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A REVIEW OF SOLAR CELL FUNDAMENTALS AND TECHNOLOGIES

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 Advanced Science Letters
E-ISSN:1936-7317

A REVIEW OF SOLAR CELL FUNDAMENTALS AND

TECHNOLOGIES
*
Ramesh Babu Kodati1, Puli Nnageshwar Rao2
1,2
Department of S&H, St. Martin's Engineering College, ecunderabad-500100, Telangana ,
India

Abstract— The paper is intended to The conventional energy sources (oil, gas
through light on Solar cell fundamentals and coal) are available in a fixed quantity
and various technologies developed and cause environmental pollution.
from time to time. Solar cell and its According to an estimation coal, oil,
parameters are introduced. Discovery of natural gas can last only for 205, 40 and 53
new materials lead to new solar cell years, respectively. Therefore there is a need
technologies. Efforts are made to of alternative energy sources which can
explain various solar cell technologies in provide us energy in a sustainable manner.
brief. The materials used in different Non-conventional energy sources are
technologies are mentioned. The renewable, inexhaustible, generally
developments in various technologies pollution free, less expensive and easy to
are discussed. Some results from recent maintain. Among these sources, Solar
journal publications are also included. Energy Systems require no maintenance
The paper is concluded with some and will last for decades. Once installed
suggestions to improve the performance there are no recurring costs. They work
of solar cells. It explains the the need of without sound pollution and generate
further research in this area. electricity (photovoltaic) or heat (solar
thermal) at home. Solar Cells can be used
Keywords— Solar cell, Solar cell at other planets and satellites .So it is
technologies, Power conversion necessary to understand the
efficiency, Dye Sensitized Solar cell, fundamentals of solar cells and
Organic solar cell, Quantum dot solar technologies developed from time to
cell, Perovskite solar cell. time to fabricate solar cells.

2. WORKING PRINCIPLE
1. INTRODUCTION
A solar cell is a solid-state electrical
In order to perform work on or heat an
object, energy must be transferred to it. device (p-n junction) which converts
Coal, Oil, Natural gas, Nuclear power, light energy into electricity (DC) using
Wood, Straw, Cow Dung are the the photovoltaic effect. Thus solar cell is
conventional sources of energy which are a photovoltaic device, i.e., a device that
also called as non - renewable energy generates voltage when exposed to
sources. Non-conventional energy sources light. The working of a Solar cell is
which are also known as renewable energy
given by the following three steps.
sources are given by Wind Energy, Bio
Energy, Tidal Energy, Geothermal Energy, 1. The generation of electron-hole
Solar energy. pairs (or excitons) by absorbing light.
2. The separation of pairs into charge
*[email protected] carriers with the help of internal field.
 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

There is diffusion and drift of carriers (it Solar cell equivalent circuit is given by
is not possible to drift apart the photo Fig.2. Series Resistance (𝑅𝑆) indicates
generated EHPs without the internal ohmic resistance in solar cell, metallic
field). contact and sc junction while parallel
3. The extraction of carriers into resistance Rp indicates crystallographic
an external circuit. defect, grain boundary. 𝑅𝑆 should 0 and
The open-circuit voltage (Voc), is the 𝑅𝑃 should be infinite for an ideal solar
maximum voltage available from a solar
cell.
cell, when its terminals are left open. The
short-circuit current (𝐼sc) is the maximum
current produced when terminals of solar
cell are shorted. There will be a
photocurrent during illumination. If the
load is short circuited, then the external
current is simply equal to the
photocurrent 𝐼𝑝ℎ generated by the
Fig.2 Equivalent of solar cell
incident radiation.
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = −𝐼𝑝ℎ = 𝐾𝐼 (1) Fill factor is the parameter that compares
maximum power obtained and maximum
where I is the intensity of incident light
theoretical power.
and K is a device specific constant.
The dark current is given by the usual 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,FF = (4)
forward biased p-n junction diode equation
Power conversion efficiency is defined as
𝑒𝑉/𝜂𝑘𝑇
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒= 𝐼0[𝑒 -1] (2) the ratio of the output power to input
power i.e.
where 𝜂 is the diode ideality factor.
Hence total current through illuminated (5)
Solar Cell will be:-
𝑒𝑉/𝜂𝑘𝑇 3.Solar cell technologies[1]:
𝐼=−𝐼𝑝ℎ+𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒=−𝐼𝑝ℎ+𝐼0[𝑒 -1]
(3) In 1953 the first silicon solar cell
The I-V characteristic curve in fourth was developed(First generation). These
quadrant is given by Fig.1. cells are used in space crafts.
Development is to supply cells for
communication with satellites and other
space crafts. In 1973, solar cells are
applied as renewable energy resources,
with some change in standard
technology. First generation solar cell is
simply a single crystal silicon solar cell.

Fig.1. Solar cell Characteristic

 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

3.1 Single crystalline silicon solar cell There are four types of junctions that can
Technology:- be used in realizing thin film solar cells:-
The various stages involved in fabricating i)Homo-junction solar cell(p and n regions
Single crystal silicon solar cell are given are obtained using same type of material)
below[2],[3].
ii)P-i-N junction solar cell(intrinsic layer is
i) Reducing sand into metallurgical-grade used in between n and p regions)(Fig. 3)
silicon (which is 98% pure silicon).
iii)Hetero junction solar cell(p and n
ii) Purifying metallurgical grade-Si into regions are obtained from different
semiconductor grade silicon using materials)
Siemens process to reach purity of
99.99%. iv) Multijunction solar cell( series of
junctions are used).
iii)Converting semiconductor grade
silicon into single crystal silicon wafers
using Czochralski method.
iv)Processing of single-crystal silicon
wafer into solar cells.
v)Converting solar cell into solar
module(series and parallel arrangement
of solar cells).
These processes are performed at
elevated temperatures. These solar cells
have high efficiency(about 20%), high
stability to withstand atmospheric Fig. 3. P-i-N junction solar cell
changes but are costly. In case of mono or multi crystalline Si
3.2 Thin film technologies:- wafer based solar cells, the collection of
charge carriers at front metal contact is
These are referred to as second generation
done using finger bus bar contact
technologies[4]. The primary objective of
arrangement. This is not the case with thin
thin film technologies is to decrease the
film materials. Here the function of
cost of solar modules.Thin film technologies
continuous but transparent metal contact is
include amorphous Si, CdTe, CIGS and
fulfilled by transparent conductive oxide or
thin film crystalline Si solar cell
TCO. The TCO is generally used at the
technologies. Thin film solar cells are
front side of the solar cell where it
formed by using physical vapour
becomes metal contact, but in many cases,
deposition techniques such as evaporation,
it is also used at the back side of the cell
Sputtering, Molecular beam epitaxy etc.,
mainly for improving the optical properties
and chemical vapour deposition techniques
of the cell by refractive index matching.
such as Low pressure CVD (LPCVD)
Conductivity of TCO layer should be as
,atmospheric pressure CVD, Plasma
high as possible. Several types of TCO
enhanced CVD, Hot wire
layers are used in solar cells. The TCO
CVD(HWCVD),Metal – Organic CVD
layers include indium tin oxide (ITO),
(MOCVD),Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE).
 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

SnO2(Tin Oxide), ZnO:B (boron doped amorphous solar cell is smaller than single
zinc oxide), ZnO:Al (aluminium doped crystalline silicon solar cell , commercial solar
zinc oxide) etc. Among these, ITO fulfills panels are fabricated using thin film
almost all the requirements of a TCO layer amorphous solar cell technology because of the
and it is successfully used in front contact less manufacturing cost.
in substrate configuration of a cell. The
3.3 Third generation solar cell
ITO is normally deposited using APCVD
technologies:-
technique at about 500˚C temperature. The The discovery of new materials made
ZnO is also another famous abundant and it possible to fabricate variety of solar cells
non-toxic TCO material that can be easily using technologies viz., DSSC technology,
deposited at low temperatures (300˚C). organic solar cell technology, perovskite
Amorphous silicon is generally technology, quantum dot technology etc.,
known as “hydrogenated amorphous which are known as third generation
silicon”, or a-Si:H. It absorbs about 2.5 technologies.
times more energy than c-Si for a given
3.3.1 Dye Sensitized Solar Cell(DSSC)
layer thickness. Material required for a- Technology:-
Si:H films is much less and hence the solar
cell will be lighter in weight and also less The dye – sensitized solar cell(DSSC)
expensive. It can be deposited on substrates concept is presented in 1991 by Regan and
which are flexible, curved, and roll- away Gratzel. The DSSC solar cells can be made
types. However the efficiency is around flexible. It has a good potential for being a
10% which is lower than crystalline low cost solar cell technology[5]. This is
silicon. But it is improving. The main mainly possible because of the large
optical properties of a-Si:H are its availability and low cost of the ingredient
absorption coefficient, band gap and material as well as due to low processing
refractive index. The band gap of the good temperatures. The DSSC is a photo-
quality a-Si:H layers lies in the range of electro-chemical device as its operation
1.7eV to 1.8 eV. The optical band gap of involves a photon, an electron and a
the material can also be tailored by chemical reaction. The operation of DSSC
alloying it with Ge and C. The absorption is considered similar to that of a
coefficient of the a-Si:H is more than photosynthesis process.
104𝑐𝑚−1 for the photons having energy
more than the band gap energy. a- Si cells
use P-i-N junctions rather than P-N
junctions for having drift based carrier
transport. The typical structure of a – Si:H
solar cell with typical layer thickness is
shown in figure 3. The doped P-type and
N-type layers create electric field across
the intrinsic of a-Si:H. The intrinsic layer Fig. 4. DSSC components
in a-Si:H works as an absorber layer. The The DSSC is made up of five components:
electron – hole pairs are generated in this a conductive mechanical support (TCO
layer. Even though the efficiency of thin film based), a semiconductor film(Titanium
 Advanced Science Letters
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dioxide), a sensitizer(dye), a redox couple Step 3:- In this step, the organic
(electrolyte), and a counter electrolyte solution gives away an electron
electrode(Platinum based conductive to the oxidized dye molecule which in turn
support)(Fig.4). Efficiencies of DSSCs can reduced to the original form S. The
be increased by fine tuning two or three electrolyte solution contains the iodide
components. Photo sensitizer is an redox system in which the iodide ions are
important component of a DSSC. It being oxidized to tri- iodide molecules
absorbs solar photons and the excited back to their iodide state. This step requires
photo electrons are injected into catalytic presence of Pt at the electrode.
conduction band of semiconductor. So in This makes the dye molecules again
designing DSSC the optoelectronic available for the excitation/reduction cycle.
properties, such as absorption coefficient 𝑆 𝐼 𝑒 𝑆 𝐼 (7)
and band alignment, morphology of dye
and mode of assembly on the TiO2 photo- In the fig.4, anode (conductive) material
anode are considered. can be TiO2,ZnO,SnO2 .

The dye of DSSC absorbs light, generates Dyes are Polypyridines, Porphyrins,
carriers, transport carriers to the external Phthalocyanines, Organic dyes, inorganic
load at higher voltage and brings back the semiconductors, 2nd generation dyes D-π-
carrier in the cell at lower voltage. The A, Quantum Dots.
operation of a DSSC can be explained Redox Mediator is I-/I3-, S2-/S22-
using the following steps:- (dithiolate), Co(LL)32+/Co(LL)33+, Spiro
Step 1:- In this step, the absorption of a OMeTAD, and Additives (TBP, GuNCS).
photon by a molecule of dye (S) takes Cathode will be Pt, C allotrophs,
place. After the photon absorption, the dye PEDOT:PSS, …
molecule goes into the excited state, S*.
Remarkable properties of DSSC are Low
Within a very short time, of the order of
cost, inexpensive to manufacture, non-
femto seconds, the electron is given off to
toxic, earth-abundant materials (except Pt),
the semiconductor wide band. And the
good performance in diverse light
excited dye molecule gets oxidized (loss of
conditions, high angle of incidence, low
electrons) to 𝑆+.This can be put in the form
intensity, partial shadowing, lightweight,
of the following equation:-
flexible, semi-transparent, bifacial and
𝑺 + 𝒉 ton → S*(excited state) selected colors. Problems with DSSC are
→ 𝑺 + + 𝒆− (6) lab efficiencies <12% , stagnating low red
and near-IR absorption, only I-/I3-redox
Step 2:- In this step, the excited electron is couple has slow recombination kinetics,
given off to the conduction band of liquid electrolyte which is undesirable,
semiconductor(TiO2). A TCO layer is used during the course of the lifetime of a fuel
to collect the electrons from the cell the Pt cathode suffers from oxidation,
conduction band. Normally, fluorine-doped loss of active surface area, and corrosion of
tin oxide (SnO2:F) is used for this purpose. the carbon support, impurities.
The electrons then flow through the
external load to the electrode counter.
 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

3.3.2 Quantum dot solar cell technology:- the excitation of one electron to the lowest
molecular orbital unoccupied (LUMO).
History of QDs begins with their first The excited carrier leaves behind a hole in
discovery in glass crystals in 1980 by the highest molecular orbital (HOMO).
Russian physicist Ekimov. Systematic These holes and electrons are not free
advancement in the science and charge carriers.
technology of QDs was driven after 1984,
They remain bound because of columbic
when Luis Brus derived a relation between
forces. The bound pair is called exciton. It
size and band gap for semiconductor nano
was discovered that efficient charge
particles by applying a particle in a sphere
separation of exciton and free carrier
model approximation to the wave function
formation can occur if the junction is made
for bulk semiconductors. It finally catches
of two different organic materials, a donor
up the speed by successful synthesis of
type and an acceptor type. The bulk
colloidal CdX (X = S, Se, Te). CdX is the
hetero-junction increases the donor-
most investigated QDs due to their
acceptor interface area and allows each of
excellent optical and electrochemical
them to be thinner around the junction
properties[6],[7]. QDs are tiny
(Fig.5). It is required because the exciton
semiconductor particles with size a few
generated, close to the junction (within the
nanometres. The optical and electronic
exciton diffusion length, a few tens of
properties of QDs are totally different from
nanometers) results in charge separation
larger particles. By changing the dots' size,
else the exciton gets recombined. The
shape and material the optical, electrical
bicontinuous phase separated network at
properties are precisely tuned. QDs are
donor-acceptor interface separates the
excellent absorber materials and hence
excitons generated in donor material
playing significant role in third generation
because of the photons absorption. To
PV cells such as QDSSCs. By utilizing hot
make the carriers free, hole transporting
photo generated carriers to produce higher
layer (PDOT:PSS) and electron
photo voltages or higher photo currents,
transporting layer(Ca)are used on either
quantum dot solar cells have the potential
side of the active layer(Fig.6). In
of attaining maximum power conversion
commercial organic solar cell the
efficiency of about 66%.
combination of P3HT (Donor) and PCBM
3.3.3 Organic solar cell technology:- (acceptor) is used to get efficiency of
In this case the active layer(Dye in case of about 5%. For the transparent front
DSSC) will be organic semiconductor electrode Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) on a
material which can be obtained from glass substrate was used. ITO is one of the
conjugate polymer and small molecule most commonly used materials for this
organic polymer material known as donor purpose. For the back electrode a layer of
material and acceptor material(equivalent PEDOT:PSS was included to help the
to n and p regions of inorganic charge extraction process, again a common
semiconductor)[..Organicpolymer junction practice. For this purpose metals such as
can be bilayer junction or bulk hetero Al (aluminium), Ag (Silver) and Au(gold)
junction[8]. When a photon gets absorbed are also used(Fig.6). Advantages of
in an organic semiconductor, it results in organic solar cells are enormous
 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

availability, easy processing, flexible, coefficient. It can be achieved by changing

transparent and semitransparent, low cost in any of A, M and X in AMX3 .
and eco-friendly. Disadvantages are less CH3NH3PbI3 is the most commonly used
efficiency, stability issues, degradation
material for making high efficiency
problems, poor generation and extraction
perovskite solar cells. The first organic-
of electrical charge carriers.
inorganic metal halide perovskite solar cell
CH3NH3PbI3 is a semiconducting
pigment with a direct band gap of 1.55 eV
with absorption coefficient as high as 104 –
105 cm-1. After only few years of work,
perovskite solar cells of efficiency 15.9%
with facile low temperature solution-based
fabrication method, high absorption
coefficient, higher stability in air, very high
values of open circuit voltages, high
Fig.5. Donor-Acceptor interface in active layer diffusion length, high charge-carrier
mobility's are discovered. More than 90%
of the present market share is taken by
silicon PV solar cells because it delivers a
package of decent module efficiency of
21% with lifetime of more than 25 years
and cost of 0.3 $ W−1. In comparison,
perovskite single cells hold promise
because of their efficiency reaching 23%
and above and low manufacturing cost,
which has been estimated to be able to
reach the half of that of crystalline Si.
Fig. 6. Organic solar cell [9],[10] The rapid growth of efficiency of
perovskite solar cells up to 2015 is shown
3.3.4 Perovskite solar cell technology:-
in Fig.7.
The chemical composition of perovskite
crystal is given by the formula AMX3
where X is halide anion such as O, Cl, Br
and I while M refers to a metal cation with
a coordination number of 6 and A is
usually a large cation that fills the
cuboctahedral holes with coordination
number of 12. A can be Ca, K, Na, Pb, Sr,
other rare metals. Here A cations can be
organic or inorganic like Methyl
Ammonium (MA), Cs. To absorb photons
of longer wave length the band gap tuning Fig.7.Growth of PVC
is must without sacrificing the absorption
 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

The best lifetime obtained for perovskite Fig. 8. Perovskite solar cell
solar cells is 10,000 h (around 1 year), but Studies of optoelectronic properties
the PCE is only 12% which is much indicated that a single-crystalline
shorter than 25 years as expected from perovskite solar cell is much better than its
commercialized PV technologies. By thin-film counterpart because of less
setting an efficiency threshold of 20%, the defects present in it.
stability is found to be only 1000 h. That
means the device efficiency and stability 3.3.5 Organic nano particle solar cell
are not simultaneously optimized technology:-
currently. However both high efficiency
and high stability in PSCs can be achieved Organic optoelectronics devices like
sooner. Research interest on the stability organic solar cells and organic LED has
studies is growing rapidly to resolve attracted significant research interest due
stability problem for perovskite solar cells. to high figure of merit, scalability as well
The interface plays a crucial role in as flexibility. Organic photo voltaics are
photovoltaic devices. The high advantageous for their reduced cost and
performance of solar cells can be pursued high flexibility. Photo physics and
by controlling the carrier behavior across morphology in nano scale in these devices
relevant interfaces. Interface modification play a significant role to control their
of hybrid perovskite solar cells can be performance and can be optimized. The
realized by the inter layer (or so-called stable hetero structure is achieved in a
buffer layer),electron buffer layer (EBL) single step through self-assembly of nano
and hole buffer layer (HBL), which are particles. Tunable packing geometry of
deposited either above or below the semiconductor assemblies and hence better
perovskite layer in order to modify the characteristics is achieved by varying the
energy level alignment and/or improve the radii of nano particles and keeping radius
surface morphology.Various kinds of ratio constant. Nano particles are
interfacial modification layers are applied fabricated from water and hence it is
to enable better contact between hybrid greener route of fabrication. Thus organic
perovskites and ETL or HTL, and to nano particle solar cell technology is
increase the efficiency of electron and hole advantageos over organic solar cell
transport[11,[12]. Such a hybrid perovskite technology. Organic nano particles can be
solar cell will be as shown in Fig.8. carbon nano materials, fluorescent organic
nano particles (FONs),water soluble organic
nano particles, Starch nano particles(SNPs),
Metal Organic Frame works(MOPs). The
fabrication of nano size particles from bulk
materials is understood from nano chemistry.
The properties of nano particles can be
changed simply by changing the size of
particles (with same composition) which can
not be done with bulk materials. Nano
particles can be synthesized by two methods
viz., Bottom-up method i.e., getting bigger
 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

structure of nano dimension starting from as a Tandem solar cell. Tandem cells are
small structure and Top-down method i.e., effectively a stack of different solar cells on
getting nano structure starting from bulk top of each other. By arranging them like
material. Top-down methods include physical this, we can capture more energy from the
methods such as mechanical grinding, laser sun.
ablation. Bottom-up methods include chemical
methods such as Solvent Replacement, Anti
solvents for Precipitation, Chemical
Reduction in Solution, Ion Association,
Synthesis of Nano particles in Water–Oil
Emulsion, Photochemical Method, The use
of Supercritical Fluids, Cryochemical
Synthesis and Modification of Nano
particles. Properties such as size of
particles is studied by Dynamic Light
Scattering(DLS), Scanning Electron
Microscopy(SEM), Transmission Electron
Microscopy(TEM) etc., methods. The
Fig.9. Perovskite/Silicon tandem solar cell
property of chemical bonding can be
studied by FTIR, X-ray microscopy and Tandem cells are an attractive option for
surface charge can be understood achieving high efficiency. A
measuring electrophoretic mobility by perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell is
DLS method. Experimental studies shown inFig.9. Band gap of CH3NH3PbI3
indicate that the absorbance, morphology perovskite is1.56 eV and Band gap of c-Si
optimization and performance of nano is 1.1 eV. Tandem cell illuminated through
particle device mimic the that of thin film perovskite cell. Perovskite absorbs visible
device. But the efficiency of organic thin light, c-Si cell near-infrared light. In a two-
film solar cell is limited to 8 to 10% and terminal (2T) tandem configuration the top
that of organic nano particle solar cell is and bottom cells are electrically connected
found to be 15%. in series. In a four terminal (4T) tandem
3.3.6 Multi junction tandem solar cell solar cells the top and bottom cells are
technology:- independently electrically connected, with
bottom cells of crystalline silicon and
Even with a very good morphology, the CIGSSe (CIGS).The 4T perovskite tandem
efficiency of a single crystal silicon solar had efficiency of 25.2% in 2016. The
cell is limited to be 32% only. So efforts current record for a two-terminal perovskite
are made to improve efficiency by joining tandem cell is with a perovskite– silicon
solar cells of same type or different type tandem is 23.6%,.
together. A unique way is joining two or
more sub-cells .The sub-cells are Tandem solar cells have higher
connected on top of one another and can efficiencies than single junction solar cells
be constructed from different solar cell because a high-band gap top cell material
materials or from the same family of solar can generate photocurrent with higher
cell material. Such arrangement is called voltage than the bottom solar cell with
 Advanced Science Letters
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lower band gap but broader absorption increasing stability and it is advantageous
coefficient,. The theoretical efficiency over organic materials[14].
limit for a tandem solar cell under iii)All solution processed small
unconcentrated sunlight (AM1.5G molecule solar cells by stripping-
spectrum) is 47%, markedly higher than transfer method has advantages of
the Shockley- Quiesser limit of 31% for simple synthesis process at low
single-junction cells under unconcentrated temperature. The efficiency of
sunlight. ZnPc/C60 based solar cell could reach
Perovskite–perovskite 4T tandem PCE of 1.37%[15]. It can accelerate
efficiencies are expected to surpass record commercialization of small molecule
perovskite single-junction efficiencies by solar cells.
the end of 2020, with 2T efficiencies iv)The antireflection coating material
greater than 26% expected before 2030. of nano structured ZnAl2O4 (Gahnite)
Just as organic metal–halide perovskite improved PCE of polycrystalline
solar cells have risen from below 4% in Silicon solar cell and is increased to
2009 to above 22% in 2016, so too have 21.27% at open atmosphere condition
tandems; debuting below 14% in 2014 to and to 23.83% [16] controlled
reach above 25% in 2016.The efficiencies atmosphere condition.
for tandem solar cells are not constrained
by the single junction limit, and we expect v)Cobalt doped PbS thin film with
this trend in increasing efficiency to different Co concentrations improved
continue in the decade to come, predicting PCE from 35% to 60% [17]]with Co
a perovskite–silicon 4T tandem beyond the concentrations ranging from 0% to 5%
„break-even‟ efficiency of 26% by end of as it impress the particle size, energy
the year 2020, and 2T tandems breaking band gap of PbS.
even by 2030. vi)The double perovskite structure
material Pb1.5 Ca0.5 Nb O6 is in
4. Some results from recent polycrystalline form has high dielecric
studies: constant(500) at room temperature and
can be used as energy storage device
i) Performance and stability improvement such as Solar cell material[18].
of single junction a-Si:H p-i-n solar cell is
reported by interface engineering[13]. It is Conclusion:
reported that a-Si:H solar cell without Solar power in India is a fast developing
buffer layer has higher degradation on industry. The country's solar installed
soaking with sun light for 1000 hours capacity reached 26 GW as of 30
when compared with solar cell having September 2018.
buffer layer.
Research is required into the fabrication
ii)It is reported that cost effective solar cell of long-lasting OPVs that can resist
fabrication by synthesizing small size ZnO morphological degradation under diverse
nano particles from Azadira Indica (Neem) environmental conditions. By optimizing
leaves extract using domestic microwave their morphologies, high performing
oven shown better PCE of 2.1% with OPVs with PCEs above 15% can be
 Advanced Science Letters
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obtained in the near future for their thickness optimization and reducing the
commercialization to advance the OPV amount of surface defects. Hence, it is an
market. optimistic expectation that the PCE of
single-crystal perovskite solar cells would
Despite the rapid progress in the
increase to 25–30% soon. Direct growth of
performance of hybrid perovskite solar
single-crystal perovskite thin films onto
cells, there are still many more
functional target substrates (e.g.,
opportunities for further improvement.
transparent conducting substrates,
The interaction mechanism between the
patterned electrodes) is regarded as an
hybrid perovskite and other interface
efficient route for developing highly
layers still remains unclear and needs to
integrated systems, which greatly reduce
be further explored to facilitate the
device fabrication complexity.
application of morphology engineering.
With regard to the next direction in Perovskite/silicon tandems will have
morphology engineering, film quality to meet the performance guarantee of
could be improved by either integrating silicon panels of 80% performance after 25
these existing techniques with different years. These lifetime constraints could
functions or by exploring new perhaps be reduced for niche markets (such
technologies to reach distinctive and goal as flexible devices), for which a device
oriented morphology control. In addition shelf time of 5 to 10 years might suffice,
to experimental approaches, theoretical but large scale deployment of GW-scale
calculations can definitely make a perovskite photo voltaics will not occur
significant contribution to further before robust demonstration of stability in
advances in the design of morphological environmental testing.
techniques. Knowing the basic properties
of a semiconductor material, such as Scope of future work:
carrier concentration, trap position and Current experimental studies indicating
density, carrier mobility, carrier lifetime, that air exposure causing variation of
diffusion length, is a primary step before series and shunt resistances of solar cell
designing a suitable application for it. material and hence life time is get effected.
This also holds true for perovskite Further, alloying with material of suitable
crystals. refractive index and using antireflection
Since single-crystal perovskite thin films coatings over the material improves power
have shown significant superiority in terms conversion efficiency Using thin film
of their crystal quality and optical and technologies rather than single crystalline
electrical properties compared to those of silicon solar cell technology reduces the
their polycrystalline counterparts, the cost. Hence more research is needed to
photovoltaic performance is reasonably find the suitable material with suitable
expected to outcompete the records set by technology to fabricate solar cells with
polycrystalline perovskite films. To high efficiency, long life time and at low
achieve higher efficiencies, more effort is cost.
suggested, including perovskite
composition adjustments (e.g.,
(FAPbI3)0.85(MAPbBr3)0.15), crystal
 Advanced Science Letters
ISSN:1936-6612

from Azdira Indica(Neem) leaves extract using

References:
domestic microwave oven, Journal of Material
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