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From (Abhyuday Stanley (Samurai - Sage.77@gmail - Com) ) - ID (627) - Manish, - Legal - Research - IInd - TRM - Proj.

This document discusses different types of logical reasoning including inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and the difference between the two. It also discusses empiricism and its role in science. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations, while deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions. Empiricism requires that scientific knowledge be based on observable evidence and experience.

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Nikhil Aradhe
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96 views7 pages

From (Abhyuday Stanley (Samurai - Sage.77@gmail - Com) ) - ID (627) - Manish, - Legal - Research - IInd - TRM - Proj.

This document discusses different types of logical reasoning including inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and the difference between the two. It also discusses empiricism and its role in science. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations, while deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions. Empiricism requires that scientific knowledge be based on observable evidence and experience.

Uploaded by

Nikhil Aradhe
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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National Law Institute

University

Legal Research Method


Project on

Logical Reasoning

Submitted to: - Submitted by:-


Tapan R.Mohanty Manish Khokhar
B.A.LL.B 2010(83)
Table of Content

1. Introduction
2. Inductive Reasoning
3. Deductive Reasoning
4. Difference between Inductive &
Deductive Reasoning
5. Empiricism
6. Conclusion

Introduction: -
Logical reasoning can be defined as the process of
using a rational, systematic series of steps based on sound
mathematical procedures to arrive at a conclusion; the drawing of
conclusions from given facts and mathematical principles; often
used as a problem solving strategy. Reason is a mental ability
found in humans, that is able to generate conclusions from
assumptions or premises. In other words, it is amongst other things
the means by which rational beings propose specific reasons, or
explanations of cause and effect.
Scientists also follow the principles of logical
reasoning. But that does not mean that logic tell scientist how to
think or reason, rather, logical reasoning provides the criteria for
evaluating the validity or correctness of the reasoning.
Logic is the study of arguments. Logic is used in most intellectual
activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy,
mathematics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms
which arguments may take which forms are valid, and which are
fallacies. It is one kind of critical thinking. In philosophy, the study
of logic figures in most major areas of focus: epistemology, ethics,
and metaphysics. In mathematics, it is the study of valid inferences
within some formal language.

Averroes defined logic as "the tool for distinguishing between the


true and the false;”

Richard Whately, "the Science, as well as the Art, of reasoning;"

Gottlob Frege, "the science of the most general laws of truth."

Types of Logical Reasoning:-


Logical reasoning is the process of defining
whether a certain statement is true or false. Logic is mostly
concerned by separating incorrect reasoning from correct
reasoning. When people reason, they make inference; that is , they
draw conclusions based on information or evidence. Normally we
distinguish three different types of reasoning processes all resulting
in a different kind of logic, namely deduction, induction and
abduction or deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning and
abductive reasoning. They differ in terms of the strength or
certainty with which the evidence supports the conclusion.
1. Deductive Reasoning:-
Deductive reasoning concerns what follows
necessarily from given premises. Deductive reasoning is the most
obvious and straightforward form of reasoning. It means
determining the conclusion in a logic reasoning process. It consists
of using the rule and its precondition to make a conclusion. In
deductive reasoning, the conclusion is absolutely certain if the
evidence is true. Reasoning in an argument is valid if the
argument's conclusion must be true when the premises (the reasons
given to support that conclusion) are true. One classic example of
deductive reasoning is that found in syllogisms like the following:
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
The reasoning in this argument is valid, because there is no way in
which the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3,
be false.
In a deductive argument with valid reasoning the conclusion
contains no more information than is contained in the premises.
Therefore, deductive reasoning does not increase one's knowledge
base, and so is said to be non-ampliative.

2. Inductive Reasoning:-
 Inductive reasoning is the process of deriving a
reliable generalization from observations.  An inductive argument
can be neither valid nor invalid; its premises give only some
degree of probability, but not certainty, to its conclusion Induction
is a form of inference producing propositions about unobserved
objects or types, either specifically or generally, based on previous
observation. It is used to ascribe properties or relations to objects
or types based on previous observations or experiences, or to
formulate general statements or laws based on limited observations
of recurring phenomenal patterns Inductive reasoning contrasts
strongly with deductive reasoning in that, even in the best, or
strongest, cases of inductive reasoning, the truth of the premises
does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Instead, the
conclusion of an inductive argument follows with some degree
of probability.
In Inductive Reasoning, the conclusion is
uncertain even if the evidence is true because its content goes
beyond the evidence. Relatedly, the conclusion of an inductive
argument contains more information than is already contained in
the premises. Thus, this method of reasoning is implicative.

Premise: The sun has risen in the east every morning up


Until now.
Conclusion: The sun will also rise in the east tomorrow.

Difference between Inductive & Deductive


reasoning:-

Inductive: - Mahesh, rakesh, and vikash, who are union members,


. are democrats
Therefore, all union members are democrats.

Deductive:- All union members are Democrats.


Vikash belong to the union.
Therefore, Vikash is a Democrat.
In above example we can see that the first conclusion goes beyond
the information at hand. Therefore, we can not know for certain
that the conclusion is true. We can only judge how probable it is,
based on evidence. By contrast, according to the rules of deductive
logic, the second conclusion – Vikash is a democrat “must be true
if statement about union member is true.
Inductive reasoning moves from specific instances to general
principles, whereas deductive moves from the general to the
specific.
Scientists reason inductively when they infer empirical
generalizations from specific observations. This describes
Durkheim‘s thinking when he inferred that Protestants were more
likely to commit suicide than Catholics based on the fact that
predominately Protestant countries had higher suicide rates than
predominately Catholic countries. Inductive reasoning is a “bottom
–top” process, moving from specific observations to empirical
generalizations to theories.
Scientists reason deductively when they show how a hypothesis
explain
Specific facts. Deductive reasoning is a “top-down process. It
proceeds from general principle to specific observations or facts.

Empiricism:-
Empiricism is the basic practice of science. Science can be
described as empirical because it relies on direct experience or
observation in order to describe or explain phenomena. In other
words, a scientific or empirical approach is inductive, and bases its
explanations upon that which can be directly observed in a
replicable or repeatable manner.
The requirement concerning empirical observations being
potentially replicable is key. This is what differentiates science
from mystical or religious traditions. Science does not rely on
dreams, or visions, or the authority of sacred texts as a basis for
knowledge. That's why science does not recognize the existence of
the human soul, for example, since it cannot be observed.
Similarly, science can neither prove nor disprove the existence of
God. Empiricism is a way of knowing or understanding the world
that relies directly or indirectly on what we experience through our
senses, sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. In other words,
information or data are acceptable in science only in so far as they
can be observed or sensed in some way under specifiable
conditions by people.

Conclusion:-
The aim of science in the broadest sense is to know and understand
the world around us. In pursuing aim, science places some
questions that can be answered by identifying the conditions under
which observable events take place. The production of scientific
knowledge requires a constant interplay between theory and
research. The process of science therefore is cyclical, with theories
leading to predictions, predictions to observations, and observation
to generalizations that have implications for theories.
Through this process, scientists follow the
principle of logic, resoning inductively when they infer
generalizations from specific observations and deductively when
they show how theories and hypothesis imply specific facts or
predictions. As they conduct research, they are guided by three
canons of inquiry- empiricism, objectivity, and controls. All the
three inquires already have been explained above as to show how
they help in the work of scientists.

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