Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24

MODULE-2 (TURBINES AND IC ENGINES)

TURBINES

Prime Mover: A Prime Mover is a self moving device which converts the available natural source of energy into
mechanical energy of motion to drive the other machines. Ex: Steam turbines, gas turbines, IC engines, etc.

Steam Turbines
A steam turbine is defined as a thermal prime mover in which the heat energy of the steam is transformed into
mechanical energy directly in the form of rotary motion. The heat energy of the steam is first converted into kinetic
energy in a nozzle or a set of nozzles and then is transformed into mechanical energy of rotation.
A steam turbine is mainly used as an ideal prime mover to drive the electric generators in thermal power plants to
generate electric power. They are also used to propel the ships and to drive the compressors, textile and sugar industries
machineries, etc.
The propelling force in a steam turbine depends mainly on the dynamic action of the steam. The steam is caused to fall in
its pressure by expanding in the nozzle. Due to this fall in pressure, a certain amount of heat energy is converted into
kinetic energy which sets the steam to flow with a greater velocity. The rapid moving particles of the steam enter the
rotating part of the turbine where it undergoes a change in the direction of motion which gives rise to a change of
momentum and therefore a force. This constitutes the driving force of the turbine.

Expansion of steam in the nozzle

A nozzle is a passage of varying cross section through which steam flows. A steam turbine uses a convergent-divergent
nozzle. In this type, the cross sectional area of the nozzle diminishes from the entry to throat and thereafter diverges to
the exit.

Entry Exit
Throat

Low velocity High Velocity

High pressure Steam Low pressure Steam

Convergent Divergent
Part Part

A high velocity jet of steam is produced by expanding a high pressure steam in a convergent-divergent nozzle. The steam
at high pressure and relatively low velocity enters the nozzle and as it passes between the entry and the throat, it expands
to a low pressure. Due to this expansion in this portion of the nozzle the enthalpy of the steam is reduced. As there is no
external work done and heat transfer in the nozzle, this loss in the enthalpy of the steam must therefore be equal to the
increase in the velocity of the steam. Therefore a jet of steam at high velocity comes of the throat section of the nozzle.
The divergent portion of the nozzle beyond the throat is provided to complete any remaining expansion without the
lateral spreading of the high velocity jet of steam.

Classification of Steam Turbine

I. According to the action of steam
1. Impulse turbine ( De Laval Turbine)
2. Reaction Turbine ( Parson’s turbine)
II. According to the number of pressure stages
1. single stage
2. Multi stage
III. According to the direction of steam flow
1. Axial flow
2. Radial Flow
IV. According to the number of cylinders
1. Single Cylinder
2. Multi cylinder
V. According to the method of governing
1. Throttle Governing
2. Nozzle governing
3. Pass governing
Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24
Impulse Turbine ( De Laval Turbine)
In this type of turbine, the steam is initially expanded in a nozzle from high pressure to low pressure. The high velocity
jet of steam coming out of the nozzle is made to glide over a curved vane called blade. The jet of steam gliding over the
blade gets deflected very nearly in the circumferential direction. This causes the particles of steam to suffer a change in
direction of motion, which gives rise to a change of momentum and therefore a force, which will be centrifugal in nature.
The particles of steam exert centrifugal pressure all along their path on the curved surface of the blades. The resultant of
all these centrifugal forces acting on the entire curved surface of the blade causes it to move. When a number of such
blades are fitted on the circumference of a revolving wheel called rotor, they will be moved by the action of the steam,
and they in turn sets the rotor in continuous rotation. The rotation of the motor makes all the blades fitted on the rim to
get exposed to the action of the steam jet in succession.

In the impulse turbines, the steam is expanded from its initial high pressure to a lower pressure before it is delivered to
the moving blades of the rotor. The pressure of the steam over the blades will be at a lower pressure. However, the
velocity of the steam continuously decreases as it glides over the blades owing to the conversion of kinetic energy into
mechanical energy of rotation. Thus in the impulse turbines the mechanical power is produced by the combined action of
the resultant f the centrifugal pressures due to the change of momentum and the effect of change of velocity of the steam
as it glides over the blades. Examples of impulse turbines are De Laval, Curtis, Zoelly and Rateau turbines.
Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24
Reaction Turbine ( Parson’s Tubrine)
In this type of turbine, the high pressure of steam does not initially expand in the nozzle, instead directly passes onto the
moving blades whose shapes are designed in such a way that the steam flowing between the blades will be subjected to
the nozzle effect. Hence the pressure of the steam drops continuously as it flows over the blades causing the simultaneous
increase in the velocity of the steam. The increase in the velocity of the steam flowing over the blades develops a force
within itself which enables it to move further, consequently the will be a backward reaction to the force causing the
motion of the jet. Thus the reaction force acting on the blades constitutes a fraction of the propelling force driving the
turbine. In addition, to this reaction force, there is also the centrifugal force exerted by the steam due to the change of
momentum because of the change in direction of the steam passing over the blades. This reduces the velocity of the
steam. Thus the net force acting on the moving blades of a reaction turbine is the vector sum of the centrifugal force and
the reaction force. The actual reaction turbine consists of number of rows of moving blades fitted on the different rotors
keyed to the turbine shaft with alternate rings of fixed blades rigidly fixed to the casing of the turbine. Both the fixed and
moving blades are designed in the shape of the nozzles. Therefore the expansion of the steam takes place both in fixed
and moving blades. The fixed blade ring between the two moving blades enables to deflect and guide the steam to enter
fro one row of moving blades to the next row.

The high pressure steam passing in the first row of fixed blades undergoes a small drop in pressure causing the increase
in velocity of the steam. It then enters the first row of moving blades where it suffers further drop in pressure and velocity
is converted into mechanical energy of rotation of the motor. Thus the velocity of the steam decreases. This continues in
the further row of moving and fixed blades till the pressure of the steam reduced. The changes in the pressure and
velocity of the steam as it flows over the moving and fixed blades are shown in the figure.

Comparison of impulse and reaction turbine

Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

1. Driving force Driving force is only due to the Driving force is due to both the
impulsive force of the steam impulsive force of the incoming
steam and the reactive force of the
outgoing steam.
2. Expansion of steam Steam expands completely in the Steam expands continuously as it
nozzle before it enters the moving passes over the fixed and moving
Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24
blades blades
3. Pressure of steam Pressure remains constant both at Pressure decreases from the inlet to
inlet and exit of the turbine exit of the turbine
4. Blades Blades have symmetrical profile Blades have asymmetrical (aerofoil)
profile
5. Compounding Due to complete pressure drop in the Since the pressure drop is gradual,
nozzle, steam velocity and rotor steam velocity and rotor speed are
speed are high. This results in severe not high. Due to this, the stresses are
stresses on the blade which may low.Hencedonotrequire
result in blade failure. Hence compounding.
compounding is required

6. Space Occupies less space Occupies more space

7. Applications Suitable for small capacity power Suitable for medium and large power
plants plants.

Advantages of steam turbines over Heat Engines ( IC engines)

1. Steam turbines are convert large fraction of heat to work as compared to heat engines
2. Because of the high power output and higher operating speeds, thermal efficiency is more
3. As propelling force is directly applied on the rotating shafts, steam turbines are ideal prime movers.
4. Bust suited for driving high speed machines such as generators, compressors, etc
5. Best suited prime mover for driving machines which require uniform torque and uniform speed
6. Ideally suited for thermal power plants as they can take sudden overloads with marginal reduction in
efficiency.

7. Can be used for wide range of power applications as they can be built into single units of ratings ranging
from few Ks to over 1000 KW.
8. Less vibration and noise
9. No wear and tear of the parts and require less lubrication

Compounding of steam turbines

In an impulse turbine, steam expands completely in the nozzle and as a result a high velocity jet of steam in the range
of 150 m/sec may be produced. This produces a very high rotor speed of around 30000 rpm which is too high for
practical purposes. Hence the rotor speed has to be reduced and is done by using more than one set of nozzles, blades
and rotors in series, so that the pressure of the steam is reduced in stages. This process is known as compounding of
the steam turbines. Utilization of high pressure energy of the steam by expanding it in several stages is called
compounding.
Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24
GAS TURBINES
A gas turbine is a thermal prime mover which utilizes the heat energy of the hot air / burnt gases to obtain the motive
force. Gas turbine finds its application in
  Aviation and marine fields 
  Supercharging of the heavy duty diesel engines 
  Railway and road transportation 
  In steel, oil and chemical industries 
 Electric power generation ,etc 
Classification
i) Open cycle gas turbine:
Open cycle gas turbine consists of a rotary compressor, combustion chamber and a turbine(reaction type).
Both the turbine and the compressor are mounted on a common shaft, because part of the power developed by the turbine
is used for driving the compressor.
In operation, compressor draws atmospheric air and compresses to a high pressure. The compressed air is then
allowed to flow into the combustion chamber where the fuel is burnt at constant pressure. The hot gases produced by the
combustion process mixes with the high pressure air. Due to this air gets heated up and its pressure also increases. The
high pressure and high temperature gases are made to flow over the turbine blades wherein the heat energy is converted
into mechanical work.
The gases coming out of the turbine are then discharged into the atmosphere. The working substance must be
replaced in every cycle. The shaft of the turbine may be coupled to a generator for producing electricity.

ii) Closed cycle gas turbine:

In a closed cycle gas turbine, atmospheric air or any other stable gases such as Argon, helium, nitrogen, etc
may be used as the working fluid. In operation, the working fluid is compressed in the compressor and then passed to a
heater where it is heated by some external means. The working fluid will not be mixed with the products of combustion,
instead heat is transferred to the working fluid with the help of a heat exchanger. The high pressure and high temperature
working fluid is then passed to the turbine where it converts heat energy into mechanical work. From the turbine, the
working fluid is passes to a cooler where it is cooled to its original temperature. The low temperature and low pressure
working fluid is again enters the compressor and the cycle continues.
Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24
Differences between open cycle and closed cycle gas turbines
Open cycle Gas turbine Closed cycle gas turbine
Working substances is continuously replaced in every Working substance is re circulated
cycle
Exhaust gases from the turbine exit to the atmosphere Exhaust gases from the turbine are fed back into the cycle
Working substances comprises of mixture air and Any fluid may be used as the working substance
products of combustion of fuel
Since the products of combustion expand in the turbine Any fuel can be used
only high grade fuels have to be used
In every cycle fresh air is drawn in every cycle There is no loss of the working substance
There is mass transfer taking place in addition heat and Only heat transfer and work transfer takes place
work transfer between the system and the surroundings
No cooling water required as the exhaust gases are not Large amount of cooling water is required in the cooler
cooled
Rotor and blades would be corroded No corrosion of rotor and blades
Bigger in size Smaller in size
Big compressor is required Small compressor is used
Economical and suitable for aircraft engines Not economical and not suitable for aircraft engines
Thermal efficiency is lesser Thermal efficiency is high
Installation and maintenance costs are less High installation and maintenance cost
Loss of working fluid No loss of working fluid
Advantages of Gas turbines over Steam turbines
i) Feed water and boiler are not required
ii) Most reliable
iii) Weight to power ratio is less
iv) Initial cost and maintenance cost is less
v) Lubrication system is simple
Advantages of Gas turbines over IC Engines
i) Mechanical efficiency is higher
ii) Any kind of fuel may be used
iii) No vibration. Hence no balancing problem
iv) Less weight and more reliable
v) Lubrication is simple.
Water Turbines
Water turbine is a prime mover which converts the hydro power into mechanical work. It converts the kinetic and
potential energy of water into mechanical rotary motion of power.
Classification
1. According to Action of water
a. Impulse turbine
b. Reaction turbine
2. Name of the originator
a. Pelton wheel
b. Francis turbine
c. Kaplan turbine
3. Direction flow of water in the runner
a. Tangential flow turbine
b. Radial flow
c. Axial flow
d. Mixed flow
4. Head and quantity of water
a. High head turbine(more than 500m)
b. Medium head (50 m to 500m)
c. Low head (less than 50m)
5. Disposition of the runner shaft
a. Vertical shaft
b. Horizontal shaft
Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24
Pelton wheel

It is a tangential flow, high head, horizontal shaft impulse turbine. It consists of a runner on which number of blades or
buckets are fixed and a nozzle. A nozzle is a passage of varying cross section attached to the end of the penstock.
Penstock is a large pipe carrying water from the dam to the turbine. The flow of water through the nozzle is controlled by
a spear head and spear rod.
The runner is a circular wheel with a series of evenly spaced buckets or blades fixed around its periphery. The buckets are
like a bowl or double hemispherical shape. The advantage of having double cup shaped blades is that, the jet of water
gets split and leaves symmetrically on both sides of the blades. The turbine casing prevents the splashing of water and
also helps to discharge the water to the tailrace.
In operation, water from the dam enters the nozzle through penstock. As water flows through the nozzle potential energy
will be converted into kinetic energy and a high speed jet of water comes out of the nozzle. This jet of water then
impinges the turbine blades and sets the runner into rotary motion. After performing work, the water will be freely
released to the tailrace of the river.
The pelton wheel is used as high head turbine. It is not suitable for low head because their rotational speed is low and the
runner required is very large and heavy.

Francis Turbine
It is a mixed flow, vertical shaft, medium head reaction turbine. It consists of a runner having guide blades on its
periphery. Volute casing acts as a nozzle. Draft tube a gradually increasing passage through which water flows from the
turbine to the tailrace of the river. Water from the reservoir enter the volute casing through the penstock. As the water
flows through the tapered spiral casing, a part of its potential energy will be converted into kinetic energy. Then water
flows through the guide blades, gets deflected and then flow radially inwards to the periphery of the runner. The water
then moves over the moving blades in the radial direction and is finally discharged to the tailrace axially from the center
of the runner through a draft tube.
During its flow over the runner blades, the blade pressure acts as a nozzle and the remaining part of the pressure energy is
converted into kinetic energy. This jet of water coming out of the runner blades acts as a reactive force and makes the
runner to rotate.
Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24

Kaplan Turbine
It is a low head, axial flow, vertical shaft reaction turbine. It is similar to Francis turbine except that runner is the
extension of the vertical shaft and contains blades similar to the propeller of a ship. Hence it is also called a Propeller
turbine. The turbine consists of a hub or boss fixed to the vertical shaft. The runner blades are attached to the hub are
adjustable and can be turned about their axis to take of care of varying water head. The runner has only 3 to 8 blades. It
also has a ring of fixed for guiding the water over the runner blades. The assembly is enclosed in a spiral casing. In
operation, water from the penstock, enters the spiral casing wherein part of the potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy. The water then flows over the guide blades, gets deflected and flows axially over the runner blades. During its
flow over the runner passages, remaining part of the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy and thus water at
high velocity leaves the runner blades. As a result, a reactive force acts on the blades making the runner to rotate at high
speed. The water discharging from the turbine is made to flow to the tailrace though an L shaped draft tube.
 Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on 10EME14/24
Difference between Impulse and Reaction water turbine
Impulse water turbine Reaction water turbine
Driving force is due to the impulsive action of water jet Driving force is the combination of impulsive as well as
on the turbine blades reactive force on the blades
No Pressure change occurs at the turbine blades Pressure drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades
Pressure energy is completely converted into kinetic Part of the pressure energy is converted into kinetic
energy in the nozzle before the water flows over the energy in the spiral casing and the remaining pressure
blades energy will act as reactive force on the blades
Comparatively slow speed of rotation Reaction turbine rotate faster for the same head and flow
conditions
Ease to fabricate Comparatively complicated for fabrication
Not required to be filled with water during operation Must be encased in a casing filled with water and
submerged in water
Ex: Pelton Wheel Ex: Francis turbine, Kaplan Turbine

Difference between Francis and Kaplan Turbine

Francis turbine Kaplan turbine
It is a mixed flow turbine It is an axial flow turbine
Medium head turbine Low head turbine
Number of guide vanes are around 16 to 24 Number of guide vanes are around 3 to 8
The runner is supported by a driving shaft The runner is the extension of the vertical shaft
Guide vanes are assembled with the help of links and Guide vanes are made adjustable for smooth flow of
levers to act as valves water. They are so designed and fixed around the hub
Requires large space Requires less space due to sloped vanes
Cavitation do not occur Cavitation is likely to occur
Draft tube is simple elbow type and vertical in orientation Draft tube is of circular to rectangular type and in L shape

Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24

 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
J. What is a Heat Engine? How they are classified? Give examples for the same
A Heat engine is a thermal prime mover that converts the chemical energy of a fuel in to heat
energy by combustion of fuel and utilizes this energy to perform mechanical work. Heat
engines are broadly classified into two categories
1. External Combustion Engines(E.C. Engines) : In these engines, combustion of fuel
takes place outside the engine cylinder. Ex: Steam engines, Steam turbines, closed
cycle gas engine, etc. The EC engines are mainly used for large electric power
generators.
2. Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines): In IC Engines, the combustion of fuel
takes place inside the engine cylinder. Ex: Petrol Engines, Diesel Engines, Gas
Engines, etc. IC Engines are mainly used for transport vehicles.
K. How are IC Engines classified?
1. According to the type of fuel used
Petrol Engines
Diesel Engines
Gas engines
Bi-Fuel Engines
2. According to the number of strokes per cycle
Four stroke engine
Two stroke engine
3. According to the method of ignition
Spark Ignition engine
Compression Ignition engine
4. According to the cycle of working
Otto Cycle engine (Constant Volume cycle engine)
Diesel Cycle engine (Constant Pressure cycle engine)
Dual Combustion cycle engine
5. According to the number of cylinders
Single cylinder engine
Multi cylinder engine
6. According to the arrangement of cylinders
Vertical engine
Horizontal engine
Inline engine
Radial engine
V-engine
Opposed piston engine
7. According to the method of cooling
Air cooled engine
Water cooled engine
8. According to the method of fuel injection
Carburetor engine
Air injection engine
Airless or solid injection engine
9. According to their uses
Stationery engine

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Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
2. Automobile engine
3. Marine engine
4. Locomotive engine
5. Aircraft engine
3. Explain the following terms with reference to IC engines
i) Bore: It is the inside diameter of engine cylinder
ii) Stroke : It is the linear distance traveled by the piston i.e. it is the distance between Top
Dead Centre and Bottom Dead Centre
iii) Swept Volume (Vs) : It is the Volume swept by the piston as it moves between TDC and
BDC
iv) Clearance Volume(Vc): It is volume of the cylinder above the top of the piston when
piston is at TDC.
v) Compression Ratio : It is ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance volume
Vs  Vc
Compression Ratio r 
Vc
vi) Piston Speed: The average linear speed of the piston is called piston speed and is given by
S = 2 l. N where l- stroke and N –speed of the engine.

4. Explain with a neat sketch the principal parts of an IC engine

1) Cylinder: The heart of the engine is the cylinder in which the fuel is burnt and the
power is generated. Its function is to contain the working fluid under pressure and to
guide the piston while reciprocating inside the cylinder. The cylinder is usually made of
Grey Cast Iron or steel alloys in order to withstand the high pressure and temperature
during combustion.
2) Cylinder Head: The top end of the cylinder is closed by a removable cylinder head. The
cylinder head consists of two valves i.e. inlet and outlet valves. It is usually made of
Cast iron or alloys of cast iron
3) Piston: It is close fitting hollow cylindrical plunger moving to and fro in the cylinder.
The main function of the piston is to compress the charge during compression stroke
and to receive the impulse produced by the combustion of the fuel and to transmit the
energy to the crankshaft.
4) Piston rings: These are the metallic rings inserted into the circumferential grooves
provided at the top end of the piston. These rings maintain a gas tight joint between the
piston and cylinder while the piston is reciprocating in the cylinder. They are two sets
of piston rings. One set is called compression rings which press hard against the
cylinder walls forming a tight seal between piston and the cylinder. This prevents the
high pressure gases from escaping into the crankcase. Another set of rings called oil
rings which are used to extract the lubricating oil from the cylinder walls and to send it
back to the oil sump through holes provided in the piston.
5) Connecting rod: It forms a link between piston and the crankshaft. It converts the linear
motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
6) Crank and crankshaft: The crank is a lever that is connected to the end of the
connecting rod by a pin joint with its other end connected rigidly to a shaft called
crankshaft. It rotates about the axis of the crankshaft and causes the connecting rod to
oscillate. The power required for any useful purpose is taken from the crankshaft.

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Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
iii) Fly wheel: It is heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine to maintain
uniform rotation of the crankshaft. It is used as an energy saving device. It stores
energy received during power stroke and supplies the same during other strokes.
iv) Crank case: It is lower part of the engine serving as an enclosure for the crankshaft and
also as a sump for the lubricating oil
v) Valves: These are the control devices that allow the air/fuel to enter into the cylinder
and also discharge the burnt gases to the atmosphere. The inlet and outlet valves serve
these purposes. The valves are actuated by means of springs, cam and lever
mechanisms and are made to open and closed so that the charge enters/discharges at the
right time

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Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
vi) Explain the working principle of four stroke petrol engine (Otto Cycle engine or Constant
Volume cycle engine or 4 stroke SI Engine)

It is also known as Otto cycle or constant volume cycle engine. It requires four strokes of the
piston to complete one cycle of operations in the engine cylinder. The four strokes are as
follows:
6. Suction or charging stroke: In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and the fresh charge
(petrol and air mixture from carburetor) is sucked into the engine cylinder as the piston
moves from TDC to BDC. It continues till the piston reaches BDC. During this travel
of the piston the crankshaft revolves by half rotation. Because of the pressure difference
between the atmosphere and the inside of the engine cylinder, petrol-air mixture will be
drawn into the cylinder from the carburetor. At the end of this stroke, the cylinder will
be completely filled with petrol-air mixture and inlet valve is closed.
7. Compression Stroke: In this stroke, both inlet and outlet valves are closed and charge
is compressed as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. As a result of compression,
pressure and temperature of the charge increases considerably. This completes one
revolution of the crank shaft. Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC during this
stroke, the charge is ignited with the help of a spark plug.
8. Power Stroke (Working stroke or Expansion stroke): During this stroke, both the
valves are closed and because of the combustion of charge, the burnt gases expand. Due
to this expansion, the hot gases exert pressure on the piston and as a result, the piston is
pushed from TDC to BDC. The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston
to the crankshaft. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus, work is
obtained in this stroke. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve opens which will
release the burnt gases to the atmosphere.
9. Exhaust Stroke: In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as piston moves from BDC to
TDC. This movement of piston pushes out the burnt gases from the cylinder to the
atmosphere. This completed one cycle of operation and the engine is ready for the next
cycle.

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Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24

6. Explain the working four strokes diesel engine (Diesel Cycle engine or Constant Pressure
cycle engine or 4 stroke CI engine)

The 4 stroke diesel engine is similar to that of a 4 stroke petrol engine except that a fuel
injector is fitted in place of a spark plug and air only enters into the engine cylinder during
suction stroke. Air alone is compressed during the compression stroke and at end of this stroke,
the fuel injector injects fuel into the hot compressed air. The fuel is then ignited as it comes in
contact with the hot compressed air. Hence these engines are called compression ignition
engines. The working principle of 4 stroke diesel engine is based on Diesel cycle, hence they
are called diesel cycle or constant pressure cycle engines. The four different strokes of the 4
stroke diesel cycle is as under:
i) Suction Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The inlet valve
opens and exhaust valve will be closed. The downward movement of the piston creates
a suction in the cylinder and as a result atmospheric air from the air filter is drawn into
the engine cylinder through the inlet valve. When the piston reaches BDC, the suction
stroke ends with closure of the inlet valve.
ii) Compression Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC and both
the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air inside the
engine cylinder is compressed to high pressure and temperature. The compression
process is adiabatic in nature and the compression ratio will be from 15:1 to 22:1. At
the end of this stroke, the fuel is injected into the engine cylinder in the form of fine
sprays by a fuel injector. Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure.
iii) Power Stroke: During this stroke, both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. Due to
the combustion of fuel, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the piston.
Due to this, the piston is pushed from TDC to BDC. The power impulse is transmitted
down through the piston to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. This causes the
crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus power is obtained during this stroke. The
expansion gases is adiabatic in nature and when the piston reaches BDC the exhaust
valve opens. A part of the burnt gases escapes through the exhaust valve due to their
expansion. The drop in pressure is at constant volume.

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Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
iv) Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC and the inlet
valve will be closed and exhaust valve will be opened. As the piston moves upwards, it
forces the burnt gases out of the engine cylinder. When the piston reaches TDC, the
exhaust valve close and the next cycle of suction stroke begins.
Thus in this engine, four operations are completed in two revolutions of the crank shaft or 4
strokes of the piston and the power is obtained during only in power stroke i.e. one power
stroke for two revolutions of the crankshaft.

7. Explain the working of two stroke petrol engine ( 2 stroke SI engine, 2 stroke Constant
volume cycle engine or 2 stroke Otto cycle engine)
In a 2 stroke petrol engine, there are no valves instead the cylinder is provided with ports. The
ports acts as valves and are opened and closed by the moving piston. In 2 stroke engine, all
operations are completed in one revolution of the crankshaft or 2 strokes of the piston. In these
engines the two strokes of the piston are as under:
i) Downward Stroke (Inward Stroke) : At the beginning of this stroke, the piston is at
TDC. At this position, the charge (Air and Petrol Mixture) present in the previous
cycle, is compressed to high pressure and temperature. The compressed charge in the
cylinder is ignited by means of a spark plug. As combustion takes place, the burnt gases
expand and exert a large force on the piston. Due to this, the piston is pushed
downwards from TDC to BDC. The power impulse is transmitted to the crankshaft
from the piston through the connecting rod. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high
speeds.
The movement of the piston from TDC to BDC uncovers the exhaust port . A part of
the burnt gases escape through the exhaust port. Further downward movement of the
piston uncovers the transfer port and fresh charge enters from the crank case into the
engine cylinder. During the downward movement of the piston, the charge in the
crankcase is compressed by the underside of the piston. The compressed charge from
the crankcase rushes into the engine cylinder through the transfer port driving away the
remaining exhaust gases through the exhaust port. This process of sweeping out the
exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is called scavenging. The top of the piston

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Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
has a projection called deflector that deflects the fresh charge coming through transfer
port to move upwards to the top end of the cylinder.
ii) Upward Stroke or Outward Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC
to TDC. During this movement, the piston covers the transfer port, thereby stopping the
flow of fresh charge into the engine cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston
covers the exhaust port and actual compression of the charge begins. In the mean time,
the inlet port is uncovered by the piston and upward moving piston creates suction in
the crankcase thus admitting fresh charge into the crankcase. The compression of the
charge in the cylinder continues till the piston reaches TDC. Thus, one cycle is
completed. In the next cycle, the compressed charge is ignited by the spark plug and the
cycle continues.

Nagarjuna College of Engineering & Technology, Bangalore

Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
8. Compare two stroke and four stroke engines
Basis for comparison Four Stroke Two stroke
1. Number of strokes per 4 2
cycle
2. Number of revolutions 2 1
of the crank shaft per
cycle
3. Torque fluctuations High. Hence heavy More Uniform. Hence
flywheel is needed lighter flywheel is sufficient
4. Thermal Efficiency High Low
5. Mechanical Efficiency Low High
6. Entry and Exhaust of Through Valves Through Ports
Charge
7. Fuel Consumption Less High
8. Running Noise Less More
9. Power Stroke One power stroke for two One power stroke for every
revolutions of the crank revolution of the crank shaft
shaft
10. Weight Heavy and Bulky Lighter and compact
11. Cooling and lubrication Requires lesser cooling and Requires greater cooling
lubrication since and lubrication since
combustion takes place in combustion takes place in
alternate revolutions of the every revolution of the
crankshaft crank shaft
12. Uses Used in cars, jeeps, Buses, Used in light vehicles such
Trucks, Power generators, as motor cycles, 3 wheelers.
etc. Lawn movers, marine
engines, etc

9. Compare Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine (Constant Volume Cycle Engine and Constant
Pressure Cycle Engine) (Otto Engine and Diesel Engine) (SI Engine and CI engine)
Basis for comparison Four Stroke Two stroke
1. Cycle of operation Otto Cycle Diesel cycle
2. Fuel used Petrol Diesel
3. Ignition of charge Using a spark plug Self ignition
4. Supply of fuel Using a carburetor Using a fuel pump and injector
5. Thermal efficiency Lower Higher
6. Initial cost Less More
7. Running cost More Less
8. Weight Light and compact Heavy and bulky
9. Noise and vibration Less High
10. Compression ratio Varies from 6:1 to 10:1 Varies from 15:1 to 22:1
11. Starting of the engine Easily started even in cold Difficult to stat in cold
conditions conditions
12. Uses Used in light vehicles such as Used in heavy duty vehicles
cars, motor cycles, etc such as buses, trucks, and
heavy machinery

Nagarjuna College of Engineering & Technology, Bangalore

Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
10. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of two stroke engines over four stroke engines
Advantages of 2 Stroke Engines
 A 2 stroke engine has the twice the number of power strokes than a four stroke engine
at the same speed. Hence theoretically power developed in 2 stroke engine is double
 than the four stroke engine. 
 The weight of the 2 stroke engine is less than four stroke engine because of the lighter
 flywheel due to more uniform torque on the crankshaft 
 The work required to overcome friction of the suction and exhaust is saved 
  Since there are no mechanical valves and valve gears, the construction is simpler 
 It occupies less space 
 Less maintenance since less number of moving parts 
 The 2 stroke engine is much easier to start 
 Initial cost of the engine is less 
Disadvantages of 2 Stroke engines
  Thermal efficiency is less 
 Since the firing takes place in every revolution, the time available for cooling is less,
 which results in overheating of the piston and other engine parts. 
  Consumption of lubricating oil is more 
 Incomplete scavenging results in mixing of fresh charge with the exhaust gases which
 will reduce the power output and thermal efficiency. 
 Since the transfer port opened for only short duration, it is likely that less quantity of
 charge may be admitted into the engine cylinder reducing the power output 
  For a given stroke and clearance volume, the effective compression ratio is less 
 Running cost will be more as the fuel consumption is more as compared to 4 stroke
engine 

11. Explain the following terms in connection with IC Engines
a) Mean Effective Pressure:
It is the hypothetical pressure which is said to be acting on the piston during power stroke.
5 2
It is expresses in bar. 1 bar = 10 N/m
The Indicated Mean Effective pressure of the engine is obtained from the indicator diagram
or p-v diagram of the engine.
The Indicated Mean Effective Pressure is given by
Sa
Pm 
l
Where S = Spring Value of the spring used in the indicator diagram
A = Area of the indicator diagram
l = length of the indicator diagram

b) Indicated Power: It is the total power developed inside the engine cylinder. It is given by
kPmlan
IP 
1000 60
Where k – number of cylinders in the engine
Pm – Indicated Mean Effective Pressure in
2
N/m l – Stroke length of the piston in metres

Nagarjuna College of Engineering & Technology, Bangalore

Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24

a = Area of the cylinder = π

2
d

4
n = number of working or power strokes per
minute n = N/2 for Four stroke engine
n= N for two stroke engine where N – Speed of the engine
Derivation of Indicated Power
Work Developed by the cylinder in one stroke = Mean force acting x Stroke
= mean effective pressure x area x stroke
= Pm .a. l N-m
Power developed = Work done in one cycle x number of cycles per minute
= Pm.l a.n N-m/min
P .l.a.n
= m
KN-m/s
1000x60
P .l.a.n
= m
KW
1000x60

c) Brake Power : It is the net power available at the end of the crankshaft. The power available
at the end of the crankshaft is measured by applying the brake and is therefore called brake
power.
2π NT
BP  KW
1000x60
where N = Speed of the engine
T = Torque of the rotating crank shaft
The torque is measured using either a belt dynamometer or rope brake dynamometer.
In case of Belt dynamometer
T = (T1-T2) R
Where T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt in N
T2 = Tension in the slack side of the belt in
N R = Radius of the pulley in meters
In case rope brake dynamometer
T = (W-S) R
Where W = Suspended weight in N
S = Spring balance reading in N
R = Effective Radius of the brake drum
= (D+dr)/2 where dr = diameter of the rope, D- diameter of pulley in m

d) Friction Power : It is the amount of power lost due to friction of the moving parts inside the
engine cylinder. It is the difference between Indicated power and brake power expressed in
KW.
FP = IP - BP
e) Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power
f) Thermal Efficiency
It is the ratio of power output to the heat supplied by the combustion of fuel. If the power
output considered to be indicated power then it is called indicated thermal efficiency. If the
brake power is considered then it is called brake thermal efficiency.

Nagarjuna College of Engineering & Technology, Bangalore

Yogeesha H C Lecture Notes on EME14/24
IPx3600
Indicated Thermal Efficiency =
mf  CV
BPx3600
Indicated Thermal Efficiency =
mf  CV
Where mf = mass of the fuel consumed in kg/hr
CV = Calorific Value fuel in KJ/kg
g) Specific Fuel Consumption: It is the amount of fuel needed to provide a given power for a
given period. If it is based on Indicated power it is called Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption
(ISFC) and if it is based on BP then it is called Brake Specific Fuel Consumption(BSFC)
mf mf
ISFC and BSFC kg/Kw-hr IP
BP
where mf – Fuel consumed in kg/hr

12. Explain why cooling is required for IC Engines

Due to the combustion of fuel inside the engine cylinder, intense heat is generated. It has been
experimentally found that about 30% of the heat generated is converted into mechanical work.
Out of the remaining 40% of heat is carried away by the exhaust gases. The remaining part of
the heat, if left unattended will be absorbed by the engine cylinder, cylinder head, piston, and
valves. The overheating of these parts causes thermal stresses in the engine parts, which may
lead to their distortion, seizure of the piston, burning of the valves and valve seats and reduces
the volumetric efficiency. In order to avoid the above said adverse effects, it is very essential to
provide some cooling system for an IC engine. Two types of cooling methods will be used in
IC engines, i.e. Air Cooling and Water Cooling.