International Journal of Steel Structures

September 2012, Vol 12, No 3, 321-338

DOI 10.1007/s13296-012-3003-9

www.springer.com/journal/13296

Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Composite Bridges with

Corrugated Steel Webs: State-of-the-Art
Jun He1,2, Yuqing Liu1, Airong Chen1, and Teruhiko Yoda2*
1
Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092, China
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Waseda University, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-8555, Japan

Abstract

The composite bridges with corrugated steel webs have excellent properties, such as lightness of girders, efficiency of
introducing prestress forces, short construction period, optimum force distribution, good seismic performance, and aesthetics
appearance etc., which have greatly promoted the application of such bridges. The objective of this paper is to provide and
summarize important references related to the analysis, design and construction of composite bridges with corrugated steel
webs. Subjects discussed in this review include (1) structural configuration and application; (2) shear behavior; (3) bending
behavior; (4) torsional behavior; (5) patch loading resistance; (6) dynamic behavior; (7) long-term behaviors including fatigue
and creep; (8) component connections; (9) analysis method and theory; (10) new concept application. The literature survey
presented herein mainly focuses on papers written in English, Japanese, German and Chinese in relation to composite bridges
with corrugated steel webs.

Keywords: state of the art, composite bridges, corrugated steel webs, design and construction

1. Introduction
Prestressed concrete girders with corrugated steel webs
are one of the promising concrete-steel hybrid structures
applied to highway bridges, which include prestressed
slabs, corrugated steel webs and internal or external
tendons (Fig. 1). The way to substitute corrugated steel
webs for concrete webs of a box girder bridge will result
in no restraint among the upper or lower deck slab and
webs of the bridge, which will alleviate influences on the
structure due to concrete creep, drying shrinkage and
temperature differences. Prestressing can be efficiently Figure 1. Prestressed concrete girders with corrugated steel
introduced into the top and bottom concrete slabs due to webs.
the so-called “accordion effect” of corrugated webs. The
strength, stability of the structure, and material efficiency webs, compared to concrete webs, leads to reduced seismic
can be improved by concrete slabs combined with forces and smaller substructures, which will result in lower
corrugated steel webs (Liu, 2005a; He et al., 2007a). construction cost and the ability to increase the girder’s
Merits of replacing the conventional webs of box or I- length; (2) the corrugated steel webs without additional
girders with corrugated steel webs are summarized as stiffeners have higher shear-buckling strength than that of
follows: (1) the decreased dead weight of corrugated steel flat plate steel webs; (3) the corrugated steel webs are
more easily fabricated and constructed than concrete
Note.-Discussion open until February 1, 2013. This manuscript for webs. Elimination of the need for concrete placement for
this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on the webs reduces field work and saves labor; (4) prestressing
November 21, 2011; approved on July 23, 2012. can be efficiently introduced into the top and bottom
© KSSC and Springer 2012 concrete slabs due to the so-called “accordion effect” of
*Corresponding author corrugated webs; (5) the external post-tensioned tendons
Tel: +81-3-5286-3399; Fax: +81-3-5286-3399 is used for PC box girders with corrugated steel webs,
E-mail: [email protected] which has many advantages over the internal bonded
322 Jun He et al. / International Journal of Steel Structures, 12(3), 321-338, 2012

tendons in view of maintenance; (6) shear and bending (PennDOT) was sponsoring research adopting corrugated
forces can be distributed optimally into the corrugated webs to realize additional benefits from high performance
steel webs and the concrete slabs respectively. However, steel, and intended to construct a demonstration bridge
a non-composite corrugated web girder will deflect and with corrugated web I-girders (Abbas, 2003).
twist under in-plane bending. The costs associated with In China, Meng et al. (2006) analyzed the mechanical
the extra lateral bracing may offset the advantage of properties of the first footbridge with corrugated steel
corrugated steel webs. webs (Changzheng Bridge). He et al. (2007b, 2008a), and
In 1982, the advantages of using corrugated steel webs Li et al. (2009) introduced continuous prestressed composite
along with external prestressing for box or I-girder box-girder bridges with corrugated steel webs (Kuandian
composite systems in bridge construction were recognized Bridge, Juancheng Yellow River Bridge), design and
by Campenon Bernard BTP, France. The first highway construction experiences about these bridges were
bridge using corrugated webs was the Cognac Bridge, summarized and discussed.
built in France as an experimental bridge in 1986. Over Based on the design and construction data of all
a period of time extending from 1987 to 1995, three more completed composite bridges with corrugated steel webs,
bridges with corrugated steel webs were built in France: the structural configuration for such bridges can be divided
Val de Maupre Viaduct, that was built over the river into simply supported bridges, continuous bridges, rigid
Charente in 1987; Parc Asterix Bridge was completed in frame bridges, and cable-stayed bridges (Liu, 2005a,b).
1989 and Dole Bridge was finished in 1995 (Combault, According to the cross section, there are two general type:
1988; Cheyrezy and Combault, 1990; Virlogeux, 1992). box girders (trapezoid or triangle) and I-girders. As for
It appears that these French bridges inspired a number the construction methods, besides conventional full
of similar structures in Japan which were built in the scaffold construction, balanced cantilever construction
1990s starting with the Shinkai Bridge in 1993 (Kondo and incremental launching construction, a construction
et al., 1994; Yoda et al., 1994), followed by Matsunoki method by incremental launching the corrugated steel
No. 7 Bridge in 1995, and Hondani Bridge in 1997 webs as nose was proposed to shorten construction period
(Mizuguchi et al., 1998). The research committee for (Yasuzato et al., 2005; Okusumi, 2008; He et al., 2008b).
hybrid structures with corrugated steel webs published Figure 2 shows the relationship between the maximum
the design manual to enhance the application of such span and structural configuration. The maximum span for
bridges in 1998 (JSCE, 1998). Liu et al. (2002) and the simply supported bridges, continuous bridges, T-type
Tezuka et al. (2002) presented the structural characteristics rigid frame bridges, continuous rigid frame bridges and
of the PC box girder bridges consisting of corrugated cable-stayed bridges is 51, 142, 95, 150, and 235 m
steel webs with horizontal curvature (Nakano viaduct, respectively. Figure 3 shows the number and proportion
and Shirasawa Bridge). Yasukawa (2003) and Maeda et of each structural configuration. Continuous and rigid
al. (2005) introduced the design, construction and scaled frame bridges with the main span length from 50 to
model tests of the first extradosed bridge (Ritto Bridge) 150 m account for about 80% of the total number, which
with corrugated steel webs in Japan. Yasuzato et al. indicates these two kinds of structural configurations are
(2005) first introduced the structural features of corrugated suitable for composite bridges with corrugated steel webs.
web girder as launching nose, outlined the design of the The objective of this paper is to present highlights of
nose, and conducted some experiments to realize this new references pertaining to composite bridges with corrugated
type of composite girder for Torisaki River Bridge. steel webs that have been published prior to 2012. Such
Fujioka and Kakuta (2006) introduced the characteristics papers will complement previously published literature
and guidelines of Corru-T construction technique, and survey articles that (1) would provide the theoretical
presented the design and construction details of the first
PCT-girder bridge (Sou River Bridge) in Japan. Otani and
Arai (2006) introduced the first cable-stayed bridge with
corrugated steel webs (Toyota Arrows Bridge) in Japan.
Similar bridges were reported have been built or under
construction in Sweden, Taiwan, USA, Korea and
Germany (König et al., 1994). Novák et al. (2007) carried
out a comprehensive research on general behavior and the
detailing of bridges with corrugated steel webs based on
Altwipfergrund Bridge in Germany. Jung et al. (2011)
optimized the length of the steel launching nose, and
analyzed the mechanical performance under construction
stage to verify the safety of Ilsun Bridge in Korea. Beams
with corrugated webs are more and more widely used Figure 2. Relation between maximum span and structural
in USA. Pennsylvania Department of Transportation configuration.
 Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Composite Bridges with Corrugated Steel Webs: State-of-the-Art 323

some formulas for estimating buckling strength of corrugated

steel webs, and compared to the test results of 6 full-scale
models for bridge girder webs. Machimdamrong et al.
(2002) presented an estimation of global elastic shear
buckling strength of corrugated plates considering the
influence of elastically rotational restraints on the boundary
edges. Driver et al. (2006) tested full-scale corrugated
web girders made of HPS 485W steel, assessed the effect
of web initial geometric imperfections through measurements
of the out-of-plane displacements, and proposed a lower
bound equation for design which accounts for both local
and global buckling of the web in the elastic and inelastic
domains. Liew et al. (2007) and Peng et al. (2007) presented
Figure 3. Number and proportion of each structural an elastic buckling analysis and a geometrically nonlinear
configuration. analysis of stiffened and un-stiffened corrugated plates
using a mesh-free Galerkin method. Watanabe et al.
foundation or play an important role in the development (2007), Watanabe and Kubo (2009) presented the test results
of composite bridges with corrugated steel webs in terms using four different trapezoidal corrugation configurations
of the analysis, design and construction specifications; (2) to study the shear capacity with and without local heating
would represent the levels and hotspots of current history. Yi et al. (2008) studied the nature of the interactive
research of such bridges; and (3) would facilitate shear buckling of corrugated webs, and concluded that
continued research efforts. the first order interactive shear buckling equation not
considering material inelasticity and material yielding
2. Shear Behavior provides a good estimation of the shear strength of
corrugated steel webs by comparison with 15 tests and
Shimada (1965) was the first researcher who studied FEA results. Shitou et al. (2008) carried out experimental
the shear strength of steel plate girders with folded web. studies using full scale and half size models of actual box
Then, shear strength of trapezoidal corrugated steel webs girders to solve the shear behavior of corrugated steel
has been studied extensively. Easley and McFarland webs which were constrained by concrete. The results
(1969) proposed the global shear buckling equation of revealed that the contribution of corrugated steel webs for
corrugated web by treating it as an orthotropic flat web. shear increases accompanying with the progress of cracking
The corrugated steel web is assumed to provide the shear in concrete member, but the contribution decreases
capacity of the girder where the shear strength is gradually after the corrugated steel webs reaching to
controlled by buckling and/or shear yielding of the web shear yield stress. Moon et al. (2009a) presented 3 test
(Bergfelt and Leiva-Aravena, 1984; Leiva-Aravena and results, described the shear strength formula previously
Edlund, 1987; Metwally, 1998; Sayed-Ahmed, 2001, 2007; presented by Yi et al. (2008), and compared the proposed
Abbas, 2003). Lindner and Aschinger (1988) presented formula and several other formulas with results from 17
test results for the shear strength of steel trapezoidal tests. Sause and Braxtan (2011) summarized previously
corrugated webs and suggested using 70% of the shear developed formulas for predicting the shear strength of
buckling stress as the nominal shear strength for design. steel trapezoidal corrugated webs, along with the
Luo and Edlund (1994, 1996a) analyzed the buckling of corresponding theory, and a new formula was developed.
trapezoidally corrugated panels under in-plane loading by On the basis of experimental and numerical studies of
spline finite strip method and finite element method. The shear behavior for corrugated web girders, it can be found
influence on the elastic buckling load of various parameters, that shear buckling of corrugated webs is often classified
such as geometry, loading patterns and boundary conditions, as either local buckling (Fig. 4a) or global buckling (Fig.
etc., was studied. Elgaaly et al. (1996) presented experimental 4c). The interactive shear buckling mode (Fig. 4b) is
and analytical results for steel beams with trapezoidal attributed to the interaction between local and global
corrugated webs loaded predominantly in shear, and shear buckling modes. Global buckling involves multiple
proposed the bucking formulas of corrugated steel webs folds and the buckled shape extends diagonally over the
which were based on the local buckling of the corrugation height of the web. Local buckling is controlled by
folds as isotropic flat plates or the global buckling of the deformations within a single flat panel or “fold” of the
entire web panel as an orthotropic plate. Metwally and web. Corrugated steel plates can ensure higher resistance
Loov (2003) investigated the behavior of composite girders against shear buckling, leading to elimination of stiffeners.
with steel trapezoidal corrugated webs and prestressed Generally, local buckling is considered to be controlled
concrete flanges, and developed a formula for predicting by the slenderness of the individual folds of the web, and
the nominal shear strength. Yamazaki (2001) described global buckling is considered to be controlled by the
324 Jun He et al. / International Journal of Steel Structures, 12(3), 321-338, 2012

Figure 4. Shear buckling modes.

Figure 5. Comparison of experimental and predicted shear strength.

slenderness of the entire web. He (2011) carried out Figure 5 shows the comparison of experimental and
parametric analysis on the shear strength of corrugated predicted shear strength based on the relation between
web girders by pertinent FE Models and compared with nominal shear stress (critical buckling stress τ cr /yield
other researcher’s works, found that: (1) the web initial shear stress τ y) and λ s. For the specimens failed by local
geometric imperfection can be simulated by consistent buckling, Abbas (2003) underestimates the test results; on
mode imperfection through the first order mode of the contrary, Swedish code (SISC, 1982) overestimates
eigenvalue buckling analysis if the measured out-of-plane the test results; the predicted value by Design Manual
displacements were not obtained; (2) when the corrugation (JSCE, 1998) is almost the average of the test results,
is dense, global buckling of the whole web is in control. while the calculated value by EN 1993-1-5 (2005) is
As the corrugation becomes coarse, the capacity of web approximate the low limit of the test results which can be
will be controlled by local buckling of single folds; (3) used in the design stage for safety consideration. For the
with the increase of corrugation depth, the buckling mode specimens failed by global buckling, the predicted value
changes from global buckling to a more localized buckling by EN 1993-1-5 (2005) is almost the same as that by
mode; (4) the ultimate shear capacity increases with the Zeman (2003), and the calculated value by Design
thickness and strength of the web. Manual (JSCE, 1998) is around the low limit of the test
Based on experimental results of shear strength for results which can be used in the design stage, the
corrugated web girders in Europe (Elgaaly et al., 1996; divergence mostly appears in the non-elastic region
Lindner and Aschinge, 1988), USA (Abbas, 2003; Sause (0.7<λ s <1.0), that may be caused by the residual stress
and Braxtan, 2011) and Asia (Yamazaki, 2001; Watanabe and initial geometric imperfection of corrugated web,
et al., 2007; Moon et al., 2009a), the evaluation of predicted further studies should be carried out to modify the
equations from specifications and related researchers was predicted equations.
conducted (He, 2011). It was found that the elastic local In order to verify the applicability of the idea of interactive
or global buckling equations overestimate the shear capacity. buckling (Yi et al., 2008), the test results were compared
Considering material nonlinearity, residual stress and initial with Design Manual (JSCE, 1998) and the formula
geometric imperfections, inelastic equations of shear provided by Sause and Braxtan (2011). All the critical
strength were provided by Elgaaly et al. (1996), Design buckling stress in the test was calculated as interactive
Manual (JSCE, 1998), Zeman (2003), EN 1993-1-5 buckling (τ cr,I). Although the calculated value by Sause
(2005), Abbas (2003), Swedish code (SISC, 1982), and and Braxtan (2011) is the low limit of the test results,
GB 50017 (2003). some of the specimens are too underestimated.
 Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Composite Bridges with Corrugated Steel Webs: State-of-the-Art 325

Figure 7. Outstands of compressive flange for corrugated

Figure 6. Partially encased composite girder with corrugated web girder.
web.
with corrugated webs. Parametric analytical studies were
With the aim of improving shear behavior of composite performed to examine the effect of the ratio between the
bridge with corrugated webs under hogging moment, thicknesses of flange and web, the corrugation configuration,
concrete is poured in the area surrounded by the upper the panel aspect ratio, and the stress-strain relationship to
flange, lower flange and web around the intermediate the ultimate bending moment capacity of steel beams
supports especially the section of large height. The encased- with corrugated webs. Chan et al. (2002), Khalid et al.
concrete is expected to prevent buckling of the web in (2004) studied the influence of web corrugation on the
compression and the concrete itself also contributes to the bending capacity of the beam using finite element method.
shear strength, as shown in Fig. 6. The shear performance Beams with flat web, horizontally corrugated web and
of partially encased composite girder with corrugated vertically corrugated web were studied. Watanabe and
web was investigated experimentally and numerically by Kubo (2006) presented test and numerical analysis results
the authors (He, 2011; He et al., 2012a,b). Experimental of corrugated web girders with four different trapezoidal
results showed that the partially encased composite corrugation configurations under pure bending. A predicting
girders have superior shear strength since shear bucking method of the ultimate strength considering local flange
of steel web is restricted by concrete encasement. buckling was also proposed based on the parametric analysis
Moreover, the predicted shear stiffness and strength were of corrugated web girders. As for the non-composite steel
proposed and verified by experimental and numerical I-girder with corrugated web, local buckling of the
results. compression flange affects bending strength. Generally,
the limitation on the flange outstand-to-thickness ratio
3. Bending Behavior should be satisfied to prevent local flange buckling before
yielding. Based on a previous investigation (Johnson and
Flexural strength of steel girders with corrugated steel Cafolla, 1997), it was argued that the average flange
webs is provided by the flanges with almost no contribution outstand bav may only be used if a ratio R is less than
from the webs due to its “accordion effect”. Huang et al. 0.14, where R is the ratio of area EFGH to area ABCD
(2004), Egaaly et al. (1997), Khalid et al. (2004), Oh et defined in Fig. 7. If R is greater than 0.14, it is
al. (2012) conducted experiments, finite element and recommended to be conservative using the large flange
theoretical analysis on the accordion effect of steel beams outstand bcmax. However, a considerable uncertainty still
with corrugated webs. Furthermore, there is no interaction exists regarding the correct value which should be used
between flexure and shear behaviors of these girders. for the flange outstand of corrugated web girders.
Thus, the ultimate moment capacity of a steel girder with For the composite girders with corrugated webs, Mo et
a corrugated steel web can be based on the flange yield al. (2003) presented the experimental and analytical
strength (Leiva-Aravena, 1987; Protte, 1993; Elgaaly et results of four scaled prestressed concrete box girders
al., 1997; Johnson and Cafolla, 1997; Sayed-Ahmed, 2007). with corrugated steel webs. It was found that both the
The flexural capacity of composite girders with corrugated thickness of end diaphragms and the location of
steel webs was also investigated and the same aspects prestressing strands at both ends of the specimens are
defined for steel girders were found to be applicable to insignificant when the specimens failed in the mid-span
composite girders (Metwally and Loov, 2003). due to concrete crushing. He et al. (2008c) analyzed the
Lindner (1992), Aschinger and Lindner (1997) studied mechanical behaviors of corrugated steel web box girders
the elastic flexural behavior of corrugated web I-girders with different parameters of internal and external tendons
under in-plane loads. In their analyses, they assumed that under flexural load, including the arrangement and
the flanges carry only the moment and the web carries prestressing force of the internal and external tendons, the
only the shear. Elgaaly et al. (1997) carried out experimental position of the anchorage points and the distance of the
and analytical studies on bending strength of steel beams diversion devices. Song (2003), Li et al. (2009a)
326 Jun He et al. / International Journal of Steel Structures, 12(3), 321-338, 2012

developed a nonlinear program based on the quasi-plane concentrated loading. It was found that the contributions
assumption (Wu, 2002) of flexural strain distribution and of the corrugated web to lateral buckling load are
axial force-bending moment-curvature relationship at pronounced for the longer girders with large wave height.
cross-section to investigate the ultimate flexural capacity Moon et al. (2009b), Nguyen et al. (2010) presented
of the external prestressed composite box girder with theoretical and finite element analytical results of the
corrugated steel webs. On the basis of the experimental lateral-torsional buckling strength of I-girders with
and analytical results mentioned above, the ultimate corrugated webs under uniform bending. Approximated
flexural capacity of composite girders with corrugated methods for locating its shear center and calculating the
steel webs can be depended on the strength of concrete warping constant were proposed. Based on the proposed
slabs and prestressing forces of the internal and external methods, the lateral-torsional buckling strength of I-girders
tendons without the contribution from the web for the with corrugated webs under uniform bending can be
safety reason and conservative predication. calculated easily. Nguyen et al. (2011, 2012) investigated
the moment modification factors of an I-girder with
4. Torsional Behavior trapezoidal web corrugations under moment gradient and
various end restraint conditions. And the moment
Generally, the lateral-torsional buckling is a major modification factors were proposed and verified to
design aspect of thin-walled beams. When a slender I- improve the accuracy of lateral-torsional buckling strength.
girder is subjected to flexure about its strong axis with Hamid (2010) developed a 3D FEM for the lateral-
insufficient lateral bracing, out-of-plane bending and torsional buckling analysis of I-girders with corrugated
twisting may occur as the applied load approaches its webs and investigated the effects of elastic lateral bracing
critical value. Previous researches (Lindner, 1990, 1992; stiffness on the critical moment of simply supported I-
Lindner and Aschinger, 1990; Aschinger and Lindner, girders with corrugated webs under pure bending. It was
1997) have shown that a corrugated web I-girder under revealed that the effect of bracing depends not only on the
in-plane moment and shear will deflect in-plane and twist stiffness of the restraint but also on the modified
out-of-plane simultaneously. Lindner (1990), Lindner and slenderness of the I-girder. A general equation was put
Aschinger (1990) revealed that the torsional section forward to determine the value of optimum stiffness in
constant for an I-girder with trapezoidal web corrugations terms of the I-girder's slenderness.
does not differ from those of a beam with flat web; As for composite box girders with corrugated steel
however, the warping section constant is different. Ibrahim webs, Yoda and Ohura (1993), Yoda and Shoda (1994)
(2001) calculated the lateral-torsional buckling strength analyzed the torsional behavior experimentally and
of corrugated web I-girders using the design formulas for theoretically. Mo et al. (2000), Mo and Fan (2006)
conventional I-girders from the AISC Specifications with performed a series of systematic tests on hybrid concrete
the modified warping torsion constant. Abbas et al. box girders subjected to torsion. According to the test
(2006, 2007a,b) presented the theoretical, experimental, results, an analytical model was developed, and a step-
and finite element analysis results for the linear elastic by-step procedure for torsional design of such bridges
behavior of corrugated web steel I-girders under in-plane was presented. Based on the test specimens (Mo et al.,
loads. A rigorous theoretical formulation and a simplified 2000), Ding et al. (2012) carried out parametric analysis
analysis method for flange transverse bending of corrugated of PC box-girders with corrugated webs under pure
web I-girders under in-plane moment and shear in the torsion. It was found that the shear flow in concrete top
elastic range were developed. Sayed-Ahmed (2005, 2007) or bottom flange is not equal to that in corrugated steel
performed a series of finite element analyses and concluded webs; the ultimate torsional strength is in linear proportion
that the equations used to calculate the critical lateral- to shear modulus, thickness of corrugated steel webs and
torsional buckling strength of the I-girder with flat web compressive strength of concrete. Li (2003) analyzed the
would underestimate the capacity of the I-girder with torsion and distortion effect of box girders with corrugated
corrugated web. An equivalent moment factor concept steel webs, calculated the restrained torsion using the
was proposed for the corrugated web girders to improve second theory of A.A. Umanskii and evaluated the
the validity. Yu (2006) addressed the lateral-torsional distortion by B.E.F. analogy method. Kato et al. (2004)
buckling strength of steel corrugated web I-girders for proposed cross sectional distortion theory for PC box
highway bridges. The resistance of corrugated web I- beams with corrugated steel web by the matrix method.
girders under uniform torsion, uniform bending and moment Distortion effect in box girders with corrugated steel
gradient bending were investigated respectively. Design webs under eccentric loading is more evident than that in
formulas were proposed and compared with AASHTO conventional box girders with concrete webs (Li, 2003;
LRFD Bridge Design specifications (AASHTO, 2004). Di et al., 2009). Thus diaphragms are essential to decrease
Kubo and Watanabe (2007) tested lateral-torsional behavior warping normal stresses. Li (2003), He (2011) analyzed
of corrugated steel web girders with four different the effect of diaphragms on warping normal stress under
trapezoidal corrugation configurations under a mid-span eccentric loading considering different ratio of height to
 Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Composite Bridges with Corrugated Steel Webs: State-of-the-Art 327

span, different distances of diaphragms. And empirical field and interacting instability phenomena. Elgaaly and
equations for diaphragm distances were obtained based Seshadri (1997) investigated the shear and patch loading,
on parametric analyses. In regard to the horizontal curved bending and patch loading interaction of girders with
composite box-girder bridges with corrugated webs, corrugated webs. Based on a limited number of test results
diaphragms should be arranged reasonably to reduce and the numerical calculations, the interaction equations
torsional and distortion effect for safety and stability, due were proposed. However, the previous investigations focused
to the coupling effect of bending and torsion and reduced on typical building structures, where the analyzed loading
bending stiffness in horizontal direction caused by length was very short. Kovesdi (2010) extended the
corrugated steel webs. He (2011) conducted extensive previously analyzed parameter range to bridge application,
parametric studies (including central angle, the aspect investigated the interaction behavior of the girders with
ratio of the box section, the spacing of the intermediate corrugated webs and finally developed interaction proposals
diaphragms) to obtain the design suggestions for the for both interaction types (shear and patch loading,
maximum spacing of the intermediate diaphragms. It was bending and patch loading) through experimental and
found that the curved bridge can be simplified as straight numerical studies.
one when the central angle is less than 5 degree, more
intermediate diaphragms should be arranged in curved 6. Dynamic Behavior
bridges with corrugated webs than straight ones when the
central angle is more than 5 degree, model test and The dynamic properties of the structure are the
detailed simulation analysis must be carried out when the fundamentals of seismic and wind resistant analysis.
central angle designed more than 20 degree. Tategami et al. (1999) investigated the dynamic increment
factor and the dynamic behavior of external tendon and
5. Patch Loading Resistance corrugated steel webs subjected to running vehicle
experimentally. From the test results, it was verified that
From the modern bridge erection methods, the incremental external tendon was not resonant with the bridge and the
launching technique is one of the most competitive. This vehicle. Also, the dynamic increment factors of the
construction process, however, involves a problem with bridges with corrugated steel webs were larger than the
buckling of the thin steel web under patch loading. design impact coefficient of prestressed concrete bridges.
Experimental research on the patch loading resistance of Kadotani et al. (2003a,b) studied the vibration characteristics
girders with trapezoidally corrugated webs was initiated of composite bridges with corrugated steel webs extensively
by Leiva-Aravena and Edlund (1987). Six tests were by model tests, field dynamic load tests and finite element
conducted considering patch loading width and location, analysis. It was found that shear deformation should be
as well the web thickness. Kähönen (1988) made six tests considered in natural frequency analysis. Takaki et al.
on different girders, where the web crippling was analyzed (2004) conducted vibration tests to identify the dynamic
under patch loading. A design model based on the four characteristics of the extradosed bridge (Himi Yume
plastic hinge failure mechanism was developed to determine Bridge) with corrugated steel webs. The results showed
the patch loading resistance. Elgaaly and Seshadri (1997) that both the fundamental natural frequency and damping
performed five tests on a simply supported beam by ratio are equivalent to those of existing extradosed bridges
varying the position of the applied load. Numerical and PC cable-stayed bridges of similar sizes. Chen et al.
investigations were made based on their experiments. (2007) analyzed the influence of structural parameters
Further numerical investigations were conducted by Luo including thickness, inclination of corrugated steel webs
and Edlund (1996b). The ultimate strength of steel plate and the effect of external tendons on dynamic characteristic
girders with trapezoidally corrugated webs under patch by model tests and FEM simulation. Manko and Beben
loading was studied using nonlinear finite element analysis, (2008) presented the results and conclusions of dynamic
considering the material nonlinearity, initial imperfections, load tests that were conducted on a corrugated steel arch
“corner effect” of corrugation corners, loading position bridge in Sweden. The critical speed magnitudes, dynamic
and distribution length. Also, an empirical design formula coefficients, and vibration frequency were determined.
was proposed. Kovesdi et al. (2010) carried out numerical Zhang et al. (2008) deduced natural frequencies formulas
investigations for the determination of the patch loading of the composite box girders with corrugated steel webs
resistance. The geometric parameters which influence the considering the effects of shear lag and shear deformation
patch loading resistance and the structural behavior were by the method of energy variational principle. Based on
determined and analyzed. Design formulas from the view the results of field load tests in previous dynamic studies
point of bridges are enhanced according to the numerical for such type bridges, it was obtained that first order
results and the existing experiments. natural frequency (generally flexural mode) of composite
Actually, when such a bridge is incrementally launched, bridges with corrugated steel webs is slightly smaller than
the girder is subjected to combined bending moment, that of conventional PC bridges. However, the dynamic
shear and transverse forces, resulting in complex stress increment factor is larger that of conventional PC bridge.
328 Jun He et al. / International Journal of Steel Structures, 12(3), 321-338, 2012

While the damping ratio of composite girder bridges with web I-girders has better fatigue performance than that of
corrugated webs is between that of the steel bridges and conventional steel I-girders, and cracks initiated at the
the PC bridges. web-to-flange weld toe then propagated into the flange
leading to fracture.
7. Long-Term Behavior In Japan, many researchers paid attention to the fatigue
behavior of welding joints and component connections in
The aforementioned researches regard the instantaneous such bridges. Yamada et al. (2001a,b), Yamada et al.
behavior of composite bridges with corrugated steel webs, (2003) investigated the fatigue behavior of inclined non-
the investigations used to predict the long-term structural load-carrying fillet welded joints experimentally and
response under sustained loads and repeated loads are numerically using fracture mechanics. They reported that
also necessary. multiple fatigue cracks initiated typically at the fillet weld
toe for all cases, even when the steel flange is embedded
7.1. Fatigue behavior in the concrete slab. Takeshita et al. (2001) conducted
An initial attempt to explore the fatigue strength of I- fatigue tests of composite girders with corrugated webs in
girders with corrugated webs was made by Harrison a simply supported condition under dynamic load, three
(1965) in the UK. He tested two I-girders with sinusoidal types of shear connectors including studs, holes with
corrugated webs to investigate possible fatigue life penetrating reinforcement, the holes with penetrating
improvements over conventional I-girders with stiffeners. reinforcement and wire net were adopted. Experimental
In Hungary, Korashy and Varga (1979) conducted a series results revealed that holes with penetrating reinforcement
of fatigue tests on eighteen stiffened steel girders (Eleven are more effective than studs for composite girders with
girders were stiffened using discrete corrugated webs). corrugated webs. Shito et al. (2002), Sakai et al. (2002)
The girders stiffened by discrete corrugated webs showed carried out model tests from the aspect of fatigue
an increase of approximately 25% in fatigue strength behavior with respect to the shape of the scallops used for
compared to traditionally stiffened girders. Cracks initiated lap and fillet welding in the joints of steel plates in
at the web-to-flange weld toe within the corrugated corrugated steel web bridges. Sugimoto et al. (2002)
regions and propagated into the flange leading to fracture. investigated the fatigue durability of joints connecting a
In USA, Elgaaly et al. (2000) and coworkers (Rodriguez, corrugated steel web with a concrete slab. It was verified
2000; Ibrahim, 2001) at Drexel university investigated the that two different embedded joints with the reinforced
fatigue behavior of I-girders with trapezoidal corrugated bars or the tie plates have sufficient fatigue durability.
webs. Ibrahim et al. (2006a,b) carried out an experimental Mori et al. (2004) aimed at making clear of fatigue and
program on plate girders with corrugated webs under stress properties of the PC box girder bridges with
both monotonic and repeated loading. Fatigue cracks corrugated steel webs through fatigue tests, stress
initiated at the web-to-flange fillet weld toe where the measurements and 3D FEM analyses. From the aspect of
web was inclined and then propagated in the flange fatigue life, fillet welded joints with the scallops of
leading to failure. A comprehensive nonlinear finite rational shape should be selected, and less welding or
element analysis was conducted to study the effects of the good welding quality are recommended in component
different geometrical parameters on the stress concentration connections.
at different locations, and to explain the findings of
earlier experimental study (Ibrahim, 2006c). Anami et al. 7.2. Creep and durability
(2005), Anami and Sause (2005) examined the fatigue The long-term structural responses such as creep
performance of the web-flange weld of steel girders with behavior under sustained loads and lifetime durability
trapezoidal corrugated webs experimentally using large- performance for composite bridges with corrugated steel
scale girder specimens, and analyzed the crack propagation webs are unknown since only a limited number of
by the finite element method. Parametric FEM analysis publications are available on this important design aspect.
indicated that the corrugation angle and the bend radius at Maeda et al. (2003) suggested that it is necessary to
the fold lines of the corrugations are the parameters that analyze the creep deflection in consideration of shear
influence the stress at the web-flange weld toe most. deformation. Li et al. (2008) conducted two reduced scale
Sause et al. (2006) presented fatigue tests on large-scale models to study the creep behavior of the externally
girder specimens with full-scale trapezoidal webs. The prestressed composite box girders with corrugated steel
results demonstrated that steel corrugated web I-girders webs under 205 days successive observation. The results
exhibit a fatigue life that is longer than that of indicated that the camber of the composite box girder
conventional steel I-girders with transverse stiffeners. For with corrugated steel webs is less than that of the concrete
the design of corrugated web I-girders, the Category B' box girder. Shan and Ling (2011) analyzed the cross-
design curve of the AASHTO LRFD specifications (2004) section internal force and stress redistribution of a box-
was recommended for finite life fatigue design calculations. girder with corrugated steel webs under the influence of
All the previous researches indicated that steel corrugated concrete creep. As the long-term behaviors are not
 Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Composite Bridges with Corrugated Steel Webs: State-of-the-Art 329

Figure 8. Conventional joint structures of composite bridges with corrugated steel webs.

investigated sufficiently, the creep behavior and prestressing mechanism and fatigue characteristics under out-plane
loss under sustained loads need to be determined based bending moments caused by transverse deflection of
on the model tests and field monitoring. In addition, concrete slab were discussed.
durability performance (corrosion and degradation) of The performance of composite girders depends largely
corrugated steel webs as well as the joint structures on the effectiveness of shear connections at the interface
should be paid more attention and further studied. of concrete and steel. Corrugated steel webs have very
low axial rigidity, which requires relatively flexible shear
8. Component Connections connectors. A new type of shear connectors without using
a top steel flange was proposed. No top steel flange may
The connections between the concrete slabs and the improve cost performance of composite girders with
corrugated steel webs play an important role to the corrugated steel webs. Corrugated steel webs embedded
structural safety and durability for such composite bridges. in the concrete as shear connectors were initiated in
The studs, PBLs and angle shear connectors welded on Hondani Bridge. Nakajima et al. (1995) and Takeshita et
the flanges or the corrugated steel webs embedded al. (2001) carried out two points bending and fatigue tests
directly into the concrete slabs are commonly used for the of composite girders with different shear connectors
joint parts (Fig. 8). Studs were adopted mostly for the (studs and embedded connectors). Experimental results
composite bridges with corrugated webs in the early time, revealed that holes with transverse and shear steel bars
such as Shinkai Bridge (Kondo et al., 1994) in Japan and are effective as shear connectors. Nakasu et al. (2000)
Altwipfergrund Bridge (Novák et al., 2007) in Germany. performed experiments and FEM analysis for several
The PBL connectors were developed in 1980s by the types of specimens changing plate thicknesses and
German company for the design of the third bridge over embedded depths of corrugated steel webs to investigate
the Caroni River in Venezuela (Leonhardt et al., 1987). static and fatigue behavior of embedded connectors under
Push out test results showed that PBL shear connectors out-of-plane bending. Sugimoto et al. (2002) conducted
are advantageous from the viewpoint of fatigue strength static and fatigue loading tests with a full-scale model
(Hosaka et al., 2002). Ebina et al. (2003, 2004) conducted simulating a real railway bridge under out-of-plane cyclic
an extensive research using normal and high-performance bending to confirm fatigue durability of the joint parts. As
lightweight aggregates concrete to obtain the mechanical a result, it was clarified that both of two different joints
characteristics (shear and out-plane bending behaviors) of types, called constraint reinforced bar type (Fig. 8e) and
twin perforbond ribs connectors. From the test results and flat plate type (Fig. 8f), have enough fatigue durability.
related FEM analysis, shear strength equations were Kosa et al. (2006) presented experimental and analytical
proposed considering the influence of distance from the investigations on flexural and shear behaviors of composite
concrete edge to the ribs. In addition, the force transmission girders with corrugated steel webs to make clear ultimate
330 Jun He et al. / International Journal of Steel Structures, 12(3), 321-338, 2012

Figure 9. Joint structure beween lower slab and corrugated web.

behavior and failure mechanism of embedded connection. In comparison of all the mentioned connection types
In consideration of damage of the connection, the harmful for such composite bridge, the workability of construction,
gap phenomenon in the connection was confirmed. A durability and maintenance performance of the connections
simple analysis model was proposed base on the assumed with flange are superior to that of the embedded
mechanism to analyze the quantity of the harmful gap. connection without flange, but the economic performance
Taira et al. (2009) investigated the stress distribution in is in inferior position in comparison with embedded
embedded connection zone by finite element method connection. Therefore, comprehensive influencing factors
considering the effects of embedded depth, thickness of such as shear capacity, construction, durability, maintenance
corrugated steel plate, and the direction of wedding joint. and economic performance should be considered when
Novák and Röhm (2009), Röhm and Novák (2010) studied the connection is chosen.
the load bearing behavior of an embedded corrugated
steel web in combination with concrete dowels under 9. Analytical Method and Theory
longitudinal shear and transverse bending respectively.
On the basis of these studies, simple design rules for 9.1. Shear deformation theory
shear connection in the ultimate limit state were In the study of deflection and stress of the PC girders
developed. Ahn et al. (2011) carried out push-out tests of with corrugated steel webs, the classical Euler-Bernoulli
corrugated perfobond rib shear connectors. Test results and Timoshenko beam theories are found not to be
showed that the failure was determined by concrete applicable as shear deformation in the corrugated steel
bearing with small deformations of inclined panel, and webs becomes large (Machimdamrong et al., 2004; He et
shear strength increased much than standard perfobond al., 2009a,b). Taniguchi and Yoda (1997) assumed that a
rib connector due to the shear resistance of the inclined composite girder with I-section consists of three parallel
rib panel. beams bonded together, each beam is divided into thin
When studs or embedded connections used for the laminas, and displacements and stress within each lamina
joints between corrugated steel webs and lower concrete are linearly changed. Nonlinear analysis and comparison
slab, care must be taken into the inverted construction of to experimental results were also included in their work.
concrete and water proofing of the joints. With a view to Shirozu et al. (2000) provided another numerical method
these problems, Ono et al. (2006) prepared some specimens based on the so-called “constant shear flow panels”. The
modeled the embedded connections and carried out girder is divided into a number of small sections and the
accelerated corrosion tests of the specimens. The results assumption on constant shear flow is postulated on each
showed that durability of the embedded connection was panel. This method has an advantage when the depth of
increased by sealing the border between steel and the girder is varied. Noda and Ohtoi (2000) presented a
concrete and by embedding paint in concrete. Shiji et al. calculation method for sectional deformation of box
(2008), He (2011) presented the application of the joint girder with corrugated steel webs based on folded plate
structures as shown in Fig. 9, and the validity of placing theory. Kato et al. (2002), Kato and Nishimura (2003)
lower slab on the inner side of corrugated steel webs was developed an elastic equation extending beam bending
confirmed. In addition, punching shear tests were conducted theory considering shear deformation. The dual three-
to investigate the properties of shear slip at the joints. It moment method and the corrugated web beam matrix
was proved that the bottom flange is beneficial for the displacements method were formularized. Then, analytical
concrete quality and slab construction, as well as the methods were applied in continuous girder and cable-
durability of the interface between concrete slab and stayed bridges with corrugated webs. Machimdamrong et
corrugate web. al. (2004) derived an elastic shear deformable beam
 Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Composite Bridges with Corrugated Steel Webs: State-of-the-Art 331

theory(G3 theory) which is based on three displacement

fields and is similar to the classical Timoshenko beam
theory for analysis of PC girders with corrugated steel
webs. Bariant et al. (2006) proposed an extension of the
G3 theory by taking into account the inelastic properties
of corrugated steel webs. FEM analysis was used as a
benchmark and the FEM results were very close to the
prediction of the elasto-plastic G3 theory. He et al. Figure 10. Tubular flange girders with flat webs or
(2009a,b) presented the elastic bending theory taking corrugated webs, Sause et al. (2008).
shear deformation into consideration for composite bridges
with corrugated steel webs. A limit ratio of depth to span
(1/30) was suggested for considering influence of shear
deformation or not.

9.2. Three-dimensional finite element analysis method

The finite element method (FEM) acts as a link
between the experimental tests, the mechanical and
analytical modeling, permitting better understanding of
the experimental behavior and the simplified methods.
Elgaaly and Seshadri (1998) performed nonlinear finite
element analysis by ABAQUS considering both geometric Figure 11. CFST arch with corrugated webs, Gao and
and material nonlinearities to investigate the behavior of Chen (2008).
girders with corrugated webs under shear, uniform bending
and local discrete compressive loads up to failure. Huang 10. New Concept Application
et al. (2004) presented a simple approach to account for
three-dimensional phenomena of the accordion effect Plate girders or box girders with corrugated webs are
using link-type elements within a two-dimensional finite not the olny application form for such composite bridges.
element model. Wu (2002) and Li et al. (2009b) investigated Wang (2003) proposed the concept of corrugated web I-
the shear lag effect by model test and FE analysis, and put beams combined with tubular flanges to improve the
forward the practical calculating formula and chart for stability and bending capacity. The behavior of innovative
calculation of the shear lag coefficient. Watanabe and structures subjected to shear, bending, and axial compression
Kubo (2006), Watanabe et al. (2007), Kubo and Watanabe was extensively investigated. Kim et al. (2005), Sause et
(2007), Sayed-Ahmed (2007) analyzed in-plane capacity, al. (2008) performed the design of tubular flange girders
shear buckling and lateral torsional buckling of steel I- with flat webs or corrugated webs (Fig. 10). An experimental
girders with corrugated webs by 3D FE software. Xie et study of these girders showed that the lateral torsional
al. (2008) proposed a numerical method based on finite buckling capacity was improved by concrete-filled tubular
element theory with shell elements. The corrugated steel flange, and these girders were capable to resist factored
webs and the concrete flanges were simulated with design loads under construction conditions and in the
orthotropic plate elements and isotropic plate elements final constructed condition. Gao and Chen (2008), Chen
respectively. On the basis of such type bridges built in and Gao (2008) presented concrete filled steel tubular
China, He et al. (2007b, 2008a) and Li et al. (2009) (CFST) beam and arch with corrugated steel web (Fig.
established 3D FE models to analyze the mechanical 11). Experimental results showed that the flexible rigidity
behaviors of the structure, such as the stress distribution, and ultimate load-carrying capacity were improved
deflection, the effects of internal and external prestressing. considerably. And a trial design of arch bridge with
He et al. (2008b) and Jung et al. (2011) conducted corrugated steel webs was carried out based on the tests
detailed construction stage analysis by 3D FE models to (Chen and Mou, 2008). Shao et al. (2010) conducted an
verify the construction safety. The results revealed that experimental study to investigate the behavior of a new
essential design issues should be considered when type multi-cantilever prestressed composite beam with
constructing PC girders with corrugate steel webs using corrugated steel webs, as shown in Fig. 12. The
incremental launching method. investigation focused on mechanical performance of the
In summary, beam theories considering shear deformation novel structure, such as efficiency of prestressing, creep
are recommended to analyze the internal force and deflection and shrinkage of concrete slab, load distribution, and
of composite bridges with corrugated webs in the preliminary load-carrying capacity. Kim et al. (2011) proposed
design stage. While 3D FE models should be established to prestressed composite beam with corrugated web (Fig.
investigate stress distribution of detailed structures such as 13), prestress is efficiently introduced to the top and
component connections, anchorage blocks and so on. bottom flanges due to the small axial rigidity of corrugated
332 Jun He et al. / International Journal of Steel Structures, 12(3), 321-338, 2012

need for design codes of such bridges in respective

countries.
(2) The current design specifications as well as the
published literature do not provide enough information on
the behavior of composite bridges with corrugated steel
webs during the construction phase. Further research
work is required using field tests and finite element
analyses to investigate the behavior of composite girders
with corrugated steel webs at the construction phase and
to avoid possible failures.
(3) Current researches on the torsional and warping
Figure 12. Multi-cantilever prestressed composite beam behavior of curved composite bridges with corrugated
with corrugated steel webs, Shao et al. (2010). steel webs are still mainly based on straight composite
girders. Actual torsional and warping behavior of such
bridges through laboratory or field tests should be a
research focal point.
(4) A non-composite corrugated web girder deflects
and twists under in-plane bending. Depending upon the
number of corrugations (even or odd), the twisting of the
girder takes place in a half sine wave or a full sine wave.
The costs associated with the extra lateral bracing may
offset the advantage of corrugated steel webs.
(5) The long-term structural response under sustained
loads and lifetime durability performance of composite
bridges with corrugated steel webs are unknown since
only a limited number of publications are available on
this important design aspect. Thus, the creep behavior
Figure 13. Prestressed composite beam with corrugated and prestressing loss needs to be determined based on the
web, Kim et al. (2011).
model tests and field monitoring, and durability performance
(corrosion and degradation) of corrugated steel webs as
web. In addition, corrugated web was encased by well as the joint structures should be paid more attention.
concrete after the introduction of prestressing force so (6) Further studies on force transmission and failure
that the local buckling of corrugated web can be avoided. mechanism of complicated structural details such as joint
The surrounding concrete also improves fire-resistance structures and corrugated steel webs encased by concrete
performance and durability of the member. On the other near support sections should be conducted to improve the
hand, as the prestressed steel beam is placed, no form or design theories and methods for composite bridges with
supporting posts are necessary for concrete casting, corrugated steel webs. In addition, innovative structure
which leads to save construction cost. types and advanced construction technology need to be
Although only a few new concept application examples proposed to prosper and develop the application of
were introduced in this paper, we believe that innovative composite bridges with corrugated steel webs.
structure types and advanced technology making full use
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