Content

Reproduction in lower
Ch1) and higher plants

Reproduction in lower
Ch2) and higher animals

Inheritance and
Ch3) variation

Molecular basis of
Ch4) inheritance

Origin and evolution

Ch5) of life
Biostudy with Nikhil

Ch1) Reproduction in
lower & Higher plants
Reproduction
formation of life from preexisting life
sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
(Amphimixis) (Apomixis)

Formation of life formation of life from

from preexisting preexisting life without
life by formation formation and Fusion
and fusion of of gametes is called
gamete is called as ….
as …
1) Asexual Reproduction

A) Binary fission
protoplast of parents cells divides to produce two unequal
cell that give rise two new individual is called

B) Budding
The division of unequal and small cell called as..
buds are produce that remain attached initially on parent body
C) Fragmentation
Filamentous algae reproduce by Fragmentation
ie filament gets broken into small fragments and each fragment
develops into new individual.

D) conidia
Non motile spores called as conidia they do not have
locomotors organ
ex, penicillium

E)zoospores
It is defined as different types of motile and non-motile
spore are produce by algae and Fungi
1)Vegetative propagation
In angiosperm it occurs ,vegetative organ like Stem, root and
leaf are help in reproduction called as Vegetative
propagation,

Natural Method Artificial method

1) Tuberous Toot 1) cuttings
2) stem tuber 2)grafting
3) Runner 3)budding
4) Leaf 4)micro Propagation

Natural Method

1)Tuberous root

The underground part of plant (root) contain plenty reserve

food and become swollen, such swollen roots are called as
tuberous root
This is underground modification
of root of vegetative reproduction
ex sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas)
2) Stem tubers

1)The swollen tips of underground branches of stem are

called as stem tubers
2)It is the modification of stem for vegetative propagation
3) In case of potato sum lateral branches are produce from
the underground part of stem which grow down in soil

3) Runner

Runner is slender, sub aerial branch

which creeps horizontally on the soil.
It is produce by the plant Like cynadon (doob grass) & oxalis
for Vagetative propagation
4) leaf

1) In some plant like, Bryophyllum, Begonia etc vegetative

propagation takes place with the help of leaves.

2) In Bryophyllum, leaf is succulent with crenate or notched

margin.

3) Adventitious buds called epiphyllous buds are produce in

the notches at the tip of lateral vein.
Artificial method
A) Cutting

1)The small pieces of plant pants like roots, stem or leaves,

which are able to develop into new plant placed in moist soil.
2) A cutting is a must have primary meristem.
3) cheap method of propagation.

B) Grafting

1) It is the technique to joining together the pants of two

different plants such a way that they unite and continue their
growth as one plant.
2)stock on scion is graft
3) cambium play important role in it.
grafting is possible in monocots.

C) budding

1)cambium play important role in it.

2) It is basically a kind of grafting in which a Small bud with a
small part of bark and living tissue is grafted on the particular
stock.

d) Micropropagation

1)Micropropagation are used to produce no of

genetically identical plant ie. clones within a short time
period, this process is called as Micropropagation
To produce large nu. of plant propagules.
Tissue culture techique is used
Sexual Reproduction
1)Angiosperms are commonly called flowering plants.
because they produce a prominent, highly Specialized organ
called flower, for sexual reproduction,
2) formation of fruits and seeds are the further Stages of
sexual reproduction

Flower structures
1)Flower is a site of sexual reproduction. typical Flower has
four main part
a) calyx
b) corolla
c) Androcium
d) gynocium.

2) Anther of stamen and ovule of carpel produce microspore.

3) Stamens and carpel are the male and female reproductive
organs.
4) pollination and fertilization is done then the Formation of
fruits and seeds takes place and from seed new plant is
produced.
Structure of Anther

1)An immature stage of anther is represented by group of

parenchymatous tissue surrounded by single layered epidermis.
2)Anther is generally dithecous having two lobes &
tetrasporangiate each monothecous anther contain two pollen
sacs (dithecous ) four sacs are present therefore
(tetrasporangiat)

T.s. of Anther
The archesporial cell divides into an inner sporogenous cell
and outer primary parietal cell sporogenous cell forms
sporogenous tissue it capable of giving rice to a microspore
tetrad
parietal cell undergoes divisions to form anther wall layers
The wall of mature anther consists of four layers

epidermis
is the outermost protective layer made up of tubular cells
flattened cells

Endothecium
is sub-epidermal layer up of radialy elongated cells with fibrous
thickenings

Middle layer
made up of thin layer cell

Tapetum
is the inner most nutritive layer of anther wall it immediately
encloses the sporogenous tissue
Microsporogenesis

Each microspore mother cell divides meiotic to form tetrad of

haploid microspore (pollen grain)

Structure of microspores
pollen grain is non-motile ,haploid(n) Unicellular body having
single nucleus
It is surrounded by two layered wall called sporoderm

1)The inner wall layer is intine

It is consists of cellulose pectin

2)The outer layer exine is thick and made up of complex

non-biodegradable substance sporopollenin

It resist to chemical some places exine thin show thin area called
germ- pores
Development of male gametophyte
1)Pollen grain undergoes first mitotic division to produce bigger
naked Vegatative cell and small thin walled generative cells

2) The vegetative cell is rich food and having irregular shaped

nucleus generative cell floats in the cytoplasm of generative cell

3)The second mitotic division is concerned with generative cell

only And give rise two non-motile male gamete

4)The mitotic division of generative cell takes place in pollen

grain or in pollen tube
Polination
The process of transfer of pollen grain from anther
to stigma is called as polination is called as polination

Polination is of two types

1)Self polination (Autogamy)

The process of transfer of pollen grain from anther to
Stigma of same flawer is called as self polination

2)Cross polination (Allogamy)

The process of transfer of pollen grain of anther of one
Flower to Stigma of another flawer is called as cross
polination
2) cross polination (Allogamy)
Cross polination again is of two types

1)Geitonogamy

The process of transfer of pollen grain from anther to

Stigma of another flower having same plant.

2) Xenogamy

The process of transfer of pollen grain from anther of

Another flower having different plant.
polination Agencies

For cross polination flower depend on different

Agents called polination agencies like wind,insect
Animal,water etc

1)Entomophily
Polination through the insect is called as Entomophily
And the plant is called as Entamophilous plant

1) Colour
2) Nector
3) Scent

2)Anemophily

Polination through the wind is called as Anemophily

And the plant is called as Anemophilous plant

1)They are never coloured

2)Large quantity of pollen
grain is required
3)Stigma are comparatively
small
3) Hydrophily
Polination through the water is called as
Hydrophily

And the plant is called as hydrophilous plant

1)Sepal and petals are water proof

2)Waxy and sticky stigma
structure of Anatropous ovule

1) Each ovule develops inside the ovary and is attached to the

placenta by a small stalk called funiculus

2) The place of attachment of funiculus with the main body of

ovule is called hilum

3) In angiosperms the most common. type of ovule is

anatropous in which micropyle is directed downward

4) The ovule is consists of

central parenchymatous tissue

5) The nucellus which is surrounded

usually by two protective covering
called integument

6) A narrow opening at the apex

of the ovule is called Micropyle

megasporogenesis
It is the process of formation of haploid megaspore from
diploid (mmc) megaspore mother cell
Development of female gametophyte

1) megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to from linear

tetrad of haploid cells

2) Upper thin megaspores abort lowest one remain functional.

3) Generally one megaspore toward centre is functional

megaspore it is intact first cell of female gametophyte

4) It undergoes three successive free nuclear mitotic division

thus total eight nuclei are formed

four of which located at each pole

5) one nucleus from each migrates toward the centre and are
called as polar nuclei

6) Three nuclei toward macropylar end it consists of large

central egg cell and two supporting haploid synergied cells

7) Antipodal cells are group of three cell present at chalazal end

8) The two haploid polar nuclei of large central cell fuse to form
diploid secondary nucleus or definitive nucleus

The seven cell eight nuclei structure called embryo sac

Out breeding devices (contoivonies)

many plants have mechanisms that discourage or prevent self

pollination

To promote cross pollination, and increase genetic diversity

Thus plants have developed many devices to encourage cross

pollination the examples of out breading devices are as follows

unisexuality

In this case the plant bears either male female flowers it is also
called as monoecius If flower are unisexual self-pollination is
not possible

dichogamy

when anther and stigma mature at different times in a bisexual

flowers as to prevent self pollination

1)protandry 2) pootogyny
e.g. sunflower e.g. Gloriosa

prepotency
pollen grains of other flowers germinate rapidly over the
stigma than the same flower
e.g. Apple.
Heterostyly (heteromorphy)

There are two or three types of flower in which stigma and

anther are placed at different

It is mechanical device to prevent self pollination in a bisexual

flower

In plants natural physical barrier is present between two sex

organ s avoid contact of pollen grain and stigma

self sterility (self incompatibility)

This is genetic mechanism due to which the germination of

pollen on stigma of same flower is inhibited

Pollen Pistil Interaction

1) It is the interaction of pollen grains with sporophytic tissue
(stigma.)

2) It begins with pollination and ends with fertilization

3) All the events from the deposition of pollen grain on

stigma to the entry of pollen tube in the Ovule (synergid) ore
referred as pollen- pistil Interaction.
4) Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of right type of
pollen grain, after wrong type also land on stigma

5) The pistil has the ability to recognize the species thus wrong
type of pollen is discarded to the pollen-pistil is determined by
special proteins.

This process involves recognition followed by promotion or

inhibition of pollen.

It also plays important role in sexual reproduction & seed

formation

6) Due to pollen pistil interaction, intense competition

develops even in the compatible pollen grain
Double fertilization
1) The fusion of one male gamete with egg and anther of male
gamete with Secondary nucleus it is called as

2)double Fertilization, discovered by Nawaschin in the

Liliaceous plants like Lilium and fritillaria

3) After a pollen grain has reached the surface of the stigma it

germinates and forms a pollen tube, which penetrates the
stigma style, ovary chamber and the enters ovule.

It usually enters through micropyle. It termed as porogamy. But

in some case It found to enter through chalaza known
chalazogamy

In some plants piercing the integuments, called mesogamy.

As non motile male gametes are

carried through hollow pollen tube it is known as
siphonogamy. that ensures fertilization to take place

syngamy & triple Fusion are two events of sexual reproduction

in angiospermic Flowering plants

1st fertilization( syngemy)

male gamete ÷ egg cell forms zygote

2nd fertilization (Triple fusion)

gamete male ÷secondary nucleus
Forms endosperm
Significance of Double fertilization

1) It is an feature of angiosperms. It ensures that the parent

plant invests a seed with food store, only if the egg is
fertilized.

2) The diploid zygote develops into an embryo which

consequently develops into a new plant.

3) The triple/triploid PEN develops into nutritive endosperm

tissue, It restores the diploid condition by fusion of haploid
mole gamete with haploid female gamete
i.e.. through syngamy.
Development of Endosperm

1) The triploid primary nucleus repeatedly divides, mitotically

to form nutritive tissue called endosperm.

2) The formation of triploid endosperm nucleus triggers cell

division which leads to the formation of endosperm

3) There are three types of endosperm on the basis of mode of

development. These are

1) Nuclear type.
2) cellular type.
3) Helobial type.

1) Nuclear type
It is most common type found in 161 angiospermic families.
Here, the primary endosperm nucleus repeatedly divides
mitotically without wall formation to produce large number of
free nuclei.
e.g.. sunflower, wheat coconut,
2)cellular type
in some plants division of triploid primary endospermic nucleus
is immediately followed by wall formation so that the
endosperm is cellular right from the beginning.
It is mostly observed in 72 families of dicots as in members
eg. Balsam, petunia. Adoxa etc.

3) Helobial Type.
It occurs in the order Helobial of monocotyledons. In this case
first division of the primary endosperm nucleus is followed by a
transverse wall, which divides the cells an equally. smaller cell
(chalazal cell) larger cell (micropylar)
eg. Asphodelus
Development of embryo
The process of development of an embryo is called
embryogenesis

The embryo is developed at the micropylar end of embryo sac.

After fertilization the embryonic development begins.

The zygote divides to form two-celled proembryo

The larger cell toward the micropylar end is called basal or

suspensor initial smaller cell is called as terminal or embryonal
initial called basal cell

The suspensor initial cell divides transversely In one plane to

produce filamentous suspensor of 6-10 cells

The first cell of the suspensor toward the micropylar end

becomes swollen and func as haustorium

The lowermost cell of suspensor is known as hypophysis

The suspensor helps in pushing the embryo endosperm

The lowermost cell of helps in pushing the embryo in
endosperm

The embryonal Initial undergoes three successive mitotic

divisions to form octant
The lower tier of four cells of octant give rise to hypocotyl and
radical whereas four cells of upper tier form the Plumule and
one or two cotyledens
The cell in the upper tier of octant divide in several planes so
as to
become heart shaped

further enlargement of hypocotyl and cotyledons result in

curvature of embryo and it appears horse-shoe shaped

The embryo development is similar to both dicots and

monocots
seed and fruit development
The goal of reproduction in organism including plants is to
produce offspring's for the next generation

plants can produce offspring is by forming seeds

The flower must be pollinated in order to form seed.

The integuments of the fertilized ovule persist and get

transformed into the seed coat of mature seed,

seed sometimes consists of two distinct covering a typical outer

seed coat the testa and inner thin membranous tegna
Seed
1) Endospermis (albuminous)

In some seeds the food reserves in the endosperm are partially

used up in development of an embryo
Endosperm is present In seed hence …..
E.g. coconut ,maize

2)Non-endospermic (exalbuminous)

In some seeds embryo absorbs foods reserve form the

endosperm completely during its ‘developmental stage
The Endosperm is disappear in mature seed hence
Ex.pea
significance of seed and fruit formation
fruits provide nourishment to the developing seeds

fruits protect seeds in immature conditions

seeds serve as importing propagating organs of plant

seeds and fruits developed devices for their dispersal and this
help in the distribution of the species.

Dormancy
structural or physiological Adaptation mechanism for survival is
called dormancy.
Apomixis
It is a phenomenon of formation of embryo through asexual
method of reproduction without formation of gemmates is
called apomixis

when gametophyte organ or cell produce embryo like structure

without fertilization is called Apagamy

when diploid sporophyte cell produce diploid gametophyte

without undergoing meiosis is called apospory

A)Recurrent

An archesporal cell or some other part of nucellus form embryo

is called….

B) Non-recurrent

egg by parthenogenesis or some other haploid cell form

embryo is called…

C)Adventive embryony

Somatic nucellus or integuments along with normal zygotic

embryo forms embryo
parthenocarpy
The term coined by Noll (1902) it is the condition in which fruit
is developed without the process of Fertilization

it occurs in papaya , banana pineapple in these, plant auxin

(iAA) indole-3 Acetic Acids which is responsible for
enlargement of ovary into fruit

The fruit resembles the normally produced fruit but it is

seedless

polyembryony
it is the development of more than one embryo inside the seed
that condition is described as polyembryony Leeuwenhoek
(1719) in the seed of citrus genus

1)cleavage polyembryony

an embryo develop directly from diploid cell of nucellus and

integuments

2)Adventive polyembryony

Zygote proembryo sometimes divides (cleaves) into many

parts each parts develop into an embryo
 Dought Clear Section

Ch1) Reproduction in lower & Higher

plants Videos link…

Part1) https://youtu.be/FG8XBpmi9QU

Part2) https://youtu.be/FG8XBpmi9QU

Part3) https://youtu.be/FG8XBpmi9QU

Part4) https://youtu.be/FG8XBpmi9QU

Part5) https://youtu.be/FG8XBpmi9QU
Biostudy with Nikhil

Ch2) Reproduction in
Lower & Higher Animals

Biostudy with Nikhil

Reproduction
It is defined as the biological process in which formation of life
from pre-existing life.

Reproduction is animal is of two types

1) Asexual reproduction
It is most common method in lower organism
Life is form Without formation & fusion of gamete
It which only one parent involved parent are also referred
as clone Meiosis is not involved

2) sexual reproduction
It is also called as amphimixis
With formation & fusion of gamate
It show two phases in his life
A) juvenile phase ( physical growth)
b) reproductive growth

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Asexual Reproduction in animals
1)Budding

It is simple method of a sexual Reproduction It seen in veriety

of animals like coelenterates. (hydra)

a small outgrowth is produce toward the basal end of body

It develops as a bud which grows and forms tentacles and
get transformed into a new Individual
This process is called as budding

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2)Gemule formation

Gemule is on internal bud formed by the sponges.

The archaeocytes capable of developing into a new organism

These are get coated by a thick resistant layer of secretion
by Amoebocytes

The gemule is formed to overcome unfavourable

condition on return to favorable condition gemule hatch
and develop into new organism

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Human Reproduction

Human reproduce by sexual method

In the sexual reproduction involves various steps

1) Gamatogenesis
2) Insemination
3) Internal fertilization (fusion of male & female gamate)
4) Zygote formation
5) Embryogenesis
6) gestation (time period of baby to developed)
7) parturition (when baby comes out from mother body)

Gametes produced by primary sex organ

1) testis ( male gamate)
2) ovary (female gamate)

secondary sexual characters

In males
beard,enlarged larynx(Adam’s apple)

In females
breast, broder pelvis ,high pitched voice

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Male Reproductive system

It consist of the primary male organ called testes accessory

ducts & gland

testes are paired, mesodermal in origin formed in lower

abdominal cavity

They are located in a pouch called scrotum

Testis are develops in the abdominal cavity and later they

descend into the scrotal sac through a passage called inguinal
canal

Each testis 2-3cm broad & 3cm thick

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Histology of testis

Testis is internally covered by a Collagenous connective tissue

layer called tunica albuginea

outer to it is a incomplete peritoneal covering called tunica

veginalis inner to it tunica vasculosa

tunica albuginea divide each testis into about 200-300

testicular lobules with 1-4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules

seminiferous tubules is internally lined cuboidal germinal

epithelial cells
(spermatogonia and few sortoli cell Or sustentacular cell)

The germinal epithelial cells (spermatogonia)

Spermogegonia undergoes gamatogenesis & produce
spermatozoa

Inner most spermatogonial cell

(2n)

Primary spermatocytes
(2n)
secondary Secondary
spermotocyte Spermatocyte
(n) (n)
spermatid spermatid

sertoli cells provide nutrition to the developing sperm

Interstitial cell & Leyding’s cells Secrete male hormone
androgen or testosterone Biostudy with Nikhil
Accessory ducts
The accessory ducts include rete testis vasa efferentia
epididymis,vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and urethra

seminiferous tubules

rate testis vasaeffentia

epididymis (mature sperm)

Vasa deferens

Urethra

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Glands
1) seminal vesicles
present on posterior side of urinary bladder
It secrete an alkaline seminal Fluid which contain
A)prostaglandins
Reverse peristalsis in vagina and uterus aiding faster
movement of sperm toward egg
B)fructose
Provide energy to sperm
C) fibrinogen
Coagulate the sperm
About 60% of total volume
of semen.

2) Prostate gland
large made up of 20-30 lobes
It surrounds the urethra and release white and slightly acidic
prostatic fluid into the urethra
About 20% of total volume of semen

3) cowpers gland / Bulbourethral gland

It is small, pea shaped glands secrete an alkaline viscous
mucous like fluid which act as a lubricant during
copulation.

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Female Reproductive system
it consist of a pair of ovary along with the pair of oviducts
+ uterus
+ Cervix
+ vagina

Ecternal genitalia located in pelvis region

These part of system along with Pair of mammary

gland

Integrated structurally &

functionally
to the support of
1) Ovulation
2) Fertilization
3) Pregnancy
4) birth
5) child care

1) ovaries are produce Ovum

female gammate

2) Tests are produce Sperm

male gammate
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ovary
2 to 4 cm in length
connected to the pelvis wall & uterus by ligaments

ovary are the primary female sex organ

The oviduct (fallopian tubes) uterus and vagina constitute the

female Accessory ducts.

Each oviduct about 10-12 cm long extends from the

periphery of each ovary to uterus

The part closer to the ovary is the funnel-shaped

infundibulum which help in collection of ovum after
ovulation

wider part of infundibulum is called Ampulla it is the

fertilization site

uterus three wall

External (thin) Middle thick Inner

membranous smooth muscle Glandular layer
(Perimetrium) (Myometrium) called Endometrium

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structure and development of the ovary

Each ovary is a compact structures differentiate into a central

part called medulla and the outer part called Cortex

The cortex is covered externally by a layer of germinal

epithelium

The outer cortex is more compact and granular it shows large

number of tiny masses of cells called ovarian follicles

These are collectively formed from the immature ova

originating from cells of the dorsal endodermal of the yolk sac

The cells during embryonic development divide mitotically.

now these are called as oogonia

The process of oogenesis starts much be for the birth of the

female baby by the end of 12 weeks the ovary is fully formed,
It has more than 2 millions primordial follicle in it

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The cells of germinal epithelium
give rise to group oogonia Each cord at it’s end has
projecting into the Cortes in the a round mass of oogonial
form of egg tubes of pfluger cell called egg nests

from which the primordial

follicles developed

each primordial follicle has at

his center a large primary
oocyte (2n)

The primary oocyte Starts

meiotic division but gets
arrested at meiosis

the 2 millions
primordial follicle present in fetal
Ovary

about I millions remain of

birth and only 40,000
remain at puberty

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The large destruction of the primordial follicle during growth is
called atresia

During each menstrual cycle only one of the follicle starts

growing to form Grafian follicle

In each cycle alternately one of two ovaries produce the grafian

follicle

1st menstrual cycle also called

menarche at the age of 13 years

last menstrual cycle or stopping of the menstrual cycle is called

menopause at the age 45 to 55

menarche menopause
(13) (45-55)

Time period In between

called Reproductive age
(32 years)

In this time period female will be produce maximum of about

416 eggs
structure of Grafian follicle

Grafian follicle is a mature ovarian follicle

secondary oocyte is surrounded by a non- Cellular layer of zona

pellucida secreted by the viteline membrane

The outermost protective fibrous covering is called theca

externa
Inner to it cellular theca interna

It produce the hormone estrogen

Inner to the theca interna the follicular cells form the membrane
granulosa

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2) oviduct / fallopian tube / uterine tube

These are a pair of muscular ducts lying horizontally over the

peritoneal cavity
10-12 cm in length

1) infundibulum 2) ampulla 3) isthmus

The proximal funnel like part It is the middle The distal

within opening called ostium long part of narrow distal
finger like projection called oviduct part of duct
Fimbriae It is also called as opening into
. fertilization site the uterus.

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3) Uterus
it is commonly called as womb.
it is hollow muscular pear shaped organ located above the
urinary bladder.
it is about 7.5 cm long 5 cm broad and 2.5 cm thick

1) fundus 2) cervix 3) Body

it is upper dome it is the narrow it is broads of

shaped part about 2.5cm in uterus which
implantation of length It is extends gradually tapers
embryo occurs in into the vagina downward
the fundus
it has two opening
an internal as
toward body
an external
toward vagina
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menstrual cycle (ovarian cycle)
Menstrual cycle is the characteristic feature of primates
including human

It involves a series of cyclic change in the ovary and female

reproductive tract

The cycles are repeated with a pediodicity of approximately

28 days

The cycle is the divided into four phases.

A) menstrual phase
The begining of each cycle is taken as the first day where
menses or loss of blood (45 to 100 ml)

It lasts for approximately five days (average - 3-7 days)

Endometrium of uterus breaks down under the effect of

Prostaglanding released due to decreased levels of estrogen
Due to this blood tissue fluid, mucus endometrial lining and
the fertilized oocyte is discharged through vagina
During menstrual phase blood do not clot due to presence of
fibrinolysis.

menstrual phase occurs when an ovulated egg does not get

fertilized and release out it is thus called “funeral of
unfertilized egg” Biostudy with Nikhil
B) Proliferative phase\ follicular phase\ post
menstrual phase

This phase is duration between the end of menstruation and

ovulation

It extends from 1oth to 13th day of

menstrual

A few (6 to 12) secondary follicles proceed to develop but

one of them Is develop into graphian follicle

The outer secondary follicles degenarate this process of

degenerations called atresia

C) ovulatary phase

it is the shortest phase of menstrual cycle

It involves rupturing of the mature grafian follicle and

release of ovum (secondary oocyte) into a pelvis Cavity

usually on 14 th day of menstrual Cycle

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D) secretory phase / luteal phase

Duration of this phase is between the ovulation of the next

menses beginning

it is longest phase

it lasts for 15th to 28th day 14 days

After release of Secondary oocyte remaining tissue of grafian

follicle transforms onto corpus luteum begins to secrete
progesterone & estrogen

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mammary gland

A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all Female

mammals

mammary gland are paired structure called (breasts)

The glandular tissue of each breasts is divided into 15-20

mammary lobes

contain a clusters of cell called

alveoli cells secrete milk

Endometrium undergoes cyclic changes during menstrual cycle

myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the
baby Biostudy with Nikhil
Gametogenesis
The gametogenesis is the process of formation of gametes in
sexually reproducing animals

1)spermatogenesis

2) oogenesis

1)spermatogenesis

The process of formation of the male gamete sperm from the

germinal epithelium of testis called...

At the puberty hypothalamus begins secretion of gonadotropin

releasing Hormone (GnRF)

It initiates the significant increase IN secretion of follicle

Stimulating Hormone (ESH)

spermatogenesis involves three phases.

Biostudy with Nikhil

1)Multiplication phase.

The primordial germ cell (2n)

of seminiferous tubules undergo
repeated mitotic division to
produce spermatogonia

2)Growth phase

Some Spermatogonia Stop

dividing and grow in size to
develop Spermatocytes due
to accumulation of food

3) Maturation phase

It involves (meiosis) to
Formation of two haploid
cell
secondary spermatocyte
undergoes (meiosis II)
to form four haploid
spermatid transfer into
function spermatozoa by
Spermiogenesis

Biostudy with Nikhil

2)oogenesis
It is the process of formation of
the haploid female gamete egg
from germinal epithelium

I) multiplication phase
The primary germ cells (2n)
of ovary undergoes repeated
Mitotic division to form
oogonia (2n)

2) Growth phase
some of the oogonia stop
division and begin to increase
in size and form the primary
oocytes (2n)

3) Maturation
The diploid primary oocytes
undergoes (meiosis I )to form
2 haploid daughter cells
Hut due to unequal division
of cytoplasm one is large cell
body called secondary oocyte
another small cell called as
1st polar body
last phase usually complete in
the fallopian tube at the time of
fertilization
two unequal cell are formed
large ovum (n) 2nd polar body
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structure of sperm
sperm is the male gamete it is a motile, microscopic elongated
cell . It divided into three parts

1)Head

The sperm head is oval in shape contain haploid nucleus

There is cap like structure called acrosome contain hydrolytic
enzyme like zona lysine & corona penetrating enzymes

2) Neck

It is a very short region having two centriole

i.e. proximal centriole & distal centriole

3) Middle piece

It has an axial filament

surrounded by 10-74 spiral
turns of mitochondria
It provide energy to sperm
It is long slender and
tapering part

The part surrounded by

plasma membrane is main
piece & End piece without
plasma membrane
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Fertilization / syngamy
The process which involves fusion of the male haploid
gamete & female haploid gamete result in formation of
diploid Zygote is called fertilization

mechanism of fertilization

a) Movements of sperm toward egg

It evolves capacitation reaching the vagina50 % are

demotilized ,broken, destroyed remaining sperm undergoes
capacitation This process required 5-6 hours

Acrosome membrane become thin enters the sperms their

tails begin to show rapid whiplash movement result of
capacitation sperm become more active

b) Entry of sperm into the egg

out of 200-400 million sperms only few hundred manage to

reach them but only single sperm fertilized the ovum

The sperm after reaching the ovum release lysing and break
down the layers of egg /ovum & fertilized ovum

The sperm head touches the zona pellucida its acrosome

Covering rupture to releasing lytic enzyme This caused egg
reaction and cone of reception is formed on the egg membrane
The sperm head comes in contact with the cone
C) Activation of ovum

The ovum before fertilization was at(meta phase I )stage with

contact of sperm head of Viteline membrane of egg gets
activated to resume and complete it’s (meiosis-II ) with this it
gives out second polar body and true ovum

fusion of egg and sperm the coverings of male & female

degenerate allowing the chromosomal paring this result in the
formation of synkaryon by the process called Syngamy

Significance of fertilization

secondary oocyte completes the process of oogenesis & it

transformed into a mature ovum

diploid chromosome number is restored in the zygote by

the process Syngamy

The ovum lacks the centrioles necessary for further

divisions are received from sperm by the fertilization

fertilization involves fusion of male& female gamete from

the two parents it result in variations which are significant
to evolution

sex of offspring is determined

Biostudy with Nikhil
Placenta
It is flattened discoidal organ in the uterus of a pregnant
woman

The placenta is a temporary structural & functional connection

between foetal & maternal circulation

The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen of nutrient and also

removal of carbon dioxide & Excretory product produced by
Fotus.

The placenta attached to wall of the uterus and baby’s umbilical

cord

placenta is the only organ which is formed of two different

individuals mother & foetus

The placenta part contributed by the foetus is called foetal

placenta and The part which is rich in blood supply and shared
by mother mother it is the part of uterine wall termed ad
mother placenta

Biostudy with Nikhil

 Pregnancy
it is the condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus
called pregnancy

The average period of pregnancy inhuman lasts for 266 days

from fertilization or 280 days from LMC
first trimester- second trimester- third trimester-

from fertilization from 13th to 26th from 27th week

to ‘12th weeks- Weeks till the parturition

The embryo it is about 30 cm.- The foetus about

receive nutrients development of 3-4 kg in weight
in the first 2-4 brain begins The mother
weeks directly sonography at 18- abdominal organ
from the 20 weeks show become
endometrium- baby's growth and compressed &
position displace- At the
It is the main end of third
period of The baby reaches trimester the
organogenesis- half of size of a
The embryo is newborn Head has foetus become
now called foetus hairs eyebrows fully developed
eyelashes ready for
It is about 3cm Parturition
long

Biostudy with Nikhil

 Parturition
Human are viviparous (as they give birth young ones)

parturition is the process of giving birth to baby called

parturition

The physical activities involved in parturition like uterine and

abdominal contraction dilation of cervix and passage of baby is
called labor

The fully developed foetus gives signals for the uterine

contraction by secreting Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(Act from pituitary gland

This triggers release of oxytocin from mother’s pituitary gland

which acts on uterine muscles of mother and(uterine
contraction)

Biostudy with Nikhil

 It involves following three steps

1)Dilation stage 2) Expulsion 3) After birth

stage
uterine contraction After birth delivery
begin from top The uterine of the baby the
forcing the baby &abdominal placenta separate
toward cervix baby contractions from the uterus-
is pushed down in become It expelled out as
the uterus its head stronger- After birth
comes to lie against normal
Cervix delivery the This process
foetus passes happens within 1o
out thorough to 45 Minutes After
cervix & birth delivery of the
vagina- baby

It takes 20 to the placenta

60 min separates from the
uterus
Embryonic development
I) Cleavage After fertilization the Zygote cell undergoes series of
mitotic cell division so that an unicellular Zygote is transformed
into the complex multicellular body this transformation is known
cleavage

The cells formed by the cleavage are called blastomeres

Process of cleavage In human

cleavage is holoblastic i e. whole Zygote gets divided.

The first cleavage in the zygote is meridional and occurs about

30 hours after fertilization

It divides (into longitudinally into two blastomeres one slightly

larger than other.
The 2nd cleavage is also longitudinal but at the right angle to first
occurs after 20 hours

the third cleavage is horizontal After third cleavage embryo is in

8-cell stage

By the end of 4th day after fertilization embryo is solid ball of 16-
32 cells and looking like mulberry

This stage is called as morulla Till the formation of morula the

zona
pellucida Is retained around the embryo and thus their ¡s no
change in size from Zygote to morula

Morula reaches isthmus & gain entry into the uterus.

 Gastrulation
It is the process of formation of gastrula from the
blastocyst stage there are two important events that take

a)Differentiation of blastomeres

This process result in the formation of three germinal

layers

I)ectoderm
2)mesoderm
3)endoderm

b) Morphogenetic movements

These are different types of movements to reach their

definite place

Gastrulation begins in the embryoblast cells on about 8th

day after fertilization

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 Blastulation
is the process of formation of the hollow and multicellular
blastocyst till the end of 7th day after fertilization

The outer layer celled seen in the morula now form the
layer called trophoblast cells from the trophoblast begin to
absorb the glycogen uterine milk trophoblast cell help in
absorbing nutrition for’ the developing’ embryo

The trophoblast cells in contact with the embryonic knob

are called cells of Rubber

The side with inner mass of cells is called the embryonal

end side opposite to it is abembryonal end,

at 7th day blastocyst is fully formed

Primitive endoderm start dividing and grows downward

toward the blastocoel cavity layer is called endoderm

It grows within the blastocoel and forms a sac called

yolk sac

After formation of endoderm the second layer to be

differentiated is the ectoderm

Actual gastration occurs after fertilization about 15 days

The further process after gastrulation is called
organogenesis
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
 Infertility

- In fertility is defined as the inability to conceive

naturally after one year of regular unprotected
intercourse

- The causes of infertility could be Congenital disease,

immunological psychological

- The common physical cause in female are polycystic

ovary syndrome, hormonal imbalance

- In male it is less sperm count and small size of penis

- At 1978 infertile couple had two options

Adopt or be childless today in fertile couples have
many
options such as a

- 1) fertility drugs

- 2) test tube babies

- 3) Artificial insemination

- 4) surrogate motherhood

- above certain techniques commonly known as

Assisted Reproductive Technologies(ART)
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
1) IVE (In vitro fertilization)

It is a process of fertilization where an egg is combined

with sperm outside the body in test tube

Early embryo (with up to 8 blastomeres) could be then

transferred into the follopian tube for further development

2) ZIH (Zygote Intra fallopian Transfer)

It is an infertility treatment used when there is blockage in

the follopian tube which prevents the fertilization of egg by
the sperm

similar to In Vitro Fertilization (IVE)

3)Gamete intra fallopian transfer( GIFT)

Transfer of an ovum collected from donor into the fallopian

tube of another female Who can provide suitable
environment for fertilization and development of baby

Biostudy with Nikhil

4) Intra cytoplasmic sperm
injection(ICSI)

in vitro fertilization procedure in which cell is injected

directly into cytoplasm of an ovum in laboratory

Here naturally penetrate the ovum

5) Artificial insemination
In some infertility cases the male partner Is unable to
inseminate the female due to low sperm count

This technique the sperms are collected from the male and
artificially introduced into the cervix of female

6) Intra Uterine Insemination (lUI)

In this technique the process is somewhat like that artificial

insemination, only difference is that the sperm are
introduced into the uterine cavity instead of cervix

Biostudy with Nikhil

7) sperm bank / semen bank

A sperm bank is a place which collect and store the

Sperm is provided by\ healthy males called sperm
donors
sperms stores by cryopreservation method (low tem)

(8) Adoption

Adoption is a legal process by which couple or single

parent gets le gal rights

An Adoptive parent should be fit and financially able to

take care of the adopted child

The child must be at least 21 years old but there is no

legal upper age limit for adoption

Biostudy with Nikhil

 Dought Clear Section

Ch2) Reproduction in Lower

& Higher Animals
videos link..

Part1) https://youtu.be/wbZrFk4eV7A

Part2) https://youtu.be/dcXn8UbNCtg

Part3) https://youtu.be/aAA7n-EoMaU

Part4) https://youtu.be/rnC-Ag-8_ys

Part5) https://youtu.be/ne17wjPv-6Q
Biostudy with Nikhil

Chapter 3)
INHERITANCE & VERIATION

Biostudy with Nikhil 1

Chp3) Inheritance and variation
Heredity

Variation

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Sex determination in honey bees

33
Sex determination in birds

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 Dought Clear Section

Ch3) Inheritance & Variation videos

link….

Part1) https://youtu.be/vGQmKtJ10QU

Part2) https://youtu.be/Pw5JUhAf8mw

Part3) https://youtu.be/5jTVL05DpLo

Part4) https://youtu.be/seVhedzi1K8

Part5) https://youtu.be/lUnsSx86Pro

Biostudy with Nikhil 39

Biostudy with Nikhil

Ch4) Molecular Basis of

Inheritance
Experiment on DNA as genetic
material
Griffith experiment
Hershey Chase Experiment
Avery, Macleod & McCarthy Experiment
Chemical components of DNA
 Structure of DNA

1)DNA molecule as a double helix

2) Structure of each stand

3) Complementary base pairing

4) Purine pyrimidine ratio

5) Polarity of strand

6)Major and minor grooves

7)Dimensions
Characteristics of genetic code
Lactose operon concept
 Dought Clear Section

Ch4) Molecular Basis of

Inheritance
videos link..

Part1) https://youtu.be/dNHmngD8uV4

Part2) https://youtu.be/JOREPcK8nDw

Part3) https://youtu.be/3SWnlfvgz0I

Part4) https://youtu.be/qWy2deWXK0Q

Part5) https://youtu.be/BA4ZXJwE4FY
Biostudy with Nikhil

Ch5) Origin and

Evolution of life
Origin and Evolution of life

Biostudy with Nikhil

Chemical evolution life

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 Isolation
Isolation is the separation of population of a particular
species into a smaller unit which prevent interbreeding
between them
 Natural selection
It is a process by which better adapted individual
with useful variation are selected by nature
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
Connecting link or missing link

Biostudy with Nikhil

Biostudy with Nikhil
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Biostudy with Nikhil
 Speciation
The process of formation of new species from
pre-existing species is called as speciation

Biostudy with Nikhil

Zoological time scale
Biostudy with Nikhil
Biostudy with Nikhil
Human evolution chart
 Dought Clear Section

Ch5) Origin and Evolution of

life videos link…

Part1) https://youtu.be/70W3VOOfZjk

Part2) https://youtu.be/SrVWkqpiAr8

Part3) https://youtu.be/4Y88lkZ6z7U

Part4) https://youtu.be/lgqPSuV58dA

Part5) https://youtu.be/xX2UOrfKHx4
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