KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 6 Geometric Optics

Reflection at a Plane Surface

Forming Images with a Plane Mirror
A mirror is an object that reflects light. A plane mirror is simply a flat mirror. Plane mirrors are ground to be flat–the
flatter the more expensive. (Typically good ones have -where we use visible radiation -no hills or valleys larger than 500nm).
Consider an object placed at point P in front of a plane mirror. An image will be formed at point P´ behind the mirror

An image is formed at the point where the rays of light leaving the object either actually intersect or where they
appear to originate
image or virtual image: the result of an object point P formed by a mirror; the apparent source of reflected rays.
real image: the image resulting from the outgoing rays that actually pass through an image point.
object distance: do, the distance from the object to the mirror.
image distance: di, the distance from the virtual image to mirror.
Sign rules for object and image distances Lateral magnification
Object distance: When the object is on the same side of For object height ho and image height hi, the lateral
the reflecting or refracting surface as the incoming light, magnification m is
the object distances s is positive; otherwise, it is negative. 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐡𝒊 𝐝𝒊
Image distance: When the image is on the same side of 𝐦= = =
the reflecting or refracting surface as the outgoing light, 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐡𝒐 𝐝𝒐
the image distance s’ is positive; otherwise, it is negative. If m is negative the image is inverted (upside down)
For a plane mirror, the lateral magnification m is unity.
“In other words, when you look at yourself in a plane
mirror, your image is the same size as the real you.”

 erect: when the object and image are in the

same direction
 inverted: when the object and image are in
opposite directions
 reversed: in a plane mirror, the orientation of the
image versus the orientation of the object; the
right side of the object “appears” to be the left
side of the object thereby appearing reversed.

Plane Mirrors
A plane mirror image has the following properties:
•The image distance equals the object distance.
•The image is unmagnified.
•The image is virtual.
•The image is not inverted.
•Left and right are reversed
**The intensity of the reflected beam depends upon the
angle of incidence and the indices of refraction and
they type of coating.

Reflection at a Spherical Surface

A spherical mirror is a mirror whose surface shape is
spherical with radius of curvature R.
Two types of spherical mirrors: concave and convex.
*The principal axis (optical axis, vertex) is the straight
line between C and the midpoint of the mirror
We will always orient the mirrors so that the reflecting
surface is on the left. The object will be on the left.

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 6 Geometric Optics

Focal Point
When parallel rays are incident upon
a spherical mirror, the reflected rays
intersect at the focal point F.
For a concave mirror, the focal point
is in front of the mirror.
For a convex mirror, the focal point
is behind the mirror

Ray Tracing The parallel ray (P ray) reflects through

Focal Length We will use three principal rays to
The focal length f is the distance the focal point. The focal ray (F ray)
determine where an image will be located. reflects parallel to the axis, and the
from the surface of the mirror to the A ray diagram is a tool that is used to center-of-curvature ray (C ray) reflects
focal point. It can be shown that the determine the location, size, orientation, back along its incoming path.
focal length is half the radius of and type of image formed by a mirror.
curvature of the mirror.
Sign Convention: the focal length is
negative if the focal point is behind
the mirror.
For a concave mirror, f = ½R
For a convex mirror, f = − ½R
(R is always positive)

RAY TRACING PROCEDURE: CONCAVE MIRROR center of curvature: the center of the geometrical sphere of
which the mirror is curved, C.
APPLICABLE FOR CONCAVE CONVEX MIRROR, vertex: the center of a spherical mirror surface, V .
CONCAVE AND CONVEX LENSES optic axis: the line through the object point, P, the center of
curvature, C, and the vertex, V .
paraxial rays: rays from P that make sufficiently small angles
with the optic axis and intersect P’ after being reflected (and
thus are close to the axis and nearly parallel to it) using paraxial
approximation.

SAMPLE 1: if do is between C and F CONCAVE

(1) From the tip of the object draw line going into the
surface of the mirror parallel to the principal axis.
(2) From (1) the line will be deflected (comes out) from
the mirror through f.
(3) From the tip of the object draw line going into the
surface of the mirror through f
(4) From (3) the line will be deflected (comes out) from
the mirror parallel to the principal axis.  Image will be somewhere outside C
The intersection of deflected lines will be height and the  Image will be bigger (magnified) than the object
location of image.  Image will always be inverted
 Image will be REAL image

SAMPLE 1: if do>c; CONCAVE

Note:
*if the image is at f: step (3) will be directly going to the
intersection of surface mirror and principal axis and
step (4) will be deflected having the same angle of
incidence ray (3)
*when the deflected ray line has no intersection but
parallel to each other; there will be no image. If not
parallel extend line (2) and (4) behind mirror.

ONE WHOLE SHEET OF BOND PAPER:

EXERCISE DRAW THE RAY DIAGRAM OF A
 Image will be somewhere between C and F CONCAVE MIRROR and DESCRIBE THE IMAGE
 Image will be smaller than the object AS FOR ITS LOCATION, SIZE, ORIENTATION
 Image will always be inverted AND TYPE OF IMAGE
 Image will be REAL image (a) Object is at C
(b) Object is at F
(c) Object is between F and the mirror surfac

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 6 Geometric Optics

A.
1 1 1
= +
f d𝑜 d𝑖
1 1 1
= +
15.2 cm 8.3 cm d𝑖
1
0.0658 cm−1 = 0.120 cm^ − 1 +
di
1
0.0547 cm−1 = di

𝒅𝒊 = −𝟏𝟖. 𝟑 𝒄𝒎 The negative value for image

distance indicates that the image is a virtual image
located behind the mirror.
B.
hi di
= −
ho d𝑜
hi −18.3 cm
= −
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1: 4.0 cm 8.3 cm
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm −18.3cm
from a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2 cm. hi = − (4.0cm)
8.3cm
Determine the image distance and the image size.
GIVEN: 𝒉𝒊 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟏𝒄𝒎 image height is a positive value, meaning
ho = 4.0 cm an upright image
do = 45.7 cm
f =15.2 cm
REQ’D: di and hi Ray Diagrams - Convex Mirrors
SOLUTION: Convex mirrors in a manner that a virtual image is
A. formed.
1 1 1 The Convex mirror rules can be stated as follows:
= +  Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal
f d𝑜 d𝑖
axis on the way to a convex mirror will reflect in
1 1 1
= + such a manner that its extension will pass through
15.2 cm 45.7 cm d𝑖 the focal point.
1  Any incident ray traveling towards a convex mirror
0.0658 cm−1 = 0.0219 cm^ − 1 + such that its extension passes through the focal
di
1 point will reflect and travel parallel to the principal
0.0439 cm−1 = di axis.
𝒅𝒊 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖 𝒄𝒎 These two rules will be used to construct ray diagrams.

B. CONVEX MIRROR
hi di
= − Step-by-Step Method for Drawing Ray
ho d𝑜 Diagrams for CONVEX MIRROR
hi 22.8 cm
= − For object located beyond the 2F point of a double
4.0 cm 45.7 cm
convex lens.
22.8cm
hi = − (4.0cm) (STEP 1) Pick a point on the top of the object and draw
45.7cm
two incident rays traveling towards the mirror.
𝒉𝒊 = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 𝒄𝒎 The negative values for image height
indicate that the image is an inverted image

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
A 4.0-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 8.3 cm from
a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2 cm.
(NOTE: this is the same object and the same mirror, only
this time the object is placed closer to the mirror.) (1) One ray so that it travels towards the focal
Determine the image distance and the image size. point on the opposite side of the mirror
GIVEN: (2) Second ray such that it travels exactly parallel
ho = 4.0 cm to the principal axis.
do = 8.3 cm Note: Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel.
f =15.2 cm
(STEP 2) Once these incident rays strike the mirror,
REQ’D: di and hi
reflect them according to the two rules of reflection for
SOLUTION: convex mirrors.

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 6 Geometric Optics

The diagrams above show that in each case, the image is

 located behind the convex mirror
 a virtual image
 an upright image
 reduced in size (i.e., smaller than the object)

Unlike concave mirrors, convex mirrors always produce

(1) The ray that travelled parallel to the principal
images that share these characteristics. The location of
axis on the way to the mirror will reflect and
the object does not affect the characteristics of the
travel in the direction such that its extension
image.
passes through the focal point.
(2) Align a straight edge with the point of SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
incidence and the focal point, and draw the second A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 35.5 cm
reflected ray from a convex mirror having a focal length of -12.2 cm.
The two rays should be diverging upon reflection. Determine the image distance and the image size.
GIVEN:
(STEP 3) Locate and mark the image of the top of the
ho = 4.0 cm
object
do = 35.5 cm
f =-12.2cm
REQ’D: di and hi
SOLUTION:
A.
1 1 1
= +
f d𝑜 d𝑖
1 1 1
= +
−12.1 cm 35.5 cm d𝑖
The image point of the top of the object is the point where
the two reflected rays intersect. 1
− 0.0820 cm−1 = 0.0282 cm^ − 1 +
di
Since the two reflected rays are diverging, they must be 1
extended behind the mirror in order to intersect. −0.110 cm−1 =
di

 Extend each of the rays using dashed lines. 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟖 𝒄𝒎 The negative values for image
 Draw the extensions until they intersect. distance indicate that the image is located behind the
 The point of intersection is the image point mirror
of the top of the object. B.
 Both reflected rays would appear to diverge
from this point. hi di
= −
ho d𝑜
(STEP 4) Repeat the process for the bottom of the hi 9.08 cm
object. = −
4.0 cm 35.5 cm
9.08cm
hi = − (4.0cm)
35.5cm

𝒉𝒊 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐦 positive value indicates an upright image

LENSES
After completing the first three steps, only the image A lens is an object that uses refraction to bend light and
location of the top extreme of the object has been found. form images
If the bottom of the object lies upon the principal axis (as
Light is reflected from a mirror.
it does in this example), then the image of this point will Light is refracted through a lens.
also lie upon the principal axis and be the same distance
from the mirror as the image of the top of the object. At Thin Lenses
this point the complete image can be filled in. Thin lens: the simplest lens has two spherical surfaces
close enough together that we can neglect the distance
Image Characteristics for Convex Mirrors between them.
diagrams are shown below.
Type of lenses:

converging lens: a lens in which parallel rays incident

on the lens converge to a real image point after passing
through the lens.
diverging lens: a lens in which parallel rays incident on
the lens diverge after refraction.

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 6 Geometric Optics

TERMINOLOGIES FOR LENSES

Focal Point - The focal point of a lens is the place where
parallel rays incident upon the lens converge denoted by
the letter F. Refraction Rules for a Diverging Lens
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal
axis of a diverging lens will refract through the lens
and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a
direction such that its extension will pass through the
focal point).
 Any incident ray traveling towards the focal point on
the way to the lens will refract through the lens and
travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the center of the
lens will in effect continue in the same direction that
it had when it entered the lens.
Note that each lens has two focal points - one on each
side of the lens.

Unlike mirrors, lenses can allow light to pass through

either face, depending on where the incident rays are
coming from.
focal length – Is the distance from the mirror to the focal
point (denoted as f).
2F point an imaginary point on the principal axis that is
twice as far from the vertical axis as the focal point is.

Refraction Rules for a Converging Lens

 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal
axis of a converging lens will refract through the lens
and travel through the focal point on the opposite side
Graphical Methods for Lenses
of the lens.
 Any incident ray traveling through the focal point on
the way to the lens will refract through the lens and One goal of a ray diagram is to determine the location,
travel parallel to the principal axis. size, orientation, and type of image that is formed by the
 An incident ray that passes through the centre of the double convex lens.
lens will in effect continue in the same direction that Typically, this requires determining where the image of
it had when it entered the lens. the upper and lower extreme of the object is located and
then tracing the entire image.
Principal rays for thin lenses
1. A ray parallel to the axis, after refraction by the lens,
passes through the second focal point F2 of a converging
lens or appears to come from the second focal point of a
diverging lens.
2. A ray through the center of the lens is not appreciably
deviated, because, at the center of the lens, the two
surfaces are parallel and close together.
3. A ray through, away from, or proceeding toward the
first focal point F1 emerges parallel to the axis.

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 6 Geometric Optics

 When the image is real, the position of the (STEP 4) After completing the first three steps, only
image point is determined by the intersection of the image location of the top extreme of the object has
any two of the three principal rays. been found.
 When the image is virtual, the outgoing rays
diverge and the diverging rays are extended
backward to their intersection point.
Once the image position is known, any other ray can be drawn
from the same point.

CONVERGING LENSES
Step-by-Step Method for Drawing Ray Light rays are converging to a point after refracting
Diagrams for converging lenses through the lens. In such cases, a real image is formed.

For object located beyond the 2F point of a double

convex lens. Observe that when the object in located outside 2F of
the converging lens, its image is an inverted and smaller
(STEP 1) Pick a point on the top of the object and draw image that is located on the other side of the lens.
three incident rays traveling towards the lens.

CONVERGING LENSES
For object located in front of the focal point
A virtual image is formed if the object is located less
than one focal length from the converging lens.

(1) One ray line that passes exactly through the

focal point on the way to the lens.
(2) Second ray such that it travels exactly parallel
to the principal axis.
(3) Third incident ray such that it travels directly
to the exact center of the lens.
Note: Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel.

(STEP 2) Once these incident rays strike the lens, refract Light rays diverge after refracting through the lens. When
them according to the three rules of refraction for refracted rays diverge, a virtual image is formed.
converging lenses.
The image location can be found by tracing all light rays
backwards until they intersect.
Observe that when the object in located in front of the
focal point of the converging lens, its image is an upright
and enlarged image that is located on the object's side of
the lens.

(1) The ray that passes through the focal point on DIVERGING LENSES
the way to the lens will refract and travel parallel Step-by-Step Method for Drawing Ray
to the principal axis.
(2) The ray that traveled parallel to the principal Diagrams for diverging lenses
axis on the way to the lens will refract and travel For object located beyond the 2F point of a double
through the focal point. convex lens.
(3) The ray that traveled to the exact center of the
lens will continue in the same direction. (STEP 1) Pick a point on the top of the object and draw
Extend the rays past their point of intersection. three incident rays traveling towards the lens.

(STEP 3) Mark the image of the top of the object.

The image point of the top of the object is the point
where the three refracted rays intersect.

(1) One ray line that passes exactly through the

focal point on the opposite side of the lens.
(2) Second ray such that it travels exactly parallel
All three rays should intersect at exactly the same point. to the principal axis.
This point is merely the point where all light from the top (3) Third incident ray such to the exact center of
of the object would intersect upon refracting through the the lens.
lens. Note: Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel.

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 6 Geometric Optics

(STEP 2) Once these incident rays strike the lens, refract

them according to the three rules of refraction for
double concave lenses.

(1) The ray that passes through the focal point on

the other side of the will refract through the lens
and travel parallel to the principal axis.
(2) The ray that travelled parallel to the principal
axis on the way to the lens will refract and travel
in direction such that its extension passes through
the focal point on the objects side of the lens. SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
(3) The ray that travelled to the exact center of the A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm
lens will continue in the same direction. from a convex lens having a focal length of 15.2 cm.
Determine the image distance and the image size.
(STEP 3) Mark the image of the top of the object. GIVEN:
The image point of the top of the object is the point ho = 4.0 cm
where the three refracted rays intersect. do = 45.7 cm
f =15.2 cm
REQ’D: di and hi
SOLUTION:
A.
1 1 1
= +
f d𝑜 d𝑖
1 1 1
= +
15.2 cm 45.7 cm d𝑖
1
Since the three refracted rays are diverging, they must be 0.0658 cm−1 = 0.0219 cm^ − 1 +
extended behind the lens in order to intersect. All three di
1
extensions should intersect at the same location. 0.0439 cm−1 = di

The point of intersection is the image point of the top of 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖 𝒄𝒎

the object. B.
(STEP 4) After completing the first three steps, only the hi di
= −
image location of the top extreme of the object has ho d𝑜
been found. hi 22.8 cm
= −
4.0 cm 45.7 cm
22.8cm
hi = − (4.0cm)
45.7cm

𝒉𝒊 = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 𝒄𝒎 The negative values for image height

indicate that the image is an inverted image

CONCLUSION:
After completing the first three steps, only the image From the calculations in this problem it can be
location of the top extreme of the object has been found. concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object is placed 45.7
Thus, the process must be repeated for the point on the cm from a double convex lens having a focal length
bottom of the object. of 15.2 cm, then the image will be inverted, 1.99-cm
If the bottom of the object lies upon the principal axis (as tall and located 22.8 cm from the lens.
it does in this example), then the image of this point will
also lie upon the principal axis and be the same distance REFERENCES:
from the lens as the image of the top of the object. At this https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refln
point the complete image can be filled in. f1427708912322.pdf

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