x) c = ftan(x)
= 0x.ifThen c. Use thexnumerical
cos2 x root finder on a computercos2 x algebra system to find a good
  0. x is 1, the minimum value of f  (x) = 12
) =cos
f (x) = 0 thereforetohas
approximation theno
smallest positive
solution. Because thecmaximum
value f (c0of
0 such thatvalue 2
cos x
is 1. (c) Verify
Hence, thethat
leastthe horizontal
slope for a tangent = fto
line y line (ctan
0 ) isx tangent to the
is 1. Here is a graph
graph of  . f (x) at x = c0 by plotting them on the
of yf =
same set of axes.
y

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
x
−4 −2 2 4

51. The horizontal range R of a projectile launched from ground level at an angle θ and initial velocity v0 m/s is
The height at time t (in seconds) of a mass, oscillating at the end of a spring, is s(t) = 300 + 40 sin t cm. Find
R = (v02 /9.8) sin θ cos θ. Calculate dR/dθ. If θ = 7π/24, will the range increase or decrease if the angle is increased
the velocity and acceleration at t = π3 s.
slightly? Base your answer on the sign of the derivative.
solution Let R(θ ) = (v02 /9.8) sin θ cos θ.

dR
= R  (θ) = (v02 /9.8)(− sin2 θ + cos2 θ).
dθ
If θ = 7π/24, π4 < θ < π2 , so | sin θ| > | cos θ|, and dR/dθ < 0 (numerically, dR/dθ = −0.0264101v02 ). At this point,
increasing the angle will decrease the range.

Show that if 2and π

< θChallenges
< π, then the distance along the x-axis between θ and the point where the tangent line
Further Insights
intersects the x-axis is equal to |tan θ| (Figure 4).
53. Use the limit definition of the derivative and the addition law for the cosine function to prove that (cos x) = − sin x.
solution Let f (x) = cos x. Then

cos(x + h) − cos x cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x

f  (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h


sin h cos h − 1
= lim (− sin x) + (cos x) = (− sin x) · 1 + (cos x) · 0 = − sin x.
h→0 h h

Use the addition formula for the tangent

tan x + tan h
May 25, 2011 tan(x + h) =
1 + tan x tan h
 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 147

55. Verify the following identity and use it to give another proof of the formula (sin x) = cos x.
   
sin(x + h) − sin x = 2 cos x + 12 h sin 12 h

Hint: Use the addition formula to prove that sin(a + b) − sin(a − b) = 2 cos a sin b.
solution Recall that

sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b

and

sin(a − b) = sin a cos b − cos a sin b.

Subtracting the second identity from the first yields

sin(a + b) − sin(a − b) = 2 cos a sin b.

If we now set a = x + h2 and b = h2 , then the previous equation becomes



h h
sin(x + h) − sin x = 2 cos x + sin .
2 2
Finally, we use the limit definition of the derivative of sin x to obtain
   
2 cos x + h sin h
d sin(x + h) − sin x 2 2
sin x = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
 

 sin h2
h
= lim cos x + · lim   = cos x · 1 = cos x.
h→0 2 h→0 h
2

d
In other words, (sin x) = cos x.
dx
57. Let f (x) = x sin x and g(x) = x cos x.
Show that a nonzero polynomial function y = f (x) cannot satisfy the equation y  = −y. Use this to prove
(a) Show that f  (x) = g(x) + sin x and g  (x) = −f (x) + cos x.
that neither sin x nor cos x is a polynomial. Can you think of another way to reach this conclusion by considering
(b) Verify that f  (x) = −f (x) + 2 cos x and
limits as x → ∞?
g  (x) = −g(x) − 2 sin x.
(c) By further experimentation, try to find formulas for all higher derivatives of f and g. Hint: The kth derivative depends
on whether k = 4n, 4n + 1, 4n + 2, or 4n + 3.
solution Let f (x) = x sin x and g(x) = x cos x.
(a) We examine first derivatives: f  (x) = x cos x + (sin x) · 1 = g(x) + sin x and g  (x) = (x)(− sin x) + (cos x) · 1 =
−f (x) + cos x; i.e., f  (x) = g(x) + sin x and g  (x) = −f (x) + cos x.
(b) Now look at second derivatives: f  (x) = g  (x) + cos x = −f (x) + 2 cos x and g  (x) = −f  (x) − sin x =
−g(x) − 2 sin x; i.e., f  (x) = −f (x) + 2 cos x and g  (x) = −g(x) − 2 sin x.
(c) • The third derivatives are f  (x) = −f  (x) − 2 sin x = −g(x) − 3 sin x and g  (x) = −g  (x) − 2 cos x =
f (x) − 3 cos x; i.e., f  (x) = −g(x) − 3 sin x and g  (x) = f (x) − 3 cos x.
• The fourth derivatives are f (4) (x) = −g  (x) − 3 cos x = f (x) − 4 cos x and g (4) (x) = f  (x) + 3 sin x =
g(x) + 4 sin x; i.e., f (4) = f (x) − 4 cos x and g (4) (x) = g(x) + 4 sin x.
• We can now see the pattern for the derivatives, which are summarized in the following table. Here n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

k 4n 4n + 1 4n + 2 4n + 3
f (k) (x) f (x) − k cos x g(x) + k sin x −f (x) + k cos x −g(x) − k sin x
g (k) (x) g(x) + k sin x −f (x) + k cos x −g(x) − k sin x f (x) − k cos x

Figure 5 shows the geometry behind the derivative formula (sin θ) = cos θ. Segments BA and BD are parallel
to the x- and y-axes. Let  sin θ = sin(θ + h) − sin θ . Verify the following statements.
3.7(a)The Chain Rule
 sin θ = BC
(b)  BDA = θ Hint: OA ⊥ AD.
Preliminary Questions
(c) BD = (cos θ)AD
1. Identify the outside and inside functions for each of these composite functions.
Now explain the following intuitive argument: If h is small, then BC ≈ BD and AD ≈ h, so  sin θ ≈ (cos θ )h and
= θ )4x=+cos
(a) y(sin 9xθ2. (b) y = tan(x 2 + 1)
(c) y = sec5 x (d) y = (1 + ex )4

May 25, 2011

148 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

solution
√
(a) The outer function is x, and the inner function is 4x + 9x 2 .
(b) The outer function is tan x, and the inner function is x 2 + 1.
(c) The outer function is x 5 , and the inner function is sec x.
(d) The outer function is x 4 , and the inner function is 1 + ex .
2. Which of the following can be differentiated easily without using the Chain Rule?
x
(a) y = tan(7x 2 + 2) (b) y =
x+1
√ √
(c) y = x · sec x (d) y = x cos x
(e) y = xex (f) y = esin x
solution The function x+1 x can be differentiated using the Quotient Rule, and the functions √x · sec x and xex can
√
be differentiated using the Product Rule. The functions tan(7x 2 + 2), x cos x and esin x require the Chain Rule.
3. Which is the derivative of f (5x)?
(a) 5f  (x) (b) 5f  (5x) (c) f  (5x)
solution The correct answer is (b): 5f  (5x).
4. Suppose that f  (4) = g(4) = g  (4) = 1. Do we have enough information to compute F  (4), where F (x) = f (g(x))?
If not, what is missing?
solution If F (x) = f (g(x)), then F  (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x) and F  (4) = f  (g(4))g  (4). Thus, we do not have enough
information to compute F  (4). We are missing the value of f  (1).

Exercises
In Exercises 1–4, fill in a table of the following type:

f (g(x)) f  (u) f  (g(x)) g  (x) (f ◦ g)

1. f (u) = u3/2 , g(x) = x 4 + 1

solution

f (g(x)) f  (u) f  (g(x)) g  (x) (f ◦ g)

(x 4 + 1)3/2 3 u1/2 3 (x 4 + 1)1/2 4x 3 6x 3 (x 4 + 1)1/2
2 2

3. f (u) = tan u,3 g(x) = x 4

f (u) = u , g(x) = 3x + 5
solution

f (g(x)) f  (u) f  (g(x)) g  (x) (f ◦ g)

tan(x 4 ) sec2 u sec2 (x 4 ) 4x 3 4x 3 sec2 (x 4 )

In Exercises 5 and 46, write the function as a composite f (g(x)) and compute the derivative using the Chain Rule.
f (u) = u + u, g(x) = cos x
5. y = (x + sin x)4
solution Let f (x) = x 4 , g(x) = x + sin x, and y = f (g(x)) = (x + sin x)4 . Then

dy
= f  (g(x))g  (x) = 4(x + sin x)3 (1 + cos x).
dx

d
7. Calculate
y = cos(x 3cos u for the following choices of u(x):
dx )
(a) u = 9 − x 2 (b) u = x −1 (c) u = tan x
solution
(a) cos(u(x)) = cos(9 − x 2 ).
d
cos(u(x)) = − sin(u(x))u (x) = − sin(9 − x 2 )(−2x) = 2x sin(9 − x 2 ).
dx

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 149

(b) cos(u(x)) = cos(x −1 ).


d 1 sin(x −1 )
cos(u(x)) = − sin(u(x))u (x) = − sin(x −1 ) − 2 = .
dx x x2
(c) cos(u(x)) = cos(tan x).
d
cos(u(x)) = − sin(u(x))u (x) = − sin(tan x)(sec2 x) = − sec2 x sin(tan x).
dx

df df du
9. Compute ifd = 2 and = 6.
dx du
Calculate f (x 2 + 1) for
dxthe following choices of f (u):
dx
solution Assuming f is a function of u, which is in turn 3/2 a function of x,
(a) f (u) = sin u (b) f (u) = 3u (c) f (u) = u2 − u
df df du
= · = 2(6) = 12.
dx du dx

use the General Power Rule or the Shifting and Scaling Rule to compute the derivative.
In Exercises 11–22,df
Compute if f (u) = u2 , u(2) = −5, and u (2) = −5.
11. y = (x 4 + 5)dx
3 x=2

solution Using the General Power Rule,

d 4 d
(x + 5)3 = 3(x 4 + 5)2 (x 4 + 5) = 3(x 4 + 5)2 (4x 3 ) = 12x 3 (x 4 + 5)2 .
dx dx
√
13. y = 7x −43
y = (8x + 5)3
solution Using the Shifting and Scaling Rule

d √ d 1 7
7x − 3 = (7x − 3)1/2 = (7x − 3)−1/2 (7) = √ .
dx dx 2 2 7x − 3

15. y = (x 2 + 9x)−2
y = (4 − 2x − 3x 2 )5
solution Using the General Power Rule,

d 2 d
(x + 9x)−2 = −2(x 2 + 9x)−3 (x 2 + 9x) = −2(x 2 + 9x)−3 (2x + 9).
dx dx

17. y = cos4 θ3
y = (x + 3x + 9)−4/3
solution Using the General Power Rule,

d d
cos4 θ = 4 cos3 θ cos θ = −4 cos3 θ sin θ.
dθ dθ

19. y =y (2 θ ++ 9
=cos
cos(9θ 41)θ)
5 sin
solution Using the General Power Rule,

d d
(2 cos θ + 5 sin θ)9 = 9(2 cos θ + 5 sin θ)8 (2 cos θ + 5 sin θ) = 9(2 cos θ + 5 sin θ )8 (5 cos θ − 2 sin θ ).
dθ dθ
21. y = ex−12
√
y = 9 + x + sin x
solution Using the Shifting and Scaling Rule,

d x−12
e = (1)ex−12 = ex−12 .
dx

In Exercises 23–26, compute the derivative of f ◦ g.

y = e8x+9
23. f (u) = sin u, g(x) = 2x + 1
solution Let h(x) = f (g(x)) = sin(2x + 1). Then, applying the shifting and scaling rule, h (x) = 2 cos(2x + 1).
Alternately,
d
f (g(x)) = f  (g(x))g  (x) = cos(2x + 1) · 2 = 2 cos(2x + 1).
dx

May 25, 2011

150 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

25. f (u) = eu , g(x) = x + x −1

f (u) = 2u + 1, g(x) = sin x
−1
solution Let h(x) = f (g(x)) = ex+x . Then

d −1
 
f (g(x)) = f  (g(x))g  (x) = ex+x 1 − x −2 .
dx

In Exercises 27 and u28, find the derivatives of f (g(x)) and g(f (x)).
f (u) = , g(x) = csc x
u−1
27. f (u) = cos u, u = g(x) = x 2 + 1
solution

d
f (g(x)) = f  (g(x))g  (x) = − sin(x 2 + 1)(2x) = −2x sin(x 2 + 1).
dx
d
g(f (x)) = g  (f (x))f  (x) = 2(cos x)(− sin x) = −2 sin x cos x.
dx

In Exercises 29–42, use the Chain Rule1 to find the derivative.

f (u) = u3 , u = g(x) =
29. y = sin(x 2 ) x+1
     
solution Let y = sin x 2 . Then y  = cos x 2 · 2x = 2x cos x 2 .

31. y = t 2 +29
y = sin x 
solution Let y = t 2 + 9 = (t 2 + 9)1/2 . Then

1 2 t
y = (t + 9)−1/2 (2t) =  .
2 t +9
2

33. y = (x 4 −2 x 3 − 1)2/3−5/2
y = (t + 3t + 1) 2/3
solution Let y = x 4 − x 3 − 1 . Then

2 4 −1/3  
y = x − x3 − 1 4x 3 − 3x 2 .
3


x+√1 4
35. y =y = ( x + 1 − 1)3/2
x−1


x+1 4
solution Let y = . Then
x−1


x + 1 3 (x − 1) · 1 − (x + 1) · 1 8 (x + 1)3 8(1 + x)3
y = 4 · =− = .
x−1 (x − 1) 2 (x − 1) 5 (1 − x)5

1
37. y =y sec
= cos 3
x (12θ )
 
solution Let f (x) = sec x −1 . Then
      sec (1/x) tan (1/x)
f  (x) = sec x −1 tan x −1 · −x −2 = − .
x2

39. y = tan(θ + cos θ )

y = tan(θ 2 − 4θ)
solution Let y = tan (θ + cos θ). Then

y  = sec2 (θ + cos θ) · (1 − sin θ) = (1 − sin θ) sec2 (θ + cos θ) .

2
41. y = e2−9t2x 2
y=e
2
solution Let y = e2−9t . Then

y  = e2−9t (−18t) = −18te2−9t .

2 2

y = cos3 (e4θ )

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 151

In Exercises 43–72, find the derivative using the appropriate rule or combination of rules.

43. y = tan(x 2 + 4x)

solution Let y = tan(x 2 + 4x). By the chain rule,

y  = sec2 (x 2 + 4x) · (2x + 4) = (2x + 4) sec2 (x 2 + 4x).

45. y = x cos(1 − 3x)

y = sin(x 2 + 4x)
solution Let y = x cos (1 − 3x). Applying the product rule and then the scaling and shifting rule,

y  = x (− sin (1 − 3x)) · (−3) + cos (1 − 3x) · 1 = 3x sin (1 − 3x) + cos (1 − 3x) .

47. y = (4t + 9)1/2

y = sin(x 2 ) cos(x 2 )
solution Let y = (4t + 9)1/2 . By the shifting and scaling rule,


dy 1
=4 (4t + 9)−1/2 = 2(4t + 9)−1/2 .
dt 2

49. y = (x 3 + cos x)−4

y = (z + 1)4 (2z − 1)3
solution Let y = (x 3 + cos x)−4 . By the general power rule,

y  = −4(x 3 + cos x)−5 (3x 2 − sin x) = 4(sin x − 3x 2 )(x 3 + cos x)−5 .

√
51. y =y =sin x cos x x))
sin(cos(sin
solution We start by using a trig identity to rewrite

√ 1 1
y = sin x cos x = sin 2x = √ (sin 2x)1/2 .
2 2
Then, after two applications of the chain rule,

1 1 cos 2x
y  = √ · (sin 2x)−1/2 · cos 2x · 2 = √ .
2 2 2 sin 2x

53. y = (cos 6x + sin x 2 )41/2

y = (9 − (5 − 2x )7 )3
solution Let y = (cos 6x + sin(x 2 ))1/2 . Applying the general power rule followed by both the scaling and shifting
rule and the chain rule,

1 −1/2   x cos(x 2 ) − 3 sin 6x

y = cos 6x + sin(x 2 ) − sin 6x · 6 + cos(x 2 ) · 2x =  .
2 cos 6x + sin(x 2 )

55. y = tan3 x + tan(x 3)

(x + 1)1/2
y=
solution Letxy+=2tan3 x + tan(x 3 ) = (tan x)3 + tan(x 3 ). Applying the general power rule to the first term and the
chain rule to the second term,
 
y  = 3(tan x)2 sec2 x + sec2 (x 3 ) · 3x 2 = 3 x 2 sec2 (x 3 ) + sec2 x tan2 x .


z√
+1
57. y =y = 4 − 3 cos x
z−1


z + 1 1/2
solution Let y = . Applying the general power rule followed by the quotient rule,
z−1


dy 1 z + 1 −1/2 (z − 1) · 1 − (z + 1) · 1 −1
= · = √ .
dz 2 z−1 (z − 1) 2 z + 1 (z − 1)3/2

y = (cos3 x + 3 cos x + 7)9

May 25, 2011

152 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

cos(1 + x)
59. y =
1 + cos x
solution Let

cos(1 + x)
y= .
1 + cos x
Then, applying the quotient rule and the shifting and scaling rule,
dy −(1 + cos x) sin(1 + x) + cos(1 + x) sin x cos(1 + x) sin x − cos x sin(1 + x) − sin(1 + x)
= =
dx (1 + cos x)2 (1 + cos x)2
sin(−1) − sin(1 + x)
= .
(1 + cos x)2
The last line follows from the identity

sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

with A = x and B = 1 + x.
61. y = cot 7 (x 5
)
y = sec( t 2 − 9) 
solution Let y = cot 7 x 5 . Applying the general power rule followed by the chain rule,

dy         
= 7 cot 6 x 5 · − csc2 x 5 · 5x 4 = −35x 4 cot 6 x 5 csc2 x 5 .
dx
 9
63. y = 1 + cot 5 (x 4 + 1)
cos(1/x)
y=
1 + x 2  9
solution Let y = 1 + cot 5 x 4 + 1 . Applying the general power rule, the chain rule, and the general power rule
in succession,
dy   8     
= 9 1 + cot 5 x 4 + 1 · 5 cot 4 x 4 + 1 · − csc2 x 4 + 1 · 4x 3
dx
     8
= −180x 3 cot 4 x 4 + 1 csc2 x 4 + 1 1 + cot 5 x 4 + 1 .

+ 3e−2x )4
65. y = (2e3x −x
y = 4e + 7e−2x
solution Let y = (2e3x + 3e−2x )4 . Applying the general power rule followed by two applications of the chain rule,
one for each exponential function, we find
dy
= 4(2e3x + 3e−2x )3 (6e3x − 6e−2x ) = 24(2e3x + 3e−2x )3 (e3x − e−2x ).
dx

67. y = e(x +2x+3)

2 2
y = cos(te−2t )
solution Let y = e(x +2x+3) . By the chain rule and the general power rule, we obtain
2 2

dy
= e(x +2x+3) · 2(x 2 + 2x + 3)(2x + 2) = 4(x + 1)(x 2 + 2x + 3)e(x +2x+3) .
2 2 2 2

dx
 
e x √
69. y =y =1e+ 1+ x

 1/2 1/2
solution Let y = 1 + 1 + x 1/2 . Applying the general power rule twice,

 1/2 −1/2 1  −1/2 1
dy 1 1
= 1+ 1+x 1/2 · 1 + x 1/2 · x −1/2 =  .
dx 2 2 2 √  √  √
8 x 1+ x 1+ 1+ x

71. y = (kx+√b)−1/3 ; k and b any constants

solution + (kx
y = Let yx = 1 ++1 b)−1/3 , where b and k are constants. By the scaling and shifting rule,

1 k
y  = − (kx + b)−4/3 · k = − (kx + b)−4/3 .
3 3

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 153

In Exercises 73–76, 1 compute the higher derivative.

y=  ; k, b constants, not both zero
d2 kt 4 + b
73. sin(x 2 )
dx 2
   
solution Let f (x) = sin x 2 . Then, by the chain rule, f  (x) = 2x cos x 2 and, by the product rule and the chain
rule,
         
f  (x) = 2x − sin x 2 · 2x + 2 cos x 2 = 2 cos x 2 − 4x 2 sin x 2 .

d3 2
75. d(9 − x)8
dx 3 2 (x 2 + 9)5
dx
solution Let f (x) = (9 − x)8 . Then, by repeated use of the scaling and shifting rule,

f  (x) = 8(9 − x)7 · (−1) = −8(9 − x)7

f  (x) = −56(9 − x)6 · (−1) = 56(9 − x)6 ,
f  (x) = 336(9 − x)5 · (−1) = −336(9 − x)5 .

√
77. The average
3 molecular velocity v of a gas in a certain container is given by v = 29 T m/s, where T is the
d dv
sin(2x)
dx 3in kelvins. The temperature is related to the pressure (in atmospheres) by T = 200P . Find dP
temperature .
P =1.5

solution First note that when P = 1.5 atmospheres, T = 200(1.5) = 300K. Thus,
√
dv dv dT 29 290 3 m
= · = √ · 200 = .
dP P =1.5 dT T =300 dP P =1.5 2 300 3 s · atmospheres
√
Alternately, substituting T = 200P into the equation for v gives v = 290 2P . Therefore,
√
dv 290 2 290
= √ = √ ,
dP 2 P 2P
so
√
dv 290 290 3 m
= √ = .
dP P =1.5 3 3 s · atmospheres

79. An expanding sphere has radius r = 0.4t cm at time t (in seconds). Let V be the sphere’s volume. Find dV /dt
r = power
when (a) The P in
3 and (b) circuit is P = Ri 2 , where R is the resistance and i is the current. Find dP /dt at t = 31 if
t =a 3.
R = 1000  and i varies according to i = sin(4πt) (time in seconds).
solution Let r = 0.4t, where t is in seconds (s) and r is in centimeters (cm). With V = 43 π r 3 , we have

dV
= 4πr 2 .
dr
Thus
dV dV dr
= = 4πr 2 · (0.4) = 1.6πr 2 .
dt dr dt
dV
(a) When r = 3, = 1.6π(3)2 ≈ 45.24 cm/s.
dt
dV
(b) When t = 3, we have r = 1.2. Hence = 1.6π(1.2)2 ≈ 7.24 cm/s.
dt
81. A 1999 study by Starkey and Scarnecchia developed the following model for the average weight (in kilograms) at
A 2005 study by the Fisheries Research Services in Aberdeen, Scotland, suggests that the average length of the
age t (in years) of channel catfish in the Lower Yellowstone River (Figure 3):
species Clupea harengus (Atlantic herring) as a function of age t (in years) can be modeled by L(t) = 32(1 − e−0.37t )
cm for 0 ≤ t ≤ 13. See Figure 2. W (t) = (3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )3.4026
(a) How fast is the length changing at age t = 6 years?
Find the
(b) rate at which
At what age average weight
is the length is changing
changing at age
at a rate = 10.
of 5t cm/yr?

May 25, 2011

154 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

W (kg)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

5 10 15 20
Lower Yellowstone River
t (year)
FIGURE 3 Average weight of channel catfish at age t

solution Let W (t) = (3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )3.4026 . Then

W  (t) = 3.4026(3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )2.4026 (3.32173)(0.03456)e−0.03456t

= 0.3906(3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )2.4026 e−0.03456t .

At age t = 10,

W  (10) = 0.3906(1.1118)2.4026 (0.7078) ≈ 0.3566 kg/yr.

83. With notation as in Example 7, calculate

The functions in Exercises 80 and 81 are examples of the von Bertalanffy growth function
d d  
(a) sin θ  (b) 1/m θ + tan θ
dθ θ=60◦ M(t) = a + (b − a)ekmtdθ (m  =θ=45
0) ◦

introduced in the 1930s by Austrian-born biologist Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy. Calculate M  (0) in terms of the
solution
dconstants d m. π   π   π  π 1 π
a, b, k and
(a) sin θ ◦
= sin θ ◦
= cos (60) = = .
dθ θ=60 dθ 180 θ=60 180 180 180 2 360

d   d   π 
π π  π
(b) θ + tan θ ◦
= θ + tan θ ◦
=1+ sec2 =1+ .
dθ θ=45 dθ 180 θ=45 180 4 90

85. Compute the derivative of h(sin x) at x = π6 , assuming that h (0.5) = 10.

Assume that
solution Let u = sin x and suppose that h (0.5) = 10. Then
f (0) = 2, f (0) = 3, h(0) = −1, h (0) = 7
d functionsdh du 0: dh
Calculate the derivatives of the following(h(u)) = at x = = cos x.
(a) (f (x))3 dx(b) f (7x) du dx du (c) f (4x)h(5x)
  √
When x = π6 , we have u = .5. Accordingly, the derivative of h(sin x) at x = π6 is 10 cos π6 = 5 3.

In Exercises
Let 87–90,
F (x) =usef the tablewhere
(g(x)), of values
the to calculate
graphs of f the
andderivative of theinfunction
g are shown at the
Figure 4. g  (2) and f  (g(2)) and
given point.
Estimate

compute F (2).
x 1 4 6
f (x) 4 0 6
f  (x) 5 7 4
g(x) 4 1 6
g  (x) 5 1
2 3

87. f (g(x)), x=6

d
solution f (g(x)) = f  (g(6))g  (6) = f  (6)g  (6) = 4 × 3 = 12.
dx x=6
√
89. g( x), x = 16
ef (x) , x = 4




d √ 1 √ 1 1 1 1
solution g( x) = g  (4) (1/ 16) = = .
dx x=16 2 2 2 4 16

f (2x + g(x)), x = 1

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 155

91. The price (in dollars) of a computer component is P = 2C − 18C −1 , where C is the manufacturer’s cost to produce
it. Assume that cost at time t (in years) is C = 9 + 3t −1 . Determine the rate of change of price with respect to time at
t = 3.
dC
solution = −3t −2 . C(3) = 10 and C  (3) = − 13 , so we compute:
dt


dP  (3) + 18  (3) = − 2 + 18 − 1 = −0.727 dollars .
= 2C C
dt t=3 (C(3))2 3 100 3 year

93. According to the U.S. standard atmospheric model, developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
Plotinthe
tration for use “astroid”
aircraft = (4 −
andyrocket x 2/3 )3/2
design, for 0 ≤ x temperature
atmospheric ≤ 8. Show that thedegrees
T (in part of every tangent
Celsius), line inPthe
pressure first=quadrant
(kPa 1,000
has a constant length 8.
pascals), and altitude h (in meters) are related by these formulas (valid in the troposphere h ≤ 11,000):


T + 273.1 5.256
T = 15.04 − 0.000649h, P = 101.29 +
288.08
Use the Chain Rule to calculate dP /dh. Then estimate the change in P (in pascals, Pa) per additional meter of altitude
when h = 3,000.
solution



dP T + 273.1 4.256 1
= 5.256 = 6.21519 × 10−13 (273.1 + T )4.256
dT 288.08 288.08

and dT ◦ dP dP dT
dh = −0.000649 C/m. dh = dT dh , so
dP  
= 6.21519 × 10−13 (273.1 + T )4.256 (−0.000649) = −4.03366 × 10−16 (288.14 − 0.000649 h)4.256 .
dh
When h = 3000,
dP
= −4.03366 × 10−16 (286.193)4.256 = −1.15 × 10−5 kPa/m;
dh
therefore, for each additional meter of altitude,

P ≈ −1.15 × 10−5 kPa = −1.15 × 10−2 Pa.

95. In the setting of Exercise 94, calculate the yearly rate of change of T if T = 283 K and R increases at a rate of 0.5
Js−1 m−2Climate scientists use the Stefan-Boltzmann Law R = σ T 4 to estimate the change in the earth’s average temper-
per year.
ature T (in kelvins) caused by a change in the radiation R (in joules per square meter per second) that the earth receives
solution By the Chain Rule,
from the sun. Here σ = 5.67 × 10−8 Js−1 m−2 K−4 . Calculate dR/dt, assuming that T = 283 and dT dt = 0.05 K/yr.
What are the units of the derivative? dR dR dT dT
= · = 4σ T 3 .
dt dT dt dt
Assuming T = 283 K and dR −1 −2 per year, it follows that author:
dt = 0.5 Js m
dT dT 0.5
0.5 = 4σ (283)3 ⇒ = ≈ 0.0973 kelvins/yr
dt dt 4σ (283)3

97. Use the Chain Rule to express the second derivative of f ◦ g in terms of the first and second derivatives of f and g.
Use a computer algebra system to compute f (k) (x) for k = 1, 2, 3 for the following functions:
solution Let h(x) = f (g(x)). Then 
(a) f (x) = cot(x 2 ) (b) f (x) = x 3 + 1
h (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x)

and
 2
h (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x) + g  (x)f  (g(x))g  (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x) + f  (g(x)) g  (x) .

derivative of sin(g(x)) at x = 2, assuming that g(2) = π , g  (2) = 5, and g  (2) = 3.

FurtherCompute the and
Insights secondChallenges 4
99. Show that if f , g, and h are differentiable, then

[f (g(h(x)))] = f  (g(h(x)))g  (h(x))h (x)

solution Let f , g, and h be differentiable. Let u = h(x), v = g(u), and w = f (v). Then
dw df dv df dg du
= = = f  (g(h(x))g  (h(x))h (x)
dx dv dx dv du dx

May 25, 2011

156 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

 is odd, and  (x) is odd.

101. (a) Show thatSketch a graph of any
differentiation reverses parity: Ifff(x)
even function is and explain
even, then fgraphically whyif ff is odd, then f  is even. Hint:
(b) Suppose that f  (x) is even. Is f (x) necessarily odd? Hint: Check whether this is true for linear functions.
Differentiate f (−x).
solution
(a) The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Accordingly, its image in the left half-plane is
a mirror reflection of that in the right half-plane through the y-axis. If at x = a ≥ 0, the slope of f exists and is equal to
m, then by reflection its slope at x = −a ≤ 0 is −m. That is, f  (−a) = −f  (a). Note: This means that if f  (0) exists,
then it equals 0.
y

4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2

(b) Suppose that f  is even. Then f is not necessarily odd. Let f (x) = 4x + 7. Then f  (x) = 4, an even function. But
f is not odd. For example, f (2) = 15, f (−2) = −1, but f (−2) = −f (2).
103. Prove that for all whole numbers n ≥ 1,
Power Rule for Fractional Exponents Let f (u) = uq and g(x) = x p/q . Assume that g(x) is differentiable.

d n of exponents). nπ 
(a) Show that f (g(x)) = x p (recall the laws sin x = sin x +
n
(b) Apply the Chain Rule and the Powerdx Rule for whole-number2 exponents to show that f  (g(x)) g  (x) = px p−1 .
 π 
Hint: Use the identity
(c) Then derive cos = sinRule
the xPower p/q
x +for2 x. .
solution We will proceed by induction on n. For n = 1, we find

d  π
sin x = cos x = sin x + ,
dx 2
as required. Now, suppose that for some positive integer k,

dk  kπ 
sin x = sin x + .
dx k 2
Then
d k+1 d  kπ 
k+1
sin x = sin x +
dx dx 2



kπ (k + 1)π
= cos x + = sin x + .
2 2

105. Chain Rule This exercise proves the Chain Rule without the special assumption

made in the text. For any number
b, define A function Derivative Use the limit definition to show that g (0) exists but g (0) = x→0
Discontinuous
a new lim g (x), where

f (u) − ⎧
f (b) 1
F (u) = ⎪x 2 sin for x u ==0 b
u −⎨
all
b x
g(x) =
⎪
⎩0
(a) Show that if we define F (b) = f  (b), then F (u) is continuous at ux==b.0
(b) Take b = g(a). Show that if x = a, then for all u,
f (u) − f (g(a)) u − g(a)
= F (u) 2
x−a x−a
Note that both sides are zero if u = g(a).
(c) Substitute u = g(x) in Eq. (2) to obtain
f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)
= F (g(x))
x−a x−a
Derive the Chain Rule by computing the limit of both sides as x → a.
solution For any differentiable function f and any number b, define

f (u) − f (b)
F (u) =
u−b
for all u = b.

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions 157

(a) Define F (b) = f  (b). Then

f (u) − f (b)
lim F (u) = lim = f  (b) = F (b),
u→b u→b u−b
i.e., lim F (u) = F (b). Therefore, F is continuous at u = b.
u→b
(b) Let g be a differentiable function and take b = g(a). Let x be a number distinct from a. If we substitute u = g(a)
into Eq. (2), both sides evaluate to 0, so equality is satisfied. On the other hand, if u  = g(a), then

f (u) − f (g(a)) f (u) − f (g(a)) u − g(a) f (u) − f (b) u − g(a) u − g(a)

= = = F (u) .
x−a u − g(a) x−a u−b x−a x−a
(c) Hence for all u, we have
f (u) − f (g(a)) u − g(a)
= F (u) .
x−a x−a
(d) Substituting u = g(x) in Eq. (2), we have

f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)

= F (g(x)) .
x−a x−a
Letting x → a gives


f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)
lim = lim F (g(x)) = F (g(a))g  (a) = F (b)g  (a) = f  (b)g  (a)
x→a x−a x→a x−a
= f  (g(a))g  (a)

Therefore (f ◦ g) (a) = f  (g(a))g  (a), which is the Chain Rule.

3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions

Preliminary Questions
1. What is the slope of the line obtained by reflecting the line y = x2 through the line y = x?
solution The line obtained by reflecting the line y = x/2 through the line y = x has slope 2.
2. Suppose that P = (2, 4) lies on the graph of f (x) and that the slope of the tangent line through P is m = 3. Assuming
that f −1 (x) exists, what is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f −1 (x) at the point Q = (4, 2)?
solution The tangent line to the graph of f −1 (x) at the point Q = (4, 2) has slope 13 .
1
3. Which inverse trigonometric function g(x) has the derivative g  (x) = 2 ?
x +1
1
solution g(x) = tan−1 x has the derivative g  (x) = 2 .
x +1
4. What does the following identity tell us about the derivatives of sin−1 x and cos−1 x?
π
sin−1 x + cos−1 x =
2
solution Angles whose sine and cosine are x are complementary.

Exercises 
1. Find the inverse g(x) of f (x) = x 2 + 9 with domain x ≥ 0 and calculate g  (x) in two ways: using Theorem 1 and
by direct calculation.
 
solution To find a formula for g(x) = f −1 (x), solve y = x 2 + 9 for x. This yields x = ± y 2 − 9. Because the
domain of f was restricted to x ≥ 0, we must choose the positive sign in front of the radical. Thus

g(x) = f −1 (x) = x 2 − 9.

Because x 2 + 9 ≥ 9 for all x, it follows that f (x) ≥ 3 for all x. Thus, the domain of g(x) = f −1 (x) is x ≥ 3. The range
of g is the restricted domain of f : y ≥ 0.

May 25, 2011

158 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

By Theorem 1,
1
g  (x) = .
f  (g(x))
With
x
f  (x) =  ,
x +9
2

it follows that
  
x2 − 9 x2 − 9 x2 − 9
f  (g(x)) =   = √ =
x2 x
( x 2 − 9)2 + 9

since the domain of g is x ≥ 3. Thus,

1 x
g  (x) = =  .
f  (g(x)) x −9
2

This agrees with the answer we obtain by differentiating directly:

2x x
g  (x) =  =  .
2 x2 − 9 x2 − 9

In Exercises 3–8, use Theorem 1 to calculate g  (x), where g(x) is the inverse of f (x).
Let g(x) be the inverse of f (x) = x 3 + 1. Find a formula for g(x) and calculate g  (x) in two ways: using Theorem
and =
3. 1f (x) then + 6direct calculation.
7x by
solution Let f (x) = 7x + 6 then f  (x) = 7. Solving y = 7x + 6 for x and switching variables, we obtain the inverse
g(x) = (x − 6)/7. Thus,
1 1
g  (x) = = .
f  (g(x)) 7

5. f (x) = x −5√
f (x) = 3 − x
solution Let f (x) = x −5 , then f  (x) = −5x −6 . Solving y = x −5 for x and switching variables, we obtain the
inverse g(x) = x −1/5 . Thus,
1 1
g  (x) = = − x −6/5 .
−5(x −1/5 )−6 5

x
7. f (x) =
f (x) x=+4x13 − 1
solution x , then
Let f (x) = x+1

(x + 1) − x 1
f  (x) = = .
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
x for x and switching variables, we obtain the inverse g(x) = x . Thus
Solving y = x+1 1−x

1 1
g  (x) = 1 = .
(x/(1 − x) + 1)2 (1 − x)2

9. Let g(x) be the inverse

−1 of f (x) = x 3 + 2x + 4. Calculate g(7) [without finding a formula for g(x)], and then
f (x)
 =
calculate g (7). 2 + x

solution Let g(x) be the inverse of f (x) = x 3 + 2x + 4. Because

f (1) = 13 + 2(1) + 4 = 7,

it follows that g(7) = 1. Moreover, f  (x) = 3x 2 + 2, and

1 1 1
g  (7) = =  = .
f  (g(7)) f (1) 5

In Exercises 11–16,
 1calculate
 g(b) and g  (b), where g is the inverse of f (in the given domain, if indicated).
 x3
Find g − 2 , where g(x) is the inverse of f (x) = 2 .
11. f (x) = x + cos x, b = 1 x +1
solution f (0) = 1, so g(1) = 0. f  (x) = 1 − sin x so f  (g(1)) = f  (0) = 1 − sin 0 = 1. Thus, g  (1) = 1/1 = 1.

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions 159


13. f (x) = x 2 +3 6x for x ≥ 0, b = 4
f (x) = 4x − 2x, b = −2 
solution To determine g(4), we solve f (x) = x 2 + 6x = 4 for x. This yields:

x 2 + 6x = 16
x 2 + 6x − 16 = 0
(x + 8)(x − 2) = 0

or x = −8, 2. Because the domain of f has been restricted to x ≥ 0, we have g(4) = 2. With
x+3
f  (x) =  ,
x 2 + 6x
it then follows that
1 1 4
g  (4) = =  = .
f  (g(4)) f (2) 5

1 1
15. f (x) = = x,2 +b 6x
f (x) = for x ≤ −6, b = 4
x+1 4
solution f (3) = 1/4, so g(1/4) = 3. f  (x) = −1 2 so f  (g(1/4)) = f  (3) = −1 2 = −1/16. Thus, g  (1/4) =
(x+1) (3+1)
−16.
17. Let f (x) = xxn and g(x) = x 1/n . Compute g  (x) using Theorem 1 and check your answer using the Power Rule.
f (x) = e , b = e
solution Note that g(x) = f −1 (x). Therefore,

1 1 1 1 x 1/n−1 1
g  (x) = = = = = = (x 1/n−1 )
f  (g(x)) n(g(x))n−1 n(x 1/n )n−1 n(x 1−1/n ) n n
which agrees with the Power Rule.
In Exercises 19–22, compute the
1 derivative at the
1 −point
x indicated without using a calculator.
Show that f (x) = and g(x) = are inverses. Then compute g  (x) directly and verify that g  (x) =
19. y = sin x, x = 5 1 + x
−1 3 x
1/f (g(x)).
solution Let y = sin−1 x. Then y  = √ 1 2 and
1−x


3 1 1 5
y = √ = = .
5 1 − 9/25 4/5 4

21. y = sec−1 x, x=4

y = tan−1 x, x = 12
solution Let y = sec−1 x. Then y  = √1 and
|x| x 2 −1

1
y  (4) = √ .
4 15

In Exercises 23–36, find the derivative.

y = arccos(4x), x = 15
23. y = sin−1 (7x)
d 1 d 7
solution sin−1 (7x) =  · 7x =  .
dx 1 − (7x)2 dx 1 − (7x)2
25. y = cos−1 (x 2 ) x 
y = arctan
solution
d
cos−1 3 (x 2 ) =  −1 ·
d 2
x = 
−2x
.
dx 1 − x 4 dx 1 − x4
27. y = x tan−1−1x
y = sec (t + 1)

d 1
solution x tan−1 x = x + tan−1 x.
dx 1 + x2
x)
29. y = arcsin(e−1
y = ecos x
d 1 d x ex
solution sin−1 (ex ) =  · e =  .
dx 1 − e2x dx 1 − e2x

31. y = 1 − t−1 2 + sin−1 t
y = csc  (x −1 ) 
d 1 1 −t 1 1−t
solution 1 − t 2 + sin−1 t = (1 − t 2 )−1/2 (−2t) +  =  + =  .
dt 2 1 − t2 1 − t2 1 − t2 1 − t2

May 25, 2011

160 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

33. y = (tan−1 x)3


−1 1+t
y = tan
d   −1 2
solution (tan − tx)3 = 3(tan−1 x)2 d tan−1 x = 3(tan x) .
1 −1
dx dx x2 + 1
35. y = cos−1 t−1
−1 − sec−1 t
cos x

y= d
solution sin−1 (cos −1 t −1 − sec−1 t)=  −1 −1
− 
1
dx x 1 − (1/t)2 t 2 |t| t 2 − 1
1 1 1 1
= −  =  −  = 0.
t4 − t2 |t| t − 1
2 |t| t − 1 |t| t 2 − 1
2

Alternately, let t = sec θ. Then t −1 = cos θ and cos−1 t −1 − sec−1 t = θ − θ = 0. Consequently,

d
(cos−1 t −1 − sec−1 t) = 0.
dx

1
= cos−1
37. UseyFigure 5 to(xprove −1 x)
+ sinthat (cos−1 x) = −  .
1 − x2

1
1 − x2

x
FIGURE 5 Right triangle with θ = cos−1 x.

solution Let θ = cos−1 x. Then cos θ = x and

dθ dθ 1 1
− sin θ =1 or =− =− .
dx dx sin θ sin(cos−1 x)

From Figure 5, we see that sin(cos−1 x) = sin θ = 1 − x 2 ; hence,
d 1 1
cos−1 x = = − .
dx − sin(cos−1 x) 1 − x2
 
39. πLet θ = sec−1 x. −1
Show that tan2 θ =−1 x 2 − 1 if x ≥ 1 and that tan θ = − x 2 −−1
1 if x ≤ −1. Hint: tan θ ≥ 0 on
 Show that (tan x) = cos (tan x) and then use Figure 6 to prove that (tan x) = (x 2 + 1)−1 .
  
0, 2 and tan θ ≤ 0 on π2 , π .

solution In general, 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ, so tan θ = ± sec2 θ − 1. With θ = sec−1 x, it follows that sec θ = x, so

tan θ = ± x 2 − 1. Finally, if x ≥ 1 then θ = sec−1 x ∈ [0, π/2) so tan θ is positive; on the other hand, if x ≤ 1 then
θ = sec−1 x ∈ (−π/2, 0] so tan θ is negative.

Use Exercise 39 to verify the formula

Further Insights and Challenges −1  = 1
41. Let g(x) be the inverse of f (x). Show that if (sec
f  (x) =x)f (x),  g  (x) = x −1 . We will apply this in the next section
then
|x| x 2 − 1
to show that the inverse of f (x) = ex (the natural logarithm) has the derivative f  (x) = x −1 .
solution
1 1 1 1
g  (x) = =  −1 = = .
f  (g(x)) f (f (x)) f (f −1 (x)) x

3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Preliminary Questions
1. What is the slope of the tangent line to y = 4x at x = 0?
solution The slope of the tangent line to y = 4x at x = 0 is

d x
4 = 4 ln 4
x = ln 4.
dx x=0 x=0

2. What is the rate of change of y = ln x at x = 10?

solution The rate of change of y = ln x at x = 10 is

d 1 1

ln x = = .
dx x=10 x x=10 10

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 161

3. What is b > 0 if the tangent line to y = bx at x = 0 has slope 2?

solution The tangent line to y = bx at x = 0 has slope

d x
b = bx ln b = ln b.
dx x=0 x=0
This slope will be equal to 2 when

ln b = 2 or b = e2 .

1
4. What is b if (logb x) = ?
3x


ln x  1
solution (logb x) = = 1 when
. This derivative will equal 3x
ln b x ln b

ln b = 3 or b = e3 .

5. What are y (100) and y (101) for y = cosh x?

solution Let y = cosh x. Then y  = sinh x, y  = cosh x, and this pattern repeats indefinitely. Thus, y (100) = cosh x
and y (101) = sinh x.

Exercises
In Exercises 1–20, find the derivative.
1. y = x ln x
d x
solution x ln x = ln x + = ln x + 1.
dx x
3. y = (ln x)2
y = t ln t − t
d 1 2
solution (ln x)2 = (2 ln x) = ln x.
dx x x
5. y = ln(9x 2 − 8)
y = ln(x 5 )
d 18x
solution ln(9x 2 − 8) = 2 .
dx 9x − 8
7. y = ln(sin t + 1)
y = ln(t5t )
d cos t
solution ln(sin t + 1) = .
dt sin t + 1
ln x
9. y =y = x 2 ln x
x
1 (x) − ln x
d ln x 1 − ln x
solution = x = .
dx x x2 x2
11. y = ln(ln x) 2
y = e(ln
d
x)
1
solution ln(ln x) = .
dx x ln x
 3
13. y =y =ln(ln x) x)
ln(cot



d 1 1 3(ln(ln x))2
solution (ln(ln x))3 = 3(ln(ln x))2 = .
dx ln x x x ln x
 
15. y = ln (x + 1)(2x + 9)
y = ln (ln x)3
solution
d 1 4x + 11
ln ((x + 1)(2x + 9)) = · ((x + 1)2 + (2x + 9)) = .
dx (x + 1)(2x + 9) (x + 1)(2x + 9)
Alternately, because ln((x + 1)(2x + 9)) = ln(x + 1) + ln(2x + 9),
d 1 2 4x + 11
ln((x + 1)(2x + 9)) = + = .
dx x + 1 2x + 9 (x + 1)(2x + 9)

17. y = 11x

x+1
y = lnd 3x x
solution x +=1ln 11 · 11 .
11
dx

May 25, 2011

162 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

2x − 3−x
19. y =y = 74x−x 2
x
d 2x − 3−x x(2x ln 2 + 3−x ln 3) − (2x − 3−x )
solution = .
dx x x2
In Exercises 21–24, compute the derivative.
y = 16sin x
21. f  (x), f (x) = log2 x
ln x 1 1
solution f (x) = log2 x = . Thus, f  (x) = · .
ln 2 x ln 2
d
 (3),
23. flog 3 (sin f
t)(x) = log5 x
dt


d d ln(sin t) 1 1 cot t
solution log3 (sin t) = = · · cos t = .
dt dt ln 3 ln 3 sin t ln 3
In Exercises
d 25–36, find an equation of the tangent line at the point indicated.
log10 (t + 2t )
dt= 6x , x = 2
25. f (x)
solution Let f (x) = 6x . Then f (2) = 36, f  (x) = 6x ln 6 and f  (2) = 36 ln 6. The equation of the tangent line is
therefore y = 36 ln 6(x − 2) + 36.
27. s(t) = 39t√, xt = 2
y = ( 2) , x = 8
solution Let s(t) = 39t . Then s(2) = 318 , s  (t) = 39t 9 ln 3, and s  (2) = 318 · 9 ln 3 = 320 ln 3. The equation of the
tangent line is therefore y = 320 ln 3(t − 2) + 318 .
−2x , x = 1
2
29. f (x) = 5x5x−2
y=π , x=1
solution Let f (x) = 5x −2x . Then f (1) = 5−1 , f  (x) = ln 5 · 5x −2x (2x − 2), and f  (1) = ln 5(0) = 0. Therefore,
2 2

the equation of the tangent line is y = 5−1 .

31. s(t) = ln(8 − 4t), t = 1
s(t) = ln t, t = 5 −4 , so s  (1) = −4/4 = −1. Therefore the
solution Let s(t) = ln(8 − 4t). Then s(1) = ln(8 − 4) = ln 4. s  (t) = 8−4t
equation of the tangent line is y = −1(t − 1) + ln 4.
33. R(z) = log5 (2z22 + 7), z = 3
f (x) = ln(x ), x = 4
solution Let R(z) = log5 (2z2 + 7). Then R(3) = log5 (25) = 2,
4z 12
R  (z) = , and R  (3) = .
(2z2 + 7) ln 5 25 ln 5
The equation of the tangent line is therefore
12
y= (z − 3) + 2.
25 ln 5

35. f (w) = log2 w, w = 18π

y = ln(sin x), x =
solution Let f (w) = log24w. Then


1 1
f = log2 = log2 2−3 = −3,
8 8

f  (w) = w ln
1 , and
2


1 8
f = .
8 ln 2
The equation of the tangent line is therefore


8 1
y= w− − 3.
ln 2 8

In Exercises 37–44, find the derivative using logarithmic differentiation as in Example 5.

y = log2 (1 + 4x −1 ), x = 4
37. y = (x + 5)(x + 9)
solution Let y = (x + 5)(x + 9). Then ln y = ln((x + 5)(x + 9)) = ln(x + 5) + ln(x + 9). By logarithmic
differentiation
y 1 1
= +
y x+5 x+9

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 163

or


1 1
y  = (x + 5)(x + 9) + = (x + 9) + (x + 5) = 2x + 14.
x+5 x+9

39. y = (x − 1)(x − 12)(x + 7)

y = (3x + 5)(4x + 9)
solution Let y = (x − 1)(x − 12)(x + 7). Then ln y = ln(x − 1) + ln(x − 12) + ln(x + 7). By logarithmic
differentiation,

y 1 1 1
= + +
y x − 1 x − 12 x + 7
or

y  = (x − 12)(x + 7) + (x − 1)(x + 7) + (x − 1)(x − 12) = 3x 2 − 12x + 79.

x(x 2 + 1)
41. y = √x(x + 1)3
y = x+1 2
(3x − 1)
√ +1) . Then ln y = ln x + ln(x 2 + 1) − 1 ln(x + 1). By logarithmic differentiation
2
solution Let y = x(x 2
x+1

y 1 2x 1
= + 2 − ,
y x x + 1 2(x + 1)
so


x(x 2 + 1) 1 2x 1
y = √ + 2 − .
x+1 x x + 1 2(x + 1)

x(x + 2)2 √
43. y =y = (2x + 1)(4x ) x − 9
(2x + 1)(3x + 2)

x(x+2)
solution Let y = (2x+1)(3x+2) . Then ln y = 12 [ln(x) + ln(x + 2) − ln(2x + 1) − ln(3x + 2)]. By logarithmic
differentiation


y 1 1 1 2 3
= + − − ,
y 2 x x + 2 2x + 1 3x + 2
so


1 x(x + 2) 1 1 2 3
y = · + − − .
2 (2x + 1)(3x + 2) x x + 2 2x + 1 3x + 2

In Exercises 45–50, find the derivative using either method of Example 6.

y = (x 3 + 1)(x 4 + 2)(x 5 + 3)2
45. f (x) = x 3x

solution Method 1: x 3x = e3x ln x , so

d 3x
x = e3x ln x (3 + 3 ln x) = x 3x (3 + 3 ln x).
dx
Method 2: Let y = x 3x . Then, ln y = 3x ln x. By logarithmic differentiation

y 1
= 3x · + 3 ln x,
y x
so

y  = y(3 + 3 ln x) = x 3x (3 + 3 ln x) .

x
47. f (x) = x=e x cos x
f (x)
x x
solution Method 1: x e = ee ln x , so

x 
x 
d ex x e x e
x = ee ln x + ex ln x = x e + ex ln x .
dx x x

May 25, 2011

164 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

x
Method 2: Let y = x e . Then ln y = ex ln x. By logarithmic differentiation

y 1
= ex · + ex ln x,
y x
so

x 
x 
e x e
y = y + ex ln x = x e + ex ln x .
x x

x
49. f (x) = x 3 x 2
f (x) = x x x
solution Method 1: x 3 = e3 ln x , so

x 
x 
d 3x x 3 x 3
x = e3 ln x + (ln x)(ln 3)3x = x 3 + (ln x)(ln 3)3x .
dx x x
x
Method 2: Let y = x 3 . Then ln y = 3x ln x. By logarithmic differentiation

y 1
= 3x + (ln x)(ln 3)3x ,
y x
so

x 
x 3
y = x3 + (ln x)(ln 3)3x .
x

In Exercises 51–74,
x calculate the derivative.
f (x) = ex
51. y = sinh(9x)
d
solution sinh(9x) = 9 cosh(9x).
dx
53. y = cosh2 (9 −2 3t)
y = sinh(x )
d
solution cosh2 (9 − 3t) = 2 cosh(9 − 3t) · (−3 sinh(9 − 3t)) = −6 cosh(9 − 3t) sinh(9 − 3t).
dt
√
55. y = cosh x + 1
y = tanh(t 2 + 1)
d √ 1
solution cosh x + 1 = (cosh x + 1)−1/2 sinh x.
dx 2
coth t
57. y =y = sinh x tanh x
1 + tanh t
d coth t − csch2 t (1 + tanh t) − coth t (sech2 t) csch2 t + 2 csch t sech t
solution = =−
dt 1 + tanh t (1 + tanh t)2 (1 + tanh t 2 )
59. y = sinh(ln x)
y = (ln(cosh x))5
d cosh(ln x)
solution sinh(ln x) = .
dx x
61. y = tanh(ex )
y = ecoth x
d
solution tanh(ex ) = ex sech2 (ex ).
dx
√
63. y = sech( x)
y = sinh(cosh3√x) √ √
d 1
solution sech( x) = − x −1/2 sech x tanh x.
dx 2
65. y = sech x coth x
y = ln(coth x)
d d
solution sech x coth x = csch x = − csch x coth x.
dx dx
67. y = cosh−1 (3x)
y = x sinh x
d 3
solution cosh−1 (3x) =  .
dx 9x 2 − 1
69. y = (sinh−1−1
(x 2 ))3
y = tanh (ex + x 2 )
d 2x
solution (sinh−1 (x 2 ))3 = 3(sinh−1 (x 2 ))2  .
dx x4 + 1

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 165

−1
71. y = ecosh x−1
y = (csch 3x)4  
d cosh−1 x −1 1
solution e = ecosh x  .
dx x2 − 1
73. y = tanh−1 (ln t)
−1 ( x 2 + 1)
y = sinh
d 1
solution tanh−1 (ln t) = .
dt t (1 − (ln t)2 )
In Exercises 75–77,−1
prove the formula.
y = ln(tanh x)
d
75. (coth x) = − csch2 x
dx
d d cosh x sinh2 x − cosh2 x −1
solution coth x = = 2
= = − csch2 x.
dx dx sinh x sinh x sinh2 x
d 1
77. d −1 −1
cosh t=  1 for t > 1
dt sinh t = t 2−1
dt t2 + 1
solution Let x = cosh−1 t. Then x ≥ 0, t = cosh x and
dx dx 1
1 = sinh x or = .
dt dt sinh x
Thus, for t > 1,
d 1
cosh−1 t = ,
dt sinh x

where cosh x = t. Working from the identity cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1, we find sinh 2
 x = ± cosh x − 1. Because
sinh w ≥ 0 for w ≥ 0, we know to choose the positive square root. Hence, sinh x = cosh2 x − 1 = t 2 − 1, and
d 1 1
cosh−1 t = =  .
dt sinh x t2 − 1

79. According to one simplified model, the purchasing power of a dollar in the year 2000 + t is equal to P (t) =
−t (in
0.68(1.04)Use the1983
formula
dollars). (x)) = fthe
(ln fCalculate  (x)/f (x) to show that ln x and ln(2x) have the same derivative. Is there a
predicted rate of decline in purchasing power (in cents per year) in the year
simpler explanation of this result?
2020.
solution First, note that

P  (t) = −0.68(1.04)−t ln 1.04;

thus, the rate of change in the year 2020 is

P  (20) = −0.68(1.04)−20 ln 1.04 = −0.0122.

That is, the rate of decline is 1.22 cents per year.

81. Show that for any constants M, k, and a, the function
The energy E (in joules) radiated as seismic waves

by an
earthquakeof Richter magnitude M satisfies log10 E =
4.8 + 1.5M. 1 k(t − a)
y(t) = M 1 + tanh
(a) Show that when M increases by 1, the energy 2 2
increases by a factor of approximately 31.5.
(b) Calculate dE/dM. y   y 
satisfies the logistic equation: =k 1− .
y M
solution Let



1 k(t − a)
y(t) = M 1 + tanh .
2 2
Then



y(t) 1 k(t − a)
1− = 1 − tanh ,
M 2 2
and




y(t) 1 k(t − a)
ky(t) 1 − = Mk 1 − tanh2
M 4 2


1 k(t − a)
= Mk sech2 .
4 2

May 25, 2011

166 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Finally,



1 k(t − a) y(t)
y  (t) = Mk sech2 = ky(t) 1 − .
4 2 M

83. The Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale P is used to quantify the risk associated with the impact of an asteroid
collidingShow
with that V (x) = 2 ln(tanh(x/2)) satisfies the Poisson-Boltzmann equation V (x) = sinh(V (x)), which is
the earth:
used to describe electrostatic forces in certain molecules.
 
pi E 0.8
P = log10
0.03T

where pi is the probability of impact, T is the number of years until impact, and E is the energy of impact (in megatons
of TNT). The risk is greater than a random event of similar magnitude if P > 0.
(a) Calculate dP /dT , assuming that pi = 2 × 10−5 and E = 2 megatons.
(b) Use the derivative to estimate the change in P if T increases from 8 to 9 years.
solution
(a) Observe that
   
pi E 0.8 pi E 0.8
P = log10 = log10 − log10 T ,
0.03T 0.03
so
dP 1
=− .
dT T ln 10
(b) If T increases to 9 years from 8 years, then

dP 1
P ≈ · T = − · (1 yr) = −0.054
dT T =8 (8 yr) ln 10

Further Insights and Challenges

loga x
85. Use the formula
(a) Show that if log bx =
f and g are for a, b > then
0 to verify the formula
logdifferentiable,
ab
d  
d (x)g(x)) = f1 (x) + g (x)
ln(f
dx dx log b x =
(lnfb)x
(x) g(x)

(b) Give ad new d ln x 1Rule by observing that the left-hand side of Eq. (4) is equal to (f (x)g(x)) .
solution logbproof
x = of the Product
= . f (x)g(x)
dx dx ln b (ln b)x

3.10 Implicit Differentiation

Preliminary Questions
d dy
1. Which differentiation rule is used to show sin y = cos y ?
dx dx
d sin y = cos y dy .
solution The chain rule is used to show that dx dx
2. One of (a)–(c) is incorrect. Find and correct the mistake.
d d d
(a) sin(y 2 ) = 2y cos(y 2 ) (b) sin(x 2 ) = 2x cos(x 2 ) (c) sin(y 2 ) = 2y cos(y 2 )
dy dx dx
solution
(a) This is correct. Note that the differentiation is with respect to the variable y.
(b) This is correct. Note that the differentiation is with respect to the variable x.
(c) This is incorrect. Because the differentiation is with respect to the variable x, the chain rule is needed to obtain
d dy
sin(y 2 ) = 2y cos(y 2 ) .
dx dx

3. On an exam, Jason was asked to differentiate the equation

x 2 + 2xy + y 3 = 7

Find the errors in Jason’s answer: 2x + 2xy  + 3y 2 = 0

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.10 Implicit Differentiation 167

solution There are two mistakes in Jason’s answer. First, Jason should have applied the product rule to the second
term to obtain
d dy
(2xy) = 2x + 2y.
dx dx
Second, he should have applied the general power rule to the third term to obtain
d 3 dy
y = 3y 2 .
dx dx

d
4. Which of (a) or (b) is equal to (x sin t)?
dx
dt dt
(a) (x cos t) (b) (x cos t) + sin t
dx dx
solution Using the product rule and the chain rule we see that

d dt
(x sin t) = x cos t + sin t,
dx dx
so the correct answer is (b).

Exercises
dy
1. Show that if you differentiate both sides of x 2 + 2y 3 = 6, the result is 2x + 6y 2 dx = 0. Then solve for dy/dx and
evaluate it at the point (2, 1).
solution

d 2 d
(x + 2y 3 ) = 6
dx dx
dy
2x + 6y 2 =0
dx
dy
2x + 6y 2 =0
dx
dy
6y 2 = −2x
dx
dy −2x
= .
dx 6y 2
dy
At (2, 1), dx = −4 2
6 = −3.

In Exercises 3–8, differentiate the expression with respect to x, assuming that y = f (x). dy
Show that if you differentiate both sides of xy + 4x + 2y = 1, the result is (x + 2) dx + y + 4 = 0. Then solve
x 2 ydy/dx
3. for 3 and evaluate it at the point (1, −1).
solution Assuming that y depends on x, then

d  2 3
x y = x 2 · 3y 2 y  + y 3 · 2x = 3x 2 y 2 y  + 2xy 3 .
dx

5. (x 2 +3 y 2 )3/2
x
solution Assuming that y depends on x, then
y2

3/2  3 
d  2 1/2    
x + y2 = x2 + y2 2x + 2yy  = 3 x + yy  x 2 + y 2 .
dx 2

y
7.
y +tan(xy)
1
d y (y + 1)y  − yy  y
solution Assuming that y depends on x, then = = .
dx y + 1 (y + 1) 2 (y + 1)2

In Exercises 9–26, calculate the derivative with respect to x.

ey/t
9. 3y 3 + x 2 = 5
2x
solution Let 3y 3 + x 2 = 5. Then 9y 2 y  + 2x = 0, and y  = − .
9y 2

May 25, 2011

168 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

11. x 2 y + 2x 3 y = x + y
y 4 − 2y = 4x 3 + x
solution Let x 2 y + 2x 3 y = x + y. Then

x 2 y  + 2xy + 2x 3 y  + 6x 2 y = 1 + y 
x 2 y  + 2x 3 y  − y  = 1 − 2xy − 6x 2 y
1 − 2xy − 6x 2 y
y = .
x 2 + 2x 3 − 1

13. x 3 R 5 2= 1 2 5
xy + x y − x 3 = 3
3x 2 R 5 3R
solution Let x 3 R 5 = 1. Then x 3 · 5R 4 R  + R 5 · 3x 2 = 0, and R  = − 3 4 = − .
5x R 5x
y x
15. + 4 = 42y
x x y+ z = 1
solution Let
y x
+ = 2y.
x y
Then
xy  − y y − xy 
+ = 2y 
x2 y2


1 x y 1
− 2 − 2 y = 2 −
x y x y
y 2 − x 2 − 2xy 2  y2 − x2
2
y =
xy x2y
y(y 2 − x 2 )
y = .
x(y 2 − x 2 − 2xy 2 )

17. y −2/3
√ +x
3/2 = 1
1 1
x + s = −2/3
+ 3/2 = 1. Then
solution Let y x + s x
2 3 9 1/2 5/3
− y −5/3 y  + x 1/2 = 0 or y  = x y .
3 2 4

1
19. y +x 1/2=+xy2 2/3
+ x= −4y
y
solution Let y + y1 = x 2 + x. Then

1 2x + 1 (2x + 1)y 2
y  − 2 y  = 2x + 1 or y = = .
y 1 − y −2 y2 − 1

21. sin(x + y) = x + cos y

sin(xt) = t
solution Let sin(x + y) = x + cos y. Then

(1 + y  ) cos(x + y) = 1 − y  sin y
cos(x + y) + y  cos(x + y) = 1 − y  sin y
(cos(x + y) + sin y) y  = 1 − cos(x + y)
1 − cos(x + y)
y = .
cos(x + y) + sin y

23. xey = 2xy + y3

tan(x 2 y) = (x + y)3
solution Let xey = 2xy + y 3 . Then xy  ey + ey = 2xy  + 2y + 3y 2 y  , whence

ey − 2y
y = .
2x + 3y 2 − xey

exy = sin(y 2 )

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.10 Implicit Differentiation 169

25. ln x + ln y = x − y

solution Let ln x + ln y = x − y. Then

1 y 1 − x1 xy − y
+ = 1 − y or y  = = .
x y 1 + y1 xy + x

−1 = 1 and y = x − x 2 define the same curve (except that (0, 0) is not a solution of the first
2 +xy+
27. Show that 2 ) yx
= x + differentiation
ln(x
equation) and that implicit 4 yields y  = yx −1 − x and y  = 1 − 2x. Explain why these formulas produce
the same values for the derivative.

solution Multiply the first equation by x and then isolate the y term to obtain

x2 + y = x ⇒ y = x − x2.

Implicit differentiation applied to the first equation yields

1 − yx −2 + x −1 y  = 0 or y  = yx −1 − x.

From the first equation, we find yx −1 = 1 − x; upon substituting this expression into the previous derivative, we find

y  = 1 − x − x = 1 − 2x,

which is the derivative of the second equation.

dy
In Exercises 29 and 30, find dy/dx at the given point. 2 3 3 4
Use the method of Example 4 to compute dx P at P = (2, 1) on the curve y x + y x − 10x + y = 5.
29. (x + 2)2 − 6(2y + 3)2 = 3, (1, −1)

solution By the scaling and shifting rule,

2(x + 2) − 24(2y + 3)y  = 0.

If x = 1 and y = −1, then

2(3) − 24(1)y  = 0.

so that 24y  = 6, or y  = 41 .

In Exercises 31–38, find an equation 

2 2 − π ofπthe tangent line at the given point.
sin (3y) = x + y, ,
4 4
31. xy + x 2 y 2 = 5, (2, 1)

solution Taking the derivative of both sides of xy + x 2 y 2 = 5 yields

xy  + y + 2xy 2 + 2x 2 yy  = 0.

Substituting x = 2, y = 1, we find

1
2y  + 1 + 4 + 8y  = 0 or y = − .
2

Hence, the equation of the tangent line at (2, 1) is y − 1 = − 12 (x − 2) or y = − 12 x + 2.

33. x 2 +2/3 xy 2 + 1, (1, 0)

sin y =2/3
x +y = 2, (1, 1)
solution Taking the derivative of both sides of x 2 + sin y = xy 2 + 1 yields

2x + cos yy  = y 2 + 2xyy  .

Substituting x = 1, y = 0, we find

2 + y = 0 or y  = −2.

Hence, the equation of the tangent line is y − 0 = −2(x − 1) or y = −2x + 2.

May 25, 2011

170 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

35. 2x 1/2 + 4y −1/2 = xy, (1, π4)  π π 

sin(x − y) = x cos y + , ,4
solution Taking the derivative4 of both4 sides of 2x 1/2 + 4y −1/2 = xy yields

x −1/2 − 2y −3/2 y  = xy  + y.
Substituting x = 1, y = 4, we find


1 12
1−2 y  = y  + 4 or y = − .
8 5

Hence, the equation of the tangent line is y − 4 = − 12 12 32

5 (x − 1) or y = − 5 x + 5 .
2
37. e2x−y y +x ye, x =
x 2 e= (2,4,4) (2, 0)
y
x2
solution taking the derivative of both sides of e2x−y = yields
y

2xy − x 2 y 
e2x−y (2 − y  ) = .
y2
Substituting x = 2, y = 4, we find
16 − 4y  4
e0 (2 − y  ) = or y = .
16 3
Hence, the equation of the tangent line is y − 4 = 43 (x − 2) or y = 43 x + 43 .
39. Find the2points on the graph of y 2 = x 3 − 3x + 1 (Figure 6) where the tangent line is horizontal.
2 ex −16 − xy −1 = 2, (4, 2)
(a) Firsty show that 2yy  = 3x 2 − 3, where y  = dy/dx.
(b) Do not solve for y  . Rather, set y  = 0 and solve for x. This yields two values of x where the slope may be zero.
(c) Show that the positive value of x does not correspond to a point on the graph.
(d) The negative value corresponds to the two points on the graph where the tangent line is horizontal. Find their
coordinates.
y

x
−2 −1 1 2

−2

FIGURE 6 Graph of y 2 = x 3 − 3x + 1.

solution
(a) Applying implicit differentiation to y 2 = x 3 − 3x + 1, we have
dy
2y = 3x 2 − 3.
dx
(b) Setting y  = 0 we have 0 = 3x 2 − 3, so x = 1 or x = −1.
(c) If we return to the equation y 2 = x 3 − 3x + 1 and substitute x = 1, we obtain the equation y 2 = −1, which has no
real solutions.
(d) Substituting x = −1 into y 2 = x 3 − 3x + 1 yields
y 2 = (−1)3 − 3(−1) + 1 = −1 + 3 + 1 = 3,
√ √ √ √
so y = 3 or − 3. The tangent is horizontal at the points (−1, 3) and (−1, − 3).
41. Find all points on the graph of 3x 2 + 4y 2 + 3xy = 24 where the tangent line is horizontal (Figure 7).
Show, by differentiating the equation, that if the tangent line at a point (x, y) on the curve x 2 y − 2x + 8y = 2 is
 xy
horizontal, then  = 1.Then substitute
 y = x −1 in x 2y y − 2x + 8y = 2 to show that the tangent line is horizontal
1
at the points 2, 2 and − 4, − 4 . 1 3
2
−2 3
x
−3 2
−2
−3

FIGURE 7 Graph of 3x 2 + 4y 2 + 3xy = 24.

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.10 Implicit Differentiation 171

solution Differentiating the equation 3x 2 + 4y 2 + 3xy = 24 implicitly yields

6x + 8yy  + 3xy  + 3y = 0,

so
6x + 3y
y = − .
8y + 3x

Setting y  = 0 leads to 6x + 3y = 0, or y = −2x. Substituting y = −2x into the equation 3x 2 + 4y 2 + 3xy = 24 yields

3x 2 + 4(−2x)2 + 3x(−2x) = 24,

√
or 13x 2 = 24. Thus, x = ±2 78/13, and the coordinates of the two points on the graph of 3x 2 + 4y 2 + 3xy = 24
where the tangent line is horizontal are
 √ √   √ √ 
2 78 4 78 2 78 4 78
,− and − , .
13 13 13 13

43. Figure 1 shows the graph of y 4 + xy = 2x 3 − x + 2. 2Find dy/dx at the two points on the graph with x-coordinate 0
Show that no point on the graph of x − 3xy + y = 1 has a horizontal tangent line.
and find an equation of the tangent line at (1, 1).
solution Consider the equation y 4 + xy = x 3 − x + 2. Then 4y 3 y  + xy  + y = 3x 2 − 1, and

3x 2 − y − 1
y = .
x + 4y 3

• Substituting x = 0 into y 4 + xy = x 3 − x + 2 gives y 4 = 2, which has two real solutions, y = ±21/4 . When
y = 21/4 , we have
√ √
−21/4 − 1 2+ 4 2
y =   =− ≈ −.3254.
4 23/4 8

When y = −21/4 , we have

√ √
4
21/4 − 1 2− 2
y =   =− ≈ −.02813.
−4 23/4 8

• At the point (1, 1), we have y  = 1 . At this point the tangent line is y − 1 = 1 (x − 1) or y = 1 x + 4 .
5 5 5 5
3 3
45. Find a point on the folium x + y =3 3xy 3other than the origin at which the tangent line is horizontal.
Folium of Descartes The curve x + y = 3xy (Figure 8) was first discussed in 1638 by the French philosopher-
solution Using René
mathematician implicit differentiation,
Descartes, we find
who called it the folium (meaning “leaf”). Descartes’s scientific colleague Gilles de
Roberval called it the jasmine flower. Both d   incorrectly that the leaf shape in the first quadrant was
men believed
3 + y 3 = d (3xy)
repeated
2 4 in each quadrant, giving the appearance x of petals of a flower. Find an equation of the tangent line at the point
dx dx
3, 3 .
3x + 3y y = 3(xy  + y)
2 2 

Setting y  = 0 in this equation yields 3x 2 = 3y or y = x 2 . If we substitute this expression into the original equation
x 3 + y 3 = 3xy, we obtain:

x 3 + x 6 = 3x(x 2 ) = 3x 3 or x 3 (x 3 − 2) = 0.

One solution of this equation is x = 0 and the other is x = 21/3 . Thus, the two points on the folium x 3 + y 3 = 3xy at
which the tangent line is horizontal are (0, 0) and (21/3 , 22/3 ).
47. Find the x-coordinates the points where the tangent line is horizontal on the trident curve xy = x 3 − 5x 2 + 2x − 1,
3 + y 3 =of3xy
so named by Isaac Newton in his+
Plot x b for several
treatise values
on curves of b andindescribe
published 9).graph changes as b → 0. Then compute
how the
1710 (Figure
dy/dx 2 + 1(b=1/3 , 0). How 2does this value change as b → ∞? Do your plots confirm this conclusion?
Hint: 2xat
3− the5xpoint (2x − 1)(x − 2x − 1).
y

20

4
x
−2 2 6 8

−20

FIGURE 9 Trident curve: xy = x 3 − 5x 2 + 2x − 1.

May 25, 2011

172 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

solution Take the derivative of the equation of a trident curve:

xy = x 3 − 5x 2 + 2x − 1

to obtain

xy  + y = 3x 2 − 10x + 2.

Setting y  = 0 gives y = 3x 2 − 10x + 2. Substituting this into the equation of the trident, we have

xy = x(3x 2 − 10x + 2) = x 3 − 5x 2 + 2x − 1

or

3x 3 − 10x 2 + 2x = x 3 − 5x 2 + 2x − 1

Collecting like terms and setting to zero, we have

0 = 2x 3 − 5x 2 + 1 = (2x − 1)(x 2 − 2x − 1).

√
Hence, x = 12 , 1 ± 2.

49. Find the derivative at the points where x = 1 on the folium (x 2 + y 2 )2 = 254 xy
2 . See Figure 11.
Find an equation of the tangent line at each of the four points on the curve (x 2 + y 2 − 4x)2 = 2(x 2 + y 2 ) where
x = 1. This curve (Figure 10) is an example of a limaçon
y
of Pascal, named after the father of the French philosopher
Blaise Pascal, who first described it in 1650.
2

x
1

−2
25 2
FIGURE 11 Folium curve: (x 2 + y 2 )2 = xy
4

solution First, find the points (1, y) on the curve. Setting x = 1 in the equation (x 2 + y 2 )2 = 25 2
4 xy yields

25 2
(1 + y 2 )2 = y
4
25 2
y 4 + 2y 2 + 1 = y
4
4y 4 + 8y 2 + 4 = 25y 2

4y 4 − 17y 2 + 4 = 0

(4y 2 − 1)(y 2 − 4) = 0
1
y2 = or y 2 = 4
4
d of both sides of the original equation yields
Hence y = ± 12 or y = ±2. Taking dx

25 2 25
2(x 2 + y 2 )(2x + 2yy  ) = y + xyy 
4 2
25 25
4(x 2 + y 2 )x + 4(x 2 + y 2 )yy  = y 2 + xyy 
4 2
2 2 25  25 2
(4(x + y ) − x)yy = y − 4(x 2 + y 2 )x
2 4
25 y 2 − 4(x 2 + y 2 )x
y = 4
y(4(x 2 + y 2 ) − 25
2 x)

• At (1, 2), x 2 + y 2 = 5, and

25
22 − 4(5)(1) 1
y = 4 25
= .
2(4(5) − 2 (1)) 3

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.10 Implicit Differentiation 173

• At (1, −2), x 2 + y 2 = 5 as well, and

25
(−2)2 − 4(5)(1) 1
y = 4 =− .
−2(4(5) − 25
2 (1)) 3

• At (1, 1 ), x 2 + y 2 = 5 , and
2 4
   2
25 1
− 4 54 (1)
4 2 11
y =     = .
1 4 5 − 25 (1) 12
2 4 2

• At (1, − 1 ), x 2 + y 2 = 5 , and
2 4
2  
25
− 12 − 4 54 (1)
4 11
y =     =− .
1 5 25
− 2 4 4 − 2 (1) 12

The folium and its tangent lines are plotted below:

y

x
0.5 1 1.5 2
−1

−2

Exercises 51–53:
Plot (x 2If+the )2 = 12(x 2dx/dy
y 2derivative − y 2 )(instead
+ 2 for −4 ≤ x ≤=4,0)4 exists
of dy/dx ≤ y ≤at4 ausing
pointa and
computer = 0, then
dx/dyalgebra the tangent
system. line
How many
at that point is tangent
horizontal vertical.lines does the curve appear to have? Find the points where these occur.
51. Calculate dx/dy for the equation y 4 + 1 = y 2 + x 2 and find the points on the graph where the tangent line is vertical.
solution Let y 4 + 1 = y 2 + x 2 . Differentiating this equation with respect to y yields
dx
4y 3 = 2y + 2x ,
dy
so
dx 4y 3 − 2y y(2y 2 − 1)
= = .
dy 2x x
√
dx 2
Thus, = 0 when y = 0 and when y = ± . Substituting y = 0 into the equation y 4 + 1 = y 2 + x 2 gives
dy √ 2 √
2 2 2 3
1 = x , so x = ±1. Substituting y = ± , gives x = 3/4, so x = ± . Thus, there are six points on the graph of
2 2
4 2 2
y + 1 = y + x where the tangent line is vertical:
√ √   √ √  √ √   √ √ 
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
(1, 0), (−1, 0), , , − , , ,− , − ,− .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
√
53. ShowUsethatathe
computer
tangentalgebra
lines atsystem
x =1± to plot y 2the
2 to x 3 − 4x for
= conchoid −4equation
with ≤ x ≤ 4,(x4−≤1)
y 2≤ 2+
(x4. Show = 2xif2dx/dy
y 2 ) that = 0,
are vertical
y = 0. 12).
then(Figure Conclude that the tangent line is vertical at the points where the curve intersects the x-axis. Does your plot
confirm this conclusion?
solution A plot of the curve y 2 = x 3 − 4x is shown below.
y

x
−2 −1 1 2 3

−1

−2

May 25, 2011

174 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Differentiating the equation y 2 = x 3 − 4x with respect to y yields

dx dx
2y = 3x 2 −4 ,
dy dy
or
dx 2y
= 2 .
dy 3x − 4

From here, it follows that dx

dy = 0 when y = 0, so the tangent line to this curve is vertical at the points where the curve
intersects the x-axis. This conclusion is confirmed by the plot of the curve shown above.

In Exercises 55–58, use implicit differentiation to calculate higher derivatives.

Show that for all points P on the graph in Figure 13, the segments OP and P R have equal length.
55. Consider the equation y 3 − 32 x 2 = 1.
(a) Show that y  = x/y 2 and differentiate again to show that

y 2 − 2xyy 
y  =
y4

(b) Express y  in terms of x and y using part (a).

solution
(a) Let y 3 − 32 x 2 = 1. Then 3y 2 y  − 3x = 0, and y  = x/y 2 . Therefore,

y 2 · 1 − x · 2yy  y 2 − 2xyy 
y  = 4
= .
y y4

(b) Substituting the expression for y  into the result for y  gives
 
y 2 − 2xy x/y 2 y 3 − 2x 2
y  = = .
y4 y5

57. Calculate y  at the point (1, 1) on the curve xy 2 + y − 2 = 0 by the following steps:
Use the method of the previous exercise to show that y  = −y −3 on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.
(a) Find y  by implicit differentiation and calculate y  at the point (1, 1).
(b) Differentiate the expression for y  found in (a). Then compute y  at (1, 1) by substituting x = 1, y = 1, and the
value of y  found in (a).
solution Let xy 2 + y − 2 = 0.
y2 1
(a) Then x · 2yy  + y 2 · 1 + y  = 0, and y  = − . At (x, y) = (1, 1), we have y  = − .
2xy + 1 3
(b) Therefore,
   
   
(2xy + 1) 2yy  − y 2 2xy  + 2y (3) − 23 − (1) − 23 + 2 −6 + 2 − 6 10
y  = − =− =− =
(2xy + 1)2 32 27 27

given that (x, y) = (1, 1) and y  = − 13 .

In Exercises 59–61, x and y are functions of a variable t and use implicit differentiation to relate3 dy/dt and dx/dt.
Use the method of the previous exercise to compute y at the point (1, 1) on the curve x + y 3 = 3x + y − 2.
dy y dx
59. Differentiate xy = 1 with respect to t and derive the relation =− .
dt x dt
dy dx dy y dx
solution Let xy = 1. Then x +y = 0, and =− .
dt dt dt x dt
61. Calculate dy/dt in terms of dx/dt.
Differentiate x 3 + 3xy 2 = 1 with respect to t and express dy/dt in terms of dx/dt, as in Exercise 59.
(a) x 3 − y 3 = 1 (b) y 4 + 2xy + x 2 = 0
solution
(a) Taking the derivative of both sides of the equation x 3 − y 3 = 1 with respect to t yields

dx dy dy x 2 dx
3x 2 − 3y 2 = 0 or = 2 .
dt dt dt y dt

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.10 Implicit Differentiation 175

(b) Taking the derivative of both sides of the equation y 4 + 2xy + x 2 = 0 with respect to t yields

dy dy dx dx
4y 3 + 2x + 2y + 2x = 0,
dt dt dt dt
or
dy x + y dx
=− 3 .
dt 2y + x dt

The volume V and pressure P of gas in a piston (which vary in time t) satisfy P V 3/2 = C, where C is a
Further Insights
constant. and Challenges
Prove that
2 2
63. Show that if P lies on the intersection of the two dP /dt x − y3 P= c and xy = d (c, d constants), then the tangents
curves
to the curves at P are perpendicular. = −
dV /dt 2 V
solution Let C1 be the curve described by x 2 − y 2 = c, and let C2 be the curve described by xy = d. Suppose that
The ratio of the derivatives is negative. Could you have predicted this from the relation P V 3/2 = C?
P = (x0 , y0 ) lies on the intersection of the two curves x 2 − y 2 = c and xy = d. Since x 2 − y 2 = c, the chain rule gives
us 2x − 2yy  = 0, so that y  = 2x x x0
2y = y . The slope to the tangent line to C1 is y0 . On the curve C2, since xy = d, the
product rule yields that xy  + y = 0, so that y  = − yx . Therefore the slope to the tangent line to C2 is − yx00 . The two
slopes are negative reciprocals of one another, hence the tangents to the two curves are perpendicular.

65. Divide the curve in Figure 15 into five branches, each of which is the graph of a function. Sketch the branches.
The lemniscate curve (x 2 + y 2 )2 = 4(x 2 − y 2 ) was discovered by Jacob Bernoulli in 1694, who noted that it is
“shaped like a figure 8, or a knot, or the bow of a ribbon.” Find the coordinates of the four points at which the tangent
y
line is horizontal (Figure 14).
2

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

FIGURE 15 Graph of y 5 − y = x 2 y + x + 1.

solution The branches are:

• Upper branch:

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

• Lower part of lower left curve:

x
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1

−2

• Upper part of lower left curve:

x
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1

−2

May 25, 2011

176 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

• Upper part of lower right curve:

1
1 2 3 4
x

−1

−2

• Lower part of lower right curve:

1
1 2 3 4
x

−1

−2

3.11 Related Rates

Preliminary Questions
1. Assign variables and restate the following problem in terms of known and unknown derivatives (but do not solve it):
How fast is the volume of a cube increasing if its side increases at a rate of 0.5 cm/s?
solution Let s and V denote the length of the side and the corresponding volume of a cube, respectively. Determine
dV if ds = 0.5 cm/s.
dt dt
 
2. What is the relation between dV /dt and dr/dt if V = 43 πr 3 ?
solution Applying the general power rule, we find dV 2 dr 2
dt = 4πr dt . Therefore, the ratio is 4π r .
In Questions 3 and 4, water pours into a cylindrical glass of radius 4 cm. Let V and h denote the volume and water level
respectively, at time t.
3. Restate this question in terms of dV /dt and dh/dt: How fast is the water level rising if water pours in at a rate of
2 cm3 /min?
solution Determine dh dV 3
dt if dt = 2 cm /min.
4. Restate this question in terms of dV /dt and dh/dt: At what rate is water pouring in if the water level rises at a rate
of 1 cm/min?
solution Determine dV dh
dt if dt = 1 cm/min.

Exercises
In Exercises 1 and 2, consider a rectangular bathtub whose base is 18 ft2 .
1. How fast is the water level rising if water is filling the tub at a rate of 0.7 ft3 /min?
dV dh
solution Let h be the height of the water in the tub and V be the volume of the water. Then V = 18h and = 18 .
dt dt
Thus
dh 1 dV 1
= = (0.7) ≈ 0.039 ft/min.
dt 18 dt 18

3. The radius of a circular oil slick expands at a rate of 2 m/min.

At what rate is water pouring into the tub if the water level rises at a rate of 0.8 ft/min?
(a) How fast is the area of the oil slick increasing when the radius is 25 m?
(b) If the radius is 0 at time t = 0, how fast is the area increasing after 3 min?
solution Let r be the radius of the oil slick and A its area.
dA dr
(a) Then A = πr 2 and = 2πr . Substituting r = 25 and dr dt = 2, we find
dt dt
dA
= 2π (25) (2) = 100π ≈ 314.16 m2 /min.
dt

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.11 Related Rates 177

(b) Since dr
dt = 2 and r(0) = 0, it follows that r(t) = 2t. Thus, r(3) = 6 and

dA
= 2π (6) (2) = 24π ≈ 75.40 m2 /min.
dt

In Exercises 5–8,rate
At what assume
is the that the radius
diagonal r ofincreasing
of a cube a sphere isifexpanding at increasing
its edges are a rate of 30
at acm/min.
rate of 2The volume of a sphere is
cm/s?
V = 43 πr 3 and its surface area is 4πr 2 . Determine the given rate.

5. Volume with respect to time when r = 15 cm.

solution As the radius is expanding at 30 centimeters per minute, we know that dr d
dt = 30 cm/min. Taking dt of the
equation V = 43 πr 3 yields


dV 4 dr dr
= π 3r 2 = 4πr 2 .
dt 3 dt dt

Substituting r = 15 and dr
dt = 30 yields

dV
= 4π(15)2 (30) = 27000π cm3 /min.
dt

7. Surface area with respect to time when r = 40 cm.

Volume with respect to time at t = 2 min, assuming that r = 0 at t = 0.
solution Taking the derivative of both sides of A = 4πr 2 with respect to t yields dA dr dr
dt = 8π r dt . dt = 30, so

dA
= 8π(40)(30) = 9600π cm2 /min.
dt

In Exercises 9–12,
Surface refer
area withtorespect
a 5-meter ladder
to time at tsliding down
= 2 min, a wall, as
assuming inrFigures
that = 10 at1tand 2. The variable h is the height of the
= 0.
ladder’s top at time t, and x is the distance from the wall to the ladder’s bottom.

9. Assume the bottom slides away from the wall at a rate of 0.8 m/s. Find the velocity of the top of the ladder at t = 2 s
if the bottom is 1.5 m from the wall at t = 0 s.
solution Let x denote the distance from the base of the ladder to the wall, and h denote the height of the top of the
ladder from the floor. The ladder is 5 m long, so h2 + x 2 = 52 . At any time t, x = 1.5 + 0.8t. Therefore, at time t = 2,
the base is x = 1.5 + 0.8(2) = 3.1 m from the wall. Furthermore, we have
dh dx dh x dx
2h + 2x =0 so =− .
dt dt dt h dt

Substituting x = 3.1, h = 52 − 3.12 and dx
dt = 0.8, we obtain

dh 3.1
= − (0.8) ≈ −0.632 m/s.
dt 5 − 3.12
2

11. Suppose that h(0) = 4 and the top slides down the wall at a rate of 1.2 m/s. Calculate x and dx/dt at t = 2 s.
Suppose that the top is sliding down the wall at a rate of 1.2 m/s. Calculate dx/dt when h = 3 m.
solution Let h and x be the height of the ladder’s top and the distance from the wall of the ladder’s bottom, respectively.
After 2 seconds, h = 4 + 2 (−1.2) = 1.6 m. Since h2 + x 2 = 52 ,

x = 52 − 1.62 = 4.737 m.
dh dx dx h dh
Furthermore, we have 2h + 2x = 0, so that =− . Substituting h = 1.6, x = 4.737, and dh
dt = −1.2, we
dt dt dt x dt
find
dx 1.6
=− (−1.2) ≈ 0.405 m/s.
dt 4.737

13. A conical tank has height 3 m and radius 2 m at the top. Water flows in at a rate of 2 m3 /min. How fast is the water
What is the relation between h and x at the moment when the top and bottom of the ladder move at the same
level rising when it is 2 m?
speed?
solution Consider the cone of water in the tank at a certain instant. Let r be the radius of its (inverted) base, h its
height, and V its volume. By similar triangles, hr = 23 or r = 23 h and thus V = 31 πr 2 h = 27
4 π h3 . Therefore,

dV dh
= 49 πh2 ,
dt dt

May 25, 2011

178 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

and
dh 9 dV
= .
dt 4πh2 dt
Substituting h = 2 and dV
dt = 2 yields
dh 9 9
= 2
×2= ≈ −0.36 m/min.
dt 4π (2) 8π

15. The radius r and height h of a circular cone change at a rate of 2 cm/s. How fast is the volume of the cone increasing
Follow the same set-up as Exercise 13, but assume that the water level is rising at a rate of 0.3 m/min when it is
when r = 10 and h = 20?
2 m. At what rate is water flowing in?
solution Let r be the radius, h be the height, and V be the volume of a right circular cone. Then V = 13 π r 2 h, and


dV 1 dh dr
= π r2 + 2hr .
dt 3 dt dt

When r = 10, h = 20, and dr dh

dt = dt = 2, we find
dV π 2  1000π
= 10 · 2 + 2 · 20 · 10 · 2 = ≈ 1047.20 cm3 /s.
dt 3 3
17. A man of height 1.8 meters walks away from a 5-meter lamppost at a speed of 1.2 m/s (Figure 9). Find the rate at
A road perpendicular to a highway leads to a farmhouse located 2 km away (Figure 8). An automobile travels past
which his shadow is increasing in length.
the farmhouse at a speed of 80 km/h. How fast is the distance between the automobile and the farmhouse increasing
when the automobile is 6 km past the intersection of the highway and the road?

x y
FIGURE 9

solution Since the man is moving at a rate of 1.2 m/s, his distance from the light post at any given time is x = 1.2t.
Knowing the man is 1.8 meters tall and that the length of his shadow is denoted by y, we set up a proportion of similar
triangles from the diagram:
y 1.2t + y
= .
1.8 5
Clearing fractions and solving for y yields
y = 0.675t.
Thus, dy/dt = 0.675 meters per second is the rate at which the length of the shadow is increasing.
19. At a given moment, a plane passes directly above a radar station at an altitude of 6 km.
As Claudia walks away from a 264-cm lamppost, the tip of her shadow moves twice as fast as she does. What is
(a) The plane’s speed is 800 km/h. How fast is the distance between the plane and the station changing half a minute
Claudia’s height?
later?
(b) How fast is the distance between the plane and the station changing when the plane passes directly above the station?
solution Let x be the distance of the plane from the station along the ground and h the distance through the air.
(a) By the Pythagorean Theorem, we have
h2 = x 2 + 62 = x 2 + 36.
dh dx dh x dx
Thus 2h = 2x , and = . After half a minute, x = 12 × 60
1 × 800 = 20 kilometers. With x = 20 ,
3 3
dt dt dt h dt


2
20 1√ 2√
h= + 36 = 724 = 181 ≈ 8.969 km,
3 3 3

and dx
dt = 800,
dh 20 3 8000
= √ × 800 = √ ≈ 594.64 km/h.
dt 3 2 181 181
(b) When the plane is directly above the station, x = 0, so the distance between the plane and the station is not changing,
for at this instant we have
dh 0
= × 800 = 0 km/h.
dt 6

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.11 Related Rates 179

21. A hot air balloon rising vertically is tracked by an observer located 4 km from the lift-off point. At a certain moment,
In the setting of Exercise 19, let θ be the angle that the line through the radar station and the plane makes with the
the angle between the observer’s line of sight and the horizontal is π5 , and it is changing at a rate of 0.2 rad/min. How fast
horizontal. How fast is θ changing 12 min after the plane passes over the radar station?
is the balloon rising at this moment?
solution Let y be the height of the balloon (in miles) and θ the angle between the line-of-sight and the horizontal. Via
y
trigonometry, we have tan θ = . Therefore,
4
dθ 1 dy
sec2 θ · = ,
dt 4 dt
and
dy dθ
=4 sec2 θ.
dt dt

Using dθ π
dt = 0.2 and θ = 5 yields

dy 1
= 4 (0.2) ≈ 1.22 km/min.
dt cos2 (π/5)

23. A rocket travels vertically at a speed of 1200 km/h. The rocket is tracked through a telescope by an observer located
A laser pointer is placed on a platform that rotates at a rate of 20 revolutions per minute. The beam hits a wall 8 m
16 km from the launching pad. Find the rate at which the angle between the telescope and the ground is increasing 3 min
away, producing a dot of light that moves horizontally along the wall. Let θ be the angle between the beam and the
after lift-off.
line through the searchlight perpendicular to the wall (Figure 10). How fast is this dot moving when θ = π6 ?
solution Let y be the height of the rocket and θ the angle between the telescope and the ground. Using trigonometry,
y
we have tan θ = 16 . Therefore,

dθ 1 dy
sec2 θ · = ,
dt 16 dt
and
dθ cos2 θ dy
= .
dt 16 dt
1 hour), its height is 1 × 1200 = 60 km. At this instant, tan θ = 60/16 =
After the rocket has traveled for 3 minutes (or 20 20
15/4 and thus
4 4
cos θ =  = √ .
15 + 4
2 2 241

Finally,
dθ 16/241 1200
= (1200) = ≈ 4.98 rad/hr.
dt 16 241

25. A police car traveling south toward Sioux Falls at 160 km/h pursues a truck traveling east away from Sioux Falls,
Using a telescope, you track a rocket that was launched 4 km away, recording the angle θ between the telescope
Iowa, at 140 km/h (Figure 11). At time t = 0, the police car is 20 km north and the truck is 30 km east of Sioux Falls.
and the ground at half-second intervals. Estimate the velocity of the rocket if θ(10) = 0.205 and θ (10.5) = 0.225.
Calculate the rate at which the distance between the vehicles is changing:
(a) At time t = 0
(b) 5 minutes later

160 km/h

Sioux Falls

140 km/h
x
FIGURE 11

solution Let y denote the distance the police car is north of Sioux Falls and x the distance the truck is east of Sioux
Falls. Then y = 20 − 160t and x = 30 + 140t. If  denotes the distance between the police car and the truck, then

2 = x 2 + y 2 = (30 + 140t)2 + (20 − 160t)2

May 25, 2011

180 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

and
d
= 140(30 + 140t) − 160(20 − 160t) = 1000 + 45200t.

dt
 √
(a) At t = 0,  = 302 + 202 = 10 13, so
√
d 1000 100 13
= √ = ≈ 27.735 km/h.
dt 10 13 13
1 hour,
(b) At t = 5 minutes = 12




1 2 1 2
= 30 + 140 · + 20 − 160 · ≈ 42.197 km,
12 12
and
1
1000 + 45200 · 12
d
= ≈ 112.962 km/h.
dt 42.197

27. In the setting of Example 5, at a certain moment, the tractor’s speed is 3 m/s and the bale is rising at 2 m/s. How far
A car travels down a highway at 25 m/s. An observer stands 150 m from the highway.
is the tractor from the bale at this moment?
(a) How fast is the distance from the observer to the car increasing when the car passes in front of the observer?
solution Fromanswer
Explain your Example 5, wemaking
without have theany
equation
calculations.
(b) How fast is the distance increasing 20 s later?x dx
dh
 dt = ,
x + 4.5
2 2 dt

where x denote the distance from the tractor to the bale and h denotes the height of the bale. Given
dx dh
=3 and = 2,
dt dt
it follows that
3x
 = 2,
4.52 + x 2
√
which yields x = 16.2 ≈ 4.025 m.
29. Julian is jogging around a circular track of radius 50 m. In a coordinate system with origin at the center of the track,
Placido pulls a rope attached to a wagon through a pulley at a rate of q m/s. With dimensions as in Figure 12:
Julian’s x-coordinate is changing at a rate of −1.25 m/s when his coordinates are (40, 30). Find dy/dt at this moment.
(a) Find a formula for the speed of the wagon in terms of q and the variable x in the figure.
solution We have x 2 + y 2 = 502 , so
(b) Find the speed of the wagon when x = 0.6 if q = 0.5 m/s.
dx dy dy x dx
2x + 2y = 0 or =− .
dt dt dt y dt
Given x = 40, y = 30 and dx/dt = −1.25, we find
dy 40 5
= − (−1.25) = m/s.
dt 30 3

In Exercises 31 and 32, assume that the pressure P (in kilopascals) and volume2V (in cubic centimeters) of an expanding
A particle moves counterclockwise around the ellipse with equation 9x + 16y 2 = 25 (Figure 13).
gas are related by P V b = C, where b and C are constants (this holds in an adiabatic expansion, without heat gain or
loss).(a) In which of the four quadrants is dx/dt > 0? Explain.
(b) Find a relation between dx/dt and dy/dt.
31. Find dPwhat
(c) At /dt rate =the
if b is P = 8 kPa, changing
1.2,x-coordinate cm2 , the
V = 100 when = 20 cm
dV /dt passes
andparticle 3 /min.
the point (1, 1) if its y-coordinate is increasing
Let6 Pm/s?
at a rate of
solution b
V = C. Then
(d) Find dy/dt when the particle is at the top and bottom of the ellipse.
dV dP
P bV b−1 +Vb = 0,
dt dt
and
dP P b dV
=− .
dt V dt
Substituting b = 1.2, P = 8, V = 100, and dV
dt = 20, we find
dP (8) (1.2)
=− (20) = −1.92 kPa/min.
dt 100

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.11 Related Rates 181

33. The base x of the right triangle in Figure 14 increases at a rate of 5 cm/s, while the height remains constant at h = 20.
Find
How fast is the P = θ25changing
b ifangle /dt =x12
kPa, dPwhen = kPa/min,
20? V = 100 cm2 , and dV /dt = 20 cm3 /min.

20

q
x
FIGURE 14
x
solution We have cot θ = , from which
20
dθ 1 dx
− csc2 θ · =
dt 20 dt
and thus
dθ sin2 θ dx
=− .
dt 20 dt
We are given dx π
dt = 5 and when x = h = 20, θ = 4 . Hence,
 
dθ sin2 π4 1
=− (5) = − rad/s.
dt 20 8

35. A particle travels along a curve y = f (x) as in Figure 15. Let L(t) be the particle’s distance from the origin.
 15 m apart run
Two parallel paths  east-west through the woods. Brooke jogs east on one path at 10 km/h, while
dLwest onx+ (x)f path
fother (x) atdx
Jamail walks
(a) Show that =  the 6 km/h.
if the Ifparticle’s
they pass each other
location t is Pt =
at time
at time = 0,
(x,how far apart are they 3 s later,
f (x)).
and how fastdtis the distance
x 2 + between dt changing at that moment?
f (x)2 them

(b) Calculate L (t) when x = 1 and x = 2 if f (x) = 3x 2 − 8x + 9 and dx/dt = 4.
y

y = f (x)

2
P

θ x
O 1 2

FIGURE 15

solution
(a) If the particle’s location at time t is P = (x, f (x)), then

L(t) = x 2 + f (x)2 .

Thus,

  
dL 1 2 2 −1/2 dx  dx x + f (x)f  (x) dx
= (x + f (x) ) 2x + 2f (x)f (x) =  .
dt 2 dt dt x 2 + f (x)2 dt

(b) Given f (x) = 3x 2 − 8x + 9, it follows that
3x − 4
f  (x) =  .
3x 2 − 8x + 9

Let’s start with x = 1. Then f (1) = 2, f  (1) = − 12 and

 
dL 1−1
=  (4) = 0.
dt 12 + 22
√ √
With x = 2, f (2) = 5, f  (2) = 2/ 5 and
dL 2+2 16
=  (4) = .
dt √ 2 3
22 + 5

May 25, 2011

182 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Exercises
Let37θ and 38 angle
be the refer to
in the baseball
Figure diamond
15, where P =(a(x,
square
f (x)).ofInside
the90 ft) in of
setting Figure 16.
the previous exercise, show that

 
dθ xf (x) − f (x) dx
=
dt x 2 + f (x)2 dt
Second base 
Hint: Differentiate tan θ = f (x)/x and observe that cos θ = x/ x 2 + f (x)2 .
15 ft/s 90 ft

s First base

20 ft/s
Home plate

FIGURE 16

37. A baseball player runs from home plate toward first base at 20 ft/s. How fast is the player’s distance from second base
changing when the player is halfway to first base?
solution Let x be the distance of the player from home plate and h the player’s distance from second base. Using the
Pythagorean theorem, we have h2 = 902 + (90 − x)2 . Therefore,


dh dx
2h = 2 (90 − x) − ,
dt dt
and
dh 90 − x dx
=− .
dt h dt

We are given dx
dt = 20. When the player is halfway to first base, x = 45 and h = 902 + 452 , so

dh 45 √
= − (20) = −4 5 ≈ −8.94 ft/s.
dt 902 + 452

39. The conical watering pail in Figure 17 has a grid of holes. Water flows out through the holes at a rate of kA m3 /min,
Player 1 runs to first base at a speed of 20 ft/s while Player 2 runs from second base to third base at a speed of
where k is  a constant and A is the surface area of the part of the cone in contact with the water. This surface area
15 ft/s. Let s be the distance between the two players. How fast is s changing when Player 1 is 30 ft from home plate
= Player
is Aand πr h22+ 2
is r60 and the second
ft from is V = 13 πr 2 h. Calculate the rate dh/dt at which the water level changes at
volumebase?
h = 0.3 m, assuming that k = 0.25 m.

0.15 m

0.45 m

FIGURE 17

solution By similar triangles, we have

r 0.15 1 1
= = so r = h.
h 0.45 3 3
Substituting this expression for r into the formula for V yields

2
1 1 1
V = π h h= πh3 .
3 3 27
From here and the problem statement, it follows that
dV 1 dh 
= πh2 = −kA = −0.25πr h2 + r 2 .
dt 9 dt

May 25, 2011

 S E C T I O N 3.11 Related Rates 183

Solving for dh/dt gives

dh 9 r 
= − 2 h2 + r 2 .
dt 4h
When h = 0.3, r = 0.1 and
dh 9 0.1  2
=− 0.3 + 0.12 = −0.79 m/min.
dt 4 0.32

Further Insights and Challenges

41. A roller coaster has the shape of the graph in Figure 19. Show that when the roller coaster passes the point (x, f (x)),
the verticalAvelocity
bowl contains watercoaster
of the roller is equal toatfa (x)
that evaporates ratetimes
proportional to thevelocity.
its horizontal surface area of water exposed to the air
(Figure 18). Let A(h) be the cross-sectional area of the bowl at height h.
(a) Explain why V (h + h) − V (h) ≈ A(h)h if h is small.
dV
(b) Use (a) to argue that = A(h). (x, f(x))
dh
(c) Show that the water level h decreases at a constant rate.

FIGURE 19 Graph of f (x) as a roller coaster track.

solution Let the equation y = f (x) describe the shape of the roller coaster track. Taking dt d of both sides of this

equation yields dy  dx dy 
dt = f (x) dt . In other words, the vertical velocity of a car moving along the track, dt , is equal to f (x)
dx
times the horizontal velocity, dt .
43. As the wheel of radius r cm in Figure 20 rotates, the rod of length L attached at point P drives a piston back and
Two trains leave a station at t = 0 and travel with constant velocity v along straight tracks that make an angle θ .
forth in a straight line. Let x be the distance from the origin to point Q√at the end of the rod, as shown in the figure.
(a) Use Show
(a) that the trains
the Pythagorean are separating
Theorem from each other at a rate v 2 − 2 cos θ.
to show that
(b) What does this formula give for θ = π?
L2 = (x − r cos θ)2 + r 2 sin2 θ 6

(b) Differentiate Eq. (6) with respect to t to prove that


dx dθ dθ
2(x − r cos θ) + r sin θ + 2r 2 sin θ cos θ =0
dt dt dt
(c) Calculate the speed of the piston when θ = π2 , assuming that r = 10 cm, L = 30 cm, and the wheel rotates at 4
revolutions per minute.

Piston moves
r P back and forth
q
L

x
FIGURE 20

solution From the diagram, the coordinates of P are (r cos θ, r sin θ) and those of Q are (x, 0).
(a) The distance formula gives

L = (x − r cos θ)2 + (−r sin θ)2 .

Thus,

L2 = (x − r cos θ)2 + r 2 sin2 θ.

Note that L (the length of the fixed rod) and r (the radius of the wheel) are constants.
(b) From (a) we have


dx dθ dθ
0 = 2 (x − r cos θ) + r sin θ + 2r 2 sin θ cos θ .
dt dt dt
(c) Solving for dx/dt in (b) gives

dx r 2 sin θ cos θ dθ
dt dθ rx sin θ dθ
dt
= − r sin θ = .
dt r cos θ − x dt r cos θ − x

May 25, 2011

184 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

With θ = π2 , r = 10, L = 30, and dθ

dt = 8π,
 
dx (10) (x) sin π2 (8π)
= = −80π ≈ −251.33 cm/min
dt (10) (0) − x

45. A cylindrical tank of radius R and length L lying horizontally as in Figure 21 is filled with oil to height h.
A spectator seated 300 m away from the center of a circular track of radius 100 m watches an athlete run laps at a
(a) Show
speed that
of 5 the
m/s.volume V (h)
How fast of oil
is the in the tank
distance is the spectator and athlete changing when the runner is approaching
between

the spectator and the distance between them is

250 m?  
h Hint: The diagram
 problem is similar to Figure 20,
for this
with r = 100 and x = 300.V (h) = L R 2 cos−1 1 − − (R − h) 2hR − h2
R
√
(b) Show that dV
dh = 2L h(2R − h).
(c) Suppose that R = 1.5 m and L = 10 m and that the tank is filled at a constant rate of 0.6 m3 /min. How fast is the
height h increasing when h = 0.5?

L
h

FIGURE 21 Oil in the tank has level h.

solution
(a) From Figure 21, we see that the volume of oil in the tank, V (h), is equal to L times A(h), the area of that portion of
the circular cross section occupied by the oil. Now,

R2 θ R 2 sin θ
A(h) = area of sector − area of triangle = − ,
2 2
where θ is the central angle of the sector. Referring to the diagram below,

θ R−h θ 2hR − h2
cos = and sin = .
2 R 2 R

/2
R
R−h

2hR − h2

Thus,


h
θ = 2 cos−1 1 − ,
R

θ θ (R − h) 2hR − h2
sin θ = 2 sin cos = 2 ,
2 2 R2

and


  
h
V (h) = L R 2 cos−1 1 − − (R − h) 2hR − h2 .
R
d cos−1 u = − √ 1
(b) Recalling that dx du ,
1−x 2 dx



 
dV d h d  
=L R 2 cos−1 1 − − (R − h) 2hR − h2
dh dh R dh
 
−1  (R − h)2
= L −R  + 2hR − h − 
2
1 − (1 − (h/R))2 2hR − h2

May 25, 2011

 Chapter Review Exercises 185
 
R2  R 2 − 2Rh + h2
=L  + 2hR − h2 − 
2hR − h2 2hR − h2
 
R 2 + (2hR − h2 ) − (R 2 − 2Rh + h2 )
=L 
2hR − h2
   
4hR − 2h2 2(2hR − h2 ) 
=L  =L  = 2L 2hR − h2 .
2hR − h2 2hR − h2
dV dV dh dh 1 dV
(c) = , so = . From part (b) with R = 1.5, L = 10 and h = 0.5,
dt dh dt dt dV /dh dt
 √
dV
= 2(10) 2(0.5)(1.5) − 0.52 = 10 5 m2 .
dh
Thus,
√
dh 1 3 5
= √ (0.6) = ≈ 0.0027 m/min.
dt 10 5 2500

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISES

In Exercises 1–4, refer to the function f (x) whose graph is shown in Figure 1.

y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
FIGURE 1

1. Compute the average rate of change of f (x) over [0, 2]. What is the graphical interpretation of this average rate?
solution The average rate of change of f (x) over [0, 2] is
f (2) − f (0) 7−1
= = 3.
2−0 2−0
Graphically, this average rate of change represents the slope of the secant line through the points (2, 7) and (0, 1) on the
graph of f (x).
f (0.7 + h) − f (0.7)
3. Estimate for h+=
f (0.7 h)0.3. this number larger or smaller than f  (0.7)?
− fIs(0.7)
For which valuehof h is equal to the slope of the secant line between the points where
h
solution For h =
x = 0.7 and x = 1.1?
0.3,
f (0.7 + h) − f (0.7) f (1) − f (0.7) 2.8 − 2 8
= ≈ = .
h 0.3 0.3 3
Because the curve is concave up, the slope of the secant line is larger than the slope of the tangent line, so the value of
the difference quotient should be larger than the value of the derivative.
In Exercises 5–8, compute
Estimate f  (a)
f  (0.7) and using the limit definition and find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x)
f  (1.1).
at x = a.
5. f (x) = x 2 − x, a=1
solution Let f (x) = x 2 − x and a = 1. Then

f (a + h) − f (a) (1 + h)2 − (1 + h) − (12 − 1)

f  (a) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
1 + 2h + h2 − 1 − h
= lim = lim (1 + h) = 1
h→0 h h→0
and the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = a is
y = f  (a)(x − a) + f (a) = 1(x − 1) + 0 = x − 1.

May 25, 2011

186 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

7. f (x) = x=−15, − a3x,

f (x) = 4a = 2
solution Let f (x) = x −1 and a = 4. Then
1 − 1
f (a + h) − f (a) 4 − (4 + h)
f  (a) = lim = lim 4+h 4 = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 4h(4 + h)
−1 1 1
= lim =− =−
h→0 4(4 + h) 4(4 + 0) 16
and the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = a is
1 1 1 1
y = f  (a)(x − a) + f (a) = − (x − 4) + = − x + .
16 4 16 2

In Exercises 9–12, 3compute dy/dx using the limit definition.

f (x) = x , a = −2
9. y = 4 − x 2
solution Let y = 4 − x 2 . Then

dy 4 − (x + h)2 − (4 − x 2 ) 4 − x 2 − 2xh − h2 − 4 + x 2
= lim = lim = lim (−2x − h) = −2x − 0 = −2x.
dx h→0 h h→0 h h→0

1√
11. y =y = 2x + 1
2−x
1
solution Let y = . Then
2−x
1 1
dy 2−(x+h) − 2−x (2 − x) − (2 − x − h) 1 1
= lim = lim = lim = .
dx h→0 h h→0 h(2 − x − h)(2 − x) h→0 (2 − x − h)(2 − x) (2 − x)2

In Exercises 13–16,1 express the limit as a derivative.

y√=
+−
1(x h−1)21
13. lim
h→0 h
√
solution Let f (x) = x. Then
√
1+h−1 f (1 + h) − f (1)
lim = lim = f  (1).
h→0 h h→0 h

sin t cos t
15. lim 3
t→π limt −xπ + 1
x→−1 x + 1
solution Let f (t) = sin t cos t and note that f (π) = sin π cos π = 0. Then

sin t cos t f (t) − f (π)

lim = lim = f  (π).
t→π t −π t→π t −π

17. Find f (4) and f  (4) if the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 4 has equation y = 3x − 14.
cos θ − sin θ + 1
solution lim The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 4 is y = f  (4)(x − 4) + f (4) = f  (4)x +
θ→π θ −π
(f (4) − 4f  (4)). Matching this to y = 3x − 14, we see that f  (4) = 3 and f (4) − 4(3) = −14, so f (4) = −2.
19. Is (A), (B), or (C) the graph of the derivative of the function f (x) shown in Figure 3? 
Each graph in Figure 2 shows the graph of a function f (x) and its derivative f (x). Determine which is the
function and which is the derivative. y
y = f(x)
x
−2 −1 1 2

y y y

x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2 x
−2 −1 1 2
(A) (B) (C)
FIGURE 3

May 25, 2011

 Chapter Review Exercises 187

solution The graph of f (x) has four horizontal tangent lines on [−2, 2], so the graph of its derivative must have four
x-intercepts on [−2, 2]. This eliminates (B). Moreover, f (x) is increasing at both ends of the interval, so its derivative
must be positive at both ends. This eliminates (A) and identifies (C) as the graph of f  (x).
21. A girl’s height h(t) (in centimeters) is measured at time t (in years) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 14:
Let N(t) be the percentage of a state population infected with a flu virus on week t of an epidemic. What percentage
is likely to be infected in52, 4 if N 87.5,
week75.1, and N 104.5,
(3) = 896.7, (3) = 1.2?
111.8, 118.7, 125.2,
131.5, 137.5, 143.3, 149.2, 155.3, 160.8, 164.7

(a) What is the average growth rate over the 14-year period?
(b) Is the average growth rate larger over the first half or the second half of this period?
(c) Estimate h (t) (in centimeters per year) for t = 3, 8.
solution
(a) The average growth rate over the 14-year period is
164.7 − 52
= 8.05 cm/year.
14
(b) Over the first half of the 14-year period, the average growth rate is
125.2 − 52
≈ 10.46 cm/year,
7
which is larger than the average growth rate over the second half of the 14-year period:
164.7 − 125.2
≈ 5.64 cm/year.
7
(c) For t = 3,
h(4) − h(3) 104.5 − 96.7
h (3) ≈ = = 7.8 cm/year;
4−3 1
for t = 8,
h(9) − h(8) 137.5 − 131.5
h (8) ≈ = = 6.0 cm/year.
9−8 1

In Exercises 23 and 24, use the following table of values for the number A(t) of automobiles (in millions) manufactured
A planet’s period P (number of days to complete one revolution around the sun) is approximately 0.199A3/2 ,
in the United States in year t.
where A is the average distance (in millions of kilometers) from the planet to the sun.
(a) Calculate P and dP t /dA for Earth 1971
1970 = 150.1974 1975 1976
value A1973
using the1972
(b) Estimate the increase in P if A is increased to 152.
A(t) 6.55 8.58 8.83 9.67 7.32 6.72 8.50

23. What is the interpretation of A (t)? Estimate A (1971). Does A (1974) appear to be positive or negative?
solution Because A(t) measures the number of automobiles manufactured in the United States in year t, A (t)
measures the rate of change in automobile production in the United States. For t = 1971,
A(1972) − A(1971) 8.83 − 8.58
A (1971) ≈ = = 0.25 million automobiles/year.
1972 − 1971 1
Because A(t) decreases from 1973 to 1974 and from 1974 to 1975, it appears that A (1974) would be negative.
d
25. Which of the following
Given is of
data, which equal to in2xFigure
(A)–(C) ? 4 could be the graph of the derivative A (t)? Explain.
dx
1 x
(a) 2x (b) (ln 2)2x (c) x2x−1 (d) 2
ln 2
solution The derivative of f (x) = 2x is

d x
2 = 2x ln 2.
dx
Hence, the correct answer is (b).
27. Show that if f (x) is a function satisfying f  (x) = f (x)2 , then its inverse g(x) satisfies g  (x) = x −2 .
Describe the graphical interpretation of the relation g  (x) = 1/f  (g(x)), where f (x) and g(x) are inverses of
solution
each other.
1 1 1
g  (x) = = = 2 = x −2 .
f  (g(x)) f (g(x))2 x

Find g  (8), where g(x) is the inverse of a differentiable function f (x) such that f (−1) = 8 and f  (−1) = 12.

May 25, 2011

188 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 29–80, compute the derivative.

29. y = 3x 5 − 7x 2 + 4
solution Let y = 3x 5 − 7x 2 + 4. Then
dy
= 15x 4 − 14x.
dx

31. y = t −7.3 −3/2

y = 4x
solution Let y = t −7.3 . Then
dy
= −7.3t −8.3 .
dt
x+1
33. y =y =2 4x 2 − x −2
x +1
x+1
solution Let y = 2 . Then
x +1
dy (x 2 + 1)(1) − (x + 1)(2x) 1 − 2x − x 2
= = .
dx (x 2 + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)2

35. y = (x 4 3t
−− 9x)
2
6
y = y= 4 6
solution Let 4t − 9 (x − 9x) . Then
dy d
= 6(x 4 − 9x)5 (x 4 − 9x) = 6(4x 3 − 9)(x 4 − 9x)5 .
dx dx

37. y = (2 + 9x 2 )3/2
y = (3t 2 + 20t −3 )6 2 3/2
solution Let y = (2 + 9x ) . Then
dy 3 d
= (2 + 9x 2 )1/2 (2 + 9x 2 ) = 27x(2 + 9x 2 )1/2 .
dx 2 dx
z
39. y = √ 3 4
y =1(x
−+z 1) (x + 4)
z
solution Let y = √ . Then
1−z
√
dy 1 − z − (− 2z ) √ 1 1 − z + 2z 2−z
1−z
= = = .
dz 1−z (1 − z)3/2 2(1 − z)3/2
√
x4

+ x 3
41. y = 1
y = x 12 +
x
solution Let
√
x4 + x
y= = x 2 + x −3/2 .
x2
Then
dy 3
= 2x − x −5/2 .
dx 2
 
43. y =y =x + x +1 √x
√
(1 − x) 2 − x
√
solution Let y = x + x + x. Then

 
 
dy 1 √ −1/2 d √
= x+ x+ x x+ x+ x
dx 2 dx

 −1/2

1 √ 1 √ −1/2 d  √ 
= x+ x+ x 1+ x+ x x+ x
2 2 dx

 −1/2


1 √ 1 √ −1/2 1
= x+ x+ x 1+ x+ x 1 + x −1/2 .
2 2 2

 −3/2
h(z) = z + (z + 1)1/2

May 25, 2011

 Chapter Review Exercises 189

45. y = tan(t −3 )
solution Let y = tan(t −3 ). Then
dy d
= sec2 (t −3 ) t −3 = −3t −4 sec2 (t −3 ).
dt dt

47. y =y sin(2x) 2x
cos−
= 4 cos(2 3x)
solution Let y = sin(2x) cos2 x = 2 sin x cos3 x. Then
dy
= −6 sin2 x cos2 x + 2 cos4 x.
dx

t

49. y =
sec t4
y 1=+sin
θ t
solution Let y = . Then
1 + sec t
dy 1 + sec t − t sec t tan t
= .
dt (1 + sec t)2

8
51. y =y = z csc(9z + 1)
1 + cot θ
8
solution Let y = = 8(1 + cot θ)−1 . Then
1 + cot θ
dy d 8 csc2 θ
= −8(1 + cot θ)−2 (1 + cot θ) = .
dθ dθ (1 + cot θ)2
√
53. y =y tan( 1 + csc
= tan(cos x) θ)
solution
dy √ d √
= sec2 ( 1 + csc θ) 1 + csc θ
dx dx
√ 1 d
= sec2 ( 1 + csc θ) · (1 + csc θ)−1/2 (1 + csc θ)
2 dx
√
sec2 ( 1 + csc θ) csc θ cot θ
=− √ .
2( 1 + csc θ)

55. f (x)
y= 9e−4x
= cos(cos(cos(θ)))
d −4x
solution 9e = −36e−4x .
dx
2
57. g(t) = e4t−te−x
f (x)d=
solution x 2 = (4 − 2t)e4t−t 2 .
e4t−t
dt
59. f (x) = ln(4x 2 + 1)
g (t) = t 2 e1/t
d 8x
solution ln(4x 2 + 1) = 2 .
dx 4x + 1
61. G(s) = (ln(s))2x
f (x) = ln(e − 4x)
d 2 ln s
solution (ln s)2 = .
ds s
63. f (θ ) = ln(sin θ)
G(s) d= ln(s 2 ) cos θ
solution ln(sin θ) = = cot θ.
dθ sin θ
65. h(z) = sec(z + ln z)
f (θ ) = sin(ln θ)

d 1
solution sec(z + ln z) = sec(z + ln z) tan(z + ln z) 1 + .
dz z
67. f (x) = 7−2x 2
f (x) d= esin x   
solution 7−2x = − 2 ln 7 7−2x .
dx

May 25, 2011

190 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

69. g(x) = tan−1 (ln x)

1 + ey
h (y) d= y 1 1
solution 1 −−1e(ln
tan x) = · .
dx 1 + (ln x)2 x
71. f (x) = ln(csc−1 x)
G(s) = cos−1 (s −1 )
d 1
solution ln(csc−1 x) = −  .
dx |x| x 2 − 1 csc−1 x

73. R(s) = s ln s −1
f (x) = esec x
solution Rewrite
 ln s 2
R(s) = eln s = e(ln s) .

Then
dR 2 1 2 ln s ln s
= e(ln s) · 2 ln s · = s .
ds s s
 
Alternately, R(s) = s ln s implies that ln R = ln s ln s = (ln s)2 . Thus,

1 dR 1 dR 2 ln s ln s
= 2 ln s · or = s .
R ds s ds s

75. G(t) = (sin2 t)t2 cos x

f (x) = (cos x)
solution Rewrite
 2
t
G(t) = eln sin t = e2t ln sin t .

Then


dG cos t
= e2t ln sin t 2t · + 2 ln sin t = 2(sin2 t)t (t cot t + ln sin t).
dt sin t

Alternately, G(t) = (sin2 t)t implies that ln G = t ln sin2 t = 2t ln sin t. Thus,

1 dG cos t
= 2t · + 2 ln sin t,
G dt sin t
and
dG
= 2(sin2 t)t (t cot t + ln sin t).
dt

77. g(t) = sinh(t 2

t )
h(t) = t (t )
d
solution sinh(t 2 ) = 2t cosh(t 2 ).
dt
79. g(x) = tanh −1 (ex )
h(y) = y tanh(4y)
d 1 ex
solution tanh−1 (ex ) = x
ex = .
dx 1 − (e )2 1 − e2x

81. For which values of α is f (x) = |x|α differentiable at x = 0?
g(t) = t 2 − 1 sinhα−1 t
solution Let f (x) = |x| . If α < 0, then f (x) is not continuous at x = 0 and therefore cannot be differentiable
at x = 0. If α = 0, then the function reduces to f (x) = 1, which is differentiable at x = 0. Now, suppose α > 0 and
consider the limit
f (x) − f (0) |x|α
lim = lim .
x→0 x−0 x→0 x

If 0 < α < 1, then

|x|α |x|α
lim = −∞ while lim =∞
x→0− x x→0+ x

May 25, 2011

 Chapter Review Exercises 191

and f  (0) does not exist. If α = 1, then

|x| |x|
lim = −1 while lim =1
x→0− x x→0+ x

and f  (0) again does not exist. Finally, if α > 1, then

|x|α
lim = 0,
x→0 x

so f  (0) does exist.

In summary, f (x) = |x|α is differentiable at x = 0 when α = 0 and when α > 1.

In Exercises 83 and 84, let f (x) = xxe −x .

Find f (2) if f (g(x)) = e , g(1) = 2, and g  (1) = 4.
2

83. Show that f (x) has an inverse on [1, ∞). Let g(x) be this inverse. Find the domain and range of g(x) and compute
g  (2e−2 ).
solution Let f (x) = xe−x . Then f  (x) = e−x (1 − x). On [1, ∞), f  (x) < 0, so f (x) is decreasing and therefore
one-to-one. It follows that f (x) has an inverse on [1, ∞). Let g(x) denote this inverse. Because f (1) = e−1 and f (x) → 0
as x → ∞, the domain of g(x) is (0, e−1 ], and the range is [1, ∞).
To determine g  (2e−2 ), we use the formula g  (x) = 1/f  (g(x)). Because f (2) = 2e−2 , it follows that g(2e−2 ) = 2.
Then,
1 1 1
g  (2e−2 ) = = = = −e2 .
f  (g(2e−2 )) f  (2) −e−2

In Exercises 85–90, use the following table of values to calculate the derivative of the given function at x = 2.
Show that f (x) = c has two solutions if 0 < c < e−1 .
x f (x) g(x) f  (x) g  (x)
2 5 4 −3 9
4 3 2 −2 3

85. S(x) = 3f (x) − 2g(x)

solution Let S(x) = 3f (x) − 2g(x). Then S  (x) = 3f  (x) − 2g  (x) and

S  (2) = 3f  (2) − 2g  (2) = 3(−3) − 2(9) = −27.

f (x)
87. R(x) = = f (x)g(x)
H (x)
g(x)
solution Let R(x) = f (x)/g(x). Then

g(x)f  (x) − f (x)g  (x)

R  (x) =
g(x)2
and
g(2)f  (2) − f (2)g  (2) 4(−3) − 5(9) 57
R  (2) = = =− .
g(2)2 42 16

89. F (x) = f (g(2x))

G(x) = f (g(x))
solution Let F (x) = f (g(2x)). Then F  (x) = 2f  (g(2x))g  (2x) and

F  (2) = 2f  (g(4))g  (4) = 2f  (2)g  (4) = 2(−3)(3) = −18.

91. Find the points on the graph of f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + x + 4 where the tangent line has slope 10.
K(x) = f (x 2 )
solution Let f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + x + 4. Then f  (x) = 3x 2 − 6x + 1. The tangent line to the graph of f (x) will
have slope 10 when f  (x) = 10. Solving the quadratic equation 3x 2 − 6x + 1 = 10 yields x = −1 and x = 3. Thus, the
points on the graph of f (x) where the tangent line has slope 10 are (−1, −1) and (3, 7).
93. Find a such that the tangent lines y = x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1 at x = a and x = a + 1 are parallel.
Find the points on the graph of x 2/3 + y 2/3 = 1 where the tangent line has slope 1.
solution Let f (x) = x − 2x + x + 1. Then f  (x) = 3x 2 − 4x + 1 and the slope of the tangent line at x = a is
3 2

f  (a) = 3a 2 − 4a + 1, while the slope of the tangent line at x = a + 1 is

f  (a + 1) = 3(a + 1)2 − 4(a + 1) + 1 = 3(a 2 + 2a + 1) − 4a − 4 + 1 = 3a 2 + 2a.

May 25, 2011

192 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In order for the tangent lines at x = a and x = a + 1 to have the same slope, we must have f  (a) = f  (a + 1), or
3a 2 − 4a + 1 = 3a 2 + 2a.
The only solution to this equation is a = 16 . The equation of the tangent line at x = 16 is





1 1 1 5 1 241 5 113
y = f x− +f = x− + = x+ ,
6 6 6 12 6 216 12 108

and the equation of the tangent line at x = 76 is





7 7 7 5 7 223 5 59
y = f x− +f = x− + = x+ .
6 6 6 12 6 216 12 108
The graphs of f (x) and the two tangent lines appear below.
y

3
2

x
−1 −1 0.5 1 1.5 2
−2
−3

In Exercises 95–100, calculate y  .

Use the table to compute the average rate of change of Candidate A’s percentage of votes over the intervals
95. yfrom day3 20
= 12x to 2day
− 5x + 3x
15, day 15 to day 10, and day 10 to day 5. If this trend continues over the last 5 days before the
election, will Candidate A win?
solution Let y = 12x 3 − 5x 2 + 3x. Then

y  =Before
Days Election
36x 2 − 20 y  15
10x + 3 and = 72x −1010. 5

√ Candidate A 44.8% 46.8% 48.3% 49.3%

97. y = 2x −2/5
+3
y=x √ Candidate B 55.2% 53.2% 51.7% 50.7%
solution Let y = 2x + 3 = (2x + 3)1/2 . Then
1 d 1 d
y = (2x + 3)−1/2 (2x + 3) = (2x + 3)−1/2 and y  = − (2x + 3)−3/2 (2x + 3) = −(2x + 3)−3/2 .
2 dx 2 dx
2)
99. y = tan(x4x
solutiony = Let y = tan(x 2 ). Then
x+1
y  = 2x sec2 (x 2 ) and


d
y  = 2x 2 sec(x 2 ) sec(x 2 ) + 2 sec2 (x 2 ) = 8x 2 sec2 (x 2 ) tan(x 2 ) + 2 sec2 (x 2 ).
dx

dy
In Exercises sin2 (4x +compute
y =101–106, 9) .
dx
101. x 3 − y 3 = 4
solution Consider the equation x 3 − y 3 = 4. Differentiating with respect to x yields
dy
3x 2 − 3y 2 = 0.
dx
Therefore,
dy x2
= 2.
dx y

103. y = xy 2 + 2x 2
4x 2 − 9y 2 = 36
solution Consider the equation y = xy 2 + 2x 2 . Differentiating with respect to x yields
dy dy
= 2xy + y 2 + 4x.
dx dx
Therefore,
dy y 2 + 4x
= .
dx 1 − 2xy

May 25, 2011

 Chapter Review Exercises 193

105. y =ysin(x + y)
=x+y
solutionx Consider the equation y = sin(x + y). Differentiating with respect to x yields


dy dy
= cos(x + y) 1 + .
dx dx

Therefore,
dy cos(x + y)
= .
dx 1 − cos(x + y)

107. In Figure 5, label the graphs f , f  , and f  .

tan(x + y) = xy
y y

x x

FIGURE 5

solution First consider the plot on the left. Observe that the green curve is nonnegative whereas the red curve is
increasing, suggesting that the green curve is the derivative of the red curve. Moreover, the green curve is linear with
negative slope for x < 0 and linear with positive slope for x > 0 while the blue curve is a negative constant for x < 0
and a positive constant for x > 0, suggesting the blue curve is the derivative of the green curve. Thus, the red, green and
blue curves, respectively, are the graphs of f , f  and f  .
Now consider the plot on the right. Because the red curve is decreasing when the blue curve is negative and increasing
when the blue curve is positive and the green curve is decreasing when the red curve is negative and increasing when the
red curve is positive, it follows that the green, red and blue curves, respectively, are the graphs of f , f  and f  .

In Exercises 109–114, use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative.

Let f (x) = x 2 sin(x −1 ) for x = 0 and f (0) = 0. Show that f  (x) exists for all x (including x = 0) but that

f (x)(xis +
not1)continuous at x = 0 (Figure 6).
3
109. y =
(4x − 2)2
(x + 1)3
solution Let y = . Then
(4x − 2)2
 
(x + 1)3
ln y = ln = ln (x + 1)3 − ln (4x − 2)2 = 3 ln(x + 1) − 2 ln(4x − 2).
(4x − 2)2

By logarithmic differentiation,

y 3 2 3 4
= − ·4= − ,
y x + 1 4x − 2 x + 1 2x − 1
so


(x + 1)3 3 4
y = − .
(4x − 2)2 x + 1 2x − 1

2 2
111. y = e(x−1) e(x−3)
(x + 1)(x + 2)2
y= 2 2
solution Let (x y+=3)(x + 4)e(x−3) . Then
e(x−1)
 2  2
ln y = ln e(x−1) e(x−3) = ln e(x−1) +(x−3) = (x − 1)2 + (x − 3)2 .
2 2

By logarithmic differentiation,

y
= 2(x − 1) + 2(x − 3) = 4x − 8,
y
so

y  = 4e(x−1) e(x−3) (x − 2).

2 2

May 25, 2011

194 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

e3x (xx − 2) 2
113. y = e sin−1 x
y =(x + 1) 2
ln x
e3x (x − 2)2
solution Let y = . Then
(x + 1)2
 
e3x (x − 2)2
ln y = ln = ln e3x + ln (x − 2)2 − ln (x + 1)2
(x + 1)2
= 3x + 2 ln(x − 2) − 2 ln(x + 1).

By logarithmic differentiation,
y 2 2
=3+ − ,
y x−2 x+1
so


e3x (x − 2)2 2 2
y= 3+ − .
(x + 1)2 x−2 x+1

√
Exercises 115–117:
x x (x
y =price ln x )q be the number of units of a product (cell phones, barrels of oil, etc.) that can be sold at the
Let
price p. The elasticity of demand E is defined as the percentage rate of change of q with respect to p. In terms of
derivatives,
p dq (100q)/q
E= = lim
q dp p→0 (100p)/p

dR
115. Show that the total revenue R = pq satisfies = q(1 + E).
dp
solution Let R = pq. Then
dR dq p dq
=p +q =q + q = q(E + 1).
dp dp q dp

117. The monthly demand (in thousands) for flights between Chicago and St. Louis at the price p is q = 40 − 0.2p.
A commercial
Calculate the bakery
price elasticity can sell qwhen
of demand chocolate cakesand
p = $150 per estimate
week at price
the percentage = 50p(10
$p, where qincrease − p) forof5 additional
in number < p < 10.
passengers if thethat
ticket price 2p − 10
(a) Show E(p) = is lowered. by 1%.
solution Let q = 40 − 0.2p. p −Then
10 q  (p) = −0.2 and
(b) Show, by computing E(8), that if p = $8,
thena 1% increase in price reduces demand by approximately 3%.
p dq 0.2p
E(p) = = .
q dp 0.2p − 40
For p = 150,
0.2(150)
E(150) = = −3,
0.2(150) − 40
so a 1% decrease in price increases demand by 3%. The demand when p = 150 is q = 40 − 0.2(150) = 10, or 10000
passengers. Therefore, a 1% increase in demand translates to 300 additional passengers.
119. The minute hand of a clock is 8 cm long, and the hour hand is 5 cm long. How fast is the distance between the tips
How fast does the water level rise in the tank in Figure 7 when the water level is h = 4 m and water pours in at
of the hands changing at 3 o’clock?
20 m3 /min?
solution Let S be the distance between the tips of the two hands. By the law of cosines

S 2 = 82 + 52 − 2 · 8 · 5 cos(θ),

where θ is the angle between the hands. Thus

dS dθ
2S = 80 sin(θ) .
dt dt
√
At three o’clock θ = π/2, S = 89, and
dθ  π π 11π
= − rad/min = − rad/min,
dt 360 30 360
so
dS 1 −11π
= √ (80)(1) ≈ −0.407 cm/min.
dt 2 89 360

May 25, 2011

 Chapter Review Exercises 195

121. A bead slides down the curve xy = 10. Find the bead’s horizontal velocity at time t = 2 s if its height at time t
Chloe and Bao are in motorboats at the center of a lake. At time t = 0, Chloe begins traveling south at a speed of
seconds is y = 400 − 16t 2 cm.
50 km/h. One minute later, Bao takes off, heading east at a speed of 40 km/h. At what rate is the distance between
solution Let xy =at10.
them increasing t =Then x = 10/y and
12 min?
dx 10 dy
=− 2 .
dt y dt

If y = 400 − 16t 2 , then dy

dt = −32t and

dx 10 320t
=− (−32t) = .
dt (400 − 16t 2 )2 (400 − 16t 2 )2
Thus, at t = 2,
dx 640
= ≈ 0.00567 cm/s.
dt (336)2

123. A light moving at 0.8 m/s approaches a man standing 4 m from a wall (Figure 9). The light is 1 m above the ground.
In Figure 8, x is increasing at 2 cm/s, y is increasing at 3 cm/s, and θ is decreasing such that the area of the triangle
How fast is the tip P of the man’s2 shadow moving when the light is 7 m from the wall?
has the constant value 4 cm .
(a) How fast is θ decreasing when x = 4, y = 4?
(b) How fast is the distance betweenP
P and Q changing when x = 4, y = 4?

1.8 m
1m

4m 0.8 m/s
FIGURE 9

solution Let x denote the distance between the man and the light. Using similar triangles, we find

0.8 P −1 3.2
= or P = + 1.8.
x 4+x x
Therefore,
dP 3.2 dx
=− 2 .
dt x dt

When the light is 7 feet from the wall, x = 3. With dx

dt = −0.8, we have

dP 3.2
= − 2 (−0.8) = 0.284 m/s.
dt 3

May 25, 2011