DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

MTH401

Virtual University of Pakistan

Knowledge beyond the boundaries
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
2 Fundamentals .............................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Elements of the Theory ........................................................................................ 3
2.2 Specific Examples of ODE’s ............................................................................... 3
2.3 The order of an equation ...................................................................................... 4
2.4 Ordinary Differential Equation ............................................................................ 4
2.5 Partial Differential Equation ................................................................................ 4
2.6 Results from ODE data ........................................................................................ 4
2.7 BVP Examples ..................................................................................................... 5
2.8 Properties of ODE’s ............................................................................................. 5
2.9 Superposition........................................................................................................ 5
2.10 Explicit Solution ............................................................................................... 5
2.11 Implicit Solution ............................................................................................... 5
3 Separable Equations .................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Solution steps of Separable Equations ................................................................. 6
3.2 Exercise .............................................................................................................. 13
4 Homogeneous Differential Equations ....................................................................... 15
4.1 Method of Solution............................................................................................. 16
4.2 Equations reducible to homogenous form ......................................................... 17
4.2.1 Case 1 ......................................................................................................... 18
4.2.2 Case 2 ......................................................................................................... 18
4.3 Exercise .............................................................................................................. 20
5 Exact Differential Equations .................................................................................... 22
5.1 Method of Solution ............................................................................................ 22
5.2 Exercise .............................................................................................................. 26
6 Integrating Factor Technique .................................................................................... 28
6.1 Case 1 ................................................................................................................ 28
6.2 Case 2 ................................................................................................................ 29
6.3 Case 3 ................................................................................................................ 29
6.4 Case 4 ................................................................................................................. 29
 6.5 Exercise .............................................................................................................. 36
7 First Order Linear Equations .................................................................................... 37
7.1 Method of solution ............................................................................................. 37
7.2 Exercise .............................................................................................................. 41
8 Bernoulli Equations .................................................................................................. 43
8.1 Method of solution ............................................................................................. 43
8.2 Exercise .............................................................................................................. 47
8.3 Substitutions ....................................................................................................... 48
8.4 Exercise .............................................................................................................. 52
9 Solved Problems ....................................................................................................... 53
10 Applications of First Order Differential Equations ............................................... 69
10.1 Orthogonal Trajectories ................................................................................. 69
10.2 Orthogonal curves .......................................................................................... 71
10.3 Orthogonal Trajectories (OT) ........................................................................ 71
10.3.1 Method of finding Orthogonal Trajectory .............................................. 72
10.4 Population Dynamics ..................................................................................... 77
11 Radioactive Decay ................................................................................................. 80
11.1 Newton's Law of Cooling ............................................................................... 82
11.2 Carbon Dating ................................................................................................ 84
12 Applications of Non-linear Equations ................................................................... 86
12.1 Logistic equation ............................................................................................ 86
12.1.1 Solution of the Logistic equation ................................................................ 86
12.1.2 Special Cases of Logistic Equation............................................................. 87
12.1.3 A Modification of LE.................................................................................. 88
12.2 Chemical reactions ......................................................................................... 89
12.3 Miscellaneous Applications ............................................................................ 92
13 Higher Order Linear Differential Equations ............................................................. 94
13.1 Preliminary theory .......................................................................................... 94
13.2 Initial -Value Problem .................................................................................... 94
13.2.1 Solution of IVP ........................................................................................... 95
13.3 Theorem ( Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions) ....................................... 95
 13.4 Boundary-value problem (BVP) ..................................................................... 97
13.4.1 Solution of BVP .......................................................................................... 97
13.4.2 Possible Boundary Conditions .................................................................... 98
13.5 Linear Dependence ....................................................................................... 100
13.6 Linear Independence..................................................................................... 100
13.6.1 Case of two functions................................................................................ 100
13.7 Wronskian..................................................................................................... 102
13.8 Theorem (Criterion for Linearly Independent Functions) ............................ 102
13.9 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 104
14 Solutions of Higher Order Linear Equations .......................................................... 106
14.1 Preliminary Theory ....................................................................................... 106
14.2 Superposition Principle................................................................................. 106
14.3 Linear Independence of Solutions ................................................................ 109
14.4 Fundamental Set of Solutions ....................................................................... 109
14.4.1 Existence of a Fundamental Set ................................................................ 110
14.5 General Solution-Homogeneous Equations.................................................. 110
14.6 Non-Homogeneous Equations ...................................................................... 112
14.7 Complementary Function ............................................................................. 112
14.8 General Solution of Non-Homogeneous Equations ..................................... 113
14.9 Superposition Principle for Non-homogeneous Equations .......................... 114
14.10 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 115
15 Construction of a Second Solution ......................................................................... 117
15.1 General Case ................................................................................................. 117
15.2 Order Reduction ........................................................................................... 120
15.3 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 123
16 Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients ................................. 124
16.1 Method of Solution ....................................................................................... 124
16.1.1 Case 1 (Distinct Real Roots) ..................................................................... 124
16.1.2 Case 2 (Repeated Roots) ........................................................................... 125
16.1.3 Case 3 (Complex Roots) ........................................................................... 125
16.2 Higher Order Equations ................................................................................ 127
16.2.1 Case 1 (Real distinct roots) ....................................................................... 127
 Case 2 (Real & repeated roots) ................................................................. 128
16.2.2
16.2.3 Case 3 (Complex roots) ............................................................................ 128
16.3 Solving the Auxiliary Equation .................................................................... 128
17 Method of Undetermined Coefficients(Superposition Approach) .......................... 132
17.1 The form of Input function g (x) .................................................................. 132
17.2 Solution Steps ............................................................................................... 133
17.2.1 Restriction on Input function g ................................................................ 133
17.3 Trial particular solutions ............................................................................... 134
17.4 Input function g (x ) as a sum ......................................................................... 134
17.5 Duplication between y p and y c .................................................................. 138

17.6 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 144

18 Undetermined Coefficient (Annihilator Operator Approach)................................. 145
18.1 Differential Operators ................................................................................... 145
18.2 Differential Equation in Terms of D............................................................. 146
18.3 Annihilator Operator..................................................................................... 148
18.4 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 153
19 Undetermined Coefficients(Annihilator Operator Approach) ................................ 155
19.1 Solution Method ........................................................................................... 155
19.2 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 165
20 Variation of Parameters .......................................................................................... 166
20.1 First order equation ....................................................................................... 167
20.2 Second Order Equation ................................................................................. 168
20.3 Summary of the Method ............................................................................... 170
20.3.1 Constants of Integration ............................................................................ 171
21 Variation of Parameters Method for Higher-Order Equations ............................... 177
21.1 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 185
22 Applications of Second Order Differential Equation.............................................. 186
22.1 Simple Harmonic Motion ............................................................................. 186
22.1.1 Hook’s Law ............................................................................................... 186
22.1.2 Newton’s Second Law .............................................................................. 187
22.1.3 Weight ....................................................................................................... 187
 22.1.4 Differential Equation ................................................................................ 187
22.1.5 Initial Conditions ...................................................................................... 188
22.1.6 Solution and Equation of Motion.............................................................. 188
22.1.7 Alternative form of Solution ..................................................................... 189
22.1.8 Amplitude ................................................................................................. 189
22.1.9 A Vibration or a Cycle .............................................................................. 189
22.1.10 Period of Vibration ................................................................................ 190
22.1.11 Frequency .............................................................................................. 190
22.2 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 196
23 Damped Motion ...................................................................................................... 197
23.1 Damping Force ............................................................................................. 197
23.2 The Differential Equation ............................................................................. 197
23.2.1 Solution of the Differential Equation........................................................ 198
23.2.2 Alternative form of the Solution ............................................................... 200
23.2.3 Quasi Period .............................................................................................. 209
23.3 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 209
24 Forced Motion......................................................................................................... 211
24.1 Forced motion with damping........................................................................ 211
24.2 Transient and Steady-State Terms ................................................................ 214
24.3 Motion without Damping ............................................................................. 217
24.4 Electric Circuits ............................................................................................ 219
24.5 The LRC Series Circuits ............................................................................... 219
24.5.1 Resistor ..................................................................................................... 219
24.5.2 Inductor ..................................................................................................... 220
24.5.3 Capacitor ................................................................................................... 220
24.6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law .............................................................................. 220
24.6.1 The Differential Equation ......................................................................... 221
24.6.2 Solution of the differential equation ......................................................... 221
Case 1 Real and distinct roots ......................................................................................... 222
Case 2 Real and equal ..................................................................................................... 222
Case 3 Complex roots ..................................................................................................... 222
25 Forced Motion (Examples) ..................................................................................... 224
26 Differential Equations with Variable Coefficients ................................................. 230
 26.1 Cauchy- Euler Equation................................................................................ 230
26.1.1 Method of Solution ................................................................................... 231
26.1.2 Case-I (Distinct Real Roots) ..................................................................... 231
26.1.3 Case II (Repeated Real Roots) .................................................................. 232
26.1.4 Case III (Conjugate Complex Roots)........................................................ 233
26.2 Exercises ....................................................................................................... 235
27 Cauchy-Euler Equation (Alternative Method of Solution) ..................................... 237
27.1 Exercises ....................................................................................................... 244
28 Power Series (An Introduction) .............................................................................. 245
28.1 Power Series ................................................................................................. 245
28.2 Convergence and Divergence ....................................................................... 245
28.2.1 The Ratio Test ........................................................................................... 246
28.2.2 Interval of Convergence ............................................................................ 246
28.2.3 Radius of Convergence ............................................................................. 246
28.2.4 Convergence at an Endpoint ..................................................................... 247
28.3 Absolute Convergence .................................................................................. 248
28.4 Power Series Representation of Functions ................................................... 249
28.4.1 Theorem .................................................................................................... 249
28.4.2 Series that are Identically Zero ................................................................. 250
28.5 Analytic at a Point ........................................................................................ 250
28.6 Arithmetic of Power Series........................................................................... 251
29 Power Series Solution of a Differential Equation ................................................... 254
29.1 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 258
30 Solution about Ordinary Points............................................................................... 259
30.1 Analytic Function ......................................................................................... 259
30.2 Ordinary and singular points ........................................................................ 259
30.2.1 Polynomial Coefficients............................................................................ 259
30.3 Theorem (Existence of Power Series Solution) ............................................ 260
30.4 Non-polynomial Coefficients ....................................................................... 264
30.5 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 265
31 Solutions about Singular Points .............................................................................. 266
31.1 Regular and Irregular Singular Points .......................................................... 266
31.1.1 Polynomial Coefficients............................................................................ 266
 31.2 Method of Frobenius .................................................................................... 268
31.2.1 Frobenius’ Theorem .................................................................................. 268
31.3 Cases of Indicial Roots ................................................................................. 273
31.3.1 Case I (Roots not Differing by an Integer) ............................................... 273
32 Solutions about Singular Points .............................................................................. 275
32.1 Method of Frobenius (Cases II and III) ........................................................ 275
32.1.1 Case II (Roots Differing by a Positive Integer) ........................................ 275
33 Bessel’s Differential Equation ................................................................................ 285
33.1 Series Solution of Bessel’s Differential Equation ........................................ 285
33.2 Bessel’s Function of the First Kind .............................................................. 287
34 Legendre’s Differential Equation ........................................................................... 294
34.1 Legendre’s Polynomials ............................................................................... 296
34.2 Rodrigues Formula for Legendre’s Polynomials.......................................... 297
34.3 Generating Function For Legendre’s Polynomials ....................................... 297
34.4 Recurrence Relation ..................................................................................... 298
34.5 Orthogonally of Legendre’s Polynomials..................................................... 299
34.6 Normality condition for Legendre’ Polynomials.......................................... 301
34.7 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 303
35 Systems of Linear Differential Equations ............................................................... 304
35.1 Simultaneous Differential Equations ............................................................ 304
35.2 Solution of a System ..................................................................................... 305
35.2.1 Systematic Elimination (Operator Method) .............................................. 305
36 Systems of Linear Differential Equations ............................................................... 312
36.1 Solution of Using Determinants ................................................................... 312
36.2 Solution Method ........................................................................................... 312
36.3 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 320
37 Systems of Linear First-Order Equation ................................................................. 321
37.1 The nth Order System ................................................................................... 321
37.2 Linear Normal Form ..................................................................................... 321
37.3 Reduction of a Linear Differential Equation to a System ........................... 322
37.3.1 Systems Reduced to Normal Form ........................................................... 325
37.4 Degenerate Systems ...................................................................................... 328
37.5 Applications of Linear Normal Forms.......................................................... 329
38 Introduction to Matrices .......................................................................................... 332
38.1 Matrix ........................................................................................................... 332
38.2 Rows and Columns ....................................................................................... 332
38.3 Order of a Matrix .......................................................................................... 332
38.4 Square Matrix ............................................................................................... 332
38.5 Equality of matrix ......................................................................................... 332
38.6 Column Matrix ............................................................................................. 332
38.7 Multiple of matrices...................................................................................... 333
38.8 Addition of Matrices ..................................................................................... 334
38.9 Difference of Matrices .................................................................................. 334
38.10 Multiplication of Matrices ............................................................................ 335
38.11 Multiplicative Identity .................................................................................. 337
38.12 Zero Matrix ................................................................................................... 337
38.13 Associative Law ........................................................................................... 338
38.14 Distributive Law ........................................................................................... 338
38.15 Determinant of a Matrix ............................................................................... 338
38.16 Transpose of a Matrix ................................................................................... 338
38.17 Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix ................................................................ 340
38.18 Non-Singular Matrices ................................................................................. 340
38.19 Derivative of a Matrix of functions .............................................................. 343
38.20 Integral of a Matrix of Functions .................................................................. 343
38.21 Augmented Matrix ........................................................................................ 344
38.22 Elementary Row Operations ......................................................................... 345
38.23 The Gaussian and Gauss-Jordon Methods.................................................... 345
38.24 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 349
39 The Eigenvalue problem ......................................................................................... 351
39.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ...................................................................... 351
39.2 The Non-trivial solution ............................................................................... 351
39.3 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 357
40 Matrices and Systems of Linear First-Order Equations .......................................... 358
40.1 Matrix form of a system ............................................................................... 358
40.2 Initial –Value Problem.................................................................................. 361
40.3 Theorem: Existence of a unique Solution................................................... 362
 40.4 Superposition Principle................................................................................. 362
40.5 Linear Dependence of Solution Vectors ....................................................... 364
40.6 Linear Independence of Solution Vectors .................................................... 365
40.7 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 366
41 Matrices and Systems of Linear 1st-Order Equations (Continued) ......................... 369
41.1 Theorem ........................................................................................................ 369
41.2 Fundamental set of solution.......................................................................... 370
41.2.1 Theorem (Existence of a Fundamental Set) .............................................. 370
41.3 General solution............................................................................................ 370
41.4 Non-homogeneous Systems ......................................................................... 372
41.4.1 Particular Integral...................................................................................... 372
41.5 Theorem ........................................................................................................ 373
41.5.1 Complementary function .......................................................................... 373
41.5.2 General solution of a Non homogenous systems ...................................... 373
41.6 Fundamental Matrix ..................................................................................... 374
41.7 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 375
42 Homogeneous Linear Systems ................................................................................ 377
42.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ...................................................................... 379
42.1.1 Case 1 (Distinct real eigenvalues)............................................................. 380
42.1.2 Case 2 (Complex eigenvalues).................................................................. 385
42.2 Theorem (Solutions corresponding to complex eigenvalues ) ..................... 386
42.3 Theorem(Real solutions corresponding to a complex eigenvalue) .............. 388
42.4 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 390
43 Real and Repeated Eigenvalues .............................................................................. 392
43.1 Eigenvalue of multiplicity m ....................................................................... 392
43.1.1 Method of solution .................................................................................... 392
43.1.2 Eigenvalue of Multiplicity Two ................................................................ 393
43.1.3 Eigenvalues of Multiplicity Three ............................................................ 399
44 Non-Homogeneous System .................................................................................... 403
44.1 Definition ...................................................................................................... 403
44.2 Matrix Notation ............................................................................................ 403
44.3 Method of Solution ....................................................................................... 403
44.4 Method of Undetermined Coefficients ......................................................... 403
 44.4.1 The form of F (t ) ...................................................................................... 403
44.4.2 Duplication of Terms ................................................................................ 404
44.5 Variation of Parameters ................................................................................ 411
44.6 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 416
Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

1 Introduction
Background
Linear y=mx+c
Quadratic ax2+bx+c=0
Cubic ax3+bx2+cx+d=0
Systems of Linear equations
ax+by+c=0
lx+my+n=0
Solution ?
Equation
Differential Operator
dy 1
=
dx x

Taking anti derivative on both sides

y=ln x
From the past
 Algebra
 Trigonometry
 Calculus
 Differentiation
 Integration
 Differentiation
• Algebraic Functions
• Trigonometric Functions
• Logarithmic Functions
• Exponential Functions
• Inverse Trigonometric Functions
 More Differentiation
• Successive Differentiation
• Higher Order
• Leibnitz Theorem
 Applications
• Maxima and Minima
• Tangent and Normal
 Partial Derivatives
y=f(x)
f(x,y)=0
z=f(x,y)

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Integration
 Reverse of Differentiation
 By parts
 By substitution
 By Partial Fractions
 Reduction Formula
Frequently required
 Standard Differentiation formulae
 Standard Integration Formulae
Differential Equations
 Something New
 Mostly old stuff
• Presented differently
• Analyzed differently
• Applied Differently

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

2 Fundamentals
 Definition of a differential equation.
 Classification of differential equations.
 Solution of a differential equation.
 Initial value problems associated to DE.
 Existence and uniqueness of solutions
2.1 Elements of the Theory
 Applicable to:
• Chemistry
• Physics
• Engineering
• Medicine
• Biology
• Anthropology
 Differential Equation – involves an unknown function with one or more of its
derivatives
 Ordinary D.E. – a function where the unknown is dependent upon only one
independent variable
Examples of D.Eqs
dy
− 5y =
1
dx
( y − x ) dx + 4 xdy =
0
3
d2y  dy 
+ 5  − 4 y =
ex
 dx 
2
dx
∂u ∂v
+ =
0
∂y ∂x
∂u ∂v
x +y =
u
∂x ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂u
− 2 +2 =
0
∂x 2
∂t ∂t
2.2 Specific Examples of ODE’s
du
= F (t ).G (u ) , the growth equation
dt
d 2θ g
+ sin θ =
F (t ) , the pendulum equation
dt 2 l
d2y dy
2
+ ε ( y 2 + 1) + y =,
0 the van der Pol equation,
dt dt

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

d 2Q dQ Q
L 2
+R + =E (t ) , the LCR oscillator equation
dt dt C
dp b 2 (t ) 2
=
−2a (t ) p + p − v(t ), a Riccati equation
dt u (t )
2.3 The order of an equation
• The order of the highest derivative appearing in the equation
3
d2y  dy 
+ 5  − 4 y =
ex
 dx 
2
dx
∂ 4 y ∂ 2u
a2 + =
0
∂x 4 ∂x 2
2.4 Ordinary Differential Equation
If an equation contains only ordinary derivatives of one or more dependent variables,
w.r.t a single variable, then it is said to be an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE). For
example the differential equation

3
d2y  dy 
+ 5  − 4 y =
ex
 dx 
2
dx

is an ordinary differential equation.

2.5 Partial Differential Equation
Similarly an equation that involves partial derivatives of one or more dependent
variables w.r.t two or more independent variables is called a Partial Differential Equation
(PDE). For example the equation

∂ 4u ∂ 2u
a2 + = 0
∂x 4 ∂x 2
is a partial differential equation.
2.6 Results from ODE data
 The solution of a general differential equation:f(t, y, y’, . . . , y(n)) = 0 is defined
over some interval I having the following properties:
 y(t) and its first n derivatives exist for all t in I so that y(t) and its first n - 1
derivates must be continuous in I
 y(t) satisfies the differential equation for all t in I
 General Solution – all solutions to the differential equation can be represented in
this form for all constants
 Particular Solution – contains no arbitrary constants
 Initial Condition
 Boundary Condition
 Initial Value Problem (IVP)

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 Boundary Value Problem(BVP)

 IVP Examples
 The Logistic Equation
• p’ = ap – bp2
• with initial condition p(t0) = p0; for p0 = 10 the solution is:
• p(t) = 10a / (10b + (a – 10b)e-a(t-t0))
 The mass-spring system equation
• x’’ + (a / m) x’ + (k / m)x = g + (F(t) / m)
2.7 BVP Examples
• Differential equations
 y’’ + 9y = sin(t)
• with initial conditions y(0) = 1, y’(2p) = -1
• y(t) = (1/8) sin(t) + cos(3t) + sin (3t)
 y’’ + p2y = 0
• with initial conditions y(0) = 2, y(1) = -2
• y(t) = 2cos(pt) + (c)sin(pt)
2.8 Properties of ODE’s
 Linear – if the nth-order differential equation can be written:
• an(t)y(n) + an-1(t)y(n-1) + . . . + a1y’ + a0(t)y = h(t)
 Nonlinear – not linear
x3(y’’’)3-x2y(y’’)2+3xy’+5y=ex
2.9 Superposition
 Superposition – allows us to decompose a problem into smaller, simpler parts and
then combine them to find a solution to the original problem.
2.10 Explicit Solution
A solution of a differential equation

 dy d 2 y d2y 
F  x, y , , 2 ,  , 2  = 0
 dx dx dx 

that can be written as y = f(x) is known as an explicit solution .

Example: The solution y = xex is an explicit solution of the differential equation

d2y dy
2
−2 + y =0
dx dx
2.11 Implicit Solution
A relation G(x,y) is known as an implicit solution of a differential equation, if it defines
one or more explicit solution on I.
Example: The solution x2 + y2 - 4=0 is an implicit solution of the equation y’ = - x/y
as it defines two explicit solutions y=+(4-x2)1/2

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

3 Separable Equations
The differential equation of the form
dy
= f ( x, y )
dx
is called separable if it can be written in the form
dy
= h( x ) g ( y )
dx
3.1 Solution steps of Separable Equations
To solve a separable equation, we perform the following steps:
1. We solve the equation g ( y ) = 0 to find the constant solutions of the equation.
2. For non-constant solutions we write the equation in the form.
dy
= h( x)dx
g ( y)
⌠ 1
Then integrate 

dy = ∫ h( x) dx
⌡ g ( y)
to obtain a solution of the form
G ( y ) = H ( x) + C
3. We list the entire constant and the non-constant solutions to avoid repetition..
4. If you are given an IVP, use the initial condition to find the particular solution.
Note that:
(a) No need to use two constants of integration because C1 − C 2 = C .
(b) The constants of integration may be relabeled in a convenient way.
(c) Since a particular solution may coincide with a constant solution, step 3 is
important.

Example 1:
dy y 2 − 1
Find the particular solution of = , y (1) = 2
dx x
Solution:

1. By solving the equation: y 2 − 1 = 0 ,We obtain the constant solutions: y = ±1

dy dx
2. Rewrite the equation as =
y −1 x
2

Resolving into partial fractions and integrating, we obtain

1⌠ 1 1 
dy = ⌠
1
  −   dx
2 ⌡  y − 1 y + 1 ⌡x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Integration of rational functions, we get

1 | y −1|
ln = ln | x | +C
2 | y +1|
3. The solutions to the given differential equation are
1 | y −1 |
 ln = ln | x | +C
2 | y +1|
 y = ±1
4. Since the constant solutions do not satisfy the initial condition, we plug in the
condition
y = 2 When x = 1 in the solution found in step 2 to find the value of C .

1 1
ln  = C
2  3
The above implicit solution can be rewritten in an explicit form as:
3 + x2
y=
3 − x2
Example 2:
dy 1
Solve the differential equation = 1+ 2
dt y
Solution:
1
1. We find roots of the equation to find constant solutions; 1 + =0
y2
No constant solutions exist because the equation has no real roots.
2. For non-constant solutions, we separate the variables and integrate
⌠ dy
 = ∫ dt
⌡ 1 + 1/ y
2

1 y2 1
Since = 2 = 1− 2
1 + 1/ y 2
y +1 y +1
⌠ dy
Thus  = y − tan −1 ( y )
⌡ 1 + 1/ y
2

−1
So that y − tan ( y ) = t + C
It is not easy to find the solution in an explicit form i.e. y as a function of t.
3. Since ∃ no constant solutions, all solutions are given by the implicit equation
found in step 2.
Example 3:
dy
Solve the initial value problem = 1 + t 2 + y 2 + t 2 y 2 , y( 0 ) = 1
dt

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Solution:
1. Since 1 + t + y + t y = (1 + t )(1 + y )
2 2 2 2 2 2

The equation is separable & has no constant solutions because ∃ no real roots of
1+ y2 = 0.
2. For non-constant solutions we separate the variables and integrate.
dy
= (1 + t 2 )dt
1+ y 2

⌠ dy
 = ∫ (1 + t 2 )dt
⌡ 1+ y
2

−1 t3
tan ( y ) = t + + C
3
Which can be written as
 t3 
y = tan t + + C 
 3 
3. Since ∃ no constant solutions, all solutions are given by the implicit or explicit
equation.

4. The initial condition y (0) = 1 gives

π
C = tan −1 (1) =
4
The particular solution to the initial value problem is
−1 t3 π
tan ( y ) = t + +
3 4
 t3 π 
or in the explicit form y = tan t + + 
 3 4
Example 4:
Solve (1 + x )dy − ydx = 0
Solution:
Dividing with (1 + x ) y , we can write the given equation as

dy y
=
dx (1 + x )
1. The only constant solution is y = 0
2. For non-constant solution we separate the variables

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy dx
=
y 1+ x
Integrating both sides, we have
⌠ dy ⌠ dx
 =
⌡ y ⌡ 1+ x

ln y = ln 1 + x + c1
ln|1+ x|+c1 ln|1+ x| c1
y=e =e .e

== ± e 1 (1 + x )
c1 c
or y = |1+ x | e
c
C (1 + x ) , C =
y= ±e1

If we use ln | c | instead of c1 then the solution can be written as

ln | y |= ln | 1 + x | + ln | c |
or ln | y |= ln c(1 + x )
So that y = c(1 + x ) .
3. The solutions to the given equation are
y = c(1 + x )
y = 0
Example 5

( )
Solve xy 4 dx + y 2 + 2 e −3 x dy = 0 .

dy   y4 
Solution: The differential equation can be written as =  − xe 3 x   2 
dx    y + 2 
y4
1. Since 2 ⇒ y = 0 . Therefore, the only constant solution is y = 0.
y +2
2. We separate the variables
y2 + 2
xe 3 x dx + 4
( )
dy = 0 or xe 3 x dx + y − 2 + 2 y − 4 dy = 0
y
Integrating, with use integration by parts by parts on the first term, yields
1 3x 1 3x 2
xe − e − y −1 − y −3 = c1
3 9 3

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

e 3 x (3 x − 1) =
9 6
+ + c where 9c1 = c
y y3
e 3 x (3 x − 1) =
9 6
+ +c
3. All the solutions are: y y3
y = 0

Example 6: Solve the initial value problems

= ( y − 1) , = ( y − 1) ,
dy dy
y (0) = 1 y (0) = 1.01
2 2
(a) (b)
dx dx
and compare the solutions.
Solutions:
1. Since ( y − 1) 2 = 0 ⇒ y = 1 . Therefore, the only constant solution is y = 0 .
2. We separate the variables

= dx or ( y-1) dy = dx
dy −2

( y − 1) 2

Integrating both sides we have

∫ ( y − 1) dy = ∫ dx
−2

( y − 1)− 2 + 1 = x + c
− 2 +1
1
or − = x+c
y −1
3. All the solutions of the equation are
1
− = x+c
y −1
y = 1
4. We plug in the conditions to find particular solutions of both the problems

(a) y (0 ) = 1 ⇒ y = 1 when x = 0 . So we have

1 1
− = 0 + c ⇒ c = − ⇒ c = −∞
1−1 0
The particular solution is

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

1
− = −∞ ⇒ y − 1 = 0
y −1

So that the solution is y = 1 , which is same as constant solution.

(b) y (0 ) = 1.01 ⇒ y = 1.01 when x = 0 . So we have
1
− = 0 + c ⇒ c = −100
1.01 − 1
So that solution of the problem is
1 1
− = x − 100 ⇒ y = 1 +
y −1 100 − x
5. Comparison: A radical change in the solutions of the differential equation has
Occurred corresponding to a very small change in the condition!!

Example 7:
Solve the initial value problems

= ( y − 1) − 0.01,
dy
= ( y − 1) + 0.01,
dy
y (0) = 1 y (0) = 1.
2 2
(a) (b)
dx dx

Solution:

(a) First consider the problem

= ( y − 1) + 0.01,
dy
y (0) = 1
2

dx

We separate the variables to find the non-constant solutions

dy
= dx
( )
0.01 + ( y − 1)
2 2

Integrate both sides

⌠ d ( y − 1)
= ∫ dx

⌡ ( )
0.01 + ( y − 1)
2 2

1 y −1
So that tan −1 = x+c
0.01 0.01

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 y −1 
tan −1   = 0.01( x + c )
 0.01 

y −1
0.01
[
= tan 0.01( x + c ) ]
or y = 1 + 0.01 tan 0.01( x + c )[ ]
Applying y (0 ) = 1 ⇒ y = 1 when x = 0 , we have

tan −1 (0 ) = 0.01(0 + c ) ⇒ 0 = c
Thus the solution of the problem is

y = 1 + 0.01 tan 0.01 x ( )

(b) Now consider the problem

= ( y − 1) − 0.01,
dy
y (0) = 1.
2

dx
We separate the variables to find the non-constant solutions
dy
= dx
( y − 1) − ( )
2 2
0.01

d ( y − 1)
⌠

 = ∫ dx
( y − 1) ( )
2

−
2
⌡ 0.01

1 y − 1 − 0.01
ln = x+c
2 0.01 y − 1 + 0.01

Applying the condition y (0 ) = 1 ⇒ y = 1 when x = 0

1 − 0.01
ln =c⇒c=0
2 0.01 0.01

y − 1 − 0.01
ln = 2 0.01 x
y − 1 + 0.01

y − 1 − 0.01 e2 0.01 x
=
y − 1 + 0.01 1

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Simplification:
a c a+b c+d
By using the property = ⇒ =
b d a−b c−d

y − 1 − 0.01 + y − 1 + 0.01 e 2 0.01x + 1

=
y − 1 − 0.01 − y + 1 − 0.01 e 2 0.01x − 1

2y − 2 e2 0.01 + 1
=
−2 0.01 e2 0.01 − 1

y −1 e 2 0.01 + 1
=
− 0.01 e 2 0.01 − 1
 e 2 0.01 + 1 
y − 1 = − 0.01 
 e 2 0.01 − 1 
 
 e 2 0.01 + 1 
y = 1− 0.01 
 e 2 0.01 − 1 
 
Comparison:

The solutions of both the problems are

(a) y = 1 + 0.01 tan 0.01 x( )

 e 2 0.01 + 1 
(b) y = 1 − 0.01 
 e 2 0.01 − 1 
 
Again a radical change has occurred corresponding to a very small in the differential
equation!
3.2 Exercise
Solve the given differential equation by separation of variables.

dy  2 y + 3 
2

1. = 
dx  4 x + 5 

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

2. sec 2 xdy + csc ydx = 0

(
3. e y sin 2 xdx + cos x e 2 y − y dy = 0 )

dy xy + 3 x − y − 3
4. =
dx xy − 2 x + 4 y − 8

dy xy + 2 y − x − 2
5. =
dx xy − 3 y + x − 3

6. y (4 − x 2 )2 dy = (4 + y 2 )2 dx
1 1

7. (x + x ) dy
dx
= y+ y

Solve the given differential equation subject to the indicated initial condition.

8. (e −y
)
+ 1 sin xdx = (1 + cos x )dy , y (0 ) = 0

9. (1 + x )dy + x(1 + 4 y )dx = 0 ,

4 2
y (1) = 0

( )
1
10. ydy = 4 x y 2 + 1 2 dx , y (0 ) = 1

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

4 Homogeneous Differential Equations

A differential equation of the form
dy
= f ( x, y )
dx
Is said to be homogeneous if the function f ( x, y ) is homogeneous, which means

f (tx, ty ) = t n f ( x, y ) For some real number n, for any number t .

Example 1
Determine whether the following functions are homogeneous

 xy
 f ( x, y ) = 2
 x + y2
(
 g ( x, y ) = ln − 3 x 2 y /( x 3 + 4 xy 2 ) )
Solution:
The functions f ( x, y ) is homogeneous because
t 2 xy xy
f (tx, ty ) = 2 2 = = f ( x, y )
t (x + y 2 ) x2 + y 2
Similarly, for the function g ( x, y ) we see that
 − 3t 3 x 2 y   − 3x 2 y 
g (tx, ty ) = ln 3 3 2 
 = ln 3  = g ( x, y )
2 
 t ( x + 4 xy )   x + 4 xy 
Therefore, the second function is also homogeneous.
Hence the differential equations

 dy
 dx = f ( x, y )
 dy
 = g ( x, y )
 dx

Are homogeneous differential equations

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

4.1 Method of Solution

dy
To solve the homogeneous differential equation = f ( x, y ) .We use the substitution
dx
y
v= .If f ( x, y ) is homogeneous of degree zero, then we have
x
f ( x, y ) = f (1, v) = F (v)
dv
+ v = f (1, v)
Since y ′ = xv ′ + v , the differential equation becomes x
dx
This is a separable equation. We solve and go back to old variable y through y = xv .

Summary:
1. Identify the equation as homogeneous by checking f (tx, ty ) = t f ( x, y ) ;
n

y
2. Write out the substitution v = ;
x
3. Through easy differentiation, find the new equation satisfied by the new function v ;
dv
x + v = f (1, v)
dx
4. Solve the new equation (which is always separable) to find v ;
5. Go back to the old function y through the substitution y = vx ;
6. If we have an IVP, we need to use the initial condition to find the constant of
integration.
Caution:
 Since we have to solve a separable equation, we must be careful about the
constant solutions.
 If the substitution y = vx does not reduce the equation to separable form then the
equation is not homogeneous or something is wrong along the way.
dy − 2 x + 5 y
Example 2 Solve the differential equation =
dx 2x + y
Solution:
− 2x + 5 y
Step 1. It is easy to check that the function f ( x, y ) = is a homogeneous
2x + y
function.
y
Step 2. To solve the differential equation we substitute v =
x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

− 2 x + 5 xv − 2 + 5v
Step 3. Differentiating w.r.t x , we obtain xv′ + v = =
2 x + xv 2+v
dv 1  − 2 + 5v 
which gives =  − v
dx x  2 + v 
This is a separable. At this stage please refer to the Caution!
Step 4. Solving by separation of variables all solutions are implicitly given by

− 4 ln(| v − 2 |) + 3 ln | v − 1 |= ln(| x |) + C
Step 5. Going back to the function y through the substitution y = vx , we get

− 4 ln | y − 2 x | +3 ln | y − x | = C
y − 2x y−x
−4 ln + 3ln =+
ln x c
x x
−4
y − 2x y−x
3

ln + ln =
ln x + ln c1 , c =
ln c1
x x
( y − 2 x) −4 ( y − x )3
ln + ln =
ln c1 x
x −4 x3
( y − 2 x) −4 ( y − x)3
ln . = ln c1 x
x −4 x3
( y − 2 x) −4 ( y − x)3
. = c1 x
x −4 x3
x( y − 2 x) −4 ( y − x)3 =c1 x
( y − 2 x) −4 ( y − x)3 =
c1

Note that the implicit equation can be rewritten as

( y − x) 3 = C1 ( y − 2 x) 4

4.2 Equations reducible to homogenous form

dy a x + b1 y + c1
The differential equation = 1
dx a 2 x + b2 y + c 2
is not homogenous. However, it can be reduced to a homogenous form as detailed below

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

4.2.1 Case 1
a1 b1
=
a2 b2

We use the substitution z = a1 x + b1 y which reduces the equation to a separable

equation in the variables x and z . Solving the resulting separable equation and
replacing z with a1 x + b1 y , we obtain the solution of the given differential equation.

4.2.2 Case 2
a1 b1
≠
a2 b2
In this case we substitute x = X + h, y =Y + k
Where h and k are constants to be determined. Then the equation becomes

dY a X + b1Y + a1 h + b1 k + c1
= 1
dX a 2 X + b2Y + a 2 h + b2 k + c 2

We choose h and k such that

a1h + b1k + c1 = 0 

a2 h + b2 k + c2 = 0
This reduces the equation to
dY a X + b1Y
= 1
dX a 2 X + b2Y

Which is homogenous differential equation in X and Y , and can be solved accordingly.

After having solved the last equation we come back to the old variables x and y .

Example 3
dy 2x + 3y − 1
Solve the differential equation =−
dx 2x + 3y + 2
Solution:
a1 b dy 1  dz 
Since = 1 = 1 , we substitute z = 2 x + 3 y , so that =  − 2
a2 b2 dx 3  dx 

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

1  dz  z −1 dz − z + 7
Thus the equation becomes  − 2 = − i.e. =
3  dx  z+2 dx z+2

 z+2 
This is a variable separable form, and can be written as  dz = dx
− z + 7

Integrating both sides we get − z − 9 ln ( z − 7 ) = x + A

Simplifying and replacing z with 2 x + 3 y , we obtain − ln (2 x + 3 y − 7 )9 = 3 x + 3 y + A

or (2 x + 3 y − 7 )−9 = ce 3( x + y ) , c = eA

dy ( x + 2 y − 4 )
Example 4 Solve the differential equation =
dx 2 x + y − 5
Solution: By substitution x = X + h, y = Y + k , the given differential equation
dY ( X + 2Y ) + (h + 2k − 4 )
reduces to =
dX (2 X + Y ) + (2h + k − 5)

We choose h and k such that h + 2k − 4 = 0, 2h + k − 5 = 0

Solving these equations we have h = 2 , k = 1 . Therefore, we have
dY X + 2Y
=
dX 2 X + Y
This is a homogenous equation. We substitute Y = VX to obtain
dV 1 − V 2  2 +V  dX
X = or 1 − V 2  dV =
dX 2 + V X
Resolving into partial fractions and integrating both sides we obtain
⌠ 3 1  ⌠ dX or − 3 ln (1 − V ) + 1 ln (1 + V ) = ln X + ln A
  2(1 − V ) + 2(1 + V )  dV = ⌡

⌡  X 2 2

Simplifying and removing ( ln ) from both sides, we get (1 − V )3 / (1 + V ) = CX −2 ,

C = A −2

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

3 1
− ln (1 − V ) + ln (1 + V )= ln X + ln A
2 2
+ ln (1 + V )
−3 1
ln(1 − V ) 2 2
=
ln XA

(1 + V )
−3 1
ln(1 − V ) 2 2
=
ln XA

(1 + V )
−3 1
(1 − V ) 2 2
=
XA
taking power "− 2" on both sides
(1 − V )3 (1 + V ) =
−1
X −2 A−2
Y
put V =
X
−1
Y 3 Y 
(1 − ) 1 +  =X −2 A−2
X  X
−1
 X −Y   X +Y 
3
−2 −2
    =X A
 X   X 
( X − Y )3 −3+1
X = X −2 A−2
X +Y
say, c = A−2
( X − Y )3
=c
X +Y
put X = x − 2, Y =y −1
( x + y − 1)3 / x + y − 3 =c

Y
Now substituting V = , X = x − 2 , Y = y − 1 and simplifying, we obtain
X
(x − y − 1)3 / (x + y − 3) = C .This is solution of the given differential equation, an
implicit one.
4.3 Exercise
Solve the following Differential Equations

1. ( x 4 + y 4 )dx − 2 x 3 ydy = 0

dy y x 2
2. = + +1
dx x y 2

 −y

3.  x 2 e x
+ y 2 dx = xydy
 

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 x 
4. ydx +  y cos − x dy = 0
 y 

( )
5. x 3 + y 2 x 2 + y 2 dx − xy x 2 + y 2 dy = 0

Solve the initial value problems

6. (3x 2 + 9 xy + 5 y 2 )dx − (6 x 2 + 4 xy )dy = 0, y (2) = −6

(
7. x + y 2 − xy ) dydx = y, 1
y  = 1
 2

8. (x + ye y / x )dx − xe y / x dy = 0, y (1) = 0

dy y y
9. − = cosh , y (1) = 0
dx x x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

5 Exact Differential Equations

dy
Let us first rewrite the given differential equation = f ( x, y )
dx
into the alternative form
M ( x, y )
M ( x, y )dx + N ( x, y )dy = 0 where f ( x, y ) = −
N ( x, y )
This equation is an exact differential equation if the following condition is satisfied
∂M ∂N
=
∂y ∂x
This condition of exactness insures the existence of a function F ( x, y ) such that
∂F ∂F
= M ( x, y ) , = N ( x, y )
∂x ∂y
5.1 Method of Solution
If the given equation is exact then the solution procedure consists of the following steps:
∂M ∂N
Step 1. Check that the equation is exact by verifying the condition =
∂y ∂x
∂F
Step 2. Write down the system = M ( x, y ) , ∂F = N ( x, y )
∂x ∂y

Step 3. Integrate either the 1st equation w. r. to x or 2nd w. r. to y. If we choose the 1st

equation then F ( x, y ) = ∫ M ( x, y )dx + θ ( y ) .The function θ ( y ) is an arbitrary

function of y , integration w.r.to x ; y being constant.
Step 4. Use second equation in step 2 and the equation in step 3 to find θ ′( y ) .

∂F ∂
=
∂y ∂y
(∫ M ( x, y)dx)+ θ ′( y) = N ( x, y)
∂
∂y ∫
θ ′( y ) = N ( x, y ) − M ( x, y )dx

Step 5. Integrate to find θ ( y ) and write down the function F (x, y);

Step 6. All the solutions are given by the implicit equation

F ( x, y ) = C
Step 7. If you are given an IVP, plug in the initial condition to find the constant C.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Caution: x should disappear from θ ′( y ) . Otherwise something is wrong!

( )
Example 1 Solve 3 x 2 y + 2 dx + x 3 + y dy = 0 ( )
∂M ∂N
Solution: Here M = 3 x 2 y + 2 and N = x 3 + y ⇒ = 3x 2 , = 3x 2
∂y ∂x

∂M ∂N
∴ = . Hence the equation is exact. The LHS of the equation must be an exact
∂y ∂x

∂f ∂f
differential i.e. ∃ a function f ( x, y ) such that = 3 x 2 y + 2 = M and = x3 + y = N
∂x ∂y

Integrating 1st of these equations w. r. t. x, have f ( x, y ) = x 3 y + 2 x + h( y ),

where h( y ) is the constant of integration. Differentiating the above equation w. r. t. y and

∂f
using 2nd, we obtain = x 3 + h ′( y ) = x 3 + y = N
∂y

y2
Comparing h ′( y ) = y is independent of x or integrating, we have h( y ) =
2

y2
Thus f ( x, y ) = x y + 2 x +
3
.Hence the general solution of the given equation is given
2

y2
by f ( x, y ) = c i.e. x 3 y + 2 x + = c .Note that we could start with the 2nd equation
2

∂f
= x 3 + y = N to reach on the above solution of the given equation!
∂y

Example 2 Solve the initial value problem

(2 y sin x cos x + y 2
) ( )
sin x dx + sin 2 x − 2 y cos x dy = 0. , y (0) = 3.

Solution: Here M = 2 y sin x cos x + y 2 sin x and N = sin 2 x − 2 y cos x

∂M ∂N
= 2 sin x cos x + 2 y sin x, = 2 sin x cos x + 2 y sin x,
∂y ∂x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

∂M ∂N
This implies = Thus given equation is exact.Hence there exists a function
∂y ∂x

∂f ∂f
f ( x, y ) such that = 2 y sin x cos x + y 2 sin x = M and = sin 2 x − 2 y cos x = N
∂x ∂y

Integrating 1st of these w. r. t. x, we have f ( x, y ) = y sin 2 x − y 2 cos x + h( y ),

∂f
Differentiating this equation w. r. t. y substituting in =N
∂y

sin 2 x − 2 y cos x + h ′( y ) = sin 2 x − 2 y cos x And h ′( y ) = 0 or h( y ) = c1

Hence the general solution of the given equation is f ( x, y ) = c 2

i.e. y sin 2 x − y 2 cos x = C , where C = c1 − c 2 . Now applying the initial condition that

when x = 0, y = 3, we have y 2 cos x − y sin 2 x = 9 is the required solution.

( ) (
Example 3: Solve the DE e2 y − y cos xy dx + 2 xe2 y − x cos x y + 2 y dy =
0 )
Solution:The equation is neither separable nor homogenous.

M ( x, y ) = e 2 y − y cos xy  ∂M ∂N
 and = 2e 2 y + xy sin xy − cos xy =
N ( x, y ) = 2 xe 2 y
As
− x cos xy + 2 y  ∂y ∂x
Hence the given equation is exact and a function f ( x, y ) exist for which

∂f ∂f ∂f
M ( x, y ) = and N (x, y ) = which means that = e 2 y − y cos xy and
∂x ∂y ∂x
∂f
= 2 xe 2 y − x cos xy + 2 y .Let us start with the second equation i.e.
∂y
∂f
= 2 xe 2 y − x cos xy + 2 y .Integrating both sides w.r.to y , we obtain
∂y

f ( x, y ) = 2 x ∫ e
2y
dy − x ∫ cos xydy + 2 ∫ ydy . Note that while integrating w.r.to y , x
is treated as constant. Therefore f ( x, y ) = xe − sin xy + y + h( x ) ,
2y 2

∂f
h is an arbitrary function of x . From this equation we obtain and equate it to M
∂x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

∂f
= e 2 y − y cos xy + h ′( x ) = e 2 y − y cos xy .So that h ′( x ) = 0 ⇒ h( x) = C
∂x

Hence one-parameter family of solution is given by xe 2 y − sin xy + y 2 + c = 0

Example 4 Solve 2 xy dx + (x 2
)
− 1 dy = 0

∂M ∂N
Solution: Clearly M (x, y ) = 2 xy and N (x, y ) = x 2 − 1 ⇒ = 2x =
∂y ∂x

∂f ∂f
The equation is exact and ∃ a function f ( x, y ) such that = 2 xy and = x2 −1
∂x ∂y

We integrate first of these equations to obtain. f ( x, y ) = x y + g ( y )

2

∂f
Here g ( y ) is an arbitrary function y . We find and equate it to N ( x, y )
∂y
∂f
= x 2 + g ′( y ) = x 2 − 1 ⇒ g ′( y ) = −1 ⇒ g ( y ) = − y
∂y

Constant of integration need not to be included as the solution is given by f ( x, y ) = c

Hence a one-parameter family of solutions is given by x2 y − y = c

Example 5 Solve the initial value problem

(cos x sin x − xy )dx + y(1 − x )dy = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 2

2 2

M ( x, y ) = cos x. sin x − x y 2 ∂M ∂N

Solution: As  ⇒ = −2 xy =
 N ( x, y ) = y 1− x 2
( ∂y ) ∂x

Therefore the equation is exact and ∃ a function f ( x, y ) such that

∂f ∂f
= cos x . sin x − x y 2 and = y (1 − x 2 ) .Now integrating 2nd of these equations
∂x ∂y

w.r.t. ‘ y ’ keeping ‘ x ’constant, we obtain f ( x, y ) =

y2
2
( )
1 − x 2 + h( x )

Differentiate w.r.t. ‘ x ’ and equate the result to M ( x, y )

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

∂f
= − xy 2 + h ′( x ) = cos x sin x − xy 2 ⇒ h ′( x ) = cos x sin x
∂x

x , we obtain h(x ) = − ∫ (cos x )(− sin x )dx = − cos 2 x

1
Integrating w.r.to
2
Thus a one parameter family solutions of the given differential equation is

y2
2
( 1
) ( )
1 − x 2 − cos 2 x = c1 ⇒ y 1 − x − cos x = c ,where 2c1 has been
2
2 2 2

replaced by C . The initial condition y = 2 when x = 0 demand, that 4(1) − cos 2 (0 ) = c so

that c = 3 . Thus the solution of the initial value problem is ( )
y 2 1 − x 2 − cos 2 x = 3
5.2 Exercise
Determine whether the given equations is exact. If so, please solve.

1. (sin y − y sin x )dx + (cos x + x cos y )dy = 0

 y
2. 1 + ln x + dx = (1 − ln x )dy
 x

3. (y ln y − e )dx +  1y + ln y dy = 0

− xy

 

 1  dy y
4.  2 y − + cos 3 x  + 2 − 4 x 3 + 3 y sin 3 x = 0
 x  dx x

1 1 y   x 
5.  + 2 − 2 dx +  ye y + 2 dy = 0
x x
2 
x +y   x + y 2 

6. Solve the given differential equations subject to indicated initial conditions.

7. (e x
) ( )
+ y dx + 2 + x + ye y dy = 0, y (0) = 1

 3 y 2 − x 2  dy x
8.  5
 + 4 = 0, y (1) = 1
 y  dx 2 y

 1  dy
9.  + cos x − 2 xy  = y ( y + sin x), y(0) = 1
1+ y
2
 dx

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

10. Find the value of k, so that the given differential equation is exact.
( 2 xy3 − y sin xy + ky 4 ) dx − ( 20 x3 + x sin xy ) dy =
0

( ) ( )
11. 6 xy 3 + cos y dx − kx 2 y 2 − x sin y dy = 0

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

6 Integrating Factor Technique

If the equation M ( x, y )dx + N ( x, y )dy = 0 is not exact, then we must have
∂M ∂N
≠ .Therefore, we look for a function u (x, y) such that the equation
∂y ∂x
u ( x, y ) M ( x, y )dx + u ( x, y ) N ( x, y )dy = 0 becomes exact. The function u (x, y)
(if it exists) is called the integrating factor (IF) and it satisfies the equation due to the
condition of exactness.
∂M ∂u ∂N ∂u
u+ M = u+ N
∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x
This is a partial differential equation and is very difficult to solve. Consequently, the
determination of the integrating factor is extremely difficult except for some special
cases:
Example Show that 1 /( x 2 + y 2 ) is an integrating factor for the equation

(x 2
)
+ y 2 − x dx − ydy = 0, and then solve the equation.

∂M ∂N ∂M ∂N
Solution: Since M = x 2 + y 2 − x, N =− y ⇒ = 2 y, =0 ⇒ ≠
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

and the equation is not exact. However, if the equation is multiplied by 1 /( x 2 + y 2 ) then

 x  y
the equation becomes 1 − 2 dx − 2
2 
dy = 0
 x +y  x + y2

x y ∂M 2 xy ∂N
Now M = 1 − and N =− ⇒ = =
x +y
2 2
x +y
2 2 ∂y (x2 + y2 )
2 ∂x

So that this new equation is exact. The equation can be solved. However, it is simpler to
observe that the given equation can also written

dx −
xdx + ydy
=0 or
1
[ ] 
dx − d ln( x 2 + y 2 ) = 0 or d  x −
(
ln x 2 + y 2 
=0
)
x2 + y2 2  2 

Hence, by integration, we have x − ln x 2 + y 2 = k

6.1 Case 1
When ∃ an integrating factor u (x), a function of x only. This happens if the expression

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

∂M ∂N
−
∂y ∂x
is a function of x only. Then the integrating factor u ( x, y ) is given by
N
 ∂M ∂N 
⌠ − 
∂ ∂
u = exp  dx 
y x
 N 
 ⌡ 
 
6.2 Case 2
When ∃ an integrating factor u ( y ) , a function of y only. This happens if the expression
∂N ∂M
−
∂x ∂y
is a function of y only. Then IF u ( x, y ) is given b
M
 ∂N ∂M 
⌠ − 
 ∂ ∂y
dy 
x
u = exp 
 M 
⌡ 
 
6.3 Case 3
1
If the given equation is homogeneous and xM + yN ≠ 0 Then u =
xM + yN
6.4 Case 4
If the given equation is of the form yf ( xy )dx + xg ( xy )dy = 0
and xM − yN ≠ 0 Then u =
1
xM − yN

Once the IF is found, we multiply the old equation by u to get a new one, which is exact.
Solve the exact equation and write the solution.
Advice: If possible, we should check whether or not the new equation is exact?
Summary:
Step 1. Write the given equation in the form
M ( x, y )dx + N ( x, y )dy = 0
provided the equation is not already in this form and determine M and N .
Step 2. Check for exactness of the equation by finding whether or not

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

∂M ∂N
=
∂y ∂x
Step 3. (a) If the equation is not exact, then evaluate
∂M ∂N
−
∂y ∂x
N
If this expression is a function of x only, then
 ∂M ∂N 
⌠ − 
 ∂y ∂x 
u ( x) = exp  dx
 N 
⌡ 
 
Otherwise, evaluate
∂N ∂M
−
∂x ∂y
M
If this expression is a function of y only, then
 ∂N ∂M 
⌠ − 
∂x ∂y
u ( y ) = exp  dy 
 M 
⌡ 
 
In the absence of these 2 possibilities, better use some other technique. However, we
could also try cases 3 and 4 in step 4 and 5
Step 4. Test whether the equation is homogeneous and
xM + yN ≠ 0
1
If yes then u=
xM + yN

Step 5. Test whether the equation is of the form

yf ( xy )dx + xg ( xy )dy = 0
and whether xM − yN ≠ 0
1
If yes then u=
xM − yN

Step 6. Multiply old equation by u. if possible, check whether or not the new equation is
exact?
Step 7. Solve the new equation using steps described in the previous section.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy 3 xy + y 2
=− 2
Example 1 Solve the differential equation
dx x + xy
Solution:
1. The given differential equation can be written in form

(3 xy + y 2 )dx + ( x 2 + xy )dy = 0
Therefore
M ( x, y ) = 3 xy + y 2

N ( x, y ) = x 2 + xy

∂M ∂N
2. Now = 3x + 2 y , = 2x + y .
∂y ∂x

∂M ∂N
∴ ≠
∂y ∂x
3. To find an IF we evaluate

∂M ∂N
−
∂y ∂x 1
=
N x
which is a function of x only.
4.Therefore, an IF u (x) exists and is given by
⌠ 1 dx

u ( x) = e ⌡x
= e ln( x ) = x
5. Multiplying the given equation with the IF, we obtain
(3 x 2 y + xy 2 )dx + ( x 3 + x 2 y )dy = 0
which is exact. (Please check!)

6. This step consists of solving this last exact differential equation.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Solution of new exact equation:

∂M ∂N
1. Since = 3 x 2 + 2 xy = , the equation is exact.
∂y ∂x
2. We find F (x, y) by solving the system
 ∂F
 = 3 x 2 y + xy 2
 ∂x
 ∂F
 = x 3 + x 2 y.

 ∂y
3. We integrate the first equation to get

x2 2
F ( x, y ) = x y +3
y + θ ( y)
2

4. We differentiate F w. r. t. ‘y’ and use the second equation of the system in step 2 to
obtain

∂F
= x 3 + x 2 y + θ ′( y ) = x 3 + x 2 y
∂y
⇒ θ ′ = 0 , No dependence on x.
5. Integrating the last equation to obtain θ =C . Therefore, the function F ( x, y ) is
x2 2
F ( x, y ) = x 3 y +
y
2
We don't have to keep the constant C, see next step.

6. All the solutions are given by the implicit equation F ( x, y ) = C i.e.

3 x2 y 2
x y+ =
C
2

Note that it can be verified that the function

1
u ( x, y ) =
2 xy (2 x + y )
is another integrating factor for the same equation as the new equation
1 1
(3 xy + y 2 )dx + ( x 2 + xy )dy =
0
2 xy (2 x + y ) 2 xy (2 x + y )

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

is exact. This means that we may not have uniqueness of the integrating factor.
( )
Example 2. Solve x 2 − 2 x + 2 y 2 dx + 2 xydy = 0

M = x 2 − 2x + 2 y 2 ∂M ∂N ∂M ∂N
Solution: ⇒ = 4 y, = 2y ⇒ ∴ ≠
N = 2 xy ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

M y − Nx 4y − 2y 1
The equation is not exact .Here = =
N 2 xy x

 1 
Therefore, I.F. is given by u = exp ∫ dx  ⇒ u = x
 x 

Multiplying the equation by I.F = x, we have

(x 3
)
− 2 x 2 + 2 xy 2 dx + 2 x 2 ydy = 0 .This equation is exact. The required Solution is

x 4 2x3
− + x 2 y 2 = c0 ⇒ 3 x 4 − 8 x 3 + 12 x 2 y 2 = c
4 3

x 
Example 3 Solve dx +  − sin y dy = 0
y 

Solution: Here

x
M = 1, N= − sin y
y
∂M ∂N 1
= 0, =
∂y ∂x y
∂M ∂N
∴ ≠
∂y ∂x

The equation is not exact.

Now

1
−0
Nx − M y y 1
= =
M 1 y

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
Therefore, the IF is u ( y ) = exp ∫ =y
y

Multiplying the equation by y, we have

ydx + ( x − y sin y )dy = 0

or ydx + xdy − y sin ydy = 0

or d ( xy ) − y sin ydy = 0

Integrating, we have

xy + y cos y − sin y = c

Which is the required solution

Example 4

Solve (x 2
) ( )
y − 2 xy 2 dx − x 3 − 3 x 2 y dy = 0

Solution: Comparing with

Mdx + Ndy = 0

we see that

x 2 y − 2 xy 2 and
M= −( x3 − 3 x 2 y )
N=
Since both M and N are homogeneous. Therefore, the given equation is homogeneous.
Now

xM + yN = x 3 y − 2 x 2 y 2 − x 3 y + 3 x 2 y 2 = x 2 y 2 ≠ 0
Hence, the factor u is given by

1 1
u= u =
x2 y2 xM + yN
Multiplying the given equation with the integrating factor u , we obtain.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 1 2  x 3
 − dx −  2 − dy = 0
 y x y y 


Now
1 2 −x 3
M = − and N= +
y x y2 y
and therefore
∂M 1 ∂N
=− 2 =
∂y y ∂x

Therefore, the new equation is exact and solution of this new equation is given by
x
− 2 ln | x | +3 ln | y |= C
y

Example 5

Solve ( ) ( )
y xy + 2 x 2 y 2 dx + x xy − x 2 y 2 dy = 0
Solution:
The given equation is of the form
yf ( xy )dx + xg ( xy )dy = 0
Now comparing with

Mdx + Ndy = 0
We see that

(
M = y xy + 2 x 2 y 2 ) and (
N = x xy − x 2 y 2 )
Further

xM − yN = x 2 y 2 + 2 x 3 y 3 − x 2 y 2 + x 3 y 3
= 3x 3 y 3 ≠ 0
Therefore, the integrating factor u is

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

1 1
u= , u =
3x3 y 3 xM − yN
Now multiplying the given equation by the integrating factor, we obtain

1 1 2 1 1 1
 2 + dx +  2 − dy = 0
3 x y x 3  xy y

Therefore, solutions of the given differential equation are given by

1
− + 2 ln | x | − ln | y |= C
xy

where 3C0 =C

6.5 Exercise
Solve by finding an I.F
1. xdy − ydx =( x 2 + y 2 ) dx

y − sin x
2. dy + dx = 0
x
3. (y + 2 y )dx + (xy + 2 y − 4 x )dy = 0
4 3 4

4. (x + y )dx + 2 xydy = 0
2 2

5. (4 x + 3 y )dx + 2 xydy = 0
2

6. (3x y + 2 xy )dx + (2 x y )dy = 0

2 4 3 3

dy
7. = e2x + y − 1
dx
8. (3xy + y )dx + (x + xy )dy = 0
2 2

9. ydx + (2 xy − e )dy = 0
−2 y

10. ( x + 2 )sin ydx + x cos ydy = 0

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

7 First Order Linear Equations

The differential equation of the form:
dy
a( x) + b( x ) y = c ( x )
dx
is a linear differential equation of first order. The equation can be rewritten in the
following famous form.
dy
+ p ( x) y = q( x)
dx
where p (x) and q (x) are continuous functions.

7.1 Method of solution

The general solution of the first order linear differential equation is given by
∫ u ( x)q ( x)dx + C
y=
u ( x)
Where u ( x) = exp(∫ p ( x) dx )
The function u (x) is called the integrating factor. If it is an IVP then use it to find the
constant C.

Summary:

1. Identify that the equation is 1st order linear equation. Rewrite it in the form

dy
+ p( x) y = q( x)
dx
if the equation is not already in this form.
2. Find the integrating factor

u ( x) = e ∫
p ( x ) dx

3. Write down the general solution

y=
∫ u ( x)q( x)dx + C
u ( x)
4. If you are given an IVP, use the initial condition to find the constant C.

5. Plug in the calculated value to write the particular solution of the problem.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 1:
Solve the initial value problem
y ′ + tan( x) y = cos 2 ( x), y (0) = 2
Solution:
1.The equation is already in the standard form
dy
+ p( x) y = q( x)
dx
with
 p ( x) = tan x

 q(x) = cos x
2

2. Since
∫ tan x dx = − ln cos x = ln sec x

Therefore, the integrating factor is given by

u ( x) = e ∫ tan x dx = sec x

3. Further, because

∫ sec x cos x dx = ∫ cos x dx = sin x

2

So that the general solution is given by

sin x + C
y= = (sin x + C ) cos x
sec x

4. We use the initial condition y (0) = 2 to find the value of the constant C
y (0) = C = 2

5. Therefore the solution of the initial value problem is

y = (sin x + 2 ) cos x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy 2t 2
Example 2: Solve the IVP − y= , y (0) = 0.4
dt 1 + t 2
1+ t 2
Solution:
1.The given equation is a 1st order linear and is already in the requisite form
dy
+ p( x) y = q( x)
dx
 2t
 p (t ) = − 1 + t 2
with  2
q (t ) =
 1+ t2
⌠ 2t 
2. Since  − 2 
dt = − ln | 1 + t 2 |
⌡  1+ t 
Therefore, the integrating factor is given by
⌠ 2t
− dt
u (t ) = e ⌡ 1+ t 2
= (1 + t 2 ) −1
3. Hence, the general solution is given by

∫ u (t )q(t )dt + C , ⌠ 2
y=
u (t ) ∫ u (t ) q (t ) dt = 
⌡ (1 + t )
2 2
dt

⌠ 2 ⌠ 1+ t 2 − t 2 ⌠ 1 t2 
Now  dt = 2  (1 + t 2 ) 2 dt = 2   1 + t 2 (1 + t 2 ) 2 dt
 −
⌡ (1 + t ) ⌡
2 2
⌡ 
The first integral is clearly tan −1 t . For the 2nd we will use integration by parts
with t as first function and 2t
(1 + t 2 ) 2
as 2nd function.

⌠ 2t 2  1  ⌠ 1 t
 (1 + t 2 ) 2 dt = t  − 1 + t 2  +  dt = − + tan −1 (t )
⌡   ⌡ 1+ t 1+ t
2 2

⌠ 2 −1 t −1 −1 t
 dt = 2 tan (t ) + − tan (t ) = tan (t ) +
⌡ (1 + t ) 1+ t2 1+ t2
2 2

2  t 
The general solution is: y = (1 + t )  tan (t ) + + C
-1

 1+ t 2

4. The condition y (0) = 0.4 gives C = 0.4
5. Therefore, solution to the initial value problem can be written as:
y = t + (1 + t 2 ) tan −1 (t ) + 0.4(1 + t 2 )

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 3:

Find the solution to the problem

cos 2 t sin t . y′ = − cos 3 t . y + 1 , y π  = 0

4
Solution:
1. The equation is 1st order linear and is not in the standard form
dy
+ p( x) y = q( x)
dx
Therefore we rewrite the equation as
cos t 1
y′ + y= 2
sin t cos t sin t
2. Hence, the integrating factor is given by
cos t
⌠


dt
sin t ln | sin t |
u (t ) = e ⌡
=e = sin t

3. Therefore, the general solution is given by

⌠ sin t 1
dt + C

y= ⌡ cos 2
t sin t
sin t
Since
⌠ sin t 1
dt = ⌠
1
dt = tan t
 
⌡ 2
cos t sin t ⌡ cos 2 t

Therefore
tan t + C 1 C
y= = + = sec t + C csc t
sin t cos t sin t

(1) The initial condition y (π / 4) = 0 implies

2 +C 2 = 0
which gives C = −1 .
(2) Therefore, the particular solution to the initial value problem is
y = sec t − csc t

Example 4 Solve ( x + 2 y ) dy
3

dx
=
y

dy y
Solution: We have =
dx x + 2 y 3

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

This equation is not linear in y . Let us regard x as dependent variable and y as

dx x + 2 y 3
independent variable. The equation may be written as =
dy y
dx 1
Or − x = 2 y 2 , which is linear in .
dy y

⌠  1    1 1
IF = exp   − dy  = exp ln  =
⌡  y    y y

1 d x
Multiplying with the IF = , we get 1 dx − 12 x = 2 y ⇒   = 2y
y y dy y dy  y 

Integrating, we have
x
y
= y2 + c ⇒ (
x = y y2 + c ) is the required solution.

Example 5 Solve ( x − 1) + 4( x − 1)2 y = x + 1

3 dy
dx

Solution: The equation can be rewritten as dy + 4 y = x + 1

dx x −1 (x − 1)3
4
Here P( x ) = . Therefore, an integrating factor of the given equation is
x −1
 4dx 
IF = exp ⌠
 
⌡ x − 1 
[
= exp ln(x − 1) = (x − 1)
4
]
4

Multiplying the given equation by the IF,we get ( x − 1) + 4( x − 1)3 y = x 2 − 1

4 dy
dx

[ ]
3
x
y (x − 1)4 = x 2 − 1 . Integrating both sides, we obtain y ( x − 1) =
d
−x+c
4
⇒
dx 3
which is the required solution.
7.2 Exercise
Solve the following differential equations

dy  2 x + 1  −2 x
1. + y = e
dx  x 

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
2. + 3 y = 3 x 2 e −3 x
dx

+ (1 + x cot x ) y = x
dy
3. x
dx

4. (x + 1) dy − ny = e x (x + 1)n+1
dx

5. (1 + x ) dy
2
+ 4 xy =
1
dx (1 + x ) 2 2

dr
6. + r secθ = cosθ
dθ

dy 1 − e −2 x
7. +y= x
dx e + e −x

(
8. dx = 3e y − 2 x dy )

Solve the initial value problems

9.
dy
dx
(
= 2 y + x e3x − e 2 x , ) y (0 ) = 2

10. x(2 + x ) + 2(1 + x ) y = 1 + 3 x 2 , y (− 1) = 1

dy
dx

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

8 Bernoulli Equations
A differential equation that can be written in the form
dy
+ p( x) y = q( x) y n
dx
is called Bernoulli equation.
8.1 Method of solution
For n = 0,1 the equation reduces to 1st order linear DE and can be solved accordingly.

For n ≠ 0,1 we divide the equation with y n to write it in the form

dy
y −n + p ( x) y1−n = q ( x)
dx
and then put

v = y 1− n
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’, we obtain

v ′ = (1 − n) y − n y ′
Therefore the equation becomes
dv
+ (1 − n) p ( x)v = (1 − n)q ( x)
dx

This is a linear equation satisfied by v . Once it is solved, you will obtain the function
1
(1− n )
y=v
If n > 1 , then we add the solution y = 0 to the solutions found the above technique.
Summary
1.Identify the equation
dy
+ p( x) y = q( x) y n
dx
as Bernoulli equation.
Find n. If n ≠ 0,1 divide by y n and substitute;

v = y 1− n

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

2. Through easy differentiation, find the new equation

dv
+ (1 − n) p ( x)v = (1 − n)q ( x)
dx

3. This is a linear equation. Solve the linear equation to find v.

1
(1− n )
4. Go back to the old function y through the substitution y=v .

6. If n > 1 , then include y = 0 to in the solution.

7. If you have an IVP, use the initial condition to find the particular solution.

dy
Example 1: Solve the equation = y + y3
dx
Solution:
1. The given differential can be written as
dy
− y = y3
dx
which is a Bernoulli equation with
p ( x) = −1, q ( x) = 1 , n=3.
Dividing with y 3 we get

dy
y −3 − y −2 = 1
dx
Therefore we substitute

v = y 1−3 = y −2

2. Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’ we have

dy 1  dv 
y −3 =−  
dx 2  dx 
So that the equation reduces to

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dv
+ 2v = −2
dx

3. This is a linear equation. To solve this we find the integrating factor u (x)

u ( x) = e ∫
2 dx
= e2 x
The solution of the linear equation is given by

∫ u ( x)q( x)dx + c = ∫ e (− 2)dx + c

2x

v=
u ( x) e2x

Since ∫ e 2 x (−2)dx = −e 2 x
Therefore, the solution for v is given by

− e2 x + C
v= 2x
= Ce −2 x − 1
e
4. To go back to y we substitute v = y − 2 . Therefore the general solution of the given
DE is

( )
1
−
y = ± Ce − 2 x − 1 2

5. Since n > 1 , we include the y = 0 in the solutions. Hence, all solutions are
−1
y = 0, y = ±(Ce −2 x − 1) 2

Example 2:
dy 1
Solve + y = xy 2
dx x

Solution: In the given equation we identify P( x ) = , q( x ) = x and n = 2 .

1
x
Thus the substitution w = y gives
−1

dw 1
− w = − x.
dx x
The integrating factor for this linear equation is

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

−⌠
dx
 − ln x
−1
⌡ = x −1
ln x
e x =e =e

Hence
d −1
dx
[
x w = −1. ]
Integrating this latter form, we get

x −1w = − x + c or w = − x 2 + cx.
−1 1
Since w = y , we obtain y = or
w
1
y=
− x 2 + cx
For n > 0 the trivial solution y = 0 is a solution of the given equation. In this example,
y = 0 is a singular solution of the given equation.
Example 3
Solve: dy xy
1 (1)
+ = xy 2
dx 1 − x 2
1
Solution: Dividing (1) by y2 , the given equation becomes
−1 1
dy x
y 2
+ y2 = x (2)
dx 1 − x 2

1 1
1 − dy dv
Put y2 = v or. y 2 =
2 dx dx
Then (2) reduces to
dv x x
+ v=
dx 2 1 − x 2
( 2 ) (3)

This is linear in v .

−1
⌠
I.F = exp 
x 
=  − 1 ln (1 − 2 ) = (1 − 2 ) 4
⌡ 2(1 − x ) 
2
dx  exp  4 x  x

−1
Multiplying (3) by 1 − ( x )
2 4
, we get

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

−1
(1 − ) x 2 4 dv
+
x
v=
x
(
dx 2 1 − x 2 )5/ 4
(
2 1 − x2 )
1/ 4

−1  −1 
d  −1
or
dx 
(
1− x
2
)4 v = − 2 x 1 − x(2
)
4 
 4  

Integrating, we have

( )
3
−1
( ) −1 1− 2 4
x
v1− x 2 4
= +c
4 3/ 4

or (
v = c 1− x )
2 1/ 4
−
1 − x2
3

( )
1
1/ 4 1 − x2
or y2 = c 1 − x2 −
3
is the required solution.
8.2 Exercise
Solve the following differential equations

dy
1. x + y = y 2 ln x
dx

dy
2. + y = xy 3
dx

dy
3. − y = ex y2
dx

4.
dy
dx
(
= y xy 3 − 1 )
dy
5. x − (1 + x ) y = xy 2
dx

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
6. x2 + y 2 = xy
dx

Solve the initial-value problems

dy 1
7. x2 − 2 xy = 3 y 4 , y (1) =
dx 2

y (0 ) = 4
dy
8. y1 / 2 + y 3 / 2 = 1,
dx

9. (
xy 1 + xy 2 ) dy
dx
= 1, y (1) = 0

dy y x
10. 2 = − 2, y (1) = 1
dx x y

8.3 Substitutions
 Sometimes a differential equation can be transformed by means of a substitution
into a form that could then be solved by one of the standard methods i.e. Methods
used to solve separable, homogeneous, exact, linear, and Bernoulli’s differential
equation.
 An equation may look different from any of those that we have studied in the
previous lectures, but through a sensible change of variables perhaps an
apparently difficult problem may be readily solved.
 Although no firm rules can be given on the basis of which these substitution could
be selected, a working axiom might be: Try something! It sometimes pays to be
clever.
Example 1

The differential equation y (1 + 2 xy )dx + x(1 − 2 xy )dy = 0

is not separable, not homogeneous, not exact, not linear, and not Bernoulli.
However, if we stare at the equation long enough, we might be prompted to try the
substitution

u
u = 2 xy or y=
2x
xdu − udx
Since dy =
2x 2

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

The equation becomes, after we simplify 2u 2 dx + (1 − u )xdu = 0.

we obtain 2 ln x − u −1 − ln u = c

x 1
ln =c+
2y 2 xy

x
= c1e1 / 2 xy ,
2y

x = 2c1 ye1 / 2 xy , where e c was replaced by c1 . We can also replace 2c1 by c 2 if

desired
Note: The differential equation in the example possesses the trivial solution y = 0 , but
then this function is not included in the one-parameter family of solution.
Example 2
Solve
dy
2 xy + 2 y 2 = 3 x − 6.
dx
Solution:
dy
prompts us to try u = y
2
The presence of the term 2y
dx
du dy
Since = 2y
dx dx
du
Therefore, the equation becomes: x + 2u = 3 x − 6
dx

du 2 6
or + u = 3−
dx x x
This equation has the form of 1st order linear differential equation
dy
+ P( x) y = Q( x)
dx
2 6
with P( x) = and Q( x) = 3 −
x x
Therefore, the integrating factor of the equation is given by

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

⌠ 2 dx

= e ln x = x 2
2
⌡x
I.F = e
Multiplying with the IF gives
d 2
dx
[ ]
x u = 3x 2 − 6 x

Integrating both sides, we obtain

x 2 u = x 3 − 3x 2 + c or x 2 y 2 = x 3 − 3 x 2 + c.
Example 3
Solve

dy x3 y / x
x −y= e
dx y
Solution:

If we let y
u=
x
Then the given differential equation can be simplified to

ue − u du = dx
Integrating both sides, we have
− u du = dx
∫ ue ∫

Using the integration by parts on LHS, we have

− ue − u − e − u = x + c
or

u + 1 = (c1 − x )eu Where c1=-c

We then re-substitute

y
u=
x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

and simplify to obtain

y + x = x(c1 − x ) e y / x
Example 4
Solve
2
d2y  dy 
= 2 x  
dx 2  dx 
Solution:
If we let

u = y′
Then
du / dx = y ′′
Then, the equation reduces to
du
= 2 xu 2
dx
Which is separable form. Separating the variables, we obtain
du
2
= 2 xdx
u
Integrating both sides yields
− 2 du = 2 xdx
∫u ∫
or − u −1 = x 2 + c12
The constant is written as c12 for convenience.

Since u −1 = 1 / y ′
dy 1
Therefore =− 2
dx x + c12

dx
or dy = −
x 2 + c12

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

⌠ dx
∫ dy = −⌡ x 2 + c 2
1

1 x
y + c2 = − tan −1
c1 c1
8.4 Exercise
Solve the differential equations by using an appropriate substitution.

1.
ydx + (1 + ye x )dy = 0

2.
(2 + e −x / y
)dx + 2(1 − x / y ) dy = 0
3. dy
2 x csc 2 y = 2 x − ln (tan y )
dx
4. dy
+ 1 = sin x e −( x + y )
dx
5. dy
y + 2 x ln x = xe y
dx
6. dy
x2 + 2 xy = x 4 y 2 + 1
dx
7. dy
xe y − 2e y = x 2
dx

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

9 Solved Problems
x2 + y 2
Example 1: y'=
xy
dy x2 + y 2
Solution: =
dx xy
dy dw
put y= wx then = w+ x
dx dx
dw x 2 + w2 x 2 1 + w2
w + x= =
dx xxw w
dw 1
w+ x =+ w
dx w
dx
wdw =
x
Integrating
w2
= ln x + ln c
2
y2
2
= ln | xc |
2x
y 2 = 2 x 2 ln | xc |

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy (2 xy - y )
Example 2: =
dx x
dy (2 xy - y )
Solution: =
dx x
put y = wx
dw (2 xwx - xw)
w+ x =
dx x
dw
w+ x = 2 w-w
dx
dw
x = 2 w - 2w
dx
dw dx
=
2( w - w) x
dw dx
∫ 2( w - w)
=∫
x
dw dx
∫ 2 w (1- w ) = ∫ x
put w =t
1 dx
We get ∫ dt = ∫
1- t x
- ln =
|1- t | ln | x | + ln | c |
- ln |1- t |= ln | xc |
(1- t )-1 = xc
(1- w )-1 = xc
(1- y/x )-1 =xc

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 3: (2 y 2 x − 3) dx + (2 yx 2 + 4) dy =
0
Solution:(2 y 2 x - 3) dx + (2 yx 2 + 4) dy =
0
Here= M (2 y 2 x - 3) and =N (2 yx 2 + 4)
∂M ∂N
= 4= xy
∂y ∂x
∂f ∂f
= (2 y 2 x - 3) and = (2 yx 2 + 4)
∂x ∂y
Integrate w.r.t. ' x '
=f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 - 3 x + h( y )
Differentiate w.r.t. ' y '
¶ f
= 2 x 2 y + h '( y=) 2 x 2 y +=
4 N
¶y
h '( y ) = 4
Integrate w.r.t. 'y'
h(y)=4y+c
x 2 y 2 -3x+4y=C1
2
dy 2 xye( x / y )
Example 4: = 2
dx y + y 2 e( x / y ) + 2 x 2 e( x / y )
2 2

dx y 2 + y 2 e( x / y ) + 2 x 2 e( x / y )
2 2

Solution: = 2
dy 2 xye( x / y )
put x / y = w
After subsitution
dw 1 + e w
2

y = 2
dy 2 we w
2
dy 2 we w
= 2 dw
y 1 + ew
Integrating
ln | y |= ln |1 + e w | + ln c
2

=
ln | y | ln | c(1 + e w ) |
2

=
y c(1 + e( x / y ) )
2

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy y 3x 2
Example 5:+ =
dx x ln x ln x
dy y 3x 2
Solution: + =
dx x ln x ln x
dy 1 3x 2
+ y=
dx x ln x ln x
1 3x 2
= p( x) = and q ( x)
x ln x ln x
1
=I .F exp(= ∫ x ln x dx) ln x
Multiply both side by ln x
dy 1
ln x + y = 3x 2
dx x
d
( y ln x) = 3 x 2
dx
Integrate
3x3
y ln=
x +c
3

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 6: ( y 2 e x + 2 xy ) dx - x 2 dy =
0
Solution:Here M = y 2 e x + 2 xy N=
-x2
∂M ∂N
=2ye x +2x, =-2x
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
Clearly ≠
∂y ∂x
The given equation is not exact.
divide the equation by y 2 to make it exact
 x 2x   x2 
 e + y  dx +  - y 2  dy =
0
   
∂M 2x ∂N
Now =- 2 =
∂y y ∂x
Equation is exact

∂f  x 2x  ∂f  x 2 
= - 
∂x  y 
= e +
∂y  y 2 
Integrate w.r.t. 'x'
x2x
f(x,y)=e +
y
x x2
e + =c
y

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 7:
dy
x cos x + y ( x sin x + cos x) = 1
dx
dy
Solution: x cos x + y ( x sin x + cos x) =
1
dx
dy  x sin x + cos x  1
+ y  =
dx  x cos x  x cos x
dy 1
+ y [ tan x + 1 / x ] =
dx x cos x
I .F= exp( ∫ (tan x + 1 / x)dx
= ) x sec x
dy x sec x
x sec x + yx sec x [ tan x + 1 / x ] =
dx x cos x
dy
x sec x + y [ x sec x tan x + sec x ] =sec 2 x
dx
d
[ xy sec x ] = sec2 x
dx
=
xy sec x tan x + c

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy ln x
Example 8: xe 2 y + e2 y =
dx x
dy ln x
Solution: xe 2 y + e2 y =
dx x
put e 2 y = u
dy du
2e 2 y =
dx dx
x du ln x
+u =
2 dx x
du 2 ln x
+ u= 2 2
dx x x
ln x
=
Here p ( x) 2=
/ x And Q ( x)
x2
2
= = ∫x
2
I .F exp( dx ) x

du
x2 + 2 xu = 2 ln x
dx
d
( x 2u ) = 2 ln x
dx
Integrate
x 2u =2[xlnx-x]+c
=
x 2 e 2 y 2[ x ln x - x] + c

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
Example 9: + y ln y = ye x
dx
dy
Solution: + y ln y = ye x
dx
1 dy
+ ln y =ex
y dx
put ln y = u
du
+u = ex
dx

I=.F . ∫
e=
dx
ex
d
(e x u ) = e 2 x
dx
Integrate
e2 x
e= x
.u +c
2
e2 x
e ln=
x
y +c
2

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
Example 10: 2 x csc 2 y = 2 x - ln tan y
dx
dy
Solution:2 x csc 2 y = 2 x - ln tan y
dx
put ln tan y = u
dy du
= sin y cos y
dx dx
2 x sin y cos y du
= 2x - u
2sin y cos y dx
du
x = 2x - u
dx
du 1
+ u= 2
dx x
= =
I .F exp( ∫ 1/ xdx) x
du
x +u = 2x
dx
d
( xu ) = 2 x
dx
= x2 + c
xu
u= x + cx -1
ln tan y= x + cx -1

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
Example 11: + x + y + 1 = ( x + y ) 2 e3 x
dx
dy
Solution: + x + y + 1 = ( x + y ) 2 e3 x
dx
Put x + y =u
du
+u = u 2 e3 x
dx
du
+u = u 2 e3 x (Bernouli's)
dx
1 du 1
2
+ = e3 x
u dx u
put1 / u = w
dw
- +w= e3 x
dx
dw
- w = -e3 x
dx
= = ∫ -dx) e
-x
I .F exp(
dw
e- x - we- x = -e 2 x
dx
d
(e- x w) = -e 2 x
dx
Integrate
-e 2 x
e=
w-x
+c
2
1 -e3 x
= + ce x
u 2
1 -e3 x
= + ce x
x+ y 2

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
Example 12: = (4 x + y + 1) 2
dx
dy
Solution: = (4 x + y + 1) 2
dx
put 4 x + y + 1 = u
we get
du
- 4 = u2
dx
du
= u2 + 4
dx
1
du = dx
u +4
2

Integrate
1 -1 u
tan = x+c
2 2
-1 u
tan = 2 x + c1
2
=u 2 tan(2 x + c1 )
4 x +=
y + 1 2 tan(2 x + c1 )

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
Example 13: ( x + y ) 2 =
a2
dx
dy
Solution :( x + y ) 2 =
a2
dx
put x + y =u
du
u2 ( -1) = a 2
dx
du
u2 - u2 = a2
dx
u2
du = dx
u2 + a2
Integrate
u2 + a2 - a2
∫ u 2 + a 2 du = ∫ dx
a2
∫ (1- u 2 + a 2 )du = ∫ dx
u
u - a tan -1 = x + c
a
x+ y
( x + y ) - a tan -1 =x+c
a

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
Example 14 : 2 y + x2 + y 2 + x =0
dx
dy
Solution : 2 y + x2 + y 2 + x =0
dx
put x 2 + y 2 =u
du
- 2x + u + x = 0
dx
du
+u = x
dx
= =
I .F Exp ( ∫ dx) e x
du
ex + ue x =
xe x
dx
d x
(e u ) = xe x
dx
Integrating
=
e x u xe x - e x + c

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 15 : y '+ 1 =e-( x + y ) sin x

Solution : y '+ 1 =e-( x + y ) sin x
put x + y = u
du
= e-u sin x
dx
1
-u
du = sin xdx
e
eu du = sin xdx
Integrate
=eu - cos x + c
=u ln | - cos x + c |
=
x + y ln | - cos x + c |

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 16 : x 4 y 2 y '+ x 3 y 3 =
2 x3 - 3
Solution : x 4 y 2 y '+ x 3 y 3 =
2 x3 - 3
put x 3 y 3 = u
dy du
3x 2 y 3 + 3x3 y 2 =
dx dx
dy du
3x3 y 2 = - 3x 2 y 3
dx dx
dy x du
x4 y 2 = - x3 y 3
dx 3 dx
x du
= 2 x3 - 3
3 dx
du
= 6x2 - 9 / x
dx
Integrate
=u 2 x 3 - 9 ln x + c
=
x3 y 3 2 x 3 - 9 ln x + c

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example 17:Solve cos( x + y )dy = dx

Solution:cos( x + y )dy = dx
dy dv
put x += y v or 1 + = , we get
dx dx
dv
cos v[ -1] = 1
dx
cos v 1
=dx = dv [1- ]dv
1 + cos v 1 + cos v
1 v
dx = [1- sec 2 ]dv
2 2
Integrate
v
x+c = v - tan
2
x+ y
x+c = v - tan
2

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

10 Applications of First Order Differential Equations

In order to translate a physical phenomenon in terms of mathematics, we strive for a
set of equations that describe the system adequately. This set of equations is called a
Model for the phenomenon. The basic steps in building such a model consist of the
following steps:

Step 1: We clearly state the assumptions on which the model will be based. These
assumptions should describe the relationships among the quantities to be studied.
Step 2: Completely describe the parameters and variables to be used in the model.
Step 3: Use the assumptions (from Step 1) to derive mathematical equations relating the
parameters and variables (from Step 2).
The mathematical models for physical phenomenon often lead to a differential equation
or a set of differential equations. The applications of the differential equations we will
discuss in next two lectures include:

 Orthogonal Trajectories.
 Population dynamics.
 Radioactive decay.
 Newton’s Law of cooling.
 Carbon dating.
 Chemical reactions.
etc.

10.1 Orthogonal Trajectories

 We know that that the solutions of a 1st order differential equation, e.g. separable
equations, may be given by an implicit equation

F ( x, y , C ) = 0
with 1 parameter C , which represents a family of curves. Member curves
can be obtained by fixing the parameter C. Similarly an nth order DE will
yields an n-parameter family of curves/solutions.

F ( x , y , C1 , C1 ,  , C n ) = 0

 The question arises that whether or not we can turn the problem around: Starting
with an n-parameter family of curves, can we find an associated nth order
differential equation free of parameters and representing the family. The answer
in most cases is yes.
 Let us try to see, with reference to a 1-parameter family of curves, how to proceed
if the answer to the question is yes.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy
1. Differentiate with respect to x, and get an equation-involving x, y, and C.
dx
2. Using the original equation, we may be able to eliminate the parameter C from
the new equation.
3. The next step is doing some algebra to rewrite this equation in an explicit
form

= f ( x, y )
dy
dx

Example Find the differential equation satisfied by the family x2 + y2 = C x

Solution:

1. We differentiate the equation with respect to x, to get

dy
2x + 2 y =C
dx

2. Since we have from the original equation that

x2 + y2
C=
x
then we get

dy x 2 + y 2
2x + 2 y =
dx x
3. The explicit form of the above differential equation is

dy y 2 − x 2
=
dx 2 xy

This last equation is the desired DE free of parameters representing the given family.

Example. Let us consider the example of the following two families of curves

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

y = mx
 2
x + y = C
2 2

The first family describes all the straight lines passing through the origin while the
second family describes all the circles centered at the origin. If we draw the two families
together on the same graph we get

Clearly whenever one line intersects one circle, the tangent line to the circle (at the point
of intersection) and the line are perpendicular i.e. orthogonal to each other. We say that
the two families of curves are orthogonal at the point of intersection.

10.2 Orthogonal curves

Any two curves C1 and C 2 are said to be orthogonal if their tangent lines T1 and T2 at
their point of intersection are perpendicular. This means that slopes are negative
reciprocals of each other, except when T1 and T2 are parallel to the coordinate axes.
10.3 Orthogonal Trajectories (OT)
When all curves of a family ℑ1 : G(x, y, c1 ) = 0 orthogonally intersect all curves of
another family ℑ 2 : H ( x, y, c 2 ) = 0 then each curve of the families is said to be
orthogonal trajectory of the other.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Example:
As we can see from the previous figure that the family of straight lines y = mx and the

family of circles x + y = C are orthogonal trajectories.

2 2 2

Orthogonal trajectories occur naturally in many areas of physics, fluid dynamics, in the
study of electricity and magnetism etc. For example the lines of force are perpendicular
to the equipotential curves i.e. curves of constant potential.
10.3.1 Method of finding Orthogonal Trajectory
Consider a family of curves ℑ . Assume that an associated DE may be found, which is
given by:
dy
= f ( x, y )
dx
dy
Since gives slope of the tangent to a curve of the family ℑ through ( x, y ) .
dx
1
Therefore, the slope of the line orthogonal to this tangent is − . So that the
f ( x, y )
slope of the line that is tangent to the orthogonal curve through ( x, y ) is given by
1
− . In other words, the family of orthogonal curves are solutions to the
f ( x, y )
differential equation
dy 1
=−
dx f ( x, y )
The steps can be summarized as follows:
Summary:
In order to find Orthogonal Trajectories of a family of curves ℑ we perform the
following steps:

Step 1. Consider a family of curves ℑ and find the associated differential equation.
Step 2. Rewrite this differential equation in the explicit form

dy
= f ( x, y )
dx
Step 3. Write down the differential equation associated to the orthogonal family

dy 1
=−
dx f ( x, y )
Step 4. Solve the new equation. The solutions are exactly the family of orthogonal
curves.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Step 5. A specific curve from the orthogonal family may be required, something like an
IVP.
Example 1
Find the orthogonal Trajectory to the family of circles
x2 + y2 = C 2
Solution:
The given equation represents a family of concentric circles centered at the origin.
Step 1. We differentiate w.r.t. ‘ x ’ to find the DE satisfied by the circles.
dy
2y + 2x = 0
dx
Step 2. We rewrite this equation in the explicit form
dy x
=−
dx y
Step 3. Next we write down the DE for the orthogonal family
dy 1 y
=− =
dx − ( x / y) x
Step 4.This is a linear as well as a separable DE. Using the technique of linear
equation, we find the integrating factor
−⌠
1
 dx 1
u ( x) = e ⌡x
=
x
which gives the solution
y . u ( x) = m
or
m
y= = mx
u ( x)
Which represent a family of straight lines through origin. Hence the family of
straight lines y = mx and the family of circles x 2 + y 2 = C 2 are Orthogonal
Trajectories.

Step 5. A geometrical view of these Orthogonal Trajectories is:

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Example 2
Find the Orthogonal Trajectory to the family of circles
x2 + y2 = 2 C x
Solution:
1. We differentiate the given equation to find the DE satisfied by the circles.
dy x2 + y2
y + x = C, C=
dx 2x
2. The explicit differential equation associated to the family of circles is
dy y 2 − x 2
=
dx 2 xy
3. Hence the differential equation for the orthogonal family is

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dy 2 xy
= 2
dx x − y 2
4. This DE is a homogeneous, to solve this equation we substitute v = y/x
or equivalently y = vx . Then we have
dy dv 2 xy 2v
=x + v and 2 =
dx dx x − y2 1− v2
Therefore the homogeneous differential equation in step 3 becomes
dv 2v
x +v =
dx 1− v2
Algebraic manipulations reduce this equation to the separable form:
 3
dv 1  v + v 
=  
dx x  1 − v 2 
The constant solutions are given by

v + v 3 = 0 ⇒ v (1 + v 2 ) = 0
The only constant solution is v = 0 .

To find the non-constant solutions we separate the variables

1 − v2 1
dv = dx
v+v 3
x
Integrate
⌠ 1− v2 ⌠1d x
 d v = 
⌡ v + v3 ⌡x
Resolving into partial fractions the integrand on LHS, we obtain
1− v 2
1− v 2
1 2v
= = −
v + v3 v(1 + v 2 ) v 1 + v2
Hence we have
⌠ 1− v2 ⌠ 1 2v 
 d v =   −  d v = ln | v | − ln[v 2
+ 1]
⌡ v + v 3
⌡  v 1 + v 2

Hence the solution of the separable equation becomes
ln | v | − ln[v 2 + 1] = ln | x | + ln C
which is equivalent to

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

v
=C x
v2 + 1
where C ≠ 0 . Hence all the solutions are
 v = 0
 v
 = Cx
 v 2 + 1
y
We go back to y to get y = 0 and = C which is equivalent to
y + x2
2

y = 0
 2
 x + y = my
2

5. Which is x-axis and a family of circles centered on y -axis. A geometrical

view of both the families is shown in the next slide.

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10.4 Population Dynamics

bSome natural questions related to population problems are the following:

 What will the population of a certain country after e.g. ten years?
 How are we protecting the resources from extinction?

The easiest population dynamics model is the exponential model. This model is based
on the assumption:

The rate of change of the population is proportional to the existing population.

If P (t ) measures the population of a species at any time t then because of the above
mentioned assumption we can write

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dP
= kP
dt

where the rate k is constant of proportionality. Clearly the above equation is linear as
well as separable. To solve this equation we multiply the equation with the integrating
factor e − kt to obtain

d  P e − kt  = 0
dt  

Integrating both sides we obtain

P e − kt = C or P = C e kt

If P0 is the initial population then P (0) = P0 . So that C = P0 and obtain

P (t ) = P0 e kt

Clearly, we must have k >0 for growth and k <0 for the decay.

Example:
The population of a certain community is known to increase at a rate proportional to the
number of people present at any time. The population has doubled in 5 years, how long
would it take to triple?. If it is known that the population of the community is 10,000
after 3 years. What was the initial population? What will be the population in 30 years?
Solution:
Suppose that P0 is initial population of the community and P(t ) the population at any
time t then the population growth is governed by the differential equation
dP
= kP
dt
As we know solution of the differential equation is given by

P(t ) = P0 e kt
Since P (5) = 2 P0 . Therefore, from the last equation we have

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2 P0 = P0 e 5k ⇒ e 5k = 2
This means that
0.69315
5k = ln 2 = 0.69315 or k= = 0.13863
5
Therefore, the solution of the equation becomes

P(t ) = P0 e 0.13863 t
If t1 is the time taken for the population to triple then
0.1386t1 0.1386t1
3P0 = P0 e ⇒e =3
ln 3
t1 = = 7.9265 ≈ 8 years
0.1386

Now using the information P (3) = 10,000 , we obtain from the solution that
(0.13863 )(3) 10,000
10,000 = P0 e ⇒ P0 =
e 0.41589
Therefore, the initial population of the community was
P0 ≈ 6598
Hence solution of the model is

P (t ) = 6598 e 0.13863 t
So that the population in 30 years is given by
(30)(0.13863 )
P (30) = 6598e = 6598e 4.1589
or P(30 ) = (6598)(64.0011)

or P(30 ) ≈ 422279

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11 Radioactive Decay

In physics a radioactive substance disintegrates or transmutes into the atoms of

another element. Many radioactive materials disintegrate at a rate proportional to the
amount present. Therefore, if A(t ) is the amount of a radioactive substance present at
time t , then the rate of change of A(t ) with respect to time t is given by
dA
= kA
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality. Let the initial amount of the material be A0
then A(0) = A0 . As discussed in the population growth model the solution of the
differential equation is
A(t ) = A0 e kt
The constant k can be determined using half-life of the radioactive material.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for one-half of the atoms in an
initial amount A0 to disintegrate or transmute into atoms of another element. The half-
life measures stability of a radioactive substance. The longer the half-life of a substance,
the more stable it is. If T denotes the half-life then
A0
A(T ) =
2
Therefore, using this condition and the solution of the model we obtain
A0
= A0 e kt
2
So that kT = − ln 2
Therefore, if we know T , we can get k and vice-versa. The half-life of some important
radioactive materials is given in many textbooks of Physics and Chemistry. For example
the half-life of C − 14 is 5568 ± 30 years.

Example 1:
A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 16 days. We have 30 g at the end of 30 days.
How much radioisotope was initially present?
Solution: Let A(t ) be the amount present at time t and A0 the initial amount of the
isotope. Then we have to solve the initial value problem.
dA
= kA, A(30) = 30
dt

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We know that the solution of the IVP is given by

A(t ) = A0 e kt
If T the half-life then the constant is given k by
ln 2 ln 2
kT = − ln 2 or k = − =−
T 16
Now using the condition A(30) = 30 , we have

30 = A0 e30k
So that the initial amount is given by
30 ln 2
A0 = 30e − 30k = 30e 16 = 110.04 g
Example 2
A breeder reactor converts the relatively stable uranium 238 into the isotope plutonium
239. After 15 years it is determined that 0.043% of the initial amount A0 of the
plutonium has disintegrated. Find the half-life of this isotope if the rate of disintegration
is proportional to the amount remaining.
Solution:
Let A(t ) denotes the amount remaining at any time t , then we need to find solution to
the initial value problem
dA
= kA, A(0) = A0
dt
which we know is given by
A(t ) = A0 e kt
If 0.043% disintegration of the atoms of A0 means that 99.957% of the substance
remains. Further 99.957% of A0 equals (0.99957) A0 . So that
A(15) = (0.99957 ) A0
So that

A0 e15k = (0.99957 ) A0
15k = ln(0.99957)
ln(0.99957)
Or k= = −0.00002867
15
Hence A(t ) = A0 e − 0.00002867 t

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A0
If T denotes the half-life then A(T ) = . Thus
2

= A0e − 0.00002867 T = e − 0.00002867 T

A0 1
or
2 2
− 0.00002867 T = ln  = − ln 2
1
2
ln 2
T= ≈ 24,180 years
0.00002867
11.1 Newton's Law of Cooling
From experimental observations it is known that the temperature T (t) of an object
changes at a rate proportional to the difference between the temperature in the body and
the temperature Tm of the surrounding environment. This is what is known as Newton's
law of cooling.
If initial temperature of the cooling body is T0 then we obtain the initial value problem

= k (T − Tm ) , T (0) = T0
dT
dt
where k is constant of proportionality. The differential equation in the problem is linear
as well as separable.
Separating the variables and integrating we obtain
⌠ dT
 T − T = ∫ k dt
⌡ m
This means that
ln | T − Tm |= kt + C
T − Tm = e kt +C
T (t ) = Tm + C1e kt where C1 = e C
Now applying the initial condition T (0) = T0 , we see that C1 = T0 − Tm . Thus the
solution of the initial value problem is given by

T (t ) = Tm + (T0 − Tm )e kt
Hence, If temperatures at times t1 and t 2 are known then we have
kt1 kt2
T (t1 ) − Tm = (T0 − Tm )e , T (t 2 ) − Tm = (T0 − Tm )e

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So that we can write

T (t1 ) − Tm k (t − t )
=e 1 2
T (t 2 ) − Tm

This equation provides the value of k if the interval of time ‘ t − t ’ is known and vice-
1 2
versa.

Example 3: Suppose that a dead body was discovered at midnight in a room when its
temperature was 80° F. The temperature of the room is kept constant at 60° F . Two
hours later the temperature of the body dropped to 75° F . Find the time of death.
Solution:

Assume that the dead person was not sick, then

T (0) = 98.6 o F = T0 and Tm = 60 o F
Therefore, we have to solve the initial value problem

= k (T − 60 ) , T (0) = 98.6
dT
dt
We know that the solution of the initial value problem is
T (t ) = Tm + (T0 − Tm )e kt
T (t1 ) − Tm k (t − t )
So that =e 1 2
T (t 2 ) − Tm
The observed temperatures of the cooling object, i.e. the dead body, are
T (t1 ) = 80 o F and T (t 2 ) = 75 o F
Substituting these values we obtain
80 − 60
= e 2k as t − t = 2 hours
75 − 60 1 2
1 4
So k = ln = 0.1438
2 3
Now suppose that t1 and t 2 denote the times of death and discovery of the dead body
then
T (t1 ) = T (0) = 98.6 o F and T (t 2 ) = 80 o F
For the time of death, we need to determine the interval t1 − t 2 = t d . Now
T (t1 ) − Tm k (t − t ) 98.6 − 60 kt
=e 1 2 ⇒ =e d
T (t 2 ) − Tm 80 − 60

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1 38.6
or td = ln ≈ 4.573
k 20
Hence the time of death is 7:42 PM.

11.2 Carbon Dating

 The isotope C–14 is produced in the atmosphere by the action of cosmic
radiation on nitrogen.

 The ratio of C-14 to ordinary carbon in the atmosphere appears to be constant.

 The proportionate amount of the isotope in all living organisms is same as that in
the atmosphere.

 When an organism dies, the absorption of C − 14 by breathing or eating ceases.

 Thus comparison of the proportionate amount of C − 14 present, say, in a fossil

with constant ratio found in the atmosphere provides a reasonable estimate of its
age.

 The method has been used to date wooden furniture in Egyptian tombs.

 Since the method is based on the knowledge of half-life of the radio active C − 14
(5600 years approximately), the initial value problem discussed in the
radioactivity model governs this analysis.
Example
A fossilized bone is found to contain 1 / 1000 of the original amount of C–14.
Determine the age of the fissile.
Solution:
Let A(t) be the amount present at any time t and A0 the original amount of C–14.
Therefore, the process is governed by the initial value problem.
dA
= kA, A(0) = A0
dt
We know that the solution of the problem is

A(t ) = A0 e kt
Since the half life of the carbon isotope is 5600 years. Therefore,
A0
A(5600) =
2
A0
= A0 e 5600k or 5600k = − ln 2
So that 2
k = −0.00012378

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Hence
− (0.00012378)t
A(t ) = A0 e
A0
If t denotes the time when fossilized bone was found then A(t ) =
1000
A0 − (0.00012378)t
= A0 e ⇒ − 0.00012378 t = − ln 1000
1000
Therefore
ln 1000
t= = 55,800 years
0.00012378

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12 Applications of Non-linear Equations

As we know that the solution of the exponential model for the population growth is
P (t ) = P0 e kt
P0 being the initial population. From this solution we conclude that

(a) If k > 0 the population grows and expand to infinity i.e. lim P (t ) = +∞
t →∞
(b) If k < 0 the population will shrink to approach 0, which means extinction.

Note that:
(1) The prediction in the first case ( k > 0 ) differs substantially from what is actually
observed, population growth is eventually limited by some factor!
(2) Detrimental effects on the environment such as pollution and excessive and
competitive demands for food and fuel etc. can have inhibitive effects on the population
growth.

12.1 Logistic equation

Another model was proposed to remedy this flaw in the exponential model. This is called
the logistic model (also called Verhulst-Pearl model).
Suppose that a > 0 is constant average rate of birth and that the death rate is
1 dP
proportional to the population P(t ) at any time t . Thus if is the rate of growth
P dt
per individual then

1 dP dP
= a − bP or = P(a − bP )
P dt dt
2
where b is constant of proportionality. The term − bP , b > 0 can be interpreted as
inhibition term. When b = 0 , the equation reduces to the one in exponential model.
Solution to the logistic equation is also very important in ecological, sociological and
even in managerial sciences.

12.1.1 Solution of the Logistic equation

The logistic equation
dP
= P (a − bP )
dt
can be easily identified as a nonlinear equation that is separable. The constant solutions
of the equation are given by
P (a − bP ) = 0

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a
⇒ P = 0 and P =
b
For non-constant solutions we separate the variables
dP
= dt
P(a − bP )
Resolving into partial fractions we have
1 / a b/a 
 P + a − bP  dP = dt

1 1
Integrating ln | P | − ln | a − bP |= t + C
a a
P
ln = at + aC
a − bP
P
or = C1e at where C1 = e aC
a − bP
Easy algebraic manipulations give
aC1 e at aC1
P(t ) = =
1 + bC1 e at bC1 + e −at
a
Here C1 is an arbitrary constant. If we are given the initial condition P (0) = P0 , P0 ≠
b
P0
we obtain C1 = . Substituting this value in the last equation and simplifying, we
a − bP0
obtain
aP0
P(t ) =
bP0 + (a − bP0 )e −at
aP a
Clearly lim P(t ) = 0 = , limited growth
t →∞ bP0 b
a
Note that P = is a singular solution of the logistic equation.
b

12.1.2 Special Cases of Logistic Equation

12.1.2.1 1. Epidemic Spread

Suppose that one person infected from a contagious disease is introduced in a fixed
population of n people.

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dx
The natural assumption is that the rate of spread of disease is proportional to the
dt
number x(t ) of the infected people and number y (t ) of people not infected people.
Then
dx
= kxy
dt
Since x + y = n +1
Therefore, we have the following initial value problem

dx
= kx(n + 1 − x), x(0) = 1
dt
The last equation is a special case of the logistic equation and has also been used for
the spread of information and the impact of advertising in centers of population.

12.1.3 A Modification of LE
A modification of the nonlinear logistic differential equation is the following

dP
= P (a − b ln P )
dt

has been used in the studies of solid tumors, in actuarial predictions, and in the growth
of revenue from the sale of a commercial product in addition to growth or decline of
population.

Example
Suppose a student carrying a flu virus returns to an isolated college campus of 1000
students. If it is assumed that the rate at which the virus spreads is proportional not only
to the number x of infected students but also to the number of students not infected,
determine the number of infected students after 6 days if it is further observed that after
4 days x(4) =50.
Solution
Assume that no one leaves the campus throughout the duration of the disease. We must
solve the initial-value problem
dx
= kx(1000 − x), x ( 0) = 1 .
dt

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We identify
a = 1000k and b = k
Since the solution of logistic equation is
aP0
P(t ) =
bP0 + (a − bP0 )e −at
Therefore we have
1000k 1000
x(t ) = =
k + 999ke −1000kt 1 + 999e −1000kt
.

Now, using x(4)= 50, we determine k

1000
50 =
1 + 999e −4000k
−1 19
We find k= ln = 0.0009906.
4000 999
Thus
1000
x(t ) =
1 + 999e −0.9906 t
Finally

1000
x ( 6) = = 276 students .
1 + 999e −5. 9436

12.2 Chemical reactions

In a first order chemical reaction, the molecules of a substance A decompose into smaller
molecules. This decomposition takes place at a rate proportional to the amount of the
first substance that has not undergone conversion. The disintegration of a radioactive
substance is an example of the first order reaction. If X is the remaining amount of the
substance A at any time t then
dX
=k X
dt
k < 0 because X is decreasing.

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In a 2nd order reaction two chemicals A and B react to form another chemical C at a
rate proportional to the product of the remaining concentrations of the two chemicals.

If X denotes the amount of the chemical C that has formed at time t . Then the
instantaneous amounts of the first two chemicals A and B not converted to the
chemical C are α − X and β − X , respectively. Hence the rate of formation of
chemical C is given by

= k (α - X )(β − X )
dX
dt
where k is constant of proportionality.

Example:
A compound C is formed when two chemicals A and B are combined. The resulting
reaction between the two chemicals is such that for each gram of A , 4 grams of B are
used. It is observed that 30 grams of the compound C are formed in 10 minutes.
Determine the amount of C at any time if the rate of reaction is proportional to the
amounts of A and B remaining and if initially there are 50 grams of A and 32 grams
of B . How much of the compound C is present at 15 minutes? Interpret the solution as
t →∞

Solution:

If X (t ) denote the number of grams of chemical C present at any time t . Then

X (0) = 0 and X (10) = 30
Suppose that there are 2 grams of the compound C and we have used a grams of A
and b grams of B then

a+b = 2 and b = 4a
Solving the two equations we have

2 8
a= = 2 (1 / 5) and b= = 2 (4 / 5)
5 5
In general, if there were for X grams of C then we must have

X 4
a = and b = X
5 5

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Therefore the amounts of A and B remaining at any time t are then

X 4
50 − and 32 − X
5 5
respectively .

Therefore, the rate at which chemical C is formed satisfies the differential equation

dX  X  4 
= λ  50 −  32 − X 
dt  5  5 
or
dX
= k (250 − X )(40 − X ), k = 4λ / 25
dt
We now solve this differential equation.

By separation of variables and partial fraction, we can write

dX
= kdt
(250 − X )(40 − X )
1 / 210 1 / 210
− dX + dX = kdt
250 − X 40 − X

250 − X
ln = 210kt + c1
40 − X

250 − X
= c 2 e 210kt Where c2 = e c1
40 − X

When t = 0 , X = 0 , so it follows at this point that c 2 = 25 / 4 . Using X = 30 at

t = 10 , we find
1 88
210k = ln = 0.1258
10 25

With this information we solve for X :

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 1 − e − 0.1258 t 
X (t ) = 1000  
 − 0.1258 t 
 25 − 4e 

It is clear that as e
− 0.1258 t → 0 as t → ∞ . Therefore X → 40 as t → ∞ . This
fact can also be verified from the following table that X → 40 as t → ∞ .

t 10 15 20 25 30 35

X 30 34.78 37.25 38.54 39.22 39.59

This means that there are 40 grams of compound C formed, leaving

1
50 − (40) = 42 grams of chemical A
5
4
and 32 − (40) = 0 grams of chemical B
5
12.3 Miscellaneous Applications

 The velocity v of a falling mass m , subjected to air resistance proportional to

instantaneous velocity, is given by the differential equation
dv
m = mg − kv
dx
Here k > 0 is constant of proportionality.

 The rate at which a drug disseminates into bloodstream is governed by the

differential equation

dx
= A − Bx
dt
Here A, B are positive constants and x(t ) describes the concentration of drug in
the bloodstream at any time t.
 The rate of memorization of a subject is given by

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dA
= k1 ( M − A) − k 2 A
dt
Here k1 > 0, k 2 > 0 and A(t ) is the amount of material memorized in time t ,
M is the total amount to be memorized and M − A is the amount remaining to
be memorized.

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13 Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

13.1 Preliminary theory

 A differential equation of the form

dny d n −1 y dy
a n ( x) + a n −1 ( x) +  + a1 ( x) + a0 ( x) y = g ( x)
dx n dx n −1 dx

or a n ( x) y ( n) + a n −1 ( x) y ( n −1) +  + a1 ( x) y ′ + a0 ( x) y = g ( x)

where a 0 ( x ), a1 ( x ),  , a n ( x ), g ( x ) are functions of x and a n ( x) ≠ 0 , is

called a linear differential equation with variable coefficients.
 However, we shall first study the differential equations with constant coefficients
i.e. equations of the type

dny d n −1 y dy
an + a n −1 +  + a1 + a0 y = g ( x)
n n −1 dx
dx dx

where a 0 , a1 ,  , a n are real constants. This equation is non-homogeneous

differential equation and
 If g ( x) = 0 then the differential equation becomes

dny d n −1 y dy
an + a n −1 +  + a1 + a0 y = 0
n n −1 dx
dx dx
which is known as the associated homogeneous differential equation.
13.2 Initial -Value Problem
For a linear nth-order differential equation, the problem:

dny d n −1 y dy
Solve: a n ( x) + a n −1 ( x) +  + a1 ( x) + a0 ( x) y = g ( x)
dx n dx n −1 dx
n −1
Subject to: y ( x0 ) = y=
0, y / ( x0 ) y=
/
0 ,... y ( x0 ) y0n −1

y0 , y0 ,, y0n−1 being arbitrary constants, is called an initial-value problem (IVP).

/

n −1 n −1
The specified values y ( x0 ) = y 0 , y ( x0 ) = y 0 ,, y ( x0 ) = y 0
/ /
are called initial-
conditions.
For n = 2 the initial-value problem reduces to

d2y dy
Solve: a 2 ( x) + a1 ( x) + a0 ( x) y = g ( x)
2 dx
dx

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Subject to: y ( x0 ) = y 0 , …, y / ( x0 ) = y 0/
13.2.1 Solution of IVP
A function satisfying the differential equation on I whose graph passes through ( x0 , y 0 )
such that the slope of the curve at the point is the number y 0/ is called solution of the
initial value problem.
13.3 Theorem ( Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions)
Let a n ( x), a n −1 ( x),..., a1 ( x), a0 ( x) and g (x) be continuous on an interval I and let
a n ( x) ≠ 0, ∀ x ∈ I . If x = x0 ∈ I , then a solution y (x) of the initial-value problem exist
on I and is unique.
Example 1

Consider the function y = 3e 2 x + e −2 x − 3 x

This is a solution to the following initial value problem

y // − 4 y = 12 x, y (0) = 4, y / (0) = 1

d2y
Since = 12e 2 x + 4e −2 x
dx 2
d2y
and 2
− 4 y = 12e 2 x + 4e −2 x − 12e 2 x − 4e −2 x + 12 x = 12 x
dx
Further y (0) = 3 + 1 − 0 = 4 and y ′ (0) = 6 − 2 − 3 = 1

Hence y = 3e 2 x + e −2 x − 3 x
is a solution of the initial value problem. We observe that
 The equation is linear differential equation.
 The coefficients being constant are continuous.
 The function g ( x) = 12 x being polynomial is continuous.
 The leading coefficient a 2 ( x) = 1 ≠ 0 for all values of x. Hence the function
y = 3e 2 x + e −2 x − 3 x is the unique solution.
Example 2
Consider the initial-value problem

3 y /// + 5 y // − y / + 7 y = 0,

y (1) = 0, y / (1) = 0, y // (1) = 0

Clearly the problem possesses the trivial solution y = 0 .

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Since
 The equation is homogeneous linear differential equation.
 The coefficients of the equation are constants.
 Being constant the coefficient are continuous.
 The leading coefficient a3 = 3 ≠ 0 .
Hence y = 0 is the only solution of the initial value problem.

Note: If a n = 0 ?

If a n ( x) = 0 in the differential equation

dny d n−1 y dy
a n ( x) + a n−1 ( x) +  + a1 ( x) + a0 ( x) y = g ( x)
n n −1 dx
dx dx
for some x ∈ I then
Solution of initial-value problem may not be unique.

Solution of initial-value problem may not even exist.

Example 4
Consider the function

y = cx 2 + x + 3
and the initial-value problem

x 2 y // − 2 xy / + 2 y = 6
y (0) = 3, y / (0) = 1
Then y ′ = 2cx + 1 and y ′′ = 2c
Therefore x 2 y // − 2 xy / + 2 y = x 2 (2c) − 2 x(2cx + 1) + 2(cx 2 + x + 3)

= 2cx 2 − 4cx 2 − 2 x + 2cx 2 + 2 x + 6

= 6.
Also y ( 0) = 3 ⇒ c ( 0) + 0 + 3 = 3

and y / (0) = 1 ⇒ 2c(0) + 1 = 1

So that for any choice of c , the function ' y ' satisfies the differential equation and the
initial conditions. Hence the solution of the initial value problem is not unique.
Note that
 The equation is linear differential equation.
 The coefficients being polynomials are continuous everywhere.
 The function g (x) being constant is constant everywhere.

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 The leading coefficient a 2 ( x) = x 2 = 0 at x = 0 ∈ (−∞, ∞) .

Hence a 2 ( x) = 0 brought non-uniqueness in the solution

13.4 Boundary-value problem (BVP)

For a 2nd order linear differential equation, the problem

d2y dy
Solve: a 2 ( x) 2
+ a1 ( x) + a0 ( x) y = g ( x)
dx dx
Subject to: y (a) = y 0 , y (b) = y1
is called a boundary-value problem. The specified values y (a ) = y 0 , and y (b) = y1 are
called boundary conditions.

13.4.1 Solution of BVP

A solution of the boundary value problem is a function satisfying the differential equation
on some interval I , containing a and b , whose graph passes through two points (a, y 0 )
and (b, y1 ) .
Example 5
Consider the function

y = 3x 2 − 6 x + 3
We can prove that this function is a solution of the boundary-value problem
x 2 y // − 2 xy / + 2 y = 6,
y (1) = 0, y (2) = 3

dy d2y
Since = 6 x − 6, =6
dx dx 2
d2y dy
Therefore x2 2
− 2x + 2 y = 6 x 2 − 12 x 2 + 12 x + 6 x 2 − 12 x + 6 = 6
dx dx
Also y (1) = 3 − 6 + 3 = 0, y (2) = 12 − 12 + 3 = 3
Therefore, the function ' y ' satisfies both the differential equation and the boundary
conditions. Hence y is a solution of the boundary value problem.
.

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13.4.2 Possible Boundary Conditions

For a 2nd order linear non-homogeneous differential equation
d2y dy
a 2 ( x) 2 + a1 ( x) + a 0 ( x) y = g ( x)
dx dx
all the possible pairs of boundary conditions are
y (a) = y 0 , y (b) = y1 ,

y / (a ) = y 0/ , y (b) = y1 ,

y (a) = y 0 , y / (b) = y /1 ,

y / (a ) = y 0/ , y / (b) = y1/

where y 0 , y 0/ , y1 and y1/ denote the arbitrary constants.

In General:
All the four pairs of conditions mentioned above are just special cases of the general
boundary conditions

α1 y ( a ) + β1 y / ( a ) = γ 1
α 2 y (b) + β 2 y / (b) = γ 2
where α1 ,α 2 , β1 , β 2 ∈ {0,1}
Note that
A boundary value problem may have
 Several solutions.
 A unique solution, or
 No solution at all.
Example 1
Consider the function
y = c1 cos 4 x + c 2 sin 4 x
and the boundary value problem

y // + 16 y = 0, y (0) = 0, y (π / 2) = 0
Then
y / = −4c1 sin 4 x + 4c 2 cos 4 x
y // = −16(c1 cos 4 x + c 2 sin 4 x)
y // = −16 y
y // + 16 y = 0

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Therefore, the function

y = c1 cos 4 x + c 2 sin 4 x
satisfies the differential equation
y // + 16 y = 0 .
Now apply the boundary conditions
Applying y (0) = 0
We obtain
0 = c1 cos 0 + c 2 sin 0
⇒ c1 = 0
So that
y = c 2 sin 4 x .
But when we apply the 2nd condition y (π / 2) = 0 , we have
0 = c 2 sin 2π
Since sin 2π = 0 , the condition is satisfied for any choice of c 2 , solution of the problem is
the one-parameter family of functions
y = c 2 sin 4 x
Hence, there are an infinite number of solutions of the boundary value problem.
Example 2
π 
Solve the boundary value problem y // + 16 y = 0 , y (0) = 0, y  = 0,
8
Solution:
As verified in the previous example that the function
y = c1 cos 4 x + c 2 sin 4 x
satisfies the differential equation

y // + 16 y = 0
We now apply the boundary conditions
y (0) = 0 ⇒ 0 = c1 + 0
and y (π / 8) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0 + c 2
So that c1 = 0 = c 2
Hence
y=0

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is the only solution of the boundary-value problem.

Example 3
Solve the differential equation y // + 16 y = 0 subject to the boundary conditions
y (0) = 0, y (π / 2) = 1 .

Solution:As verified in an earlier example that the function y = c1 cos 4 x + c 2 sin 4 x

satisfies the differential equation y // + 16 y = 0 .

We now apply the boundary conditions
y (0) = 0 ⇒ 0 = c1 + 0
Therefore c1 = 0
So that y = c 2 sin 4 x

However y (π / 2) = 1 ⇒ c 2 sin 2π = 1
or 1 = c 2 .0 ⇒ 1 = 0
This is a clear contradiction. Therefore, the boundary value problem has no solution.
13.5 Linear Dependence
A set of functions

{ f1 ( x), f 2 ( x),, f n ( x)}

is said to be linearly dependent on an interval I if ∃ constants c1 , c2 ,, cn not all zero,
such that
c1 f1 ( x) + c 2 f 2 ( x) + . + c n f n ( x) = 0, ∀ x∈I

13.6 Linear Independence

A set of functions { f1 ( x), f 2 ( x), , f n ( x)} is said to be linearly independent on an
interval I if c1 f1 ( x) + c 2 f 2 ( x) +  + c n f n ( x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ I ,only when
c1 = c 2 =  = c n = 0.
13.6.1 Case of two functions
If n = 2 then the set of functions becomes { f1 ( x), f 2 ( x)}
If we suppose that c1 f1 ( x) + c 2 f 2 ( x) = 0
Also that the functions are linearly dependent on an interval I then either c1 ≠ 0 or
c2 ≠ 0 .

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c2
Let us assume that c1 ≠ 0 , then f1 ( x) = − f 2 ( x) .Hence f1 ( x) is the constant multiple
c1
of f 2 ( x) .Conversely, if we suppose f1 ( x) = c 2 f 2 ( x)
Then (−1) f1 ( x) + c2 f 2 ( x) = 0 , ∀x ∈ I
So that the functions are linearly dependent because c1 = −1 .
Hence, we conclude that:
 Any two functions f1 ( x) and f 2 ( x) are linearly dependent on an interval I if and
only if one is the constant multiple of the other.
 Any two functions are linearly independent when neither is a constant multiple of
the other on an interval I.
 In general a set of n functions { f1 ( x), f 2 ( x), , f n ( x)} is linearly dependent if at
least one of them can be expressed as a linear combination of the remaining.
Example 1
The functions
f1 ( x) = sin 2 x, ∀x ∈ (−∞, ∞)
f 2 ( x) = sin x cos x, ∀x ∈ (−∞, ∞)
1
If we choose c1 = and c 2 = −1 then
2

c1 sin 2 x + c 2 sin x cos x =

1
(2 sin x cos x ) − sin x cos x = 0
2
Hence, the two functions f1 ( x) and f 2 ( x) are linearly dependent.
Example 2
Consider the functions

f1 ( x) = cos 2 x , f 2 ( x) = sin 2 x, ∀ x ∈ (−π / 2, π / 2) ,

f 3 ( x) = sec 2 x , f 4 ( x) = tan 2 x, ∀ x ∈ (−π / 2, π / 2)

If we choose c1 = c 2 = 1, c 3 = −1, c 4 = 1 , then

c1 f1 ( x) + c 2 f 2 ( x) + c3 f 3 ( x) + c 4 f 4 ( x)
= c1 cos 2 x + c 2 sin 2 x + c3 sec 2 x + c 4 tan 2 x
= cos 2 x + sin 2 x + −1 − tan 2 x + tan 2 x
= 1−1+ 0 = 0
Therefore, the given functions are linearly dependent.
Note that

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The function f 3 ( x) can be written as a linear combination of other three functions

f1 ( x), f 2 (x ) and f 4 ( x) because sec 2 x = cos 2 x + sin 2 x + tan 2 x .
Example 3
Consider the functions
f1 ( x) = 1 + x, ∀ x ∈ (−∞, ∞)
f 2 ( x ) = x, ∀ x ∈ (−∞, ∞)
f 3 ( x) = x 2 , ∀ x ∈ (−∞, ∞)
Then
c1 f1 ( x) + c 2 f 2 ( x) + c3 f 3 ( x) = 0
means that

c1 (1 + x) + c 2 x + c3 x 2 =0

or c1 + (c1 + c 2 ) x + c3 x 2 =0

Equating coefficients of x and x 2 constant terms we obtain

c1 = 0 = c3

c1 + c 2 = 0
Therefore c1 = c 2 = c3 = 0

Hence, the three functions f1 ( x), f 2 ( x) and f 3 ( x) are linearly independent.

13.7 Wronskian
Suppose that the function f 1 ( x), f 2 ( x),  , f n ( x) possesses at least n − 1 derivatives then
the determinant

f1 f 2  fn
f1/ f 2/  f n/
  
f1n −1 f 2n −1  f nn −1

is called Wronskian of the functions f 1 ( x), f 2 ( x),  , f n ( x) and is denoted by

W ( f1 ( x), f1 ( x), , f1 ( x) ) .

13.8 Theorem (Criterion for Linearly Independent Functions)

Suppose the functions f 1 ( x), f 2 ( x),  , f n ( x) possess at least n-1 derivatives on an
interval I . If

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W ( f1 ( x), f 2 ( x), , f n ( x)) ≠ 0

for at least one point in I , then functions f 1 ( x), f 2 ( x),  , f n ( x) are linearly independent
on the interval I .
Note that this is only a sufficient condition for linear independence of a set of functions.
In other words:
If f 1 ( x), f 2 ( x),  , f n ( x) possesses at least n − 1 derivatives on an interval and are
linearly dependent on I , then W ( f1 ( x), f 2 ( x),, f n ( x)) = 0, ∀x ∈ I
However, the converse is not true. i.e. a Vanishing Wronskian does not guarantee linear
dependence of functions.
Example 1
The functions
f1 ( x ) = sin 2 x
f 2 ( x ) = 1 − cos 2 x
are linearly dependent because
1
sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2 x)
2
We observe that for all x ∈ (−∞, ∞)

sin 2 x 1 − cos 2 x
W ( f1 ( x ), f 2 ( x )) =
2 sin x cos x 2 sin 2 x

= 2 sin 2 x sin 2 x − 2 sin x cos x

+ 2 sin x cos x cos 2 x
= sin 2 x [2 sin 2 x − 1 + cos 2 x]
= sin 2 x [2 sin 2 x − 1 + cos 2 x − sin 2 x]
= sin 2 x [sin 2 x + cos 2 x − 1]
=0
Example 2
Consider the functions
m1x
f1 ( x ) = e , f 2 (x ) = e 2 ,
m x
m1 ≠ m2
The functions are linearly independent because
c1 f1 ( x) + c 2 f 2 ( x) = 0
if and only if c1 = 0 = c 2 as m1 ≠ m2

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Now for all x ∈ R

We ( m1 x
,e m2 x
)= e m1 x e m2 x
m1e m1 xm2 e m2 x
= (m2 − m1 )e (m1 + m2 )x
≠0
Thus f1 and f 2 are linearly independent of any interval on x-axis.
Example 3
If α and β are real numbers, β ≠ 0 , then the functions

y1 = eαx cos βx and y 2 = eαx sin βx

are linearly independent on any interval of the x-axis because
(
W eαx cos βx, eαx sin βx )
eαx cos βx eαx sin βx
=
− βeαx sin βx + αeαx cos βx βeαx cos βx + αeαx sin βx

(
= βe 2αx cos 2 βx + sin 2 βx = βe 2αx ≠ 0. )
Example 4
The functions
f 1 (x ) = e x , f 2 (x ) = xe x , and f 3 (x ) = x 2 e x
are linearly independent on any interval of the x-axis because for all x ∈ R , we have
ex xe x x 2e x
(
W e x , xe x , x 2 e x ) = ex xe x + e x x 2 e x + 2 xe x
ex xe x + 2e x x 2 e x + 4 xe x + 2e x

= 2e 3 x ≠ 0
13.9 Exercise
1. Given that

y = c1e x + c 2 e − x
is a two-parameter family of solutions of the differential equation
y ′′ − y = 0

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on (− ∞, ∞ ) , find a member of the family satisfying the boundary conditions

y (0 ) = 0, y ′(1) = 1 .
2. Given that
y = c1 + c 2 cos x + c3 sin x
is a three-parameter family of solutions of the differential equation
y ′′′ + y ′ = 0
on the interval (− ∞, ∞ ) , find a member of the family satisfying the initial
conditions y (π ) = 0, y ′(π ) = 2, y ′′(π ) = −1 .
3. Given that
y = c1 x + c 2 x ln x
is a two-parameter family of solutions of the differential equation
x y ′′ − xy ′ + y = 0 on (− ∞, ∞ ) . Find a member of the family satisfying the initial
2

conditions
y (1) = 3, y ′(1) = −1.
Determine whether the functions in problems 4-7 are linearly independent or
dependent on (− ∞, ∞ ) .
4. f 1 ( x ) = x, f 2 (x ) = x 2 , f 3 (x ) = 4 x − 3x 2
5. f1 ( x ) = 0, f 2 ( x ) = x, f 3 ( x ) = e x
6. f1 ( x ) = cos 2 x, f 2 ( x ) = 1, f 3 ( x ) = cos 2 x
7. f1 ( x ) = e x , f 2 (x ) = e − x , f 3 ( x ) = sinh x
Show by computing the Wronskian that the given functions are linearly independent
on the indicated interval.
8. tan x, cot x; (- ∞, ∞ )
9. e x , e -x , e 4x ; (− ∞, ∞ )
10. x, x ln x, x 2 ln x; (0, ∞ )

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14 Solutions of Higher Order Linear Equations

14.1 Preliminary Theory

 In order to solve an nth order non-homogeneous linear differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n ( x ) n + a n −1 ( x ) n −1 +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = g ( x )
dy
dx dx dx
we first solve the associated homogeneous differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n ( x ) n + a n −1 ( x ) n −1 +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
dx dx dx
 Therefore, we first concentrate upon the preliminary theory and the methods of
solving the homogeneous linear differential equation.
 We recall that a function y = f (x) that satisfies the associated homogeneous
equation
dny d n −1 y
a n (x ) ( ) +  + a1 (x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
dx dx dx
is called solution of the differential equation.

14.2 Superposition Principle

Suppose that y1 , y 2 ,  , y n are solutions on an interval I of the homogeneous linear
differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n (x ) ( ) +  + a1 (x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
dx dx dx
Then
y = c1 y1 ( x ) + c 2 y 2 ( x ) +  + c n y n (x ),

c1 , c 2 ,  , c n being arbitrary constants is also a solution of the differential equation.

Note that
 A constant multiple y = c1 y1 ( x ) of a solution y1 ( x ) of the homogeneous linear
differential equation is also a solution of the equation.
 The homogeneous linear differential equations always possess the trivial solution
y = 0.
 The superposition principle is a property of linear differential equations and it
does not hold in case of non-linear differential equations.
Example 1 The functions y1 = e x , y 2 = c 2 x , and y 3 = e 3 x all satisfy the homogeneous
differential equation

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d3y d2y dy
3
− 6 2
+ 11 − 6 y = 0
dx dx dx
on (− ∞, ∞ ) . Thus y1 , y 2 and y 3 are all solutions of the differential equation
Now suppose that
y = c1e x + c 2 e 2 x + c3 e 3 x .
Then
dy
= c1e x + 2c 2 e 2 x + 3c3 e 3 x .
dx
d2y
2
= c1e x + 4c 2 e 2 x + 9c3 e 3 x .
dx
d3y
3
= c1e x + 8c 2 e 2 x + 27c3 e 3 x .
dx
Therefore

d3y d2y dy
−6 + 11 − 6y
3
dx 2
( ) ( )
dx dx
= c1 e x − 6e + 11e x − 6e x + c 2 8e 2 x − 24e 2 x + 22e 2 x − 6e 2 x
x

(
+ c3 27e 3 x − 54e 3 x + 33e 3 x − 6e 3 x )
= c1 (12 − 12 )e x + c 2 (30 − 30 )e 2 x + c3 (60 − 60 )e 3 x
=0
Thus
y = c1e x + c 2 e 2 x + c3 e 3 x .
is also a solution of the differential equation.
Example 2 The function y = x 2 is a solution of the homogeneous linear equation

x 2 y ′′ − 3 xy ′ + 4 y = 0 on (0, ∞ ) .
Now consider y = cx 2 ⇒ y ′ = 2cx and y ′′ = 2c

So that x 2 y ′′ − 3 xy ′ + 4 y = 2cx 2 − 6cx 2 + 4cx 2 = 0

Hence the function y = cx 2 is also a solution of the given differential equation.

The Wronskian
Suppose that y1 , y 2 are 2 solutions, on an interval I , of the second order homogeneous
linear differential equation

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d2y dy
a2 2
+ a1 + a0 y = 0
dx dx
Then either W ( y1 , y 2 ) = 0, ∀ x∈I
or W ( y1 , y 2 ) ≠ 0, ∀ x∈I
To verify this we write the equation as
d 2 y Pdy
+ + Qy = 0
dx 2 dx
y1 y2
Now W ( y1 , y 2 ) = = y1 y 2′ − y1′ y 2
y1′ y 2′
Differentiating w.r.to x , we have
dW
= y1 y 2′′ − y1′′y 2
dx
Since y1 and y 2 are solutions of the differential equation

d 2 y Pdy
+ + Qy = 0
dx 2 dx
Therefore
y1′′ + Py1′ + Qy1 = 0
y 2′′ + Py 2′ + Qy 2 = 0
Multiplying 1st equation by y 2 and 2nd by y1 the have
y1′′y 2 + Py1′ y 2 + Qy1 y 2 = 0
y1 y 2′′ + Py1 y 2′ + Qy1 y 2 = 0
Subtracting the two equations we have:
( y1 y2′′ − y2 y1′′) + P( y1 y2′ − y1′ y2 ) = 0
dW
or + PW = 0
dx
This is a linear 1st order differential equation in W , whose solution is
− Pdx
W = ce ∫
Therefore
 If c ≠ 0 then W ( y1 , y 2 ) ≠ 0, ∀ x ∈ I
 If c = 0 then W ( y1 , y 2 ) = 0, ∀ x ∈ I

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Hence Wronskian of y1 and y 2 is either identically zero or is never zero on I .

In general
If y1 , y 2 ,  , y n are n solutions, on an interval I , of the homogeneous nth order linear
differential equation with constants coefficients

dny d n−1 y dy
an + a n−1 +  + a1 + a0 y = 0
n n −1 dx
dx dx
Then
Either W ( y1 , y 2 ,  , y n ) = 0, ∀x ∈ I
or W ( y1 , y 2 ,  , y n ) ≠ 0, ∀x ∈ I

14.3 Linear Independence of Solutions

Suppose that

y1 , y 2 ,  , y n
are n solutions, on an interval I , of the homogeneous linear nth-order differential
equation
dny d n −1 y
a n (x ) ( ) +  + a1 (x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
dx dx dx
Then the set of solutions is linearly independent on I if and only if
W ( y1, y 2 ,  , y n ) ≠ 0

In other words
The solutions
y1 , y 2 ,  , y n
are linearly dependent if and only if

W ( y1, y 2 ,  , y n ) = 0, ∀x ∈ I

14.4 Fundamental Set of Solutions

A set
{y1 , y 2 ,, y n }
of n linearly independent solutions, on interval I , of the homogeneous linear nth-order
differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n (x ) ( ) +  + a1 (x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
dx dx dx

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is said to be a fundamental set of solutions on the interval I .

14.4.1 Existence of a Fundamental Set
There always exists a fundamental set of solutions for a linear nth-order homogeneous
differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n (x ) ( ) +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
dx dx dx
on an interval I.
14.5 General Solution-Homogeneous Equations
Suppose that
{y1 , y 2 ,, y n }
is a fundamental set of solutions, on an interval I, of the homogeneous linear nth-order
differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n (x ) ( ) +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
dx dx dx
Then the general solution of the equation on the interval I is defined to be
y = c1 y1 ( x ) + c 2 y 2 ( x ) +  + c n y n ( x )
Here c1 , c 2 ,, c n are arbitrary constants.

Example 1 The functions y1 = e 3 x and y 2 = e − 3 x

are solutions of the differential equation y ′′ − 9 y = 0

e3x e − 3x
Since W  e 3 x , e − 3 x  = = −6 ≠ 0, ∀x ∈ I
  3e 3 x − 3e − 3 x

Therefore y1 and y 2 from a fundamental set of solutions on (− ∞, ∞ ) . Hence general

solution of the differential equation on the (− ∞, ∞ ) is
y = c1e 3 x + c 2 e −3 x
Example 2

Consider the function y = 4 sinh 3 x − 5e − 3 x

Then y ′ = 12 cosh 3 x + 15e − 3 x , y ′′ = 36 sinh 3 x − 45e − 3 x

⇒ y′′ = 9 4 sinh 3 x − 5e− 3 x  or y′′ = 9 y ,

 
Therefore y ′′ − 9 y = 0

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Hence y = 4 sinh 3 x − 5e −3 x
is a particular solution of differential equation.
y ′′ − 9 y = 0

The general solution of the differential equation is

y = c1e 3 x + c 2 e − 3 x
Choosing c1 = 2, c 2 = −7

We obtain y = 2e 3 x − 7e − 3 x

y = 2e 3 x − 2e − 3 x − 5e − 3 x

 e 3x − e − 3x 
y = 4  − 5e − 3 x
 2 
 

y = 4 sinh 3 x − 5e − 3 x
Hence, the particular solution has been obtained from the general solution.
Example 3
d3y d2y dy
Consider the differential equation 3
− 6 2
+ 11 − 6 y = 0
dx dx dx

and suppose that y1 = e x , y 2 = e 2 x and y 3 = e 3 x

dy1 d 2 y1 d 3 y1
Then = ex = =
dx dx 2 dx 3

d 3 y1 d 2 y1 dy1
Therefore −6 + 11 − 6 y1 = e x − 6e x + 11e x − 6e x
3 2 dx
dx dx

d 3 y1 d 2 y1 dy
or −6 + 11 1 − 6 y1 = 12e x − 12e x = 0
dx 3 dx 2 dx

Thus the function y1 is a solution of the differential equation. Similarly, we can verify
that the other two functions i.e. y 2 and y 3 also satisfy the differential equation.
Now for all x ∈ R

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ex e2x e3x
W  e x , e 2 x , e 3 x  = e x 2e 2 x 3e 3 x = 2e 6 x ≠ 0 ∀ x ∈ I
 
ex 4e 2 x 9e 3 x

Therefore y1 , y 2, and y3 form a fundamental solution of the differential equation on

x 2x 3x
(− ∞, ∞ ) . We conclude that y = c1e + c2 e + c3e
is the general solution of the differential equation on the interval (− ∞, ∞ ) .

14.6 Non-Homogeneous Equations

A function y p that satisfies the non-homogeneous differential equation

ny n −1y
a ( x)
d
+a
n −1
( x)
d
+  + a1 ( x )
dy
+ a0 (x ) y = g (x )
dx n − 1
n
dx n dx
and is free of parameters is called the particular solution of the differential equation
Example 1 Suppose that y p = 3 ⇒ y ′p′ = 0

y ′p′ + 9 y p = 0 + 9(3)
So that
= 27
Therefore y p = 3 is a particular solution of the differential equation y ′p′ + 9 y p = 27

Example 2 Suppose that y p = x 3 − x ⇒ y ′p = 3 x 2 − 1, y ′p′ = 6 x

Therefore x 2 y ′p′ + 2 xy ′p − 8 y p = x 2 (6 x ) + 2 x 3 x 2 − 1 − 8 x 3 − x  = 4 x 3 + 6 x

   

Therefore y = x 3 − x is a particular solution of the differential equation

p

x 2 y ′′ + 2 xy ′ − 8 y = 4 x 3 + 6 x

14.7 Complementary Function

The general solution y = c1 y + c y +  + c y
c 1 2 2 n n
of the homogeneous linear differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n ( x ) n + a n −1 ( x ) n −1 +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
dx dx dx
is known as the complementary function for the non-homogeneous linear differential
equation.

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dny d n −1 y
a n (x ) ( ) +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = g ( x )
dy
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
dx dx dx

14.8 General Solution of Non-Homogeneous Equations

Suppose that
 The particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation
dny d n −1 y
a n ( x ) n + a n −1 ( x ) n −1 +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = g ( x )
dy
dx dx dx
is y p .
 The complementary function of the non-homogeneous differential equation
dny d n −1 y
a n ( x ) n + a n −1 ( x ) n −1 +  + a1 ( x ) + a 0 ( x ) y = 0
dy
dx dx dx
is
y c = c1 y1 + c 2 y 2 +  + c n y n .
 Then general solution of the non-homogeneous equation on the interval I is
given by
y = yc + y p
or
y = c1 y1 (x ) + c 2 y 2 ( x ) +  + c n y n ( x ) + y p ( x ) = y c ( x ) + y p ( x )
Hence General Solution = Complementary solution + any particular solution.
11 1
Example Suppose that y =− − x
p 12 2
1
Then y ′p = − , y ′p′ = 0 = y ′p′′
2

∴ d 3 yp
3
−6
d 2 yp
2
+ 11
dy p
− 6 yp = 0 − 0 −
11 11
+ + 3x = 3x
dx dx dx 2 2
11 1
Hence y =− − x is a particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation
p 12 2

d3y d2y dy
−6 + 11 − 6 y = 3x
dx 3 dx 2 dx

Now consider yc = c1e x + c 2 e 2 x + c3e 3 x

Then

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dyc
= c1e x + 2c 2 e 2 x + 3c3e 3 x
dx
d 2 yc
= c1e x + 4c 2 e 2 x + 9c3e 3 x
2
dx
d 3 yc
= c1e x + 8c 2 e 2 x + 27c3e 3 x
3
dx
Since,

d 3 yc d 2 yc dy c
−6 + 11 − 6 yc
dx 3 dx 2 dx

(
= c1e x + 8c2e 2 x + 27c3e3 x − 6 c1e x + 4c2e 2 x + 9c3e3 x )
( ) (
+ 11 c1e x + 2c2e 2 x + 3c3e3 x − 6 c1e x + c2e 2 x + c3e3 x )
= 12c1e x − 12c1e x + 30c2e 2 x − 30c2e 2 x + 60c3e3 x − 60c3e3 x
=0
Thus y c is general solution of associated homogeneous differential equation

d3y d2y dy
3
− 6 2
+ 11 − 6 y = 0
dx dx dx
Hence general solution of the non-homogeneous equation is
11 1
y = y + y = c1e x + c 2 e 2 x + c3 e 3 x − − x
c p 12 2
14.9 Superposition Principle for Non-homogeneous Equations
Suppose that y p , y p ,  , y p denote the particular solutions of the k differential
1 2 k
equation a n (x ) y (n ) + a n −1 (x ) y (n −1) +  + a1 ( x ) y ′ + a 0 (x ) y = g ( x ),
i
i = 1,2,  k , on an interval I . Then y p = y p ( x ) + y p ( x ) +  + y p ( x)
1 2 k
is a particular solution of
 n − 1
 n  
a (x ) y (x ) y +  + a1 ( x ) y ′ + a 0 ( x ) y = g ( x ) + g 2 ( x ) +  + g ( x )
 
 
+a  
n n −1 1 k
Example
Consider the differential equation

y′′ − 3 y′ + 4 y = −16 x 2 + 24 x − 8 + 2e 2 x + 2 xe x − e x
Suppose that

y p1 = −4 x 2 , y p2 = e 2 x , y p3 = xe x

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Then y ′p′1 − 3 y ′p1 + 4 y p1 = −8 + 24 x − 16 x 2

Therefore y = −4 x 2
p
1

is a particular solution of the non-homogenous differential equation

y ′′ − 3 y ′ + 4 y = −16 x 2 + 24 x − 8
Similarly, it can be verified that

y = e 2 x and y = xe x
p p
2 3
are particular solutions of the equations:
y ′′ − 3 y ′ + 4 y = 2e 2 x
and y′′-3 y′ + 4 y = 2 xe x − e x
respectively.

Hence y =y +y +y = −4 x 2 + e 2 x + xe x
p p p p
1 2 3

is a particular solution of the differential equation

y′′ − 3 y′ + 4 y = −16 x 2 + 24 x − 8 + 2e 2 x + 2 xe x − e x

14.10 Exercise

Verify that the given functions form a fundamental set of solutions of the differential
equation on the indicated interval. Form the general solution.

11. y ′′ − y ′ − 12 y = 0; e −3 x , e 4 x , (− ∞, ∞ )

12. y′′ − 2 y′ + 5 y = 0; e x cos 2 x, e x sin 2 x, (− ∞, ∞ )

13. x 2 y′′ + xy′ + y = 0; cos(ln x ), sin (ln x ), (0, ∞ )

14. 4 y ′′ − 4 y ′ + y = 0; e x / 2 , xe x / 2 , (− ∞, ∞ )

15. x 2 y ′′ − 6 xy ′ + 12 y = 0; x 3 , x 4 (0, ∞ )
16. y ′′ − 4 y = 0; cosh 2 x, sinh 2 x, (− ∞, ∞ )

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Verify that the given two-parameter family of functions is the general solution of the non-
homogeneous differential equation on the indicated interval.

17. y ′′ + y = sec x, y = c1 cos x + c 2 sin x + x sin x + (cos x ) ln(cos x ) , (− π / 2,π / 2) .

18. y′′ − 4 y′ + 4 y = 2e 2 x + 4 x − 12 , y = c1e 2 x + c2 xe 2 x + x 2e 2 x + x − 2

19. y ′′ − 7 y ′ + 10 y = 24e x , y = c1e 2 x + c 2 e 5 x + 6e x , (− ∞,∞ )

20. x 2 y ′′ + 5 xy ′ + y = x 2 − x, y = c1 x −1 / 2 + c 2 x −1 +
1 2 1
x − x, (0,∞ )
15 6

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15 Construction of a Second Solution

15.1 General Case
Consider the differential equation
d2y dy
a2 ( x) 2
+ a1 ( x) + a0 ( x ) y = 0
dx dx
We divide by a2 ( x) to put the above equation in the form

y // + P( x) y / + Q( x) y = 0
Where P(x) and Q(x) are continuous on some interval I .
Suppose that y1 ( x) ≠ 0, ∀ x ∈ I is a solution of the differential equation

y1 + P y1 + Q y1 = 0
// /
Then

We define y = u ( x ) y1 ( x ) then

y ′ = uy1 + y1u / ,
/
y ′′ = uy1′′ + 2 y1′u1′ + y1u ′′

y // + Py / + Qy = u[ y1 + Py1 + Qy1 ] + y1u // + (2 y1 + Py1 )u / = 0

// / /

zero

This implies that we must have

y1u // + (2 y1 + Py1 )u / = 0
/

If we suppose w = u ′, then

y1 w / + (2 y1 + Py1 ) w = 0
/

The equation is separable. Separating variables we have from the last equation
/
dw y
. + (2 1 + P )dx = 0
w y1
Integrating

ln w + 2 ln y1 = − ∫ Pdx + c

ln wy12 = − ∫ Pdx + c

wy12 = c1e ∫
− Pdx

− Pdx
c1e ∫ dx
w=
y12

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− Pdx
ce ∫
or u/ = 1
y12

Integrating again, we obtain

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
u = c1  dx + c 2
 y2
⌡ 1

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
Hence y = u ( x) y1 ( x) = c1 y1 ( x) dx + c 2 y1 ( x).
 y2
⌡ 1

Choosing c1 = 1 and c 2 = 0 , we obtain a second solution of the differential equation

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
y 2 = y1 ( x) dx
 y2
⌡ 1

The Woolskin

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
y1 y1 dx
 y 2
( )
W y1(x ), y 2 (x ) = ⌡
− ∫ Pdx
1
⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
e
y1′ + y1′  dx
y1  y 2
⌡ 1

= e − ∫ Pdx ≠ 0,∀x

Therefore y1 ( x) and y 2 ( x) are linear independent set of solutions. So that they form a
fundamental set of solutions of the differential equation

y // + P( x) y / + Q( x) y = 0

Hence the general solution of the differential equation is

y (x ) = c1 y1 (x ) + c 2 y 2 (x )

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Example 1
Given that
y1 = x 2
is a solution of
x 2 y // − 3 xy / + 4 y = 0
Find general solution of the differential equation on the interval (0, ∞ ) .
Solution:
The equation can be written as
3 / 4
y // − y + 2 y = 0,
x x
The 2nd solution y2 is given by

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
y 2 = y1 ( x) dx
 y1 2
⌡

⌠ e 3∫ dx x 2⌠ e
ln x3
or y2 = x  2
dx = x  4 dx
 x4 ⌡ x
⌡

y2 = x 2 ⌠
1
 dx = x ln x
2
⌡x
Hence the general solution of the differential equation on (0, ∞ ) is given by
y = c1 y1 + c 2 y 2
or y = c1 x 2 + c 2 x 2 ln x
Example 2
Verify that
sin x
y1 =
x
is a solution of
x 2 y // + xy / + ( x 2 − 1 4) y = 0
on (0, π ) . Find a second solution of the equation.

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Solution:
The differential equation can be written as
1 / 1
y // + y + (1 − 2 ) y = 0
x 4x
The 2nd solution is given by

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
y 2 = y1  dx
 y12
⌡
⌠ dx
sin x  e ∫ x
 −

Therefore y2 =  dx
x  ( sin x ) 2

⌡ x
− sin x ⌠ x
= 
 2
dx
x ⌡ x sin x
− sin x
=
x ∫ csc 2 xdx

− sin x cos x
= (− cot x)=
x x
Thus the second solution is
cos x
y2 =
x
Hence, general solution of the differential equation is
 sin x   cos x 
y = c1   + c 2  
 x   x 
15.2 Order Reduction
Example 3
Given that
y1 = x 3
is a solution of the differential equation
x 2 y // − 6 y = 0,
Find second solution of the equation
Solution

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We write the given equation as:

6
y // − y=0
x2
6
So that P( x) = −
x2
Therefore

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
y 2 = y1  dx
 y12
⌡
6
⌠ − ∫ x2
3 e
y2 = x  dx

⌡
x6
6
⌠
ex
y2 = x 3  dx

⌡
x6

Therefore, using the formula

⌠ e − ∫ Pdx
y 2 = y1  dx
 y12
⌡
We encounter an integral that is difficult or impossible to evaluate.

Hence, we conclude sometimes use of the formula to find a second solution is not
suitable. We need to try something else.
Alternatively, we can try the reduction of order to find y 2 . For this purpose, we again
define
y (x ) = u (x ) y1 ( x) or y = u ( x).x 3
then

y ′ = 3 x 2 u + x 3u ′
y ′′ = x 3u ′′ + 6 x 2 u / + 6 xu
Substituting the values of y, y ′′ in the given differential equation

x 2 y ′′ − 6 y = 0
we have

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x 2 ( x 3u ′′ + 6 x 2 u ′ + 6 xu ) − 6ux 3 = 0

or x 5u ′′ + 6 x 4 u ′ = 0
6
or u ′′ + u ′ = 0,
x
If we take w = u ′ then
6
w/ + w=0
x
This is separable as well as linear first order differential equation in w . For using the
latter, we find the integrating factor
⌠ 1
6 dx
I .F = e ⌡ x = e 6 ln x = x 6
Multiplying with the IF = x 6 , we obtain

x 6 w′ + 6 x 5 w = 0
d 6
or ( x w) = 0
dx
Integrating w.r.t. ’ x ’, we have

x 6 w = c1
c1
or u/ =
x6
Integrating once again, gives
c1
u=− + c2
5x 5
− c1
Therefore y = ux 3 = + c2 x 3
5x 2
Choosing c 2 = 0 and c1 = −5 , we obtain
1
y2 =
x2
Thus the second solution is given by
1
y2 =
x2
Hence, general solution of the given differential equation is
y = c1 y1 + c 2 y 2

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i.e. ( )
y = c1 x 3 + c 2 1 / x 2
Where c1 and c 2 are constants.

15.3 Exercise
Find the 2nd solution of each of Differential equations by reducing order or by
using the formula.
1. y // − y / = 0; y1 = 1

2. y // + 2 y / + y = 0; y1 = xe − x

3. y // + 9 y = 0; y1 = sin x

4. y // − 25 y = 0; y1 = e5 x

5. 6 y // + y / − y = 0; y1 = e x 2

6. x 2 y // + 2 xy / − 6 y = 0; y1 = x 2

7. 4 x 2 y // + y = 0; y1 = x1 2 ln x

8. (1 − x 2 ) y // − 2 xy / = 0; y1 = 1

9. x 2 y // − 3xy / + 5 y = 0; y1 = x 2 cos(ln x)

10. (1 + x) y // + xy / − y = 0; y1 = x

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16 Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

dy
We know that the linear first order differential equation + my = 0
dx
m being a constant, has the exponential solution on (− ∞, ∞ ) as y = c1e − mx .
The question?
 The question is whether or not the exponential solutions of the higher-order
differential equations
a n y ( n) + a n −1 y ( n −1) +  + a 2 y // + a1 y / + a0 y = 0,
exist on (− ∞, ∞ ) .
 In fact all the solutions of this equation are exponential functions or constructed
out of exponential functions.
Recall that the linear differential of order n is an equation of the form

dny d n −1 y dy
a n ( x) + a n −1 ( x) +  + a1 ( x) + a0 ( x) y = g ( x)
dx n dx n −1 dx

16.1 Method of Solution

d2y dy
Taking n = 2 , the nth-order differential equation becomes a 2 2
+ a1 + a0 y = 0
dx dx
d2y dy
This equation can be written as a 2
+ b + cy = 0
dx dx

We now try a solution of the exponential form y = e mx ⇒ y ′ = me mx and y ′′ = m 2 e mx

Substituting in the differential equation, we have e mx (am 2 + bm + c) = 0

Since e
mx
≠ 0, ∀x ∈ (− ∞, ∞ ) , therefore am 2 + bm + c = 0
This algebraic equation is known as the Auxiliary equation (AE).The solution of the
auxiliary equation determines the solutions of the differential equation.
16.1.1 Case 1 (Distinct Real Roots)
If the auxiliary equation has distinct real roots m1 and m2 then we have the following two
m x m x
solutions of the differential equation. y1 = e 1 and y 2 = e 2
These solutions are linearly independent because
y y2
/ = (m2 − m1 )e
( m1 + m 2 ) x
W ( y1 , y 2 ) = 1/
y1 y2

Since m1 ≠ m2 and e (m1 + m2 )x ≠ 0 , therefore W ( y1 , y 2 ) ≠ 0 ∀x ∈ (− ∞, ∞ ) .

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Hence
 y1 and y 2 form a fundamental set of solutions of the differential equation.
 The general solution of the differential equation on (− ∞, ∞ ) is

y = c1e m1 x + c 2 e m 2 x
16.1.2 Case 2 (Repeated Roots)
If the auxiliary equation has real and equal roots i.e. m = m1 , m2 with m1 = m2

Then we obtain only one exponential solution y = c1e mx

b c
To construct a second solution we rewrite the equation in the form y ′′ + y′ + y = 0
a a
Comparing with y ′′ + Py ′ + Qy = 0
b
We make the identification P =
a
b
⌠ e − ∫ Pdx ⌠ −ax
e
Thus a second solution is given by y 2 = y1  dx = e 
mx
dx
 y12  e 2mx
⌡ ⌡
Since the auxiliary equation is a quadratic algebraic equation and has equal roots

Therefore, Disc. = b 2 − 4ac = 0

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
We know from the quadratic formula m =
2a

e 2mx
∫
b
we have 2m = − .Therefore y 2 = e mx dx = xe mx
a 2 mx
e

Hence the general solution is y = c1e mx + c 2 xe mx = (c1 + c 2 x)e mx

16.1.3 Case 3 (Complex Roots)
If the auxiliary equation has complex roots α ± iβ then, with m1 = α + iβ and
m2 = α − iβ , where α >0 and β >0 are real, the general solution of the differential
equation is y = c1e (α + iβ ) x + c 2 e (α − iβ ) x
First we choose the following two pairs of values of c1 and c 2 , c1 = c 2 = 1

y = e (α + iβ ) x + e (α − iβ ) x
c1 = 1,c 2 = −1 ,then we have 1 .We know by the Euler’s Formula
y 2 = e (α + iβ ) x − e (α − iβ ) x
that e iθ = cosθ + i sin θ , θ ∈R .

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Using this formula, we can simplify the solutions y1 and y 2 as

y1 = eαx (e iβx + e −iβx ) = 2eαx cos βx

y 2 = eαx (e iβx − e − iβx ) = 2ieαx sin βx

We can drop constant to write. y1 = eαx cos βx , y 2 = eαx sin βx

( )
The Wronskian: W e αx cos βx , e αx sin βx = βe 2αx ≠ 0 ∀ x

Therefore, eαx cos( β x), eαx sin( β x) form a fundamental set of solutions of the
differential equation on (− ∞, ∞ ) .Hence general solution of the differential equation is

y = c1eαx cos βx + c 2 eαx sin βx ⇒ y = eαx (c1 cos βx + c 2 sin βx)

Example: Solve 2 y ′′ − 5 y ′ − 3 y = 0
Solution: The given differential equation is 2 y ′′ − 5 y ′ − 3 y = 0

Put y = e mx ⇒ y ′ = me mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx .Substituting in the give differential equation,

( )
we have 2m 2 − 5m − 3 e mx = 0 . Since e mx ≠ 0 ∀ x , the auxiliary equation is

as e mx ≠ 0 ⇒ (2m + 1)(m − 3) = 0 ⇒ m = − , 3
1
2m 2 − 5m − 3 = 0
2
1
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has distinct real roots m1 = − and m 2 = 3
2

Hence the general solution of the differential equation is y = c1e ( −1 / 2) x + c 2 e 3 x

Example 2 Solve y ′′ − 10 y ′ + 25 y = 0

Solution: We put y = e mx ⇒ y ′ = me mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx

Substituting in the given differential equation, we have (m 2 − 10m + 25)e mx = 0

Since e mx ≠ 0 ∀ x , the auxiliary equation is m 2 − 10m + 25 = 0

(m − 5)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 5, 5 .Thus the auxiliary equation has repeated real roots i.e
m1 = 5 = m2 . Hence general solution of the differential equation is

y = c1e 5 x + c 2 xe 5 x ⇒ y = (c1 + c 2 x)e 5 x

y ′′ − 4 y ′ + 13 y = 0
Example 3 Solve the initial value problem:
y (0 ) = -1, y ′(0 ) = 2
Solution: Given that the differential equation y ′′ − 4 y ′ + 13 y = 0

Put y = e mx ⇒ y ′ = me mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx

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Substituting in the given differential equation, we have: (m 2 − 4m + 13)e mx = 0

Since e mx ≠ 0∀x , the auxiliary equation is m 2 − 4m + 13 = 0

4 ± 16 − 52
By quadratic formula, the solution of the auxiliary equation is m = = 2 ± 3i
2
Thus the auxiliary equation has complex roots m1 = 2 + 3i, m2 = 2 − 3i

Hence general solution of the differential equation is y = e 2 x (c1 cos 3 x + c 2 sin 3 x )

Example 4 Solve the differential equations (a) y′′ + k 2 y = 0 , (b) y′′ − k 2 y = 0

Solution First consider the differential equation y ′′ + k 2 y = 0 ,

Put y = e mx ⇒ y ′ = me mx and y ′′ = m 2 e mx .
(
Substituting in the given differential equation, we have: m 2 + k 2 e mx = 0 )
Since e mx ≠ 0∀x , the auxiliary equation is m 2 + k 2 = 0 ⇒ m = ± ki ,
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has complex roots m1 = 0 + ki, m2 = 0 − ki
Hence general solution of the differential equation is y = c1 cos kx + c 2 sin kx

d2y
Next consider the differential equation 2
−k2y = 0
dx
( )
Substituting values y and y ′′, we have. m 2 − k 2 e mx = 0
Since e mx ≠ 0, the auxiliary equation is m 2 − k 2 = 0 ⇒ m = ± k
Thus the auxiliary equation has distinct real roots m1 = + k , m2 = −k
kx − kx
Hence the general solution is y = c1e + c 2 e .

16.2 Higher Order Equations

If we consider nth order homogeneous linear differential equation

dny d n −1 y dy
an + an −1 +  + a1 + a0 y = 0
dx n dx n −1 dx
Then, the auxiliary equation is an nth degree polynomial equation

a n m n + a n −1m n −1 +  + a1m + a0 = 0
16.2.1 Case 1 (Real distinct roots)
If the roots m1 , m2 ,  , mn of the auxiliary equation are all real and distinct, then the
general solution of the equation is y = c1e m1 x + c 2 e m 2 x +  + c n e m n x

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16.2.2 Case 2 (Real & repeated roots)

We suppose that m1 is a root of multiplicity n of the auxiliary equation, then it can be
shown that

e m1 x , xe m1 x ,  , x n −1e m1 x
are n linearly independent solutions of the differential equation. Hence general solution
of the differential equation is

y = c1e m1 x + c 2 xe m1 x +  + c n x n −1e m1 x
16.2.3 Case 3 (Complex roots)
Suppose that coefficients of the auxiliary equation are real.
 We fix n at 6, all roots of the auxiliary are complex, namely
α1 ± i β1 , α 2 ± i β 2 , α 3 ± i β3
 Then the general solution of the differential equation
y eα1x (c1 cos β1 x + c2 sin β1 x) + eα 2 x (c3 cos β 2 x + c4 sin β 2 x)
=
+ eα3 x (c5 cos β3 x + c6 sin β3 x)
 If n = 6 , two roots of the auxiliary equation are real and equal and the remaining
4 are complex, namely α 1 ± iβ 1 , α 2 ± iβ 2
Then the general solution is
y = eα1x (c1 cos β 1 x + c 2 sin β 1 x) + eα 2 x (c3 cos β 2 x + c 4 sin β 2 x) + c5 e m1x + c 6 xe m1x
 If m1 = α + iβ is a complex root of multiplicity k of the auxiliary equation. Then
its conjugate m2 = α − iβ is also a root of multiplicity k . Thus from Case 2 , the
differential equation has 2k solutions
e (α + iβ )x , xe (α + iβ )x , x 2 e (α + iβ )x ,  , x k −1e (α + iβ )x
e (α − iβ )x , xe (α − iβ )x , x 2 e (α − iβ )x ,  , x k −1e (α − iβ )x
 By using the Euler’s formula, we conclude that the general solution of the
differential equation is a linear combination of the linearly independent solutions
eαx cos βx, xeαx cos βx, x 2 eαx cos βx,  , x k −1eαx cos βx
eαx sin βx, xeαx sin βx, x 2 eαx sin βx,  , x k −1eαx sin βx
 Thus if k = 3 then
( ) (
y = eαx [ c1 + c 2 x + c3 x 2 cos βx + d1 + d 2 x + d 3 x 2 sin βx] )
16.3 Solving the Auxiliary Equation
Recall that the auxiliary equation of nth degree differential equation is nth degree
polynomial equation
 Solving the auxiliary equation could be difficult
Pn (m) = 0, n > 2

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 One way to solve this polynomial equation is to guess a root m1 . Then m − m1 is a

factor of the polynomial Pn (m) .

 Dividing with m − m1 synthetically or otherwise, we find the factorization

Pn (m) = (m − m1 ) Q(m)
 We then try to find roots of the quotient i.e. roots of the polynomial equation
Q ( m) = 0
p
 Note that if m1 = is a rational real root of the equation
q
Pn (m) = 0, n > 2
then p is a factor of a0 and q of a n .
 By using this fact we can construct a list of all possible rational roots of the
auxiliary equation and test each of them by synthetic division.
Example 1 Solve the differential equation y ′′′ + 3 y ′′ − 4 y = 0

Solution:Given the differential equation y ′′′ + 3 y ′′ − 4 y = 0 . Put y = e mx

⇒ y / = me mx , y // = m 2 e mx and y /// = m 3e mx
Substituting this in the given differential equation, we have

(m 3 + 3m 2 − 4)e mx = 0

Since e mx ≠ 0 ⇒ m 3 + 3m 2 − 4 = 0

So that the auxiliary equation is m 3 + 3m 2 − 4 = 0

Solution of the AE

If we take m = 1 then we see that m 3 + 3m 2 − 4 = 1 + 3 − 4 = 0

Therefore m = 1 satisfies the auxiliary equations so that m-1 is a factor of the polynomial

(
m 3 + 3m 2 − 4 . By synthetic division, we can writ m 3 + 3m 2 − 4 = (m − 1) m 2 + 4m + 4 )
So, m 3 + 3m 2 − 4 = (m − 1)(m + 2) 2 =0 ⇒ (m − 1)(m + 2) 2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1,−2,−2

Hence solution of the differential equation is y = c1e x + c 2 e −2 x + c3 xe −2 x

Example 2
Solve 3 y /// + 5 y // + 10 y / − 4 y = 0

Solution: Given the differential equation 3 y /// + 5 y // + 10 y / − 4 y = 0

Put y = e mx ⇒ y / = me mx , y // = m 2 e mx and y /// = m 3e mx

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Therefore the auxiliary equation is 3m 3 + 5m 2 + 10m − 4 = 0

Solution of the auxiliary equation:
a) a = −4 and all its factors are:
p: ± 1, ± 2, ± 4
b) a n = 3 and all its factors are:
q: ± 1, ± 3
c) List of possible rational roots of the auxiliary equation is
p −1 1 − 2 2 − 4 4
: - 1, 1, - 2, 2, - 4, 4, , , , , ,
q 3 3 3 3 3 3
d) Testing each of these successively by synthetic division we find
1 3 5 10 −4
 1 2 4
3
3 6 12 0

Consequently a root of the auxiliary equation is m = 1 3

The coefficients of the quotient are 3 6 12

(
Thus we can write the auxiliary equation as: (m − 1 3) 3m 2 + 6m + 12 = 0 )
1
m− =0 or 3m 2 + 6m + 12 = 0 ⇒ m = 1 3 or m = −1 ± i 3
3

(
Hence solution of the given DE is: y = c1e (1 / 3) x + e − x c 2 cos 3 x + c3 sin 3 x )
d4y d 2y
Example 3 Solve the differential equation +2 +y=0
dx 4 dx 2

d4y d 2y
Solution: Given the differential equation +2 + y = 0.
dx 4 dx 2

Put y = e mx ⇒ y ′ = me mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx

(
Substituting in the differential equation, we obtain m 4 + 2m 2 + 1 e mx = 0 )
Since e mx ≠ 0 , the auxiliary equation is m 4 + 2m 2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m 2 + 1) 2 = 0
⇒ m = ±i, ± i ⇒ m1 = m3 = i and m2 = m4 = − i
Thus i is a root of the auxiliary equation of multiplicity 2 and so is − i .
Now α = 0 and β = 1 .Hence the general solution of the differential equation is

y = e 0 x [(c1 + c 2 x) cos x + (d1 + d 2 x) sin x ] ⇒ y = c1 cos x + d1 sin x + c 2 x cos x + d 2 x sin x

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Exercise
Find the general solution of the given differential equations.
1. y // − 8 y = 0

2. y // − 3 y / + 2 y = 0
3. y // + 4 y / − y = 0

4. 2 y // − 3 y / + 4 y = 0

5. 4 y /// + 4 y // + y / = 0

6. y /// + 5 y // = 0

7. y /// + 3 y // − 4 y / − 12 y = 0
Solve the given differential equations subject to the indicated initial conditions.
8. y /// + 2 y // − 5 y / − 6 y = 0, y (0) = y / (0) = 0, y // (0) = 1

d4y
9. 4
= 0 , y (0) = 2, y / (0) = 3, y // (0) = 4, y /// (0) = 5
dx

d4y
10. − y = 0 , y (0) = y / (0) = y // (0) = 0, y /// (0) = 1
4
dx

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17 Method of Undetermined Coefficients(Superposition Approach)

Recall
1. That a non-homogeneous linear differential equation of order n is an equation of the
form
dny d n −1 y dy
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+  + a1 + a 0 y = g ( x)
dx dx dx
The coefficients a 0 , a1 ,  , a n can be functions of x . However, we will discuss
equations with constant coefficients.
2. That to obtain the general solution of a non-homogeneous linear differential equation
we must find:

 The complementary function y , which is general solution of the associated

c
homogeneous differential equation.
 Any particular solution y of the non-homogeneous differential equation.
p
3. That the general solution of the non-homogeneous linear differential equation is given
by
General solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral
Finding
Complementary function has been discussed in the previous lecture. In the next three
lectures we will discuss methods for finding a particular integral for the non-
homogeneous equation, namely
 The method of undetermined coefficients-superposition approach
 The method undetermined coefficients-annihilator operator approach.
 The method of variation of parameters.
The Method of Undetermined Coefficient
The method of undetermined coefficients developed here is limited to non-homogeneous
linear differential equations
 That have constant coefficients, and
 Where the function g (x) has a specific form.
17.1 The form of Input function g (x)
The input function g (x) can have one of the following forms:
 A constant function k.
 A polynomial function
x
 An exponential function e
 The trigonometric functions sin( β x), cos(β x)
 Finite sums and products of these functions.

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Otherwise, we cannot apply the method of undetermined coefficients.

17.2 Solution Steps
Consist of performing the following steps.
Step 1 Determine the form of the input function g (x) .
Step 2 Assume the general form of y according to the form of g (x)
p

Step 3 Substitute in the given non-homogeneous differential equation.

Step 4 Simplify and equate coefficients of like terms from both sides.
Step 5 Solve the resulting equations to find the unknown coefficients.
Step 6 Substitute the calculated values of coefficients in assumed y
p
17.2.1 Restriction on Input function g
The input function g is restricted to have one of the above stated forms because of the
reason:
 The derivatives of sums and products of polynomials, exponentials etc are again
sums and products of similar kind of functions.
The expression ay + by + cy has to be identically equal to the input
// /

p p p
function g (x) .
Therefore, to make an educated guess, y p is assured to have the same form as g .
Caution!
 In addition to the form of the input function g (x) , the educated guess for y must
p
take into consideration the functions that make up the complementary function y
c
.
 No function in the assumed y must be a solution of the associated homogeneous
p
differential equation. This means that the assumed y p should not contain terms
that duplicate terms in y .
c
Taking for granted that no function in the assumed y p is duplicated by a function in y ,
c
some forms of g and the corresponding forms of y p are given in the following table.

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17.3 Trial particular solutions

Number The input function g (x) The assumed particular solution y

p

1 Any constant e.g. 1 A

2 5x + 7 Ax + B

3 3x 2 − 2 Ax 2 + Bx + c

4 x3 − x + 1 Ax 3 + Bx 2 + Cx + D

5 sin 4 x A cos 4 x + B sin 4 x

6 cos 4 x A cos 4 x + B sin 4 x

7 e5x Ae 5 x

8 (9 x − 2)e 5 x ( Ax + B )e 5 x

9 x 2e5x ( Ax 2 + Bx + C )e 5 x

10 e 3 x sin 4 x A e 3 x cos 4 x + B e 3 x sin 4 x

11 5 x 2 sin 4 x ( A1 x 2 + B1 x + C1 ) cos 4 x + ( A2 x 2 + B2 x + C2 ) sin 4 x

12 xe3x cos 4 x ( Ax + B)e 3 x cos 4 x + (Cx + D)e 3 x sin 4 x

17.4 Input function g (x ) as a sum

Suppose that
 The input function g (x ) consists of a sum of m terms of the kind listed in the
above table i.e.
g ( x ) = g1 ( x ) + g 2 ( x ) +  + g m ( x ).
 The trial forms corresponding to g1 ( x ), g 2 ( x ),  , g m ( x ) be y p1 , y p 2 ,  , y p m .

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Then the particular solution of the given non-homogeneous differential equation is

y p = y p1 + y p 2 +  + y p m

In other words, the form of y p is a linear combination of all the linearly independent
functions generated by repeated differentiation of the input function g (x) .

Example 1 Solve y // + 4 y / − 2 y = 2 x 2 − 3 x + 6
Solution:
Complementary function: To find y , we first solve the associated homogeneous
c
equation y + 4 y − 2 y = 0
// /

We put y = e mx , y ′ = me mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx
Then the associated homogeneous equation gives

(m 2 + 4m − 2)e mx = 0

Therefore, the auxiliary equation is m 2 + 4m − 2 = 0 as e mx ≠ 0, ∀ x

Using the quadratic formula, roots of the auxiliary equation are m = −2 ± 6

Thus we have real and distinct roots of the auxiliary equation
m1 = −2 − 6 and m2 = −2 + 6 .

− (2 + 6 ) x (−2 + 6 ) x
Hence the complementary function is y = c1e + c2 e
c
Next we find a particular solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation.

Particular Integral Since the input function g ( x) = 2 x 2 − 3 x + 6

is a quadratic polynomial. Therefore, we assume that y p = Ax 2 + Bx + C

⇒ y p = 2 Ax + B and y p = 2 A
/ //

⇒ y p + 4 y p − 2 y p = 2 A + 8 Ax + 4 B − 2 Ax 2 − 2 Bx − 2C
// /

Substituting in the given equation, we have

2 A + 8 Ax + 4 B − 2 Ax 2 − 2 Bx − 2C = 2 x 2 − 3 x + 6
Or − 2 Ax 2 + (8 A − 2 B ) x + (2 A + 4 B − 2C ) = 2 x 2 − 3 x + 6
Equating the coefficients of the like powers of x , we have
- 2A = 2 , 8A - 2B = - 3 , 2A + 4B - 2C = 6
Solving this system of equations leads to the values
A = −1, B = − 5 2, C = −9. Thus a particular solution of the given equation is

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5
y p = −x2 − x − 9 .Hence, the general solution of the given non-homogeneous
2
differential equation is given by y = y + y p
c

x − 9 + c1e − (2 + 6 ) x + c2 e (−2 + 6 ) x
5
⇒ y = −x2 −
2
Example 2 Solve the differential equation y // − y / + y = 2 sin 3 x
Solution: Complementary function: To find y , we solve the associated homogeneous
c
differential equation y // − y / + y = 0 .Put y = e mx ⇒ y′ = me mx , y′′ = m 2e mx
.Substitute in the given differential equation to obtain the auxiliary equation
1± i 3
m2 − m +1 = 0 ⇒ m =
2
Hence, the auxiliary equation has complex roots. Hence the complementary function is

(1 / 2) x  3 3 
y =e  c1 cos x + c 2 sin x 
c 2 2
 
Particular Integral Since successive differentiation of g ( x) = sin 3 x produce
sin 3 x and cos 3 x .Therefore, we include both of these terms in the assumed particular
solution, see table
y = A cos 3 x + B sin 3 x. ⇒ y ′ = −3 A sin 3 x + 3B cos 3 x. y ′′ = −9 A cos 3 x − 9 B sin 3 x.
p p p

∴ y p − y p + y p = (−8 A − 3B ) cos 3 x + (3 A − 8 B ) sin 3 x.

// /

Substituting in the given differential equation:

(−8 A − 3B ) cos 3 x + (3 A − 8 B ) sin 3 x = 0 cos 3 x + 2 sin 3 x.
From the resulting equations − 8 A − 3B = 0, 3 A − 8 B = 2
Solving these equations, we obtain A = 6 / 73, B = −16 / 73
6 16
A particular solution of the equation is y = cos 3 x − sin 3 x
p 73 73
Hence the general solution of the given non-homogeneous differential equation is

(1 / 2) x  3 3  6 16
y=e  c1 cos x + c 2 sin x  + cos 3 x − sin 3 x
 2 2  73 73

Example 3 Solve y // − 2 y / − 3 y = 4 x − 5 + 6 xe 2 x
Solution: Complementary function

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To find y , we solve the associated homogeneous equation y // − 2 y / − 3 y = 0

c

Put y = e mx ⇒ y′ = me mx , y′′ = m 2e mx
Substitute in the given differential equation to obtain the auxiliary equation
m 2 − 2m − 3 = 0
⇒ m = −1, 3
⇒ (m + 1)(m − 3) = 0
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has real distinct root m1 = −1, m = 3
2

Thus the complementary function is y = c1e − x + c e 3 x .

c 2
Particular integral

Since g ( x) = (4 x − 5) + 6 xe 2 x = g1 ( x) + g 2 ( x)
Corresponding to g1 ( x) : y = Ax + B
p
1

Corresponding to g 2 ( x) : y = (Cx + D)e 2 x

p
2

The superposition principle suggests that we assume a particular solution

y p = y p + y p ⇒ y p = Ax + B + (Cx + D) e 2 x ⇒ y ′p = A + 2(Cx + D) e 2 x + Ce 2 x
1 2

⇒ y ′p′ = 4(Cx + D) e 2 x + 4Ce 2 x .Substituting in the given:

y p // − 2 y p / − 3 y p = 4Cxe 2 x + 4 De 2 x + 4Ce 2 x − 2 A − 4Cxe 2 x

∴
− 4 De 2 x − 2Ce 2 x − 3 Ax − 3B − 3Cxe 2 x − 3De 2 x
Simplifying and grouping like terms

y p // − 2 y p / − 3 y p = −3 Ax − 2 A − 3B − 3Cxe 2 x + (2C − 3D)e 2 x = 4 x − 5 + 6 xe 2 x .

Substituting in the non-homogeneous differential equation, we have

− 3 Ax − 2 A − 3B − 3Cxe 2 x + (2C − 3D)e 2 x = 4 x − 5 + 6 xe 2 x + 0e 2 x

Now equating constant terms and coefficients of x , xe 2 x and e 2 x , we obtain

− 2 A − 3B = −5 , − 3 A = 4 , − 3C = 6 , 2C − 3D = 0
A = − 4 3, B = 23 9
Solving these algebraic equations, we find
C = −2, D = -4 3
Thus, a particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation is
y p = −(4 3) x + (23 9) − 2 xe 2 x − (4 3)e 2 x

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∴ general solution: y = y c + y p = c1e − x + c 2 e 3 x − (4 3 ) x + (23 9) − 2 x e 2x - (4 3)e 2 x

17.5 Duplication between y p and y c

 If a function in the assumed y p is also present in y c then this function is a
solution of the associated homogeneous differential equation. In this case the
obvious assumption for the form of y p is not correct.
 In this case we suppose that the input function is made up of terms of n kinds i.e.
g ( x) = g1 ( x) + g 2 ( x) +  + g n ( x)
and corresponding to this input function the assumed particular solution y p is
y p = y p + y p +  + y pn
1 2
 If a y p contain terms that duplicate terms in y c , then that y p must be multiplied
i i

with x n , n being the least positive integer that eliminates the duplication.
Example 4 Find a particular solution of the following non-homogeneous differential
equation y // − 5 y / + 4 y = 8e x .

Solution: To find y c , we solve the associated homogeneous differential equation

y // − 5 y / + 4 y = 0

We put y = e mx in the given equation, so that the auxiliary equation is

m 2 − 5m + 4 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 4 ⇒ yc = c1e + c2e
x 4x

 g ( x) = 8e x ⇒ y p = Ae x

Substituting in the given non-homogeneous differential equation, we obtain

Ae x − 5 Ae x + 4 Ae x = 8e x ⇒ 0 = 8e x
Clearly we have made a wrong assumption for y p , as we did not remove the duplication.
Since Ae x is present in yc . Therefore, it is a solution of the associated homogeneous
differential equation y // − 5 y / + 4 y = 0

To avoid this we find a particular solution of the form y p = Axe x

We notice that there is no duplication between y c and this new assumption for y p

Now y p / = Axe x + Ae x , y p // = Axe x + 2 Ae x .Substituting in the given differential

equation, we obtain Axe x + 2 Ae x − 5 Axe x − 5 Ae x + 4 Axe x = 8e x .

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or − 3 Ae x = 8e x ⇒ A = − 8 3 . So that a particular solution of the given equation is given

by y p = −(8 3)e x Hence, the general solution of the given equation is
y =c1e x + c2 e 4 x − (8 / 3) x e x
Example 5 Determine the form of the particular solution

(a) y // − 8 y / + 25 y = 5 x 3e − x − 7e − x

(b) y // + 4 y = x cos x.
Solution:
(a) To find yc we solve the associated homogeneous differential equation
y // − 8 y / + 25 y = 0

Put y = e mx ⇒ the auxiliary equation is m 2 − 8m + 25 = 0 ⇒ m = 4 ± 3i

Roots of the auxiliary equation are complex

∴ y c = e 4 x (c1 cos 3 x + c2 sin 3 x)

The input function is g ( x) = 5 x 3e − x − 7e − x = (5 x 3 − 7)e − x

Therefore, we assume a particular solution of the form y p = ( Ax 3 + Bx 2 + Cx + D)e − x

Notice that there is no duplication between the terms in y p and the terms in yc .
Therefore, while proceeding further we can easily calculate the value A, B, C and D .
(b) Consider the associated homogeneous differential equation y // + 4 y = 0
Since g ( x) = x cos x .Therefore, we assume a particular solution of the form
y p = ( Ax + B ) cos x + (Cx + D) sin x .Again observe that there is no duplication of terms
between yc and y p

Example 6
Determine the form of a particular solution of y // − y / + y= 3 x 2 − 5sin 2 x + 7 xe6 x
Solution: To find yc , we solve the associated homogeneous differential equation

y // − y / + y = 0 .Put y = e mx ,then the auxiliary equation is

1± i 3  3 3 
m2 − m + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ⇒ y c = e (1 / 2) x  c1 cos x + c2 sin x
2  2 2 

 g ( x) =3 x 2 − 5sin 2 x + 7 xe6 x =g1 ( x) + g 2 ( x) + g3 ( x)

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Corresponding to g1 ( x) = 3 x 2 : y p1 = Ax 2 + Bx + C

Corresponding to g 2 ( x) = −5sin 2 x : y p2 = D cos 2 x + E sin 2 x

Corresponding to g3 ( x) = 7 xe6 x : y p 3 = ( Fx + G ) e6x

Hence, the assumption for the particular solution is y p = y p1 + y p2 + y p3

⇒ y p = Ax 2 + Bx + C + D cos 2 x + E sin 2 x + ( Fx + G )e6x

No term in this assumption duplicate any term in the complementary function

y c = c1e 2 x + c 2 e 7 x
Example 7
Find a particular solution of y // − 2 y / + y = e x

Solution: Consider the associated homogeneous equation y // − 2 y / + y = 0

m 2 − 2m + 1 = (m − 1) 2 = 0
Put y = e mx .Then the auxiliary equation is :
⇒m = 1, 1

Roots of the auxiliary equation are real and equal. Therefore, y c = c1e x + c 2 xe x

Since g ( x) = e x .Therefore, we assume that y p = Ae x

This assumption fails because of duplication between y c and y p . We multiply with x

Therefore, we now assume y p = Axe x .However, the duplication is still there. Therefore,

we again multiply with x and assume y p = Ax 2 e x

1 2 x
Since there is no duplication, this is acceptable form of the trial y p = x e
2

y // + y = 4 x + 10 sin x,
Example 8 Solve the initial value problem:
y(π ) = 0, y / (π ) = 2
Solution Consider the associated homogeneous differential equation

y // + y = 0 .Put y = e mx Then the auxiliary equation is m 2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ± i

The roots of the auxiliary equation are complex. Therefore, the complementary function
is y c = c1 cos x + c 2 sin x

Since g ( x) = 4 x + 10 sin x = g1 ( x) + g 2 ( x)
Therefore, we assume that y p1 = Ax + B , y p 2 = C cos x + D sin x

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So that y p = Ax + B + C cos x + D sin x

Clearly, there is duplication of the functions cos x and sin x . To remove this duplication
we multiply y p 2 with x . Therefore, we assume that

y p = Ax + B + C x cos x + Dx sin x.

y′′p =
−2C sin x − Cx cos x + 2 D cos x − Dx sin x

So that y p // + y p = Ax + B − 2C sin x + 2 Dx cos x

Substituting into the given non-homogeneous differential equation, we have

Ax + B − 2C sin x + 2 Dx cos x = 4 x + 10 sin x
Equating constant terms and coefficients of x , sin x , x cos x , we obtain
B = 0, A = 4, − 2C = 10, 2 D = 0
So that A = 4, B = 0, C = −5, D = 0
Thus y p = 4 x − 5 x cos x

Hence the general solution of the differential equation is

y = y c + y p = c1 cos x + c 2 sin x + 4 x - 5 x cos x

We now apply the initial conditions to find c1 and c 2 .

y (π ) = 0 ⇒ c1 cos π + c 2 sin π + 4π − 5π cos π = 0
Since sin π = 0, cos π = −1
Therefore c1 = 9π

Now y / = −9π sin x + c 2 cos x + 4 + 5 x sin x − 5 cos x

Therefore y / (π ) = 2 ⇒ −9π sin π + c 2 cos π + 4 + 5π sin π − 5 cos π = 2

∴ c 2 = 7.
Hence the solution of the initial value problem is
y = 9π cos x + 7 sin x + 4 x − 5 x cos x.

Example 9 Solve the differential equation y // − 6 y / + 9 y = 6 x 2 + 2 − 12e 3 x

Solution: The associated homogeneous differential equation is y // − 6 y / + 9 y = 0 .Put

y = e mx .Then the auxiliary equation is m 2 − 6m + 9 = 0 ⇒ m = 3, 3
Thus the complementary function is y c = c1e 3 x + c 2 xe 3 x

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Since g ( x) = ( x 2 + 2) − 12e 3 x = g1 ( x) + g 2 ( x)
We assume that

Corresponding to g1 ( x) = x 2 + 2 : y p1 = Ax 2 + Bx + C

Corresponding to g 2 ( x) = −12e 3 x : y p 2 = De 3 x

Thus the assumed form of the particular solution is

y p = Ax 2 + Bx + C + De 3 x

The function e 3 x in y p 2 is duplicated between y c and y p . Multiplication with x does

not remove this duplication. However, if we multiply y p 2 with x 2 , this duplication is
removed.
Thus the operative from of a particular solution is

y p = Ax 2 + Bx + C + Dx 2 e 3 x

Then y ′p = 2 Ax + B + 2 Dxe 3 x + 3Dx 2 e 3 x

and y ′p′ = 2 A + 2 De 3 x + 6 Dxe 3 x + 9 Dx 2 e 3 x

Substituting into the given differential equation and collecting like term, we obtain
y p // − 6 y p / + y p = 9 Ax 2 + (−12 A + 9 B) x + 2 A − 6 B + 9C + 2 De 3 x = 6 x 2 + 2 − 12e 3 x

Equating constant terms and coefficients of x, x 2 and e 3 x yields

2 A − 6 B + 9C = 2, − 12 A + 9 B = 0
9 A = 6, 2 D = −12
Solving these equations, we have the values of the unknown coefficients
A = 2 3, B = 8 9 , C = 2 3 and D = -6
2 2 8 2
Thus yp = x + x + − 6 x 2 e3x
3 9 3
3x 3x 2 2 8 2
Hence the general solution y = y c + y p = c1e + c 2 xe + x + x + − 6 x 2 e 3x .
3 9 3
Higher –Order Equation
The method of undetermined coefficients can also be used for higher order equations of
the form
dny d n −1 y dy
an n
+ a n −1 n −1 + ... + a1 + a 0 y = g ( x)
dx dx dx

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with constant coefficients. The only requirement is that g (x) consists of the proper kinds
of functions as discussed earlier.
Example 10 Solve y /// + y // = e x cos x
Solution:
To find the complementary function we solve the associated homogeneous differential
equation y /// + y // = 0

Put y = e mx , y ′ = me mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx

Then the auxiliary equation is m 3 + m 2 = 0 ⇒ m 2 (m + 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 0,0,−1

The auxiliary equation has equal and distinct real roots. Therefore, the complementary
function is

y c = c1 + c 2 x + c3 e − x

Since g ( x) = e x cos x
Therefore, we assume that
y p = Ae x cos x + Be x sin x

Clearly, there is no duplication of terms between y c and y p .

Substituting the derivatives of y p in the given differential equation and grouping the like
terms, we have
y p + y p = (−2 A + 4 B)e x cos x + (−4 A − 2 B)e x sin x = e x cos x.
/// //

Equating the coefficients, of e x cos x and e x sin x , yields

− 2 A + 4 B = 1,−4 A − 2 B = 0
Solving these equations, we obtain
A = −1 / 10, B = 1 / 5
So that a particular solution is

y p = c1 + c2 x + c3e − x − (1 / 10)e x cos x + (1 / 5)e x sin x

Hence the general solution of the given differential equation is

y p = c1 + c 2 x + c3e − x − (1 / 10)e x cos x + (1 / 5)e x sin x

Example 12 Determine the form of a particular solution of the DE y ′′′′ + y ′′′ = 1 − e − x

Solution Consider the associated homogeneous differential equation y ′′′′ + y ′′′ = 0

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The auxiliary equation is m 4 + m 3 = 0 ⇒ m = 0, 0, 0, − 1

Therefore, the complementary function is yc = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 + c4e − x

Since g ( x) = 1 − e − x = g1 ( x) + g 2 ( x)
Corresponding to g1 ( x) = 1 : y p1 = A

Corresponding to g 2 ( x) = −e − x : y p 2 = Be − x

Therefore, the normal assumption for the particular solution is

y p = A + Be − x

Clearly there is duplication of

(i) The constant function between y c and y p .
1
(ii) The exponential function e − x between y c and y p .
2

To remove this duplication, we multiply y p with x 3 and y p 2 with x . This duplication

1
can’t be removed by multiplying with x and x 2 . Hence, the correct assumption for the
particular solution y p is y p = Ax 3 + Bxe − x

17.6 Exercise
Solve the following differential equations using the undetermined coefficients.
1 //
1. y + y / + y = x 2 + 2x
4
2. y // − 8 y / + 20 y = 100 x 2 − 26 xe x
3. y // + 3 y = −48 x 2 e 3 x
4. 4 y // − 4 y / − 3 y = cos 2 x
5. y // + 4 y = ( x 2 − 3) sin 2 x
6. y // − 5 y / = 2 x 3 − 4 x 2 − x + 6
7. y // − 2 y / + 2 y = e 2 x (cos x − 3 sin x)
Solve the following initial value problems.
8. y // + 4 y / + 4 y = (3 + x)e −2 x , y( 0 ) = 2 ,y / ( 0 ) = 5
d 2x
9. 2
+ ω 2 x = F0 cos γt , x(0) = 0, x / (0) = 0
dt
10. y /// + 8 y = 2 x − 5 + 8e −2 x , y( 0 ) = −5, y / ( 0 ) = 3, y // (0) = −4

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18 Undetermined Coefficient (Annihilator Operator

Approach)
Recall
1. That a non-homogeneous linear differential equation of order n is an equation of the
form

dny d n−1 y dy
an + a n−1 +  + a1 + a0 y = g ( x)
n n −1 dx
dx dx
The following differential equation is called the associated homogeneous equation
dny d n −1 y dy
an + a n −1 +  + a1 + a0 y = 0
dx n dx n −1 dx
The coefficients a 0 , a1 ,  , a n can be functions of x . However, we will discuss
equations with constant coefficients.
2. That to obtain the general solution of a non-homogeneous linear differential equation
we must find:
 The complementary function y , which is general solution of the associated
c
homogeneous differential equation.
 Any particular solution y of the non-homogeneous differential equation.
p
3. That the general solution of the non-homogeneous linear differential equation is given
by
General Solution = Complementary Function + Particular Integral
 Finding the complementary function has been completely discussed in an earlier
lecture
 In the previous lecture, we studied a method for finding particular integral of the
non-homogeneous equations. This was the method of undetermined coefficients
developed from the viewpoint of superposition principle.
 In the present lecture, we will learn to find particular integral of the non-
homogeneous equations by the same method utilizing the concept of differential
annihilator operators.
18.1 Differential Operators
 In calculus, the differential coefficient d / dx is often denoted by the capital letter
D . So that
dy
= Dy
dx
The symbol D is known as differential operator.
 This operator transforms a differentiable function into another function, e.g.

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D(e 4 x ) = 4e 4 x , D(5 x 3 − 6 x 2 ) = 15 x 2 − 12 x, D(cos 2 x) = −2 sin 2 x

 The differential operator D possesses the property of linearity. This means that if
f , g are two differentiable functions, then
D{af ( x) + bg ( x)} = aDf ( x) + bDg ( x)
Where a and b are constants. Because of this property, we say that D is a linear
differential operator.
 Higher order derivatives can be expressed in terms of the operator D in a natural
manner:

d2y d  dy  2
=   = D( Dy ) = D y
d 2x dx  dx 
Similarly

d3y dny
= D 3 y,, = Dn y
3 n
dx d x
 The following polynomial expression of degree n involving the operator D
a n D n + a n −1 D n −1 +  + a1 D + a0
is also a linear differential operator.
For example, the following expressions are all linear differential operators

D + 3 , D 2 + 3D − 4 , 5 D 3 − 6 D 2 + 4 D
18.2 Differential Equation in Terms of D
Any linear differential equation can be expressed in terms of the notation D . Consider a
2nd order equation with constant coefficients
ay // + by / + cy = g ( x)

dy d2y
Since = Dy, = D2 y
dx 2
dx
Therefore the equation can be written as

aD 2 y + bDy + cy = g ( x)
or (aD 2 + bD + c) y = g ( x)
Now, we define another differential operator L as

L = aD 2 + bD + c
Then the equation can be compactly written as
L( y ) = g ( x)

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The operator L is a second-order linear differential operator with constant coefficients.

Example 1 Consider the differential equation y // + y / + 2 y = 5 x − 3

dy d2y
Since = Dy, = D2 y
dx 2
dx
Therefore, the equation can be written as

( D 2 + D + 2) y = 5 x − 3
Now, we define the operator L as

L = D2 + D + 2
Then the given differential can be compactly written as
L( y ) = 5 x − 3
Factorization of a differential operator
 An nth-order linear differential operator

L = a n D n + a n −1 D n −1 +  + a1 D + a0
with constant coefficients can be factorized, whenever the characteristics
polynomial equation

L = a n m n + a n −1m n −1 +  + a1m + a0
can be factorized.
 The factors of a linear differential operator with constant coefficients commute.
Example 2
(a) Consider the following 2nd order linear differential operator
D 2 + 5D + 6
If we treat D as an algebraic quantity, then the operator can be factorized as

D 2 + 5 D + 6 = ( D + 2)( D + 3)
(b) To illustrate the commutative property of the factors, we consider a twice-
differentiable function y = f (x) . Then we can write

( D 2 + 5D + 6) y = ( D + 2)( D + 3) y = ( D + 3)( D + 2) y
To verify this we let w = ( D + 3) y = y ′ + 3 y

Then ( D + 2) w = Dw + 2 w ⇒ ( D + 2) w = ( y // + 3 y / ) + (2 y / + 6 y )

⇒ ( D + 2) w = y // + 5 y / +6 y ⇒ ( D + 2)( D + 3) y = y // + 5 y / +6 y

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Similarly if we let

w = ( D + 2) y = ( y / + 2 y )

Then ( D + 3) w = Dw + 3w = ( y // + 2 y / ) + (3 y / + 6 y )

or ( D + 3) w = y // + 5 y / +6 y

or ( D + 3)( D + 2) y = y // + 5 y / +6 y
Therefore, we can write from the two expressions that
( D + 3)( D + 2) y = ( D + 2)( D + 3) y
Hence ( D + 3)( D + 2) y = ( D + 2)( D + 3) y
Example 3

(a) The operator D 2 − 1 can be factorized as

D2 −1 = (D + 1)(D − 1) .
or D2 −1 = (D - 1)(D + 1)
(b) The operator D 2 + D + 2 does not factor with real numbers.
Example 4 The differential equation y ′′ + 4 y ′ + 4 y = 0

( )
can be written as D 2 + 4 D + 4 y = 0 ⇒ (D + 2 )( D + 2) y = 0 ⇒ (D + 2 )2 y = 0.

18.3 Annihilator Operator

Suppose that
 L is a linear differential operator with constant coefficients.
 y = f(x) defines a sufficiently differentiable function.
 The function f is such that L(y)=0
Then the differential operator L is said to be an annihilator operator of the function f.
Example 5

Since Dx = 0, D 2 x = 0, D 3 x 2 = 0, D 4 x 3 = 0, 

Therefore, the differential operators D , D 2 , D 3 , D 4 , 

are annihilator operators of the following functio k (a constant ), x, x 2 , x 3 , 

In general, the differential operator D n annihilates each of the functions

1, x, x 2 ,  , x n −1

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Hence, we conclude that the polynomial function c0 + c1 x +  + c n −1 x n −1

can be annihilated by finding an operator that annihilates the highest power of x.
Example 6 Find a differential operator that annihilates the polynomial function

y = 1 − 5x 2 + 8x 3 .

(
Solution Since D 4 x 3 = 0, ⇒ D 4 y = D 4 1 − 5 x 2 + 8 x 3 = 0. )
Hence, D 4 is the differential operator that annihilates the function y.
Note that the functions that are annihilated by an nth-order linear differential operator L
are simply those functions that can be obtained from the general solution of the
homogeneous differential equation
L ( y ) = 0.
Example 7 Consider the homogeneous linear differential equation of order n

( D − α ) n y = 0 .The auxiliary equation of the differential equation is (m − α ) n = 0

⇒ m = α , α ,  , α (n times)
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has a real root α of multiplicity n . So that the
differential equation has the following linearly independent solutions:

eα x , xeα x , x 2 eα x ,, x n −1eα x .

Therefore, the general solution of the differential equation is

y = c1eαx + c 2 xeαx + c3 x 2 eαx +  + c n x n −1eαx

So that the differential operator ( D − α ) n

αx αx 2 αx n −1 α x
annihilates each of the functions e , xe , x e ,  , x e
Hence, as a consequence of the fact that the differentiation can be performed term by
term, the differential operator ( D − α ) n

annihilates the function y = c1eαx + c 2 xeαx + c3 x 2 eαx +  + c n x n −1eαx

Example 8

Find an annihilator operator for the functions:(a) f ( x) = e 5 x , (b) g ( x) = 4e 2 x − 6 xe 2 x

Solution

(a) Since (D − 5)e 5 x = 5e 5 x − 5e 5 x = 0.

Therefore, the annihilator operator of function f is given by L = D − 5

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We notice that in this case α = 5, n = 1 .

(b) Similarly

(D − 2)2 (4e 2 x − 6 xe 2 x ) = ( D 2 − 4 D + 4)(4e 2 x ) − ( D 2 − 4 D + 4)(6 xe 2 x )

or (D − 2)2 (4e 2 x − 6 xe2 x ) = 32e 2 x − 32e 2 x + 48 xe2 x − 48 xe2 x + 24e 2 x − 24e 2 x
or (D − 2)2 (4e 2 x − 6 xe2 x ) = 0
Therefore, the annihilator operator of the function g is given by L = ( D − 2) 2
We notice that in this case α = 2 = n .

(
Example 9 Consider the differential equation D 2 − 2αD + α 2 + β 2 (
))n y = 0
The auxiliary equation is (m 2 − 2αm + (α 2 + β 2 )) = 0 ⇒ m 2 − 2αm + (α 2 + β 2 ) = 0
n

Therefore, when α , β are real numbers, we have from the quadratic formula

m=
(
2α ± 4α 2 − 4 α 2 + β 2
= α ± iβ
)
2
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has the following two complex roots of multiplicity n.
m1 = α + iβ , m2 = α − iβ
Thus, the general solution of the differential equation is a linear combination of the
following linearly independent solutions

eα x cos β x, xeα x cos β x, x 2eα x cos β x,  , x n −1eα x cos β x

eα x sin β x, xeα x sin β x, x 2eα x sin β x,  , x n −1eα x sin β x

Hence, the differential operator

(D 2 − 2αD + (α 2 + β 2 )) n
is the annihilator operator of the functions

eα x cos β x, xeα x cos β x, x 2eα x cos β x,  , x n −1eα x cos β x

eα x sin β x, xeα x sin β x, x 2eα x sin β x,  , x n −1eα x sin β x

Example 10 If we take α = −1, β = 2, n = 1

( ( ))
Then the differential operator D 2 − 2αD + α 2 + β 2 n becomes D 2 + 2 D + 5 .

( )
Also, it can be verified that D 2 + 2 D + 5 e − x cos 2 x = 0 .

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Therefore, the linear differential operator D 2 + 2 D + 5

y1 ( x ) = e − x cos 2 x
annihilates the functions
y 2 ( x ) = e − x sin 2 x
Now, consider the differential equation

(D 2 + 2D + 5) y = 0
2
The auxiliary equation is m + 2m + 5 = 0
⇒ m = −1 ± 2 i

y1 ( x ) = e − x cos 2 x
Therefore, the functions
y 2 ( x ) = e − x sin 2 x
are the two linearly independent solutions of the differential equation

( D 2 + 2 D + 5) y =
0,

Therefore, the operator also annihilates a linear combination of y1 and y 2 , e.g.

− 9 y2 5e− x cos 2 x − 9e− x sin 2 x .

5 y1 =
Example 11 If we take α = 0, β = 1, n = 2

(
Then the differential operator D 2 − 2αD + α 2 + β 2 n ( ))
Becomes ( D 2 + 1) 2 = D 4 + 2 D 2 + 1
Also, it can be verified that

(D 4 + 2D 2 + 1)cos x = 0
(D 4 + 2D 2 + 1)sin x = 0
and

(D 4 + 2D 2 + 1) x cos x = 0
(D 4 + 2D 2 + 1)x sin x = 0
Therefore, the linear differential operator

D 4 + 2D 2 + 1
annihilates the functions
cos x, sin x
x cos x, x sin x

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( (
Example 12 Taking α = 0, n = 1 , the operator D 2 − 2αD + α 2 + β 2 n becomes ))
D2 + β 2

Since (D 2 + β 2 )cos βx = −β 2 cos β x + β 2 cos β x = 0

(D 2 + β 2 )sin β x = −β 2 sin β x + β 2 sin β x = 0
Therefore, the differential operator annihilates the functions
f ( x) = cos β x, g ( x) = sin β x
Note that
 If a linear differential operator with constant coefficients is such that
L( y1 ) = 0 , L( y 2 ) = 0
i.e. the operator L annihilates the functions y1 and y 2 . Then the operator L
annihilates their linear combination.
L[c1 y1 ( x ) + c 2 y 2 (x )] = 0 .
This result follows from the linearity property of the differential operator L .

 Suppose that L1 and L2 are linear operators with constant coefficients such that
L1 ( y1 ) = 0, L2 ( y 2 ) = 0
and L1 ( y 2 ) ≠ 0, L2 ( y1 ) ≠ 0
then the product of these differential operators L1 L2 annihilates the linear sum
y1 (x ) + y 2 (x )
So that L1 L2 [ y1 (x ) + y 2 (x )] = 0

To demonstrate this fact we use the linearity property for writing

L1 L2 ( y1 + y 2 ) = L1 L2 ( y1 ) + L1 L2 ( y 2 )

Since L1 L2 = L2 L1
therefore L1 L2 ( y1 + y 2 ) = L2 L1 ( y1 ) + L1 L2 ( y 2 )
or L1 L2 ( y1 + y 2 ) = L2 [ L1 ( y1 )] + L1[ L2 ( y 2 )]
But we know that L1 ( y1 ) = 0, L2 ( y 2 ) = 0
Therefore L1 L2 ( y1 + y 2 ) = L2 [0] + L1[0] = 0

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Example 13 Find a differential operator that annihilates the function

f ( x) = 7 − x + 6 sin 3 x
Solution Suppose that y1 ( x) = 7 − x, y 2 ( x) = 6 sin 3 x

D 2 y1 ( x) = D 2 (7 − x ) =0
⇒
( )
( D 2 + 9) y 2 ( x) = D 2 + 9 sin 3 x = 0

Therefore, D 2 ( D 2 + 9) annihilates the function f (x).

Example 14 Find a differential operator that annihilates the function
( x) e−3x + xe x
f=

=
Solution Suppose −3 x , y ( x) xe x
that y1( x) e= 2

(D + 3) y1 = (D + 3) e −3x = 0,
⇒
(D − 1)2 y 2 = (D − 1)2 xe x = 0.

Therefore, the product of two operators (D + 3)(D − 1)2

annihilates the given function f ( x) = e −3 x + xe x

Note that
 The differential operator that annihilates a function is not unique. For example,
( D − 5) e 5 x = 0 ,

(D − 5)(D + 1) e 5 x = 0,

(D − 5) D 2 e 5 x =0
Therefore, there are 3 annihilator operators of the functions, namely
(D − 5) , (D − 5)(D + 1) , (D − 5)D 2
 When we seek a differential annihilator for a function, we want the operator of
lowest possible order that does the job.
18.4 Exercise
Write the given differential equation in the form L( y ) = g ( x ), where L is a differential
operator with constant coefficients.
dy
1. + 5 y = 9 sin x
dx
dy
2. 4 + 8 y = x + 3
dx

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d3y d2y dy
3. −4 +5 = 4x
dx 3 dx 2 dx
d3y d2y dy
4. −2 +7 − 6 y = 1 − sin x
dx 3 dx 2 dx

Factor the given differentiable operator, if possible.

5. 9 D 2 − 4
6. D 2 − 5
7. D 3 + 2 D 2 − 13D + 10
8. D 4 − 8 D 2 + 16

Verify that the given differential operator annihilates the indicated functions

9. 2 D − 1; y = 4e x/ 2
10. D 4 + 64; y = 2 cos 8 x-5 sin 8 x

Find a differential operator that annihilates the given function.

11. x + 3 xe 6 x
12. 1 + sin x

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19 Undetermined Coefficients(Annihilator Operator

Approach)
The method of undetermined coefficients that utilizes the concept of annihilator operator
approach is also limited to non-homogeneous linear differential equations
 That have constant coefficients, and
 Where the function g (x) has a specific form.
The form of g (x) :The input function g (x) has to have one of the following forms:
 A constant function k .
 A polynomial function
 An exponential function e x
 The trigonometric functions sin( β x), cos(β x)
 Finite sums and products of these functions.
Otherwise, we cannot apply the method of undetermined coefficients.
19.1 Solution Method
Consider the following non-homogeneous linear differential equation with constant
coefficients of order n
dny d n −1 y dy
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+  + a1 + a 0 y = g ( x)
dx dx dx
If L denotes the following differential operator

L = a n D n + a n −1 D n −1 +  + a1 D + a0
Then the non-homogeneous linear differential equation of order n can be written as
L( y ) = g ( x)
The function g (x) should consist of finite sums and products of the proper kind of
functions as already explained.
The method of undetermined coefficients, annihilator operator approach, for finding a
particular integral of the non-homogeneous equation consists of the following steps:
Step 1 Write the given non-homogeneous linear differential equation in the form
L( y ) = g ( x)

Step 2 Find the complementary solution y c by finding the general solution of the
associated homogeneous differential equation:
L( y ) = 0
Step 3 Operate on both sides of the non-homogeneous equation with a differential
operator L1 that annihilates the function g(x).

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Step 4 Find the general solution of the higher-order homogeneous differential equation
L1 L( y ) = 0
Step 5 Delete all those terms from the solution in step 4 that are duplicated in the
complementary solution yc , found in step 2.

Step 6 Form a linear combination y p of the terms that remain. This is the form of a
particular solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation
L(y) = g ( x)

Step 7 Substitute yp found in step 6 into the given non-homogeneous linear differential
equation
L( y ) = g ( x)
Match coefficients of various functions on each side of the equality and solve the
resulting system of equations for the unknown coefficients in y p .
Step 8 With the particular integral found in step 7, form the general solution of the given
differential equation as: y = yc + y p
d2y dy
Example 1 Solve 2
+ 3 + 2 y = 4x 2 .
dx dx
Solution:

dy d2y
Step 1 Since = Dy, = D2 y
dx 2
dx
Therefore, the given differential equation can be written as

( D 2 + 3D + 2 ) y = 4 x 2
Step 2 To find the complementary function y c , we consider the associated homogeneous
differential equation

( D 2 + 3D + 2 ) y = 0
The auxiliary equation is
m 2 + 3m + 2 = (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0
⇒ m =−1, −2
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has two distinct real roots.
m1 = −1 , m2 = −2 ,

Thus, the complementary function is given by y c = c1e − x + c 2 e − 2 x

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Step 3 In this case the input function is

g ( x) = 4 x 2

Further D 3 g ( x) = 4 D 3 x 2 = 0

Therefore, the differential operator D 3 annihilates the function g . Operating on both

sides of the equation in step 1, we have

D 3 ( D 2 + 3D + 2) y = 4 D 3 x 2
D 3 ( D 2 + 3 D + 2) y = 0
This is the homogeneous equation of order 5. Next we solve this higher order equation.
Step 4 The auxiliary equation of the differential equation in step 3 is
m 3 (m 2 + 3m + 2) = 0

m 3 (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0
m = 0, 0, 0, − 1, − 2
Thus its general solution of the differential equation must be

y = c1 + c 2 x + c3 x 2 + c 4 e − x + c5 e −2 x

Step 5 The following terms constitute y c

c 4 e − x + c5 e −2 x
Therefore, we remove these terms and the remaining terms are

c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2

Step 6 This means that the basic structure of the particular solution y p is

y p = A + Bx + Cx 2 ,

Where the constants c1 , c 2 and c3 have been replaced, with A, B, and C, respectively.

Step 7 Since y p = A + Bx + Cx 2

y ′p = B + 2Cx,

y ′p′ = 2C

Therefore y ′p′ + 3 y ′p + 2 y p = 2C + 3B + 6Cx + 2 A + 2 Bx + 2Cx 2

or y ′p′ + 3 y ′p + 2 y p = (2C ) x 2 + (2 B + 6C ) x + (2 A + 3B + 2C )

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Substituting into the given differential equation, we have

(2C ) x 2 + (2 B + 6C ) x + (2 A + 3B + 2C ) = 4 x 2 + 0 x + 0

Equating the coefficients of x 2 , x and the constant terms, we have

2C = 4
2 B + 6C = 0
2 A + 3B + 2C = 0
Solving these equations, we obtain
A = 7, B = −6, C = 2

Hence y p = 7 − 6x + 2x 2

Step 8 The general solution of the given non-homogeneous differential equation is

y = yc + y p

y = c1e − x + c 2 e −2 x + 7 − 6 x + 2 x 2 .

d2y dy
Example 2 Solve −3 = 8e 3 x + 4 sin x
2 dx
dx
Solution:

dy d2y
Step 1 Since = Dy, = D2 y
dx 2
dx
Therefore, the given differential equation can be written as

(D 2 − 3D) y = 8e3x + 4 sin x

Step 2 We first consider the associated homogeneous differential equation to find y c
The auxiliary equation is
m(m − 3) = 0 ⇒ m = 0, 3
Thus the auxiliary equation has real and distinct roots. So that we have

y c = c1 + c 2 e 3 x

Step 3 In this case the input function is given by

g ( x) = 8e 3 x + 4 sin x

Since ( D − 3)(8e 3 x ) = 0, ( D 2 + 1)(4 sin x) = 0

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Therefore, the operators D − 3 and D 2 + 1 annihilate 8e 3 x and 4 sin x , respectively. So

the operator ( D − 3)( D 2 + 1) annihilates the input function g (x). This means that

( D − 3)( D 2 + 1) g ( x) = ( D − 3)( D 2 + 1)(8e 3 x + sin x) = 0

We apply ( D − 3)( D 2 + 1) to both sides of the differential equation in step 1 to obtain

( D − 3)( D 2 + 1)( D 2 − 3D) y = 0 .

This is homogeneous differential equation of order 5.
Step 4 The auxiliary equation of the higher order equation found in step 3 is
(m − 3)(m 2 + 1)(m 2 − 3m) = 0

m(m − 3) 2 (m 2 + 1) = 0
⇒ m = 0, 3, 3, ± i
Thus, the general solution of the differential equation

y = c1 + c 2 e 3 x + c3 xe 3 x + c 4 cos x + c5 sin x

Step 5 First two terms in this solution are already present in y c

c1 + c 2 e 3 x
Therefore, we eliminate these terms. The remaining terms are

c3 xe3 x + c4 cos x + c5 sin x

Step 6 Therefore, the basic structure of the particular solution y p must be

y p = Axe 3 x + B cos x + C sin x

The constants c3, c 4 and c5 have been replaced with the constants A, B and C ,
respectively.

Step 7 Since y p = Axe 3 x + B cos x + C sin x

Therefore y′′p − 3=
y′p 3 Ae3 x + (− B − 3C ) cos x + (3B − C )sin x
Substituting into the given differential equation, we have

3 Ae3 x + (− B − 3C ) cos x + (3B − C )sin=

x 8e3 x + 4sin x .

Equating coefficients of e 3 x , cos x and sin x , we obtain

3 A = 8, − B − 3C = 0, 3B − C = 4
Solving these equations we obtain

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

A = 8 / 3, B = 6 / 5, C = −2 / 5
8 3x 6 2
yp = xe + cos x − sin x .
3 5 5
Step 8 The general solution of the differential equation is then
8 6 2
y=
c1 + c2e3x + xe3x + cos x − sin x .
3 5 5
Example 3

d2y
Solve
2
+ 8 y = 5 x + 2e− x .
dx
Solution
Step 1 The given differential equation can be written as

( D 2 + 8) y = 5 x + 2e − x

Step 2 The associated homogeneous differential equation is

( D 2 + 8) y = 0
Roots of the auxiliary equation are complex
m = ±2 2 i
Therefore, the complementary function is
y c = c1 cos 2 2 x + c 2 sin 2 2 x

Step 3 Since D 2 x = 0, ( D + 1)e −x = 0

Therefore the operators D 2 and D + 1 annihilate the functions 5 x and 2e − x . We apply

D 2 ( D + 1) to the non-homogeneous differential equation
D 2 ( D + 1)( D 2 + 8) y = 0 .
This is a homogeneous differential equation of order 5.

Step 4 The auxiliary equation of this differential equation is

m 2 (m + 1)(m 2 + 8) = 0
⇒ m = 0, 0, − 1, ± 2 2 i
Therefore, the general solution of this equation must be

=y c1 cos 2 2 x + c2 sin 2 2 x + c3 + c4 x + c5e− x

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Step 5 Since the following terms are already present in y c

c1 cos 2 2 x + c2 sin 2 2 x
Thus we remove these terms. The remaining ones are

c3 + c 4 x + c5 e − x

Step 6 The basic form of the particular solution of the equation is

y p = A + Bx + Ce − x

The constants c3 , c 4 and c5 have been replaced with A, B and C .

Step 7 Since y p = A + Bx + Ce − x

Therefore y ′p′ + 8 y p = 8 A + 8 Bx + 9Ce − x

Substituting in the given differential equation, we have

8 A + 8Bx + 9Ce− x =5 x + 2e− x

Equating coefficients of x, e − x and the constant terms, we have
A = 0, B = 5 / 8, C = 2 / 9
5 2
Thus yp = x + e− x
8 9

Step 8 Hence, the general solution of the given differential equation is

y = yc + y p

5 2
or =y c1 cos 2 2 x + c2 sin 2 2 x + x + e− x .
8 9
d2y
Example 4 Solve + y = x cos x − cos x
dx 2
Solution:
Step 1 The given differential equation can be written as

( D 2 + 1) y = x cos x − cos x
Step 2 Consider the associated differential equation

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( D 2 + 1) y = 0
The auxiliary equation is
m2 +1 = 0 ⇒ m = ± i
Therefore y c = c1 cos x + c 2 sin x

Step 3 Since ( D 2 + 1) 2 ( x cos x) = 0

( D 2 + 1) 2 cos x= 0 ; x ≠ 0
Therefore, the operator ( D 2 + 1) 2 annihilates the input function
x cos x − cos x
Thus operating on both sides of the non-homogeneous equation with ( D 2 + 1) 2 , we have

( D 2 + 1) 2 ( D 2 + 1) y = 0
or ( D 2 + 1) 3 y = 0
This is a homogeneous equation of order 6.
Step 4 The auxiliary equation of this higher order differential equation is

(m 2 + 1) 3 = 0 ⇒ m = i, i, i, − i, − i, − i
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has complex roots i , and − i both of multiplicity 3. We
conclude that
y = c1 cos x + c 2 sin x + c3 x cos x + c 4 x sin x + c5 x 2 cos x + c6 x 2 sin x

Step 5 Since first two terms in the above solution are already present in y c

c1 cos x + c 2 sin x
Therefore, we remove these terms.
Step 6 The basic form of the particular solution is

y p = Ax cos x + Bx sin x + Cx 2 cos x + Ex 2 sin x

Step 7 Since y p = Ax cos x + Bx sin x + Cx 2 cos x + Ex 2 sin x

Therefore
y ′p′ + y p = 4 Ex cos x − 4Cx sin x + (2 B + 2C ) cos x + (−2 A + 2 E ) sin x

Substituting in the given differential equation, we obtain

4 Ex cos x − 4Cx sin x + (2 B + 2C ) cos x + (−2 A + 2 E ) sin x = x cos x − cos x
Equating coefficients of x cos x, x sin x, cos x and sin x , we obtain

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4E = 1, − 4C =0
2 B + 2C = −1, − 2 A + 2 E = 0
Solving these equations we obtain
A = 1 / 4, B = −1 / 2, C = 0, E = 1 / 4
1 1 1
Thus yp = x cos x − x sin x + x 2 sin x
4 2 4
Step 8 Hence the general solution of the differential equation is
1 1 1
y = c1 cos x + c 2 sin x + x cos x − x sin x + x 2 sin x .
4 2 4
Example 5 Determine the form of a particular solution for

d2y dy
−2 + y = 10e − 2 x cos x
dx 2 dx
Solution
Step 1 The given differential equation can be written as

( D 2 − 2 D + 1) y = 10e −2 x cos x
Step 2 To find the complementary function, we consider
y ′′ − 2 y ′ + y = 0
The auxiliary equation is

m 2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1) 2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1
The complementary function for the given equation is

y c = c1e x + c 2 xe x

Step 3 Since ( D 2 + 4 D + 5)e −2 x cos x = 0

Applying the operator ( D 2 + 4 D + 5) to both sides of the equation, we have

( D 2 + 4 D + 5)( D 2 − 2 D + 1) y = 0
This is homogeneous differential equation of order 4.
Step 4 The auxiliary equation is

(m 2 + 4m + 5)(m 2 − 2m + 1) = 0
⇒ m = −2 ± i, 1, 1
Therefore, general solution of the 4th order homogeneous equation is

y =c1e x + c2 xe x + c3e−2 x cos x + c4e−2 x sin x

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Step 5 Since the terms c1e x + c 2 xe x are already present in y c , therefore, we remove these
and the remaining terms are c3e −2 x cos x + c4e −2 x sin x
Step 6 Therefore, the form of the particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation is

∴ y p = Ae −2 x cos x + Be −2 x sin x

Note that the steps 7 and 8 are not needed, as we don’t have to solve the given
differential equation.
Example 6 Determine the form of a particular solution for

d3y d2y dy
−4 +4 = 5 x 2 − 6 x + 4 x 2 e 2 x + 3e 5 x .
3 2 dx
dx dx
Solution:
Step 1 The given differential can be rewritten as

(D 3 − 4D 2 + 4D) y = 5x 2 − 6x + 4x 2 e 2 x + 3e 5x
Step 2 To find the complementary function, we consider the equation

(D 3 − 4D 2 + 4D) y = 0
The auxiliary equation is

m 3 − 4m 2 + 4m = 0
m ( m 2 − 4 m + 4) = 0

m(m − 2) 2 = 0 ⇒ m = 0, 2, 2
Thus the complementary function is

y c = c1 + c 2 e 2 x + c3 xe 2 x

Step 3 Since g ( x) = 5 x 2 − 6 x + 4 x 2 e 2 x + 3e 5 x
Further D 3 (5 x 2 − 6 x) = 0

( D − 2) 3 x 2 e 2 x = 0

( D − 5)e 5 x = 0
Therefore the following operator must annihilate the input function g (x) . Therefore,
applying the operator D 3 ( D − 2) 3 ( D − 5) to both sides of the non-homogeneous
equation, we have
D 3 ( D − 2) 3 ( D − 5)( D 3 − D 2 + 4 D) y = 0
or D 4 ( D − 2) 5 ( D − 5) y = 0

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This is homogeneous differential equation of order 10.

Step 4 The auxiliary equation for the 10th order differential equation is
m 4 (m − 2) 5 (m − 5) = 0
⇒ m = 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 5
Hence the general solution of the 10th order equation is

y = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 + c4 x 3 + c5 e 2 x + c6 xe 2 x + c7 x 2 e 2 x + c8 x 3 e 2 x + c9 x 4 e 2 x + c10 e 5 x

Step 5 Since the following terms constitute the complementary function y c , we remove
these c1 + c5 e 2 x + c6 xe 2 x
Thus the remaining terms are

c2 x + c3 x 2 + c4 x 3 + c7 x 2 e 2 x + c8 x 3 e 2 x + c9 x 4 e 2 x + c10 e 5 x
Hence, the form of the particular solution of the given equation is

y p =Ax + Bx 2 + Cx3 + Ex 2e2 x + Fx3e2 x + Gx 4e2 x + He5 x

\
19.2 Exercise
Solve the given differential equation by the undetermined coefficients.
1. 2 y ′′ − 7 y ′ + 5 y = −29
2. y ′′ + 3 y ′ = 4 x − 5
3. y ′′ + 2 y ′ + 2 y = 5e 6 x
4. y ′′ + 4 y = 4 cos x + 3 sin x − 8
5. y ′′ + 2 y ′ + y = x 2 e − x
6. y ′′ + y = 4 cos x − sin x
7. y ′′′ − y ′′ + y ′ − y = xe x − e − x + 7
8. y ′′ + y = 8 cos 2 x − 4 sin x , y (π / 2) = −1 , y ′(π / 2) = 0
9. y ′′′ − 2 y ′′ + y ′ = xe x + 5 , y(0)=2, y ′(0) = 2 , y ′′(0) = −1
10. y ( 4 ) − y ′′′ = x + e x , y(0)=0, y ′(0) = 0 , y ′′(0) = 0 , y ′′′(0) = 0

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20 Variation of Parameters
Recall
 That a non-homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients is
an equation of the form

dny d n−1 y dy
an + a n−1 +  + a1 + a0 y = g ( x)
n n −1 dx
dx dx
 The general solution of such an equation is given by
General Solution = Complementary Function + Particular Integral
 Finding the complementary function has already been completely discussed.
 In the last two lectures, we learnt how to find the particular integral of the non-
homogeneous equations by using the undetermined coefficients.
 That the general solution of a linear first order differential equation of the form

+ P(x ) y = f (x )
dy
dx
− Pdx − Pdx
y e ∫ ∫ e∫ f ( x ) dx + c1e ∫
Pdx
is =
given by .

Note that
 In this last equation, the 2nd term
− Pdx
y c = c1e ∫
is solution of the associated homogeneous equation:

+ P(x ) y = 0
dy
dx
 Similarly, the 1st term

.∫ e ∫
− Pdx
yp = e ∫ . f ( x )dx
Pdx

is a particular solution of the first order non-homogeneous linear differential

equation.
 Therefore, the solution of the first order linear differential equation can be written
in the form
y = yc + y p

In this lecture, we will use the variation of parameters to find the particular integral of the
non-homogeneous equation.
The Variation of Parameters

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20.1 First order equation

The particular solution y p of the first order linear differential equation is given by

.∫ e ∫
− Pdx
yp = e ∫ . f ( x )dx
Pdx

This formula can also be derived by another method, known as the variation of
parameters. The basic procedure is same as discussed in the lecture on construction of a
second solution

y1 = e ∫
− Pdx
Since
is the solution of the homogeneous differential equation

+ P( x ) y = 0,
dy
dx
and the equation is linear. Therefore, the general solution of the equation is
y = c1 y1 (x )
The variation of parameters consists of finding a function u1 ( x ) such that

y p = u1 ( x ) y1 ( x )
is a particular solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation
dy
+ P ( x) y =
f ( x)
dx
Notice that the parameter c1 has been replaced by the variable u1 . We substitute y p in
the given equation to obtain
 dy  du
u1  1 + P(x ) y1  + y1 1 = f ( x )
 dx  dx
Since y1 is a solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation. Therefore we must
have
dy1
+ P ( x ) y1 =
0
dx
So that we obtain
du1
∴ y1 = f ( x)
dx
This is a variable separable equation. By separating the variables, we have
f ( x)
du1 = dx
y1 ( x )

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Integrating the last expression w.r.to x , we obtain

⌠ f ( x) ∫
∫e ⋅ f ( x ) dx
Pdx
=
u1 ( x) 

= dx
⌡ y1
Therefore, the particular solution y p of the given first-order differential equation is .

y = u1 ( x) y1
− Pdx ∫ Pdx ( )
or yp = e ∫ .∫ e . f x dx

⌠ f ( x)
u1 =  dx
⌡ 1
y ( x )
20.2 Second Order Equation
Consider the 2nd order linear non-homogeneous differential equation
a 2 (x ) y ′′ + a1 (x ) y ′ + a 0 (x ) y = g (x )

By dividing with a 2 ( x) , we can write this equation in the standard form

y ′′ + P(x ) y ′ + Q(x ) y = f (x )

The functions P ( x ) , Q ( x ) and f ( x ) are continuous on some interval I . For the

complementary function we consider the associated homogeneous differential equation
y ′′ + P(x ) y ′ + Q(x ) y = 0
Complementary function
Suppose that y1 and y 2 are two linearly independent solutions of the homogeneous
equation. Then y1 and y2 form a fundamental set of solutions of the homogeneous
equation on the interval I . Thus the complementary function is
y c = c1 y1 ( x ) + c 2 y 2 ( x )

Since y1 and y 2 are solutions of the homogeneous equation. Therefore, we have

y1′′ + P (x ) y1′ + Q (x ) y1 = 0
y 2′′ + P (x ) y 2′ + Q (x ) y 2 = 0
Particular Integral
For finding a particular solution y , we replace the parameters c1 and c 2 in the
p
complementary function with the unknown variables u1 ( x) and u 2 ( x) . So that the
assumed particular integral is

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=y p u1 ( x ) y1 ( x ) + u2 ( x ) y2 ( x )

Since we seek to determine two unknown functions u1 and u 2 , we need two equations
involving these unknowns. One of these two equations results from substituting the
assumed y p in the given differential equation. We impose the other equation to simplify
the first derivative and thereby the 2nd derivative of y p .

y ′p = u1 y1′ + y1u1′ + u 2 y 2′ + u 2′ y 2 = u1 y1′ + u 2 y 2′ + u1′ y1 + u 2′ y 2

To avoid 2nd derivatives of u1 and u2 , we impose the condition

u1′ y1 + u 2
′ y2 = 0
Then y ′p = u1 y1′ + u 2 y 2′

So that
y ′p′ = u1 y1′′ + u1′ y1′ + u 2 y 2′′ + u 2′ y 2′
Therefore
y ′p′ + P y ′p + Q y p = u1 y1′′ + u1′ y1′ + u 2 y 2′′ + u 2′ y 2′
+ Pu1 y1′ + Pu 2 y 2′ + Qu `1 y1 + Qu 2 y 2
Substituting in the given non-homogeneous differential equation yields

u1 y1′′ + u1′ y1′ + u 2 y 2′′ + u 2′ y 2′ + Pu1 y1′ + Pu 2 y 2′ + Qu `1 y1 + Qu 2 y 2 = f ( x)

or u1 [ y1′′ + P y1′ + Q y1 ] + u 2 [ y 2′′ + Py 2′ + Qy 2 ] + u1′ y1′ + u 2′ y 2′ = f ( x)

Now making use of the relations

y1′′ + P (x ) y1′ + Q (x ) y1 = 0
y 2′′ + P (x ) y 2′ + Q (x ) y 2 = 0
we obtain
u1′ y1′ + u 2′ y 2′ = f (x )
Hence u1 and u 2 must be functions that satisfy the equations
′ y2 = 0
u1′ y1 + u 2
u1′ y1′ + u 2′ y 2′ = f (x )
By using the Cramer’s rule, the solution of this set of equations is given by

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W1 W2
u1′ = , u 2′ =
W W
Where W , W1 and W2 denote the following determinants

y1 y2 0 y2 y1 0
=W = , W1 = , W2
y1′ y2′ f ( x ) y2′ y1′ f ( x)

The determinant W can be identified as the Wronskian of the solutions y1 and y 2 . Since
the solutions y1 and y 2 are linearly independent on I . Therefore
W ( y1 (x ), y 2 (x )) ≠ 0, ∀ x ∈ I .
Now integrating the expressions for u1′ and u 2′ , we obtain the values of u1 and u 2 , hence
the particular solution of the non-homogeneous linear differential equation.
20.3 Summary of the Method
To solve the 2nd order non-homogeneous linear differential equation

a 2 y ′′ + a1 y ′ + a 0 y = g ( x ),
using the variation of parameters, we need to perform the following steps:

Step 1 We find the complementary function by solving the associated homogeneous

differential equation
a 2 y ′′ + a1 y ′ + a0 y = 0
Step 2 If the complementary function of the equation is given by
y c = c1 y1 + c 2 y 2

then y1 and y 2 are two linearly independent solutions of the homogeneous differential
equation. Then compute the Wronskian of these solutions.
y1 y2
W=
y1′ y 2′

Step 3 By dividing with a 2 , we transform the given non-homogeneous equation into the
standard form
y ′′ + P(x ) y ′ + Q(x ) y = f (x )
and we identify the function f ( x ) .
Step 4 We now construct the determinants W1 and W2 given by

0 y2 y1 0
W1 = , W2 =
f ( x) y 2′ y1′ f ( x)

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Step 5 Next we determine the derivatives of the unknown variables u1 and u 2 through
the relations
W1 W
u1′ = , u 2′ = 2
W W
Step 6 Integrate the derivatives u1′ and u 2′ to find the unknown variables u1 and u 2 . So
that
⌠W ⌠W
=u1 =

1
d x , u2  2

dx
⌡W ⌡ W

Step 7 Write a particular solution of the given non-homogeneous equation as

y p = u1 y1 + u 2 y 2

Step 8 The general solution of the differential equation is then given by

y = y c + y p = c1 y1 + c 2 y 2 + u1 y1 + u 2 y 2 .

20.3.1 Constants of Integration

We don’t need to introduce the constants of integration, when computing the indefinite
integrals in step 6 to find the unknown functions of u1 and u2 . For, if we do introduce
these constants, then
y p =(u1 + a1 ) y1 + (u2 + b1 ) y2
So that the general solution of the given non-homogeneous differential equation is
y = y c + y p = c1 y1 + c 2 y 2 + (u1 + a1 ) y1 + (u 2 + b1 ) y 2

or y = ( c1 + a1 ) y1 + ( c2 + b1 ) y2 + u1 y1 + u2 y2

If we replace c1 + a1 with C1 and c2 + b1 with C 2 , we obtain

y = C1 y1 + C 2 y 2 + u1 y1 + u 2 y 2
This does not provide anything new and is similar to the general solution found in step 8,
namely
y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 + u1 y1 + u2 y2
Example 1
Solve y′′ − 4 y′ + 4 y = ( x + 1 ) e 2 x .
Solution:

Step 1 To find the complementary function

y ′′ − 4 y ′ + 4 y = 0

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Put y = e mx , y ′ = me mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx
Then the auxiliary equation is
m 2 − 4m + 4 = 0
(m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2
Repeated real roots of the auxiliary equation

=yc c1e 2 x + c2 xe 2 x
Step 2 By the inspection of the complementary function y c , we make the identification

y1 = e 2 x and y 2 = xe 2 x

Therefore ( )
W ( y1 , y 2 ) = W e 2 x , xe 2 x =
e2x xe 2 x
= e 4 x ≠ 0, ∀x
2e 2x
2 xe 2x
+e 2x

Step 3 The given differential equation is

y′′ − 4 y′ + 4 y = (x + 1)e 2 x
Since this equation is already in the standard form
y′′ + P(x ) y′ + Q(x ) y = f (x )
Therefore, we identify the function f (x) as

f ( x ) = ( x + 1) e 2 x
Step 4 We now construct the determinants

0 xe 2 x
W1 = − ( x + 1 ) xe 4 x
=
( x + 1 ) e2 x 2 xe + e
2x 2x

e2 x 0
W= = ( x + 1 ) e4 x
2
2e 2 x ( x + 1 ) e2 x
Step 5 We determine the derivatives of the functions u1 and u 2 in this step

u1′ =
W1
=−
(x + 1)xe 4 x = − x 2 − x
W e4x
W
u 2′ = 2 =
(x + 1) e 4 x = x + 1
W e4x
Step 6 Integrating the last two expressions, we obtain

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x3 x2
u1 = ∫ (− x 2 − x)dx = − −
3 2
x2
u 2 = ∫ ( x + 1) dx = + x.
2
Remember! We don’t have to add the constants of integration.
Step 7 Therefore, a particular solution of then given differential equation is
 x3 x 2   2 
y = − −  e 2 x +  x + x  xe 2 x
p  3 2   2 
   
 x3 x 2 
or yp =  + e 2 x
 6 2 
 
Step 8 Hence, the general solution of the given differential equation is

2 x  x3 x 2  2 x
y = y + y =c1e + c2 xe +  +  e
2x
c p  6 2 

Example 2
Solve 4 y ′′ + 36 y = csc 3 x.
Solution:
Step 1 To find the complementary function we solve the associated homogeneous
differential equation
4 y ′′ + 36 y = 0 ⇒ y ′′ + 9 y = 0
The auxiliary equation is

m 2 + 9 = 0 ⇒ m = ±3 i
Roots of the auxiliary equation are complex. Therefore, the complementary function is
y c = c1 cos 3 x + c 2 sin 3 x

Step 2 From the complementary function, we identify

y1 = cos 3 x, y 2 = sin 3 x
as two linearly independent solutions of the associated homogeneous equation. Therefore
cos 3 x sin 3x
W (cos 3 x, sin 3 x ) = =3
− 3 sin 3x 3 cos 3x
Step 3 By dividing with 4 , we put the given equation in the following standard form

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

1
y ′′ + 9 y = csc 3 x.
4
So that we identify the function f (x) as

f (x ) =
1
csc 3 x
4

Step 4 We now construct the determinants W1 and W2

0 sin 3 x
1 1
W1 =
1 =
− csc 3 x ⋅ sin 3 x =
−
csc 3 x 3cos 3 x 4 4
4
cos 3 x 0
1 cos 3 x
=W2 = 1
− 3sin 3 x csc 3 x 4 sin 3 x
4
Step 5 Therefore, the derivatives u1′ and u 2′ are given by

W 1 W 1 cos 3 x
u1′ = 1 = − , u 2′ = 2 =
W 12 W 12 sin 3 x
Step 6 Integrating the last two equations w.r.to x , we obtain
1 1
u1 = − x and u 2 = ln sin 3 x
12 36
Note that no constants of integration have been added.
Step 7 The particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation is
1 1
− x cos 3 x + ( sin 3 x ) ln sin 3 x
yp =
12 36
Step 8 Hence, the general solution of the given differential equation is

y = y c + y p = c1 cos 3 x + c 2 sin 3 x − x cos 3 x + (sin 3 x ) ln sin 3 x

1 1
12 36
Example 3
1
Solve y ′′ − y = .
x
Solution:
Step 1 For the complementary function consider the associated homogeneous equation

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

y ′′ − y = 0
To solve this equation we put

y = e mx , y ′ = m e mx , y ′′ = m 2 e mx
Then the auxiliary equation is:

m 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±1
The roots of the auxiliary equation are real and distinct. Therefore, the complementary
function is

yc = c1e x + c 2 e − x

Step 2 From the complementary function we find

y1 = e x , y 2 = e − x
The functions y1 and y 2 are two linearly independent solutions of the homogeneous
equation. The Wronskian of these solutions is

(
W e x , e− x = ) ex
ex
e− x
− e− x
= −2

Step 3 The given equation is already in the standard form

y′′ + p ( x ) y′ + Q ( x ) y =
f ( x)
1
Here f ( x) =
x

Step 4 We now form the determinants

e− x
= −e − x (1 / x)
0
W1 = −x
1/ x − e
ex 0
W2 = x
= e x (1 / x)
e 1/ x

Step 5 Therefore, the derivatives of the unknown functions u1 and u 2 are given by

W1 e − x (1 / x ) e − x
′
u1 = =− =
W −2 2x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

W2 e x (1 / x ) ex
u 2′ = = =−
W −2 2x

Step 6 We integrate these two equations to find the unknown functions u1 and u 2 .

1 ⌠ e − x 1 ⌠ e x
u1 =  dx , u2 = −  dx
2⌡ x 2⌡ x

The integrals defining u1 and u 2 cannot be expressed in terms of the elementary functions
and it is customary to write such integral as:
x
1 ⌠ e − t
x
1 ⌠ et
=u1 = dt , u2 -  dt
2 ⌡x t 2 ⌡x t


Step 7 A particular solution of the non-homogeneous equations is

x
1 ⌠ e−t
x
1 − x ⌠ et
y p = ex  dt − e  dt
2  ⌡ t 2 ⌡x t
x 

Step 8 Hence, the general solution of the given differential equation is

1 ⌠ e −t
x x
−x 1 ⌠ et
x
y = y c + y p = c1e + c 2 e + ex  dt − e − x  dt
2 ⌡x t 2 ⌡x t
 

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21 Variation of Parameters Method for Higher-Order

Equations
The method of the variation of parameters just examined for second-order differential
equations can be generalized for an nth-order equation of the type.

dny d n −1 y dy
an + a n −1 +  + a1 + a0 y = g ( x)
dx n dx n −1 dx
The application of the method to nth order differential equations consists of performing
the following steps.
Step 1 To find the complementary function we solve the associated homogeneous
equation

dny d n−1 y dy
an + a − +  + a + a0 y =
0
dx n−1
n 1 1
dx n dx
Step 2 Suppose that the complementary function for the equation is
y = c1 y1 + c 2 y 2 +  + c n y n
Then y1 , y 2 ,  , y n are n linearly independent solutions of the homogeneous equation.
Therefore, we compute Wronskian of these solutions.
y1 y2  yn
y1′ y2′  yn′
W ( y1 , y2 , y3 , , yn ) =    
   
y1( n−1) y2 ( n−1)  yn ( n−1)
Step 4 We write the differential equation in the form

y ( ) + Pn−1 ( x ) y ( +  + P1 ( x ) y′ + P ( x ) y =f ( x)
n n −1 )

and compute the determinants Wk ; k = 1, 2,  , n ; by replacing the kth column of W by

0
0
the column 

f ( x)
Step 5 Next we find the derivatives u1′ , u 2′ ,  , u n′ of the unknown functions u1, u2 ,  , un
through the relations

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Wk
u k′ = , k = 1, 2, , n
W
Note that these derivatives can be found by solving the n equations
y1u1′ + y 2u 2′ +  + y n u n′ = 0
y1′ u1′ + y 2′ u 2′ +  + y n′ u n′ = 0
  
y1(n −1)u1′ + y 2 (n −1)u 2′ +  + y n (n −1)u n′ = f ( x )

Step 6 Integrate the derivative functions computed in the step 5 to find the functions u k

uk = ⌠
Wk
 dx, k = 1, 2,  , n
⌡ W
Step 7 We write a particular solution of the given non-homogeneous equation as
=y p u1 ( x ) y1 ( x ) + u2 ( x ) y2 ( x ) +  + un ( x ) yn ( x )
Step 8 Having found the complementary function y c and the particular integral y p , we
write the general solution by substitution in the expression: y = y c + y p

Note that
 The first n − 1 equations in step 5 are assumptions made to simplify the first n − 1
derivatives of y p . The last equation in the system results from substituting the
particular integral y p and its derivatives into the given nth order linear
differential equation and then simplifying.
 Depending upon how the integrals of the derivatives u k′ of the unknown functions
are found, the answer for y p may be different for different attempts to find y p
for the same equation.
 When asked to solve an initial value problem, we need to be sure to apply the
initial conditions to the general solution and not to the complementary function
alone, thinking that it is only y c that involves the arbitrary constants.

d3y dy
Example 1 Solve the differential equation by variation of parameters. + =
csc x
dx3 dx
d 3 y dy
Solution: Step1 The associated homogeneous equation is + =0
dx 3 dx
( )
Auxiliary equation m 3 + m = 0 ⇒ m m 2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = 0, m = ±i
Therefore the complementary function is y =c + c cos x + c3 sin x
c 1 2

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Step 2: Since y =c + c cos x + c3 sin x=

⇒ y1 1,=y2 cos x=
, y3 sin x
c 1 2
So that the Wronskian of the solutions y1 , y 2 and y3

1 cos x sin x
W ( y1 , y2 , y=
3) 0 − sin x cos x
0 − cos x − sin x
By the elementary row operation R1 + R3 , we have

1 0 0
=0 − sin x cos x
0 − cos x − sin x

( )
= sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 ≠ 0
Step 3: The given differential equation is already in the required standard form
y′′′ + 0 y′′ + y′ + 0 y = csc x
Step 4: Next we find the determinants W1 ,W2 and W3 by respectively, replacing 1st, 2nd
0
rd
and 3 column of W by the column 0
csc x
0 cos x sin x
W1 = 0 − sin x cos x
csc x − cos x − sin x

(
= csc x sin 2 x + cos=
2
x csc x )
1 0 sin x
W2 = 0 0 cos x
0 csc x − sin x

0 cos x
= =
− cos x csc x =
− cot x
csc x − sin x

1 cos x 0
− sin x 0
and =
W3 0 − sin x 0 = =
− sin x csc x =
−1
− cos x csc x
0 − cos x csc x

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Step 5: We compute the derivatives of the functions u1 , u 2 and u3 as:

W1
u1′ = = csc x
W
W2
u 2′ = = − cot x
W
W3
u3′ = = −1
W
Step 6: Integrate these derivatives to find u1 , u 2 and u 3

u1 = ⌠
W1
 dx = ∫ csc xdx = ln csc x − cot x
⌡W
⌠W ⌠ − cos x
u2 =

⌡ W
∫
 2 dx = − cot xdx =


⌡ sin x
dx =
− ln sin x

u3 = ⌠
W3
 dx = ∫ − 1dx = − x
⌡W
Step 7: A particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation is
y = ln csc x − cot x − cos x ln sin x − x sin x
p
Step 8: The general solution of the given differential equation is:
y=
c1 + c2 cos x + c3 sin x + ln csc x − cot x − cos x ln sin x − x sin x
Example 2
Solve the differential equation by variation of parameters.
y ′′′ + y ′ = tan x
Solution
Step 1: We find the complementary function by solving the associated homogeneous
equation
y ′′′ + y ′ = 0
Corresponding auxiliary equation is

(
m3 + m = 0 ⇒ m m 2 + 1 = 0 )
m = 0, m = ± i
Therefore the complementary function is
y c = c1 + c 2 cos x + c3 sin x

Step 2: Since

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y c = c1 + c 2 cos x + c3 sin x

Therefore y1 = 1, y 2 = cos x, y3 = sin x

Now we compute the Wronskian of y1 , y 2 and y3

1 cos x sin x
W ( y1 , y2 , y=
3) 0 − sin x cos x
0 − cos x − sin x
By the elementary row operation R1 + R3 , we have

1 0 0
=0 − sin x cos x
0 − cos x − sin x

( )
= sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 ≠ 0
Step 3: The given differential equation is already in the required standard form
y ′′′ + 0 ⋅ y ′′ + y ′ + 0 ⋅ y = tan x

Step 4: The determinants W1 ,W2 and W3 are found by replacing the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
column of W by the column
0
0
tan x

Therefore
0 cos x sin x
=W1 0 − sin x cos x
tan x − cos x − sin x

(
= tan x cos 2 x + sin=
2
x tan x )
1 0 sin x
W2 = 0 0 cos x = 1(0 − cos x tan x ) = − sin x
0 tan x − sin x
1 cos x 0
and W3 = 0 − sin x 0 = 1(− sin x tan x ) − 0 = − sin x tan x
0 − cos x tan x

Step 5: We compute the derivatives of the functions u1 , u 2 and u3 .

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W
u1′ = 1 = tan x
W
W2
u2′ = = − sin x
W
W3
u 3′ = = − sin x tan x
W
Step 6: We integrate these derivatives to find u1 , u 2 and u 3
⌠W ⌠ sin x
u1 = 1
dx =∫ tan x dx =− − dx =− ln cos x
⌡ W ⌡ cos x
⌠W
u2 =

⌡ W
∫ − sin x dx =
 2 dx = cos x

⌠W
u3=  3

⌡ W
dx= ∫ − sin x tan xdx
⌠ sin x
=
 − sin x

⌡ cos x ∫
dx = − sin 2 x sec dx

( ) (
=∫ cos 2 x − 1 sec xdx =∫ cos 2 x sec x − sec x dx )
=∫ ( cos x − sec x ) dx =∫ cos xdx − ∫ sec xdx
=
sin x − ln sec x + tan x
Step 7: Thus, a particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation

y =− ln cos x + cos x cos x + ( sin x − ln sec x + tan x ) ( sin x )

p
=
− ln cos x + cos 2 x + sin 2 x − sin x ln sec x + tan x
=− ln cos x + 1 − sin x ln sec x + tan x
Step 8: Hence, the general solution of the given differential equation is:
y = c1 + c 2 cos x + c3 sin x − ln cos x + 1 − sin x ln sec x + tan x

or y = (c1 + 1) + c 2 cos x + c3 sin x − ln cos x − sin x ln sec x + tan x

or y=
d1 + c2 cos x + c3 sin x − ln cos x − sin x ln sec x + tan x
where d1 represents c1 + 1 .
Example 3
Solve the differential equation by variation of parameters.

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y′′′ − 2 y′′ − y′ + 2 y =
e3 x
Solution
Step 1: The associated homogeneous equation is
y′′′ − 2 y′′ − y′ + 2 y =
0
The auxiliary equation of the homogeneous differential equation is

m3 − 2m 2 − m + 2 =0

(
⇒ (m − 2) m 2 − 1 =
0 )
⇒ m = 1, 2, −1
The roots of the auxiliary equation are real and distinct. Therefore yc is given by

yc =c1e x + c2e2 x + c3e− x

Step 2: From yc we find that three linearly independent solutions of the homogeneous
differential equation.

= x, y
y1 e= 2x , y −x
2 e= 3 e
Thus the Wronskian of the solutions y1 , y 2 and y3 is given by

ex e2 x e− x 1 1 1
W =e x 2e2 x −e− x =e x ⋅ e2 x ⋅ e− x 1 2 −1
ex 4e 2 x e− x 1 4 1

By applying the row operations R2 − R1, R3 − R1 , we obtain

1 1 1
= e2 x 0 1 −=
W 2 6e2 x ≠ 0
0 3 0
Step 3: The given differential equation is already in the required standard form

y′′′ − 2 y′′ − y′ + 2 y =
e3 x
Step 4: Next we find the determinants W1 ,W2 and W3 by, respectively, replacing the 1st,
2nd and 3rd column of W by the column

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0
0
e3x

0 e2 x e− x
− 3+1 e
2x e− x
W1 =0 2e2 x −e x
( −1)
= e3 x
∴ − 2e 2 x −e − x
e3 x 4e 2 x e x

(
e3 x −e x − 2e x =
= −3e4 x )
ex 0 e− x
− 3+ 2 e
x e− x
ex
W2 = 0 −e x
( −1)
= e3 x
− ex −e − x
ex e3 x e x

( )
=− −e0 − e0 e3 x =2e3 x

ex e2 x 0
x 2e2 x ex e2 x
=W3 e= 0 e3 x
and ex 2e 2 x
ex 4e2 x e3 x

(
= e3 x 2e3 x − e3=
x e6 x )
Step 5: Therefore, the derivatives of the unknown functions u1 , u 2 and u3 are given by.

W1 − 3e 4 x 1
u1′ = = 2 x
= − e2x
W 6e 2

W2 2e3 x 1 x
u2′
= = = e
W 6 e2 x 3

W3 e6x 1
u 3′ = = 2x = e4x
W 6e 6
Step 6: Integrate these derivatives to find u1 , u 2 and u 3

u1 = ⌠ dx = ⌠
W1 1 2x 1 2x 1 2x
  − e dx = − ∫ e dx = − e
⌡W ⌡ 2 2 4
⌠W ⌠1 x 1 x
=u2 = 2 dx = e dx e
 
⌡ W ⌡3 3

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u3 = ⌠ dx = ⌠
W3 1 4x 1 4x
  e dx = e
⌡W ⌡6 24
Step 7: A particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation is
1 1 1
− e3 x + e3 x + e3 x
yp =
4 3 24
Step 8: The general solution of the given differential equation is:

y =c1e x + c2e2 x + c3e− x − e3 x + e3 x + e3 x

1 1 1
4 3 24
21.1 Exercise
Solve the differential equations by variations of parameters.
1. y ′′ + y = tan x
2. y ′′ + y = sec x tan x

3. y ′′ + y = sec 2 x

4. y ′′ − y = 9 x / e 3 x

5. (
y ′′ − 2 y ′ + y = e x / 1 + x 2 )
6. 4 y ′′ − 4 y ′ + y = e x / 2 1 − x 2
7. y ′′′ + 4 y ′ = sec 2 x

8. 2 y ′′′ − 6 y ′′ = x 2
Solve the initial value problems.
9. 2 y ′′ + y ′ − y = x + 1

(
10. y ′′ − 4 y ′ + 4 y = 12 x 2 − 6 x e 2 x )

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22 Applications of Second Order Differential Equation

 A single differential equation can serve as mathematical model for many different
phenomena in science and engineering.
 Different forms of the 2nd order linear differential equation
d2y dy
a 2 + b + cy = f ( x)
dx dx
appear in the analysis of problems in physics, chemistry and biology.
 In the present and next lecture we shall focus on one application; the motion of a
mass attached to a spring.
d2y dy
 We shall see, what the individual terms a 2 , b , cy and f ( x ) means in
dx dx
the context of vibrational system.
 Except for the terminology and physical interpretation of the terms
d2y dy
a 2 , b , cy, f ( x )
dx dx
the mathematics of a series circuit is identical to that of a vibrating spring-mass
system. Therefore we will discuss an LRC circuit in lecture.
22.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
When the Newton’s 2nd law is combined with the Hook’s Law, we can derive a
differential equation governing the motion of a mass attached to spring–the simple
harmonic motion.
22.1.1 Hook’s Law
Suppose that
 A mass is attached to a flexible spring suspended from a rigid support, then
 The spring stretches by an amount ‘s’.
 The spring exerts a restoring F opposite to the direction of elongation or stretch.
The Hook’s law states that the force F is proportional to the elongation s. i.e
F = ks
Where k is constant of proportionality, and is called spring constant.
Note That
 Different masses stretch a spring by different amount i.e s is different for
different m .
 The spring is characterized by the spring constant k .
1
 For example if W = 10 lbs and s = ft
2
Then F = ks
1
or 10 =  k
2

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or k = 20 lbs/ft
If W = 8 lbs then 8 = 20(s ) ⇒ s = 2 / 5 ft

22.1.2 Newton’s Second Law

When a force F acts upon a body, the acceleration a is produced in the direction of the
force whose magnitude is proportional to the magnitude of force. i.e
F = ma
Where m is constant of proportionality and it represents mass of the body.
22.1.3 Weight
 The gravitational force exerted by the earth on a body of mass m is called weight
of the body, denoted by W
 In the absence of air resistance, the only force acting on a freely falling body is its
weight. Thus from Newton’s 2nd law of motion
W = mg
Where m is measured in slugs, kilograms or grams and g = 32ft/s 2 , 9.8m / s 2 or
980 cm/s 2 .
22.1.4 Differential Equation
 When a body of mass m is attached to a spring
 The spring stretches by an amount s and attains an equilibrium position.
 At the equilibrium position, the weight is balanced by the restoring force ks .
Thus, the condition of equilibrium is
mg = ks ⇒ mg − ks = 0
 If the mass is displaced by an amount x from its equilibrium position and then
released. The restoring force becomes k(s + x). So that the resultant of weight and
the restoring force acting on the body is given by
Resultant= − k (s + x ) + mg.
nd
By Newton’s 2 Law of motion, we can written
d 2x
m 2 = −k (s + x ) + mg
dt
d 2x
or m 2 = −kx − ks + mg
dt
Since mg − ks = 0
d 2x
Therefore m = −kx
dt 2
 The negative indicates that the restoring force of the spring acts opposite to the
direction of motion.

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 The displacements measured below the equilibrium position are positive.

 By dividing with m , the last equation can be written as:

d 2x k
+ x=0
dt 2 m
d 2x
or +ω2x =
0
dt 2
k
Where ω 2 = . This equation is known as the equation of simple harmonic
m
motion or as the free un-damped motion.
22.1.5 Initial Conditions
Associated with the differential equation
d 2x
+ω2x =
0
dt 2
are the obvious initial conditions
x(0 ) = α , x ′(0 ) = β
These initial conditions represent the initial displacement and the initial velocity. For
example
 If α > 0, β < 0 then the body starts from a point below the equilibrium position
with an imparted upward velocity.
If α < 0, β = 0 then the body starts from rest α units above the equilibrium
position.
22.1.6 Solution and Equation of Motion
Consider the equation of simple harmonic motion
d 2x
2
+ω2x =
0
dt
d 2x
Put x = e mx , 2
= m 2 e mx
dt
Then the auxiliary equation is
m2 + ω 2 =
0 ⇒ m = ± iω
Thus the auxiliary equation has complex roots.
m1 = ω i, m2 = −ω i
Hence, the general solution of the equation of simple harmonic motion is
x ( t ) c1 cos ω t + c2 sin ω t
=

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22.1.7 Alternative form of Solution

It is often convenient to write the above solution in a alternative simpler form. Consider
x ( t ) c1 cos ω t + c2 sin ω t
=
and suppose that A, φ ∈ R such that
c = A sin φ , c = A cos φ
1 2
c1
Then A = c12 + c 2 2 , tan φ =
c2
So that
x ( t ) = A sin ω t cos φ + B cos ω t sin φ

or x ( t ) A sin (ω t + φ
= )
The number φ is called the phase angle;
Note that:
This form of the solution of the equation of simple harmonic motion is very useful
because
 Amplitude of free vibrations becomes very obvious
 The times when the body crosses equilibrium position are given by
0 sin (ω t + φ ) =
x =⇒ 0
or ωt + φ = nπ
Where n is a non-negative integer.
The Nature of Simple Harmonic Motion
22.1.8 Amplitude
 We know that the solution of the equation of simple harmonic motion can be
written as
x ( t ) A sin (ω t + φ
= )
 Clearly, the maximum distance that the suspended body can travel on either side
of the equilibrium position is A .
 This maximum distance called the amplitude of motion and is given by
Amplitude = A = c1 + c 2
2 2

22.1.9 A Vibration or a Cycle

In travelling from x = A to x = - A and then back to A, the vibrating body completes one
vibration or one cycle.

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22.1.10Period of Vibration
The simple harmonic motion of the suspended body is periodic and it repeats its position
after a specific time period T . We know that the distance of the mass at any time t is
given by
=x A sin (ω t + φ )

  2π  
Since A sin ω  t +  +φ
  ω  
= (ω t + φ + 2π ) 
A sin  

= A sin (ω t + φ ) 

Therefore, the distances of the suspended body from the equilibrium position at the times
2π
t and t + are same
ω
Further, velocity of the body at any time t is given by
dx
= Aω cos (ω t + φ )
dt
  2π  
Aω cos  ω  t +  +φ 
  ω  
= Aω cos [ω t + φ + 2π ]

= Aω cos (ω t + φ )
Therefore the velocity of the body remains unaltered if t is increased by 2π / ω . Hence
the time period of free vibrations described by the 2nd order differential equation
d 2x
2
+ω2x = 0
dt
is given by
2π
T=
ω
22.1.11Frequency
The number of vibration /cycle completed in a unit of time is known as frequency of the
free vibrations, denoted by f . Since the cycles completed in time T is 1. Therefore, the
number of cycles completed in a unit of time is 1 / T
Hence
1 ω
f= =
T 2π

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Example 1
Solve and interpret the initial value problem
d 2x
+ 16 x = 0
dt 2
x(0 ) = 10, x ′(0 ) = 0 .
Interpretation
Comparing the initial conditions
x(0 ) = 10, x ′(0 ) = 0 .
With
x(0 ) = α, x ′(0 ) = β
We see that
α = 10 , β = 0
Thus the problem is equivalent to
 Pulling the mass on a spring 10 units below the equilibrium position.
 Holding it there until time t = 0 and then releasing the mass from rest.
Solution
Consider the differential equation
d 2x
+ 16 x = 0
dt 2
d 2x
Put x=e , mt
2
= m 2 e mt
dt
Then, the auxiliary equation is
m 2 + 16 = 0
⇒ m = 0 ± 4i
Therefore, the general solution is:
x(t ) = c1 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t
Now we apply the initial conditions.
x(0 ) = 10 ⇒ c1 .1 + c 2 .0 = 10
Thus c1 = 10
So that x(t ) = 10 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

dx
= −40 sin 4t + 4c 2 cos 4t
dt
Therefore x ′(0 ) = 0 ⇒ −40(0 ) + 4c 2 .1 = 0
Thus c2 = 0
Hence, the solution of the initial value problem is
x(t ) = 10 cos 4t
Note that
 Clearly, the solution shows that once the system is set into motion, it stays in
motion with mass bouncing back and forth with amplitude being 10 units .
 Since ω = 4 . Therefore, the period of oscillation is
2π π
T= = seconds
4 2
Example 2
A mass weighing 2lbs stretches a spring 6 inches. At t = 0 the mass is released from a
4
point 8 inches below the equilibrium position with an upward velocity of ft / s .
3
Determine the function x (t) that describes the subsequent free motion.
Solution
For consistency of units with the engineering system, we make the following conversions
1
6 inches = foot
2
2
8 inches = foot .
3
Further weight of the body is given to be
W = 2 lbs
But W = mg
W 2
Therefore m= =
g 32
1
or m= slugs.
16
1
Since Stretch = s = foot
2
Therefore by Hook’s Law, we can write

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

1
2 = k   ⇒ k = 4 lbs/ft
2

Hence the equation of simple harmonic motion

d 2x
m = −kx
dt 2
becomes
1 d 2x
= −4 x
16 dt 2

d 2x
or + 64 x = 0 .
dt 2
2 −4
Since the initial displacement is 8 inches = ft and the initial velocity is ft/s , the
3 3
initial conditions are:

x(0 ) = , x ′(0 ) = −
2 4
3 3
The negative sign indicates that the initial velocity is given in the upward i.e negative
direction. Thus, we need to solve the initial value problem.
d 2x
Solve + 64 x = 0
dt 2

x(0 ) = , x ′(0 ) = −
2 4
Subject to
3 3
d 2x
Putting x = e mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt
We obtain the auxiliary equation
m 2 + 64 = 0
or m = ±8i
The general solution of the equation is
x(t ) = c1 cos 8t + c 2 sin 8t
Now, we apply the initial conditions.

x(0 ) =
2 2
⇒ c1 .1 + c 2 .0 =
3 3

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

2
Thus c1 =
3

x(t ) =
2
So that cos 8t + c 2 sin 8t
3
Since

x ′(t ) = −
16
sin 8t + 8c 2 cos 8t .
3
Therefore

x ′(0 ) = −
4 16 4
⇒ − .0 + 8c 2 .1 = −
3 3 3
Thus
1
c2 = − .
6
Hence, solution of the initial value problem is

x(t ) =
2 1
cos 8t − sin 8t.
3 6
Example 3
Write the solution of the initial value problem discussed in the previous example in the
form
x ( t ) A sin (ωt + φ ) .
=
Solution
The initial value discussed in the previous example is:
d 2x
Solve + 64 x = 0
dt 2

x(0 ) = , x ′(0 ) = −
2 4
Subject to
3 3
Solution of the problem is

x(t ) =
2 1
cos 8t − sin 8t
3 6
Thus amplitude of motion is given by
2 2
2  1 17
A =   + −  = ≈ 0.69 ft
3  6 6

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and the phase angle is defined by

2/3 4
sin φ = = >0
17 / 6 17
− 1/ 6 1
cos φ = =− <0
17 / 6 17

Therefore
tan φ = −4

or tan −1 (− 4 ) = −1.326 radians

Since sin φ > 0, cos φ < 0, the phase angle φ must be in 2nd quadrant.
Thus
φ = π − 1.326 = 1.816 radians
Hence the required form of the solution is

x(t ) = sin (8t + 1.816 )

17
6
Example 4
For the motion described by the initial value problem
d 2x
Solve + 64 x =
0
dt 2

x(0 ) = , x ′(0 ) = −
2 4
Subject to
3 3
Find the first value of time for which the mass passes through the equilibrium position
heading downward.
Solution
We know that the solution of initial value problem is

x(t ) =
2 1
cos 8t − sin 8t .
3 6
This solution can be written in the form

x(t ) = sin (8t + 1.816 )

17
6
The values of t for which the mass passes through the equilibrium position i.e for which
x = 0 are given by
wt + φ = nπ

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Where n = 1,2,  , therefore, we have

8t1 + 1.816 = π , 8t 2 + 1.816 = 2π , 8t 3 + 1.816 = 3π ,  or
t1 = 0.166 , t 2 = 0.558, t 3 = 0.951, 
Hence, the mass passes through the equilibrium position x = 0 heading downward first
time at t 2 = 0.558 seconds.

22.2 Exercise
State in words a possible physical interpretation of the given initial-value problems.

x(0 ) = −3, x ′(0 ) = −2

4
1. x ′′ + 3 x = 0 ,
32

x(0 ) = 0.7 , x ′(0 ) = 0

1
2. x ′′ + 4 x = 0 ,
16
Write the solution of the given initial-value problem in the form x(t ) = A sin (ϖt + φ )
3. x ′′ + 25 x = 0 , x(0 ) = −2 , x ′(0 ) = 10

x(0 ) = 1, x ′(0 ) = −2
1
4. x ′′ + 8 x = 0 ,
2
5. x′′ + 2 x =
0, x ( 0) =
−1, x′ ( 0 ) =
−2 2

x(0 ) = 4 , x ′(0 ) = 16
1
6. x ′′ + 16 x = 0 ,
4
7. 0.1x ′′ + 10 x = 0 , x(0 ) = 1, x ′(0 ) = 1
8. x ′′ + x = 0 , x(0 ) = −4 , x ′(0 ) = 3
9. The period of free undamped oscillations of a mass on a spring is π / 4 seconds. If
the spring constant is 16 lb/ft, what is the numerical value of the weight?
10. A 4-lb weight is attached to a spring, whose spring constant is 16 lb/ft . What is
period of simple harmonic motion?
11. A 24-lb weight, attached to the spring, stretches it 4 inches. Find the equation of
the motion if the weight is released from rest from a point 3 inches above the
equilibrium position.
12. A 20-lb weight stretches a spring 6 inches. The weight is released from rest 6
inches below the equilibrium position.
π π π π 9π
a) Find the position of the weight at t = , , , , seconds.
12 8 6 4 32
b) What is the velocity of the weight when t = 3π / 16 seconds? In which
direction is the weight heading at this instant?
c) At what times does the weight pass through the equilibrium position?

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23 Damped Motion
In the previous lecture, we discussed the free harmonic motion that assumes no retarding
forces acting on the moving mass. However
 No retarding forces acting on the moving body is not realistic, because
 There always exists at least a resisting force due to surrounding medium.
For example a mass can be suspended in a viscous medium. Hence, the damping forces
need to be included in a realistic analysis.
23.1 Damping Force
In the study of mechanics, the damping forces acting on a body are considered to be
dx
proportional to a power of the instantaneous velocity . In the hydro dynamical
dt
problems, the damping force is proportional to (dx / dt )2 . So that in these problems
2
 dx 
Damping force = -β  
 dt 
Where β is a positive damping constant and negative sign indicates that the damping
force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of motion.
In the present discussion, we shall assume that the damping force is proportional to the
dx
instantaneous velocity . Thus for us
dt
 dx 
Damping force = -β  
 dt 
23.2 The Differential Equation
Suppose That
 A body of mass m is attached to a spring.
 The spring stretches by an amount s to attain the equilibrium position.
 The mass is further displaced by an amount x and then released.
 No external forces are impressed on the system.
Therefore, there are three forces acting on the mass, namely:
a) Weight mg of the body
b) Restoring force − k (s + x )

 dx 
c) Damping force -β  
 dt 
Therefore, total force acting on the mass m is

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 dx 
mg − k (s + x ) − β  
 dt 
So that by Newton’s second law of motion, we have
d 2x  dx 
m = mg − k (s + x ) − β  
dt 2
 dt 
Since in the equilibrium position
mg − ks = 0

d 2x  dx 
Therefore m = −kx − β  
dt 2
 dt 
Dividing with m , we obtain the differential equation of free damped motion
d 2 x β  dx  k
+  + x =0
dt 2 m  dt  m
For algebraic convenience, we suppose that
β k
2λ = , ω2 =
m m
Then the equation becomes:
d 2x dx
2
+ 2λ + ω 2 x = 0
dt dt
23.2.1 Solution of the Differential Equation
Consider the equation of the free damped motion
d 2x dx
2
+ 2λ + ω 2 x = 0
dt dt
dx d 2x
Put x = e mt , = me mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt dt
Then the auxiliary equation is:
m 2 + 2 λm + ω 2 = 0
Solving by use of quadratic formula, we obtain

m =− λ ± λ 2 − ω 2
Thus the roots of the auxiliary equation are

m1 = − λ + λ 2 − ω 2 , m2 = − λ − λ 2 − ω 2
Depending upon the sign of the quantity λ2 − ω 2 , we can now distinguish three possible
cases of the roots of the auxiliary equation.

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Case 1 Real and distinct roots

If λ 2 − ω 2 > 0 then β > k and the system is said to be over-damped. The solution of the
equation of free damped motion is
x(t ) = c1e m1t + c 2 e m2t

or [
x(t ) = e −λt c1e λ2 −ω 2 t
+ c2 e − λ2 −ω 2 t
]
This equation represents smooth and non oscillatory motion.
Case 2 Real and equal roots
If λ2 − ω 2 = 0 , then β = k and the system is said to be critically damped, because any
slight decrease in the damping force would result in oscillatory motion. The general
solution of the differential equation of free damped force is
x(t ) = c1e m1 t + c 2 te m1 t

or x(t ) = e − λt (c1 + c2 t )
Case 3 Complex roots
If λ2 − w 2 < 0 , then β < k and the system is said to be under-damped. We need to
rewrite the roots of the auxiliary equation as:

m1 = −λ + ω 2 − λ2 i, m2 = −λ − ω 2 − λ2 i
Thus, the general solution of the equation of free damped motion is

x(t ) = e − λt c1 cos ω 2 − λ 2 t + c2 sin ω 2 − λ 2 t 

 
This represents an oscillatory motion; but amplitude of vibration → 0 as t → ∞ because of
the coefficient e − λt .
Note that
− λt
Each of the three solutions contain the damping factor e , λ > 0, the displacements of
the mass become negligible for larger times.

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23.2.2 Alternative form of the Solution

When λ2 − ω 2 < 0 , the solution of the differential equation of free damped motion
d 2x dx
2
+ 2λ +ω 2x = 0
dt dt

is x(t ) = e − λt c1 cos ω 2 − λ 2 t + c2 sin ω 2 − λ 2 t 

 
Suppose that A and φ are two real numbers such that
c1 c
sin φ = , cos φ = 2
A A
c1
So that A = c12 + c2 2 , tan φ =
c2
The number φ is known as the phase angle. Then the solution of the equation becomes:

x(t ) = Ae −λt sin ω 2 − λ2 t cos φ + cos ω 2 − λ2 t sin φ 

 

or (
x(t ) = Ae −λt sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ )
Note that
 The coefficient Ae − λt is called the damped amplitude of vibrations.
 The time interval between two successive maxima of x(t ) is called quasi period,
and is given by the number
2π
ω 2 − λ2
 The following number is known as the quasi frequency.
ω 2 − λ2
2π
The graph of the solution
( )


x(t ) = Ae − λt sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ
crosses positive t-axis, i.e the line x = 0 , at times that are given by
ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ = nπ
Where n = 1,2,3,  .
For example, if we have
 π
x(t ) = e −0.5t sin  2t − 
 3

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

π
Then 2t − = nπ
3
π π π
or 2t1 − = 0, 2t 2 − = π , 2t 3 − = 2π , 
3 3 3
π 4π 7π
or t1 = , t2 = , t3 = ,
6 6 6
We notice that difference between two successive roots is
π 1
t k − t k −1 = = quasi period
2 2
2π
Since quasi period = = π . Therefore
2
π 1
t k − t k −1 = = quasi period
2 2

 Since x(t ) ≤ Ae −λt when sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ ≤ 1 , the graph of the solution

(
x(t ) = Ae −λt sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ )
touches the graphs of the exponential functions
± Ae −λt
at the values of t for which
(
sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ = ±1 )
This means those values of t for which
π
ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ = (2n + 1)
2
or t=
(2n + 1)(π / 2) − φ where n = 0,1, 2,3,
ω 2 − λ2
Again, if we consider
 π
x(t ) = e −0.5t sin  2t − 
 3
π π 3π π
π 5π
Then 2t1* − = , 2t 2* −
, 2t 3* − = = ,
3 2 3 2 3 2
5π 11π 17π
t1 = , t2 = , t3 = ,
* * *
Or
12 12 12
Again, we notice that the difference between successive values is
π
t k * − t k*−1 =
2
The values of t for which the graph of the solution
( )


x(t ) = Ae −λt sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ

touches the exponential graph are not the values for which the function attains its
relative extremum.

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Example 1
Interpret and solve the initial value problem
d 2x dx
2
+5 + 4x = 0
dt dt
x(0 ) = 1, x ′(0 ) = 1
Find extreme values of the solution and check whether the graph crosses the equilibrium
position.
Interpretation
Comparing the given differential equation
d 2x dx
2
+5 + 4x = 0
dt dt
with the general equation of the free damped motion

d 2x dx
2
+ 2 λ +ω 2x = 0
dt dt
we see that
5
λ= , ω2 = 4
2
so that λ2 −ω 2 > 0
Therefore, the problem represents the over-damped motion of a mass on a spring.
Inspection of the boundary conditions
x(0 ) = 1, x ′(0 ) = 1
reveals that the mass starts 1 unit below the equilibrium position with a downward
velocity of 1 ft/sec.
Solution
To solve the differential equation
d 2x dx
+5 + 4x = 0
dt 2 dt

dx d 2x
We put x = e mt , = me mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt dt
Then the auxiliary equation is

m 2 + 5m + 4 = 0
⇒ (m + 4 )(m + 1) = 0

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

⇒ m = −1, m = −4 ,
Therefore, the auxiliary equation has distinct real roots
m = −1, m = −4
Thus the solution of the differential equation is:

x(t ) = c1e −t + c 2 e −4t

So that x ′(t ) = −c1e −t − 4c 2 e −4t

Now, we apply the boundary conditions
x(0 ) = 1 ⇒ c1 .1 + c 2 .1 = 1
x ′(0 ) = 1 ⇒ −c1 − 4c 2 = 1
Thus
c1 + c 2 = 1
− c1 − 4c 2 = 1
Solving these two equations, we have.
5 2
c1 = , c 2 = −
3 3
Therefore, solution of the initial value problem is

x(t ) =
5 −t 2 − 4 t
e − e
3 3
Extremum

x(t ) =
5 −t 2 − 4 t
Since e − e
3 3
dx 5 8
Therefore = − e −t + e − 4 t
dt 3 3

x ′(t ) = 0 ⇒ − e −t + e −4t = 0
5 8
So that
3 3
8 1 8
or e3t = ⇒ t = ln
5 3 5
or t = 0.157
d 2x 5 32
Since = e −t − e − 4 t
dt 2 3 3
Therefore at t = 0.157, we have

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d 2x 5 32 − 0.628
= e − 0.157 − e
dt 2 3 3
= 1.425 − 5.692 = −4.267 < 0
So that the solution x(t ) has a maximum at t = 0.157 and maximum value of x is:
x(0.157 ) = 1.069
Hence the mass attains an extreme displacement of 1.069 ft below the equilibrium
position.
Check
Suppose that the graph of x(t ) does cross the t − axis , that is, the mass passes through
the equilibrium position. Then a value of t exists for which
x(t ) = 0
5 −t 2 − 4 t
i.e e − e =0
3 3
2
⇒ e 3t =
5
1 2
or t = ln = −0.305
3 5
This value of t is physically irrelevant because time can never be negative. Hence, the
mass never passes through the equilibrium position.
Example 2
An 8-lb weight stretches a spring 2ft. Assuming that a damping force numerically equals
to two times the instantaneous velocity acts on the system. Determine the equation of
motion if the weight is released from the equilibrium position with an upward velocity of
3 ft / sec.
Solution
Since
Weight = 8 lbs , Stretch = s = 2 ft
Therefore, by Hook’s law
8 = 2k
⇒ k = 4 lb / ft
 dx 
Since Damping force = 2 
 dt 
Therefore β=2

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Weight 8 1
Also mass = ⇒ m= = slugs
g 32 4

Thus, the differential equation of motion of the free damped motion is given by
d 2x  dx 
m = −kx − β  
dt 2
 dt 
1 d 2x  dx 
or = −4 x − 2 
4 dt 2  dt 
d 2x dx
or 2
+8 + 16 x = 0
dt dt
Since the mass is released from equilibrium position with an upward velocity 3 ft / s .
Therefore the initial conditions are:
x(0 ) = 0 , x ′(0 ) = −3
Thus we need to solve the initial value problem
d 2x dx
Solve 2
+8 + 16 x = 0
dt dt
Subject to x(0 ) = 0, x ′(0) = −3

dx d 2x
Put x = e mt , = me mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt dt
Thus the auxiliary equation is
m 2 + 8m + 16 = 0

or (m + 4)2 = 0 ⇒ m = −4, −4
So that roots of the auxiliary equation are real and equal.
m1 = −4 = m2
Hence the system is critically damped and the solution of the governing differential
equation is

x(t ) = c1e −4t + c2te −4t

Moreover, the system is critically damped.
We now apply the boundary conditions.
x(0 ) = 0 ⇒ c1 .1 + c 2 .0 = 0
⇒ c1 = 0

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Thus x(t ) = c 2 te −4t

dx
⇒ = c2 e − 4t − 4c2te − 4t
dt
So that x ′(0 ) = −3 ⇒ c 2 .1 − 0 = −3
⇒ c 2 = −3
Thus solution of the initial value problem is

x(t ) = −3te −4t

Extremum
Since x(t ) = −3te −4t
dx
Therefore = −3e − 4t + 12te − 4t
dt
= −3e −4t (1 − 4t )
dx 1
Thus =0⇒t =
dt 4
The corresponding extreme displacement is
1 1
x  = −3 e −1 = −0.276 ft
4 4
Thus the weight reaches a maximum height of 0.276 ft above the equilibrium position.
Example 3
A 16-lb weight is attached to a 5 - ft long spring. At equilibrium the spring measures
8.2ft .If the weight is pushed up and released from rest at a point 2 - ft above the
equilibrium position. Find the displacement x(t ) if it is further known that the
surrounding medium offers a resistance numerically equal to the instantaneous velocity.
Solution
Length of un - stretched spring = 5 ft
Length of spring at equilibrium = 8.2 ft
Thus Elongation of spring = s = 3.2 ft
By Hook’s law, we have
16 = k (3.2 ) ⇒ k = 5 lb / ft
Weight 16 1
Further mass = ⇒m= = slugs
g 32 2

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dx
Since Damping force =
dt
Therefore β =1
Thus the differential equation of the free damped motion is given by
d 2x dx
m 2
= −kx − β
dt dt

1 d 2x dx
or 2
= −5 x −
2 dt dt

d 2x dx
or 2
+2 + 10 x = 0
dt dt
Since the spring is released from rest at a point 2 ft above the equilibrium position.
The initial conditions are:
x(0 ) = −2 , x ′(0 ) = 0
Hence we need to solve the initial value problem
d 2x dx
2
+2 + 10 x = 0
dt dt
x(0 ) = −2 , x ′(0 ) = 0
To solve the differential equation, we put
dx d 2x
x = e mt , = me mt , 2
= m 2 e mt .
dt dt
Then the auxiliary equation is

m 2 + 2m + 10 = 0
or m = −1 ± 3i
So that the auxiliary equation has complex roots
m1 = −1 + 3i, m2 = −1 − 3i
The system is under-damped and the solution of the differential equation is:

x(t ) = e −t (c1 cos 3t + c 2 sin 3t )

Now we apply the boundary conditions
x(0 ) = −2 ⇒ c1 .1 + c 2 .0 = −2
⇒ c1 = −2

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Thus x(t ) = e −t (− 2 cos 3t + c 2 sin 3t )

= e − t (6 sin 3t + 3c 2 cos 3t ) − e − t (− 2 cos 3t + c 2 sin 3t )

dx
dt
Therefore x′(0 ) = 0 ⇒ 3c2 + 2 = 0
−2
c2 =
3
Hence, solution of the initial value problem is
 
x(t ) = e − t  − 2 cos 3t − sin 3t 
2
 3 
Example 4
Write the solution of the initial value problem
d 2x dx
2
+ 2 + 10 x = 0
dt dt
x(0 ) = −2 , x ′(0 ) = 0
in the alternative form
x(t ) = Ae − t sin (3t + φ )
Solution
We know from previous example that the solution of the initial value problem is
 
x(t ) = e −t  − 2 cos 3t − sin 3t 
2
 3 
Suppose that A and φ are real numbers such that
2 − 2/3
sin φ = − , cos φ =
A A
4 2
Then A= 4+ = 10
9 3
−2
Also tan φ = =3
− 2/3
Therefore tan −1 (3) = 1.249 radian
Since sin φ < 0, cosφ < 0, the phase angle φ must be in 3rd quadrant.
Therefore
φ = π + 1.249 = 4.391 radians

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Hence

x(t ) = 10e −t sin (3t + 4.391)

2
3
The values of t = tγ where the graph of the solution crosses positive t - axis and the
 2
values t = tγ where the graph of the solution touches the graphs of ±   10e −t are
*

 3
given in the following table.

γ tγ tγ* ( )
x tγ*

1 .631 1.154 0.665

2 1.678 2.202 -0.233

3 2.725 3.249 0.082

4 3.772 4.296 -0.029

23.2.3 Quasi Period

Since x(t ) = 10e −t sin (3t + 4.391) ⇒

2
λ2 − ω 2 = 3
3
2π 2π
So that the quasi period is given by = seconds
λ2 − ω 2 3

π
Hence, difference between the successive tγ and tγ* is units.
3
23.3 Exercise
Give a possible interpretation of the given initial value problems.

x(0 ) = 0 , x ′(0 ) = −1.5

1
1. x ′′ + 2 x ′ + x = 0 ,
6
x(0 ) = −2 , x ′(0 ) = 1
16
2. x ′′ + x ′ + 2 x = 0 ,
32
3. A 4-lb weight is attached to a spring whose constant is 2 lb /ft. The medium offers
a resistance to the motion of the weight numerically equal to the instantaneous
velocity. If the weight is released from a point 1 ft above the equilibrium position
with a downward velocity of 8 ft / s, determine the time that the weight passes
through the equilibrium position. Find the time for which the weight attains its
extreme displacement from the equilibrium position. What is the position of the
weight at this instant?
4. A 4-ft spring measures 8 ft long after an 8-lb weight is attached to it. The medium
through which the weight moves offers a resistance numerically equal to 2 times

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

the instantaneous velocity. Find the equation of motion if the weight is released
from the equilibrium position with a downward velocity of 5 ft / s. Find the time
for which the weight attains its extreme displacement from the equilibrium
position. What is the position of the weight at this instant?
5. A 1-kg mass is attached to a spring whose constant is 16 N / m and the entire
system is then submerged in to a liquid that imparts a damping force numerically
equal to 10 times the instantaneous velocity. Determine the equations of motion if
a. The weight is released from rest 1m below the equilibrium position;
and
b. The weight is released 1m below the equilibrium position with and
upward velocity of 12 m/s.
6. A force of 2-lb stretches a spring 1 ft. A 3.2-lb weight is attached to the spring
and the system is then immersed in a medium that imparts damping force
numerically equal to 0.4 times the instantaneous velocity.
a. Find the equation of motion if the weight is released from rest 1 ft above the
equilibrium position.
b. Express the equation of motion in the form= ( )
x ( t ) Ae − λt sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ
c. Find the first times for which the weight passes through the equilibrium
position heading upward.
7. After a 10-lb weight is attached to a 5-ft spring, the spring measures 7-ft long.
The 10-lb weight is removed and replaced with an 8-lb weight and the entire
system is placed in a medium offering a resistance numerically equal to the
instantaneous velocity.
a. Find the equation of motion if the weight is released 1/ 2 ft below the
equilibrium position with a downward velocity of 1ft / s.
=
b. Express the equation of motion in the form ( )
x ( t ) Ae − λt sin ω 2 − λ 2 t + φ
c. Find the time for which the weight passes through the equilibrium position
heading downward.
8. A 10-lb weight attached to a spring stretches it 2 ft. The weight is attached to a
dashpot-damping device that offers a resistance numerically equal to β (β > 0 )
times the instantaneous velocity. Determine the values of the damping constant β
so that the subsequent motion is
a. Over-damped
b. Critically damped
c. Under-damped
9. A mass of 40 g. stretches a spring 10cm. A damping device imparts a resistance to
motion numerically equal to 560 (measured in dynes /(cm / s)) times the
instantaneous velocity. Find the equation of motion if the mass is released from
the equilibrium position with downward velocity of 2 cm / s.
10. The quasi period of an under-damped, vibrating 1-slugs mass of a spring is π / 2
seconds. If the spring constant is 25 lb / ft, find the damping constant β .

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24 Forced Motion
In this last lecture on the applications of second order linear differential equations, we
consider
 A vibrational system consisting of a body of mass m attached to a spring. The
motion of the body is being driven by an external force f (t ) i.e. forced motion.
 Flow of current in an electrical circuit that consists of an inductor, resistor and a
capacitor connected in series, because of its similarity with the forced motion.
24.1 Forced motion with damping
Suppose that we now take into consideration an external force f (t ) . Then, the forces
acting on the system are:
a) Weight of the body = mg
b) The restoring force = − k (s + x )
c) The damping effect = − β (dx / dt )
d) The external force = f (t ).
Hence x denotes the distance of the mass m from the equilibrium position. Thus the total
force acting on the mass m is given by
 dx 
Force = mg − k (s + x ) − β   + f (t )
 dt 
By the Newton’s 2nd law of motion, we have

d 2x
Force = ma = m
dt 2
d 2x  dx 
Therefore m 2 = mg − ks − kx − β   + f (t )
dt  dt 
But mg − ks = 0

d 2 x β  dx  k f (t )
So that +  + x =
dt 2
m  dt  m m

d 2x
+ ω 2 x = F (t )
dx
or 2
+ 2λ
dt dt
f (t ) β k
=
where F (t ) = , 2λ = and ω 2 .
m m m
Note that

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 The last equation is a non-homogeneous differential equation governing the forced

motion with damping.

 To solve this equation, we use either the method of undetermined coefficients or

the variation of parameters.
Example 1
Interpret and solve the initial value problem
1 d 2x dx
2
+ 1.2 + 2 x = 5 cos 4t
5 dt dt

x(0 ) = , x ′(0 ) = 0
1
2
Interpretation
The problem represents a vibrational system consisting of
1
 A mass m = slugs or kilograms
5
 The mass is attached to a spring having spring constant k = 2 lb / ft or N / m
1
 The mass is released from rest ft or meter below the equilibrium position
2
 The motion is damped with damping constant β = 1.2 .
 The motion is being driven by an external periodic force f (t ) = 5 cos 4t that has
π
period T = .
2
Solution
Given the differential equation
1 d 2x dx
2
+ 1.2 + 2 x = 5 cos 4t
5 dt dt
d 2x dx
or 2
+ 6 + 10 x = 25 cos 4t
dt dt
First consider the associated homogeneous differential equation.
d 2x dx
2
+ 6 + 10 x = 0
dt dt
dx d 2x
Put x = e mt , = me mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt dt
Then the auxiliary equation is:
m 2 + 6m + 10 = 0

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

⇒ m = −3 ± i
Thus the auxiliary equation has complex roots
m1 = −3 + i, m2 = −3 − i
So that the complementary function of the equation is

xc = e − 3t (c1 cos t + c 2 sin t )

To find a particular integral of non-homogeneous differential equation we use the
undetermined coefficients, we assume that
x p (t ) = A cos 4t + B sin 4t

Then x ′p (t ) = −4 A sin 4t + 4 B cos 4t

x ′p′ (t ) = −16 A cos 4t − 16 B sin 4t

So that

x′p′ + 6 x′p + 10 x p = −16 A cos 4t − 16 B sin 4t − 24 A sin 4t

+ 24 B cos 4t + 10 A cos 4t + 10 B sin 4t
= (− 6 A + 24 B ) cos 4t + (− 24 A − 6 B )sin 4t

Substituting in the given non-homogeneous differential equation, we obtain

(− 6 A + 24 B ) cos 4t + (− 24 A − 6 B ) sin 4t = 25 cos 4t
Equating coefficients, we have
− 6 A + 24 B = 25
− 24 A − 6 B = 0
Solving these equations, we obtain
25 50
A=− , B=
102 51

x p (t ) = −
25 50
Thus cos 4t + sin 4t
102 51

Hence the general solution of the differential equation is:

x(t ) = e − 3t [c1 cos t + c 2 sin t ] −

25 50
cos 4t + sin 4t
102 51

x ′(t ) = −3e − 3t [c1 cos t + c 2 sin t ] + e − 3t (− c1 sin t + c 2 cos t ) +

50 200
sin 4t + cos 4t
51 51

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x(0 ) =
1
Now gives
2
25 1
c1 .1 − =
102 2
1 25 51 + 25
or c1 = + =
2 102 102
38
or c1 =
51
Also x ′(0 ) = 0 gives
200
− 3c1 + c 2 + =0
51
200 114 86
or c2 = − + =−
51 51 51
Hence the solution of the initial value problem is:
 38  25
x(t ) = e −3t  cos t − sin t  −
86 50
cos 4t + sin 4t
 51 51  102 51
24.2 Transient and Steady-State Terms
Due to the presence of the factor e −3t we notice that the complementary function
 38 
xc (t ) = e − 3t  cos t − sin t 
86
 51 51 
possesses the property that
lim xc (t ) = 0
x →∞
Thus for large time, the displacements of the weight are closely approximated by the
particular solution

x p (t ) = −
25 50
cos 4t + sin 4t
102 51
Since xc (t ) → 0 as t → ∞ , it is said to be transient term or transient solution. The
particular solution x p (t ) is called the steady-state solution
Hence, when F is a periodic function, such as
F (t ) = F0 sin γt or F (t ) = F0 cos γt
The general solution of the equation

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d 2x dx
+ 2λ + ω 2 x = F (t )
dt 2 dt
consists of
x(t ) = Transient solution + Steady State Solution

Example 2
Solve the initial value problem
d 2x dx
2
+ 2 + 2 x = 4 cos t + 2 sin t
dt dt
x(0 ) = 0, x ′(0 ) = 3
Solution
First consider the associated homogeneous linear differential equation
d 2x dx
2
+ 2 + 2x = 0
dt dt
Put =x e=
mx
, x′ memx
= , x′′ m 2emx
Then the auxiliary equation is
m 2 + 2m + 2 = 0
− 2± 4−8
or m= = −1 ± i
2
Thus the complementary function is

xc = e −t (c1 cos t + c 2 sin t )

For the particular integral we assume that

x p = A cos t + B sin t

x ′p = − A sin t + B cos t

x ′p′ = − A cos t − B sin t

So that

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d 2xp dx p
+2 + 2 x p = − A cos t − B sin t − 2 A sin t + 2 B cos t + 2 A cos t + 2 B sin t
dt 2 dt

d 2xp dx p
or 2
+2 + 2 x p= ( A + 2 B ) cos t + ( −2 A + B ) sin t
dt dt

Substituting in the given differential equation, we have

( A + 2 B ) cos t + (− 2 A + B )sin t = 4 cos t + 2 sin t
Equating coefficients, we obtain
A + 2B = 4
− 2A + B = 2
Solving these two equations, we have:
A = 0, B=2
Thus x p = 2 sin t
Hence general solution of the differential equation is
x = xc + x p

or x(t ) = e −t (c1 cos t + c2 sin t ) + 2 sin t

Thus x′(t ) = −e −t (c1 cos t + c2 sin t ) + e −t (− c1 sin t + c2 cos t ) + 2 cos t

Now we apply the boundary conditions
x(0 ) = 0 ⇒ c1 .1 + c 2 .0 + 0 = 0
⇒ c1 = 0
x ′(0 ) = 3 ⇒ −c1 .1 + c 2 .1 + 2 = 3
⇒ c2 = 1
Thus solution of the initial value problem is

x = e −t sin t + 2 sin t
Since e −t sin t → 0 as t → 0
Therefore
e −t sin t = Transient Term , 2 sin t = Steady State

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

−t
Hence x = e t + 2sin
sin t
Transient Steady − state

We notice that the effect of the transient term becomes negligible for about
t > 2π
24.3 Motion without Damping
If the system is impressed upon by a periodic force and there is no damping force then
there is no transient term in the solution.
Example 3
Solve the initial value problem
d 2x
2
+ ω 2 x = Fo sin γt
dt
x(0 ) = 0 , x′(0 ) = 0
Where Fo is a constant
Solution
For complementary function, consider the associated homogeneous differential equation
d 2x
2
+ω 2x = 0
dt
Put x = e mt , x′′ = m 2 e mt
Then the auxiliary equation is

m 2 + ω 2 = 0 ⇒ m = ±ωi
Thus the complementary function is
xc (t ) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt
To find a particular solution, we assume that
x p (t ) = A cos γt + B sin γt

Then x ′p (t ) = − Aγ sin γt + Bγ cos γt

x ′p′ (t ) = − Aγ 2 cos γt − Bγ 2 sin γt

Therefore,

x ′p′ + ω 2 x p = − Aγ 2 cos γt − Bγ 2 sin γt + Aω 2 cos γt + Bω 2 sin γt

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

( ) (
x′p′ + ω 2 x p = A ω 2 − γ 2 cos γt + B ω 2 − γ 2 sin γt )
Substituting in the given differential equation, we have
( ) ( )
A ω 2 − γ 2 cos γt + B ω 2 − γ 2 sin γt = Fo sin γt
Equating coefficients, we have

( ) (
A ω 2 − γ 2 = 0, B ω 2 − γ 2 = Fo )
Solving these two equations, we obtain
Fo
A = 0, B= (γ ≠ ω )
ω −γ 2
2

 F 
Therefore x p (t ) =  2 o 2  sin γt
ω −γ 

Hence, the general solution of the differential equation is

 F 
x(t ) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt +  2 o 2  sin γt
ω −γ 
Foγ
Then x′ ( t ) =
−c1ω sin ωt + c2ω cos ωt + cos γt
ω − γ2
2

Now we apply the boundary conditions

x(0 ) = 0 ⇒ c1.1 + c2 .0 + 0 = 0
⇒ c1 = 0
Foγ
x′ ( 0 ) =⇒
0 c1 .0 + c2ω.1 + =0
ω − γ2
2

− γFo
⇒ c2 =
(
ω ω2 −γ 2 )
Thus solution of the initial value problem is
Fo
x(t ) =
(
ω ω −γ 2
2
)(− γ sin ω t + ω sin γ t ), (γ ≠ ω)

Note that the solution is not defined for γ = ω , However lim x(t ) can be obtained using
γ →ω
the L’Hôpital’s rule

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− γ sin ωt + ω sin γt
x(t ) = lim Fo
γ →ω (
ω ω2 − γ 2 )
d
(− γ sin ωt + ω sin γt )
dγ
= Fo lim ω
γ →ω d
dγ
(
ω ω2 −γ 2 )
− sin ωt + ωt cos γt
= Fo lim ω
γ →ω − 2ωγ
 − sin ωt + ωt cos ωt 
= Fo  
 − 2ω 2 
Fo F
= sin ωt − o t cos ωt
2ω2 2ω

Clearly x (t ) → ∞ as t → ∞ .Therefore there is no transient term when there is no

damping force in the presence of a periodic impressed force.
24.4 Electric Circuits
Many different physical systems can be described by a second order linear differential
equation similar to the differential equation of the forced motion:
d 2x
+ kx = f (t )
dx
m +β
dt 2 dt

One such analogous case is that of an LRC-Series circuit. Because of the similarity in
mathematics that governs these two systems, it might be possible to use our intuitive
understanding of one to help understand the other.

24.5 The LRC Series Circuits

The LRC series circuit consist of an inductor, resistor and capacitor connected in series
with a time varying source voltage E (t ) ,
24.5.1 Resistor
A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current
in an electrical circuit.

The measure of the extent to which a resistor impedes or resists with the flow of current
through it is called resistance, denoted by R .

Clearly higher the resistance, lower the flow of current. Lower the resistance, higher the
flow of current. Therefore, we conclude that the flow of current is inversely proportional
to the resistance, i.e

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1
I = V.
R ⇒ V = IR

Where V is constant of proportionality and it represents the voltage. The above equation
is mathematical statement of the well known as Ohm’s Law.

24.5.2 Inductor
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of magnetic
field. In its simplest form the conductor consists of a wire loop or coil wound on some
suitable material.

Whenever current through an inductor changes, i.e increases or decreases, a counter emf
is induced in it, which tends to oppose this change. This property of the coil due to which
it opposes any change of current through it is called the inductance.

dI
Suppose that I denotes the current then the rate of change of current is given by This
dt
dI
produces a counter emf voltage V . Then V is directly proportional to dt

dI dI
Vα V =L
dt ⇒ dt
Where L is constant of proportionality, which represents inductance of the inductor. The
standard unit for measurement of inductance is Henry, denoted by H .
24.5.3 Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive electronic component of an electronic circuit that has the ability
to store charge and opposes any change of voltage in the circuit. The ability of a capacitor
to store charge is called capacitance of the capacitor denoted by C . If + q coulomb of a
charge to the capacitor and the potential difference of V volts is established between 2
plates of the capacitor then
q α C ⇒ q = CV

V =q
or C

Where C is called constant of proportionality, which represent capacitance. The standard

unit to measure capacitance is farad, denoted by F .
24.6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The Kirchhoff’s 2nd law states that the sum of the voltage drops around any closed loop
equals the sum of the voltage rises around that loop. In other words the algebraic sum of
voltages around the close loop is zero.

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24.6.1 The Differential Equation

Now we consider the following circuit consisting of an inductor, a resistor and a
capacitor in series with a time varying voltage source E (t ) .

If VL ,VR andVc denote the voltage drop across the inductor, resistor and capacitor
respectively. Then
dI q
VL = L , V R = RI , Vc =
dt C
Now by Kirchhoff’s law, the sum of VL ,VR andVc must equal the source voltage E (t ) i.e

VL + VR + Vc = E (t )

+ RI + = E (t )
dI q
or L
dt C
dq
Since the electric current I represents the rate of flow of charge . Therefore, we can
dt
write
dq
I=
dt
Substituting in the last equation, we have:

d 2q
+ = E (t )
dq q
L +R
2 dt C
dt
Note that:
 We have seen this equation before! It is mathematically exactly the same as the
equation for a driven, damped harmonic oscillator.
 If E (t ) = 0, R ≠ 0 the electric vibration of the circuit are said to be free damped
oscillation.
 If E (t ) = 0, R = 0 then the electric vibration can be called free un-damped
oscillations.
24.6.2 Solution of the differential equation
The differential equation that governs the flow of charge in an LRC-Series circuit is

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d 2q
+ = E (t )
dq q
L +R
dt 2 dt C
This is a non-homogeneous linear differential equation of order-2. Therefore, the general
solution of this equation consists of a complementary function and particular integral.
For the complementary function we find general solution of the associated homogeneous
differential equation

d 2q dq q
L +R + =0
dt 2 dt C

dq d 2q
We put q = e mt , = me mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt dt
Then the auxiliary equation of the associated homogeneous differential equation is:
1
Lm 2 + Rm + =0
C
If R ≠ 0 then, depending on the discriminant, the auxiliary equation may have
 Real and distinct roots
 Real and equal roots
Complex roots
Case 1 Real and distinct roots
4L
If Disc = R 2 − >0
C
Then the auxiliary equation has real and distinct roots. In this case, the circuit is said to
be over damped.
Case 2 Real and equal
4L
If Disc = R 2 − =0
c
Then the auxiliary equation has real and equal roots. In this case, the circuit is said to be
critically damped.
Case 3 Complex roots
L
Disc = R 2 − 4 <0
If c
Then the auxiliary equation has complex roots. In this case, the circuit is said to be under
damped.
Note that

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 Since by the quadratic formula, we know that

− R ± R 2 − 4L / c
m=
2L
In each of the above mentioned three cases, the general solution of the non-
− Rt / 2 L
homogeneous governing equation contains the factor e . Therefore
q(t ) → 0 as t → ∞
 In the under damped case when q (0 ) = qo the charge on the capacitor oscillates as it
decays. This means that the capacitor is charging and discharging as t → ∞
 In the under damped case, i.e. when E (0 ) = 0, and R = 0 , the electrical vibration do
not approach zero as t → ∞ . This means that the response of the circuit is Simple
Harmonic.

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25 Forced Motion (Examples)

Example 1 Consider an LC series circuit in which E (t ) = 0
Determine the charge q (t ) on the capacitor for t > 0 if its initial charge is qo and if
initially there is no current flowing in the circuit.
Solution
Since in an LC series circuit, there is no resistor. Therefore,
dq
R =0
dt
So that, the governing differential equation becomes

d 2q 1
L + q=0
dt 2 c
The initial conditions for the circuit are
q(0 ) = qo , I (0 ) = 0

= I (t )
dq
Since
dt
Therefore the initial conditions are equivalent to
q(0 ) = qo , q ′(0 ) = 0
Thus, we have to solve the initial value problem.

d 2q 1
L + q=0
dt 2 c
q(0 ) = qo , q ′(0 ) = 0
To solve the governing differential equation, we put
d 2q
q = e mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt
So that the auxiliary equation is:
1
Lm 2 + =0
c
1
⇒ m2 = −
Lc
 1 
⇒ m = ± i
 Lc 
Therefore, the solution of the differential equation is :

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 1   1 
q(t ) = c1 cos t  + c 2 sin  t 
 Lc   Lc 
Now, we apply the boundary conditions
q(0 ) = qo ⇒ qo = c1 .1 + c2 .0
⇒ c1 = qo
 1   1 
Thus q(t ) = qo cos t  + c 2 sin  t 
 Lc   Lc 
Differentiating w.r to t , we have:
dq q  1  c2  1 
=
− o sin  t+ cos  t
dt Lc  Lc  Lc  Lc 

q ′(0 ) = 0 ⇒ 0 +
c2
Now .1 = 0
Lc
⇒ c2 = 0
Hence

q(t ) = qo cos
1
t
Lc

I (t ) =
dq
Since
dt
Therefore, current in the circuit is given by
 1 
I (t ) = −
qo
sin  t
Lc  LC 
Example 2
Find the charge q (t ) on the capacitor in an LRC series circuit when L=0.25 Henry, R=10
Ohms, C=0.001 farad, E (t ) = 0 , q (0 ) = qo and I (0 ) =0.
Solution
We know that for an LRC circuit, the governing differential equation is
d 2q
+ = E (t )
dq q
L + R
dt 2 dt c
1 1
Since L = 0.25 = =
, R 10=
,C 0=
.001
4 1000
Therefore, the equation becomes:

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1 d 2q dq
+ 10 + 1000q = 0
4 dt 2 dt
d 2q dq
or 2
+ 40 + 4000q = 0
dt dt
The initial conditions are
q(0 ) = qo , I (0 ) = 0
or q(0 ) = qo , q ′(0 ) = 0
To solve the differential equation, we put
dq d 2q
q = e mt , = me mt , 2
= m 2 e mt
dt dt
Therefore, the auxiliary equation is

m 2 + 40m + 4000 = 0
− 40 ± 1600 − 16000
⇒m=
2
⇒ m = −20 ± 60 i
Thus, the solution of the differential equation is

q(t ) = e −20t (c1 cos 60t + c2 sin 60t )

Now, we apply the initial conditions
q(0 ) = qo ⇒ c1 .1 + c2 .0 = qo
⇒ c1 = qo

Therefore q(t ) = e −20t (qo cos 60t + c 2 sin 60t )

Now q ′(t ) = −20e −20t (qo cos 60t + c 2 cos 60t ) + e −20t (− 60qo sin 60 t + 60 c 2 cos 60t )

Thus q′ ( 0 ) = 0 ⇒ −20qo − 20c2 + 60c2 .1= 0

q
⇒ c2 =o
2
Hence the solution of the initial value problem is
 1 
=q ( t ) qo e −20t  cos 60t + sin 60t 
 2 
As discussed in the previous lectures, a single sine function

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qo 10 −20t
q(t ) = e sin (60t + 1.249 )
3
Since R ≠ 0 and lim q(t ) = 0
t →∞
Therefore the solution of the given differential equation is transient solution.
Note that
The electric vibrations in this case are free damped oscillations as there is no impressed
voltage E (t ) on the circuit.
Example 3
Find the steady state of solution q p (t ) and the steady state current in an LRC series circuit
when the impressed voltage is E ( t ) = Eo sin γ t

Solution
The steady state solution q p (t ) is a particular solution of the differential equation

d 2q dq 1
L 2
+R Eo sin γ t
+ q=
dt dt C
We use the method of undetermined coefficients, for finding q p (t ) . Therefore, we assume

q ( t ) A sin γ t + B cos γ t
=

Then q′ ( t ) Aγ cos γ t − Bγ sin γ t

=

q ′′(t ) = − Aγ 2 sin γt − Bγ 2 cos γt

Therefore
d 2q dq 1
L 2
+R + q = − ALγ 2 sin γt − BLγ 2 cos γt + ARγ cos γt
dt dt C
A B
− BRγ sin γt + sin γt + cos γt
C C
A  B 
=  − ALγ 2 − BRγ  sin γt +  − BLγ 2 + ARγ  cos γt
C  C 
Substituting in the given differential equation, we obtain
A  B 
 C − ALγ − BRγ  sin γt +  C − BLγ + ARγ  cos γt = E o sin γt
2 2

Equating coefficients of sin γ t and cos γ t , we obtain

A
− ALγ 2 − BRγ = E o
C

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

B
− BLγ 2 + ARγ =
0
C
1 2
or  − Lγ  A − BRγ = E o
C 
1 
ARγ +  − Lγ 2  B = 0
C 
− ARγ
To solve these equations, we have from second equation B =
1
− Lγ 2
C
Substituting in the first equation and simplifying, we obtain
 1 
Eo  Lγ −
 Cγ 
A=
 2L 1 
−γ  L2γ 2 − + 2 2 + R2 
 C Cγ 
Eo R
Using this value of A and simplifying yields B =
 2L 1 
− γ  L2γ 2 − + 2 2 + R2 
 C C γ 
If we use the notations
1 2L 1
X = Lγ − then X 2 = L2γ 2 − + 2 2
Cγ C C γ
2L 1
Z= X 2 + R 2 then Z 2 = L2γ 2 − + 2 2 + R2
C C γ
Eo X Eo R
Then A= , B=
− γZ 2 − γZ 2
E X E R
Therefore, the steady-state charge is given by q p (t ) = − o sin γt − o cos γt
γZ 2 γZ 2
Eo R 
So that the steady-state current is given by I p (t ) =
X
 sin γt − cos γt 
Z Z Z 
Note that
1
 The quantity X = Lγ − is called the reactance of the circuit.
Cγ

 The quantity Z = X 2 + R 2 is called impedance of the circuit.

 Both the reactance and the impedance are measured in ohms.

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Exercise
11. A 16-lb weight stretches a spring 8/3 ft. Initially the weight starts from rest 2-ft
below the equilibrium position and the subsequent motion takes place in a
medium that offers a damping force numerically equal to ½ the instantaneous
velocity. Find the equation of motion, if the weight is driven by an external force
equal to f (t ) = 10 cos 3t.
12. A mass 1-slug, when attached to a spring, stretches it 2-ft and then comes to rest
in the equilibrium position. Starting at t = 0 , an external force equal to
f (t ) = 8 sin 4t is applied to the system. Find the equation of motion if the
surrounding medium offers a damping force numerically equal to 8 times the
instantaneous velocity.
13. In problem 2 determine the equation of motion if the external force is
f (t ) = e −t sin 4t . Analyze the displacements for t → ∞ .
14. When a mass of 2 kilograms is attached to a spring whose constant is 32 N/m, it
comes to rest in the equilibrium position. Starting at t = 0, a force equal to
f (t ) = 68e −2t cos 4t is applied to the system. Find the equation of motion in the
absence of damping.
15. In problem 4 write the equation of motion in the form
x(t ) = A sin (ωt + φ) + Be −2t sin (4t + θ ) .
What is the amplitude of vibrations after a very long time?
16. Find the charge on the capacitor and the current in an LC series circuit. Where
farad, E (t ) = 60 volts . Assuming that q(0 ) = 0 and i (0 ) = 0 .
1
L = 1 Henry, C =
16

17. Determine whether an LRC series circuit, = where L 3= Henrys, R 10 ohms,

C = 0.1 farad is over-damped, critically damped or under-damped.
18. Find the charge on the capacitor in an LRC series circuit when L = 1 / 4 Henry ,
R = 20 ohms, C = 1 / 300 farad, E (t ) = 0 volts, q(0 ) = 4 coulombs and i (0 ) = 0 amperes
Is the charge on the capacitor ever equal to zero?
Find the charge on the capacitor and the current in the given LRC series circuit. Find the
maximum charge on the capacitor.
=19. L =
5 / 3 henrys, R= =
10 ohms, C 1/30 farad, E ( t ) 300
= volts, q ( 0 ) 0 coulombs,
i (0 ) = 0 amperes
20. L = 1 henry, R = 100 ohms, C = 0.0004 farad, E (t ) = 30 volts, q(0 ) = 0 coulombs,
i(0 ) = 2 amperes

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26 Differential Equations with Variable Coefficients

So far we have been solving Linear Differential Equations with constant coefficients.
We will now discuss the Differential Equations with non-constant (variable)
coefficients.These equations normally arise in applications such as temperature or
potential u in the region bounded between two concentric spheres. Then under some
d 2u du
circumstances we have to solve the differential equation r 2
+2 =0
dr dr
where the variable r>0 represents the radial distance measured outward from the center
of the spheres.
Differential equations with variable coefficients such as

x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ + ( x 2 − v 2 ) y = 0

(1 − x 2 ) y ′′ − 2 xy ′ + n(n + 1) y = 0
and y ′′ − 2 xy ′ + 2ny = 0
occur in applications ranging from potential problems, temperature distributions and vibration phenomena
to quantum mechanics.
The differential equations with variable coefficients cannot be solved so easily.
26.1 Cauchy- Euler Equation
Any linear differential equation of the form
n −1
dny n −1 d y d y
an x n
n
+ a n −1 x n −1
+  + a1 x + a 0 y = g ( x)
dx dx dx
where a n , a n −1 ,  , a 0 are constants, is said to be a Cauchy-Euler equation or equi-
dimensional equation. The degree of each monomial coefficient matches the order of
differentiation i.e x n is the coefficient of nth derivative of y, x n −1 of (n-1)th derivative of
y, etc.
For convenience we consider a homogeneous second-order differential equation

d2y dy
ax 2 + bx 0, x ≠ 0
+ cy =
2 dx
dx
The solution of higher-order equations follows analogously.
Also, we can solve the non-homogeneous equation

d2y dy
ax 2 + bx g ( x), x ≠ 0
+ cy =
dx 2 dx
by variation of parameters after finding the complementary function y c (x).

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We find the general solution on the interval (0, ∞) and the solution on (0,−∞) can be
obtained by substituting t = − x in the differential equation.
26.1.1 Method of Solution
We try a solution of the form y = x m , where m is to be determined. The first and second
derivatives are, respectively,

dy d2y
= mx m −1
and = m(m − 1) x m − 2
dx dx 2
Consequently the differential equation becomes
d2y dy
ax 2 2
+ bx + cy = ax 2 ⋅ m(m − 1) x m − 2 + bx ⋅ mx m −1 + cx m
dx dx
= am(m − 1) x m + bmx m + cx m

= x m (am(m − 1) + bm + c)
Thus y = x m is a solution of the differential equation whenever m is a solution of the
auxiliary equation
(am(m − 1) + bm + c) = 0 or am 2 + (b − a )m + c = 0
The solution of the differential equation depends on the roots of the AE.
26.1.2 Case-I (Distinct Real Roots)
Let m1 and m2 denote the real roots of the auxiliary equation such that m1 ≠ m2 . Then
y = x m1 and y = x m2 form a fundamental set of solutions.
Hence the general solution is
y = c1 x m1 + c 2 x m2 .

d2y dy
Example 1 Solve x2 − 2x − 4y =
0
2 dx
dx

dy d2y
Solution: Suppose that y = x m , then = mx m −1 , = m(m − 1) x m − 2
dx dx 2
Now substituting in the differential equation, we get:
d2y dy
x2 2
− 2 x − 4 y = x 2 ⋅ m(m − 1) x m − 2 − 2 x ⋅ mx m −1 −=
4 x m x m (m(m − 1) − 2m − 4)
dx dx

⇒ x m (m 2 − 3m − 4) =
0 if m 2 − 3m − 4 = 0
This implies m1 = −1, m2 = 4 ; roots are real and distinct.

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

So the solution is y = c1 x −1 + c 2 x 4 .
26.1.3 Case II (Repeated Real Roots)
If the roots of the auxiliary equation are repeated, that is, then we obtain only one
solution y = x m1 .
To construct a second solution y 2 , we first write the Cauchy-Euler equation in the form

d 2 y b dy c
2
+ + 2 y=0
dx ax dx ax
d2y dy
Comparing with 2
+ P( x) + Q( x) y = 0
dx dx
b
We make the identification P( x) = . Thus
ax
b
∫ ax dx
e
y 2 = x m1 ∫ dx
( x m1 ) 2
b
− ( ) ln x
a
e
= x m1 ∫ dx
x 2 m1
b
− a −2 m1
∫
m1
=x x .x dx

Since roots of the AE am 2 + (b − a )m + c = 0 are equal, therefore discriminant is zero

(b − a ) (b − a )
i.e m1 = − or −2m1 =
+
2a a
−b b − a

∫
m1
y2 = x x a .x a dx

dx
y 2 = x m1 ∫ = x m1 ln x.
x
The general solution is then
y = c1 x m1 + c 2 x m1 ln x

d2y dy
Example 2 Solve 4x 2 2
+ 8 x + y = 0.
dx dx
dy d2y
Solution: Suppose that y = x , thenm
= mx m −1
, 2
= m(m − 1) x m − 2 .
dx dx
Substituting in the differential equation, we get:

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d2y dy
4x 2 2
+ 8 x + y = x m (4m(m − 1) + 8m + 1) = x m (4m 2 + 4m + 1) = 0
dx dx
1
if 4m 2 + 4m + 1 = 0 or (2m + 1) 2 = 0 . Since m1 = − , the general solution is
2
1 1
− −
y = c1 x 2
+ c2 x 2
ln x .
For higher order equations, if m1 is a root of multiplicity k, then it can be shown that:
x m1 , x m1 ln x, x m1 (ln x)2 ,, x m1 (ln x)k −1 are k linearly independent solutions.
Correspondingly, the general solution of the differential equation must then contain a
linear combination of these k solutions.
26.1.4 Case III (Conjugate Complex Roots)
If the roots of the auxiliary equation are the conjugate pair m1 = α + iβ , m2 = α − iβ

=
where α and β >0 are real, then the solution is y c1xα +i β + c2 xα −i β .
But, as in the case of equations with constant coefficients, when the roots of the auxiliary
equation are complex, we wish to write the solution in terms of real functions only. We
note the identity

xi β (e=
= ln x )i β ei β ln x ,

which, by Euler’s formula, is the same as

=xi β cos( β ln x) + i sin( β ln x)

Similarly we have

x −i β cos( β ln x) − i sin( β ln x)
=
Adding and subtracting last two results yields, respectively,

xi β + x −i β =
2cos( β ln x)
and xi β − x −i β =
2i sin( β ln x)

=
From the fact that y c1xα +i β + c2 xα −i β is the solution of ax 2 y′′ + bxy′ + cy =
0,
for any values of constants c1 and c 2 , we see that

=y1 xα ( xi β + x −i β ), (c=
1 c=
2 1)

=y2 xα ( xi β − x −i β ), (c1 = 1, c2 = −1)

or y1 = 2 xα (cos( β ln x)) , y2 = 2 xα (sin( β ln x)) are also solutions.

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Since W ( x α cos( β ln x), x α sin( β ln x)) = βx 2α −1 ≠ 0; β > 0 , on the interval (0, ∞), we
conclude that y1 = x α cos( β ln x) and y 2 = x α sin( β ln x) constitute a fundamental set of
real solutions of the differential equation. Hence the general solution is
y1 = x α [c1 cos( β ln x) + c 2 sin( β ln x)]

d2y dy
Example 3 Solve the initial value problem x 2
+ 3 x + 3 y = 0, y (1) = 1, y ′(1) = −5
2

dx dx
dy d2y
Solution: Let us suppose that: y = x m , then = mx m −1 and 2
= m(m − 1) x m − 2 .
dx dx
d2y dy
x2 2
+ 3 x + 3 y = x m (m(m − 1) + 3m + 3) = x m (m 2 + 2m + 3) = 0
dx dx
if m 2 + 2m + 3 = 0 .
From the quadratic formula we find that m1 = −1 + 2i and m1 = −1 − 2i . If we make
the identifications α = −1 and β = 2 , so the general solution of the differential
equation is y1 = x −1 [c1 cos( 2 ln x) + c 2 sin( 2 ln x)] .

By applying the conditions y (1) = 1, y ′(1) = −5 , we find that c1 = 1 and c 2 = −2 2 .

Thus the solution to the initial value problem is y1 = x −1 [cos( 2 ln x) − 2 2 sin( 2 ln x)]
Example 4 Solve the third-order Cauchy-Euler differential equation
d3y 2
2 d y dy
x3 3
+ 5 x 2
+ 7 x + 8 y = 0,
dx dx dx
Solution
The first three derivative of y = x m are

dy d2y d3y
= mx m −1 , 2
= m ( m − 1) x m−2
, = m(m − 1)(m − 2) x m −3 ,
dx dx 3
dx
so the given differential equation becomes
d3y 2
2 d y dy
x 3
3
+ 5x 2
+ 7 x + 8 y = x 3 m(m − 1)(m − 2) x m −3 + 5 x 2 m(m − 1) x m − 2 + 7 xmx m −1 + 8 x m ,
dx dx dx
= x m (m(m − 1)(m − 2) + 5m(m − 1) + 7 m + 8)

= x m (m 3 + 2m 2 + 4m + 8)
In this case we see that y = x m is a solution of the differential equation, provided m is a
root of the cubic equation
m 3 + 2m 2 + 4m + 8 = 0

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or (m + 2)(m 2 + 4) = 0
The roots are: m1 = −2, m2 = 2i, m3 = −2i .

Hence the general solution is

y1 = c1 x −2 + c 2 cos(2 ln x) + c3 sin( 2 ln x)

Example 5 Solve the non-homogeneous equation x 2 y′′ − 3xy′ + 3 y =

2 x 4e x
dy d2y
Solution Put y = x m ⇒ = mx m −1 , 2
= m(m − 1) x m − 2
dx dx
Therefore we get the auxiliary equation,
m(m − 1) − 3m + 3 = 0 or (m − 1)(m − 3) = 0 or m = 1,3
Thus y c = c1 x + c 2 x 3

Before using variation of parameters to find the particular solution y p = u1 y1 + u 2 y 2 ,

W1 W 0 y2 y1 0
recall that the formulas u1′ = and u 2′ = 2 , where W1 = , W2 =
W W f ( x) y 2′ y1′ f ( x)
, and W is the Wronskian of y1 and y 2 , were derived under the assumption that the
differential equation has been put into special form . y ′′ + P( x) y ′ + Q( x) y = f ( x)
3 3
Therefore we divide the given equation by x 2 , and form y ′′ − y′ + 2 y = 2x 2e x
x x
we make the identification f ( x) = 2 x 2 e x . Now with y1 = x , y 2 = x 2 , and
x x3 0 x3 x x
W = 2
= 2x3 , W1 = 2 x 2
= −2 x 5 e x , W2 = 2 x
= 2 x 3e x
1 3x 2x e 3x 1 2x e
we find
2x 5e x 2 x 3e x
u ′1 = 3
= − x 2 e x and u′2 = 3
= ex
2x 2x
u1 = − x 2 e x + 2 xe x − 2e x and u 2 = e x .
Hence y p = u1 y1 + u 2 y 2

= (− x 2 e x + 2 xe x − 2e x ) x + e x x 3 = 2 x 2 e x − 2 xe x

Finally we have y = y c + y p = c1 x + c 2 x 3 + 2 x 2 e x − 2 xe x

26.2 Exercises
1. 4 x 2 y′′ + y =
0

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2. xy′′ − y′ =
0
3. x 2 y′′ + 5 xy′ + 3 y =
0
4. 4 x 2 y′′ + 4 xy′ − y =0
5. x 2 y′′ − 7 xy′ + 41y =
0
d3y 2
2 d y + 4 x dy − 4 y =
6. x3 − 2 x 0
dx3 dx 2 dx
d4y d3y d2y dy
7. x 4 4 + 6 x3 3 + 9 x 2 2 + 3 x + y = 0
dx dx dx dx
8. x 2 y′′ − 5 xy′ + 8= = 0, y′(1)
y 0; y(1) = 4
9. x 2 y′′ − 2 xy′ + 2 y =
x3 ln x
d3y d2y dy
10. x 3
3
− 3x 2
2
+ 6 x − 6 y =3 + ln x3
dx dx dx

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27 Cauchy-Euler Equation (Alternative Method of Solution)

We reduce any Cauchy-Euler differential equation to a differential equation with constant coefficients
through the substitution

x = et or t = ln x
dy dy dt 1 dy
∴ = ⋅ = ⋅
dx dt dx x dt
d 2 y d 1 dy 1 d dy 1 dy
2
= ( ⋅ ) = ⋅ ( )− 2 ⋅
dx dx x dt x dx dt x dt
d 2 y 1 d dy dt 1 dy
or = ⋅ ( ) − 2⋅
dx 2 x dt dt dx x dt
d2y 1 d 2 y 1 dy
or = ⋅ − ⋅
dx 2 x 2 dt 2 x 2 dt
2
dy dy 2 d y d 2 y dy
Therefore x = , x = 2 −
dx dt dx 2 dt dt
Now introduce the notation
d d2
D= , D 2 = 2 , etc.
dx dx
d 2 d2
and ∆= , ∆ = 2 , etc.
dt dt
Therefore, we have
xD = ∆

x 2 D 2 = ∆ 2 − ∆ = ∆(∆ −1)
Similarly

x3D3 = ∆(∆ −1)(∆ − 2)

x 4 D 4 = ∆(∆ −1)(∆ − 2)(∆ − 3) so on so forth.

This substitution in a given Cauchy-Euler differential equation will reduce it into a
differential equation with constant coefficients.

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At this stage we suppose y = emt to obtain an auxiliary equation and write the solution
in terms of y and t. We then go back to x through x = et .

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

d2y dy
Example 1 Solve x 2 2
− 2x − 4 y = 0
dx dx
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
( x 2 D 2 − 2 xD − 4) y = 0

With the substitution x = et or t = ln x , we obtain

xD = ∆ , x 2 D 2 = ∆(∆ − 1)
Therefore the equation becomes:
[∆(∆ − 1) − 2∆ − 4] y = 0

or (∆2 − 3∆ − 4) y = 0

d2y dy
or 2
− 3 − 4y = 0
dt dt
dy d2y
Now substitute: y = emt then = memt , 2
= m2emt
dt dt
Thus (m2 − 3m − 4)emt =
0 or m 2 − 3m − 4 = 0 , which is the auxiliary equation.
(m + 1)(m − 4) = 0 m = −1,4
The roots of the auxiliary equation are distinct and real, so the solution is

=y c1e−t + c2e4t
But x = et , therefore the answer will be
=y c1x −1 + c2 x 4
d2y dy
Example 2 Solve 4 x 2 2
+ 8x + y = 0
dx dx
Solution The differential equation can be written as:
(4 x 2 D 2 + 8 xD + 1) y = 0

d d2
Where D = , D2 = 2
dx dx

Now with the substitution x = et or t = ln x , xD = ∆ , x 2 D 2 = ∆(∆ − 1) where ∆ =

d
dt
The equation becomes:

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

(4∆(∆ − 1) + 8∆ + 1) y = 0 or (4∆2 + 4∆ + 1) y = 0

d2y dy
4 2
+4 + y =0
dt dt

dy d2y
Now substituting y = emt then = memt , 2 = m2emt , we get
dt dt
(4m2 + 4m + 1)emt =
0
or 4m 2 + 4m + 1 = 0 or (2m + 1) 2 = 0
1 1
or m = − ,− ; the roots are real but repeated.
2 2
Therefore the solution is
1
− t
=
y (c1 + c2t )e 2
1
−
or =
y (c1 + c2 ln x) x 2
1 1
− −
=
i-e y c1x 2 + c2 x 2 ln x

d2y dy
Example 3 Solve the initial value problem x 2
+ 3 x + 3 y = 0 , y (1) = 1, y ′(1) = −5
2

dx dx
Solution
The given differential can be written as:
( x 2 D 2 + 3 xD + 3) y = 0

Now with the substitution x = et or t = ln x we have:

xD = ∆ , x 2 D 2 = ∆(∆ − 1)
Thus the equation becomes:
(∆(∆ − 1) + 3∆ + 3) y = 0 or (∆2 + 2∆ + 3) y = 0

d2y dy
2
+ 2 + 3y = 0
dt dt

Put y = emt then the A.E. equation is:

or m 2 + 2m + 3 = 0
− 2 ± 4 − 12
or m = = −1 ± i 2
2

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So that solution is:

=y e−t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t )

=or y x −1(c1 cos 2 ln x + c2 sin 2 ln x)

=
Now y (1) = 1 gives, 1 (c1 cos 0 + c2 sin 0) ⇒ c1 = 1

− x −2 (c1 cos 2 ln x + c2 sin 2 ln x) + x −2 (− 2c1 sin 2 ln x + 2c2 cos 2 ln x)

y′ =
−4
∴ y ′(1) = −5 gives: − 5 = −[c1 + 0] + [ 2c 2 ] or 2c 2 = c1 − 5 = −4 , c 2 = = −2 2
2
Hence solution of the IVP is:

=y x −1[cos( 2 ln x) − 2 2 sin( 2 ln x)] .

d3y 2
2 d y dy
Example 4 Solve x 3 3
+ 5 x 2
+ 7x + 8y = 0
dx dx dx
Solution The given differential equation can be written as:
( x 3 D 3 + 5 x 2 D 2 + 7 xD + 8) y = 0

Now with the substitution x = et or t = ln x we have:

xD = ∆ , x 2 D 2 = ∆(∆ − 1) , x 3 D 3 = ∆(∆ − 1)(∆ − 2)
So the equation becomes:
(∆(∆ − 1)(∆ − 2) + 5∆ (∆ − 1) + 7 ∆ + 8) y = 0

or (∆3 − 3∆2 + 2∆ + 5∆2 − 5∆ + 7 ∆ + 8) y = 0

or (∆3 + 2∆2 + 4∆ + 8) y = 0

d3y d2y dy
or 3
+ 2 2
+ 4 + 8y = 0
dt dt dt

Put y = emt , then the auxiliary equation is:

m 3 + 2m 2 + 4m + 8 = 0
or (m 2 + 4)(m + 2) = 0
m = −2, or ± 2i
So the solution is:

y=c1e−2t + c2 cos 2t + c3 sin 2t

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or c1x −2 + c2 cos(2ln x) + c3 sin(2ln x)

y=
Example 5 Solve the non-homogeneous differential equation
x2 y′′ − 3xy′ + 3 y =
2 x 4e x
Solution
First consider the associated homogeneous differential equation.

x 2 y′′ − 3xy′ + 3 y =
0
d d2
With the notation = D, 2 = D 2 , the differential equation becomes:
dx dx

( x 2 D 2 − 3xD + 3) y =
0
With the substitution x = et or t = ln x , we have:
xD = ∆ , x 2 D 2 = ∆(∆ − 1)

So the homogeneous differential equation becomes:

[∆(∆ − 1) − 3∆ + 3] y = 0

(∆2 − 4∆ + 3) y = 0

d2y dy
or 2
− 4 + 3y = 0
dt dt

Put y = emt then the AE is:

m 2 − 4m + 3 = 0 or (m − 3)(m − 1) = 0 , or m = 1,3

∴ yc = c1et + c2e3t , as x = et

y=
c c1x + c2 x
3

For y p we write the differential equation as:

3 3
y′′ − y′ + 2 y =
2 x 2e x
x x
y=
p u1x + u2 x , where u1 and u 2 are functions given by
3

W W
u1′ = 1 , u2′ = 2 ,
W W
with

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x x3 0 x3
=W = 2 x3 , W1 = = −2 x5e x and
1 3x 2 2 x
2 x e 3x 2

x 0
=W2 = 2 x
2 x3e x
1 2x e

2 x5e x 2 x3e x
So that u ′ 1= 3
= − x 2e x and=
u ′ 2 = 3
ex
2x 2x
∴u1 =− ∫ x 2e x dx =−[ x 2e x − 2∫ xe x dx]

− x2e x + 2[ xe x − ∫ e x dx]
=

=
− x 2e x + 2 xe x − 2e x
= ∫=
and u2 x
e dx ex .

Therefore y p =−
x( x 2e x + 2 xe x − 2e x ) + x3e x =
2 x 2e x − 2 xe x

Hence the general solution is: =

y yc + y p ⇒ y =c1x + c2 x3 + 2 x 2e x − 2 xe x

d2y dy
Example 6 Solve x 2 − x +y=
ln x
dx 2 dx
Solution Consider the associated homogeneous differential equation.

d2y dy
x2 2
−x + y=
0 or ( x 2 D 2 − xD + 1) y =
0
dx dx
With the substitution x = et , we have: xD = ∆ , x2 D 2 = ∆(∆ −1)
So the homogeneous differential equation becomes: [∆(∆ − 1) − ∆ + 1] y = 0

d2y dy
⇒ (∆2 − 2∆ + 1) y = 0 ⇒ 2
−2 + y =0
dt dt

Putting y = emt , we get the auxiliary equation as: m 2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1) 2 = 0 ⇒

m = 1,1 ⇒ ∴ yc = c1et + c2tet ⇒ y=
c c1x + c2 x ln x .
Now the non-homogeneous differential equation becomes:

d2y dy
2
−2 + y =
t
dt dt

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By the method of undetermined coefficients we try a particular solution of the form

y p= A + Bt . This assumption leads to
− 2 B + A + Bt = t so that A=2 and B=1
Using =
y yc + y p , we get

yc= c1et + c2tet + 2 + t ;

So the general solution of the original differential equation on the interval (0, ∞) is

yc = c1x + c2 x ln x + 2 + ln x
27.1 Exercises
Solve using x = et
d 2 y dy
11. x + =0
dx 2 dx
d2y dy
12. x 2
2
+x + 4y =
0
dx dx
d2y dy
13. x 2 2 − 3x − 2 y = 0
dx dx
d2y dy
14. 25 x 2 + 25 x +y= 0
dx 2 dx
d2y dy
15. 3x 2 2 + 6 x + y = 0
dx dx
d4 y d3y
16. x 4 +6 3 =0
dx dx
2
d y dy
17. x 2 2 + 3= x 0,=
y(1) 0, =
y '(0) 4
dx dx
d2y dy
18. x2 +x +=y 0, y= = 2
(1) 1, y '(1)
dx 2 dx
d2y dy
19. x 2 2 + 10 x + 8 y = x2
dx dx
d2y dy 5
20. x2 + 9x − 20 y = 3
dx2 dx x

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28 Power Series (An Introduction)

 A standard technique for solving linear differential equations with variable
coefficients is to find a solution as an infinite series. Often this solution can be
found in the form of a power series.
 Therefore, in this lecture we discuss some of the more important facts about
power series.
 However, for an in-depth review of the infinite series concept one should consult
a standard calculus text.
28.1 Power Series
A power series in( x − a ) is an infinite series of the form
∞
∑ cn ( x − a )
n
= c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a) 2 +  .
n =0

The coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 ,  and a are constants and x represents a variable. In this

discussion we will only be concerned with the cases where the coefficients, x and a are
real numbers. The number a is known as the centre of the power series. \
∞
( − 1 )n+1 x n =x − x 2 + x3 − 
Example 1 The infinite series ∑ n2 22 32
n =1

is a power series in x . This series is centered at zero.

28.2 Convergence and Divergence
 If we choose a specified value of the variable x then the power series becomes an
infinite series of constants. If, for the given x , the sum of terms of the power
series equals a finite real number, then the series is said to be convergent at x .
 A power series that is not convergent is said to be a divergent series. This means
that the sum of terms of a divergent power series is not equal to a finite real
number.
Example 2
∞ xn x 2 x3
(a) Consider the power series ∑ =1 + x + + +
n =0 n ! 2! 3!
∞ xn 1 1
Since for x = 1 the series become ∑ = 1+1+ + + = e
n =0 n ! 2! 3!
Therefore, the power series converges x = 1 to the number e
(b) Consider the power series

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∞ n
∑ n !( x + 2) =1 + ( x + 2) + 2!( x + 2) + 3!( x + 2) + 
2 3
n =0

The series diverges ∀ x , except at x = − 2 . For instance, if we take x = 1 then the series
∞ n
becomes ∑ n !( x + 2) = 1 + 3 + 18 + 
n =0

Clearly the sum of all terms on right hand side is not a finite number. Therefore, the
series is divergent at x = 1 . Similarly, we can see its divergence at all other values of
x ≠ −2
28.2.1 The Ratio Test
To determine for which values of x a power series is convergent, one can often use the
∞ ∞
Ratio Test. The Ratio test states that if =an∑ ∑ cn ( x − a)n is a power series and
=n 0=n 0

a cn+1
lim n+1 lim
= = | x-a| L
n→∞ an n→∞ cn

Then:
 The power series converges absolutely for those values of x for which L < 1 .
 The power series diverges for those values of x for which L > 1 or L = ∞ .
 The test is inconclusive for those values of x for which L = 1 .
28.2.2 Interval of Convergence
The set of all real values of x for which a power series
∞
∑ cn ( x − a )
n

n =0

converges is known as the interval of convergence of the power series.

28.2.3 Radius of Convergence
∞
Consider a power series ∑ c n ( x − a )
n

n =0

Then exactly one of the following three possibilities is true:

 The series converges only at its center x = a .
 The series converges for all values of x .
 There is a number R > 0 such that the series converges absolutely ∀ x satisfying
x − a < R and diverges for x − a > R . This means that the series converges for
x ∈ (a − R, a + R ) and diverges out side this interval.

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The number R is called the radius of convergence of the power series. If first possibility
holds then R = 0 and in case of 2nd possibility we write R = ∞ .
From the Ratio test we can clearly see that the radius of convergence is given by

cn
R = lim
n→∞ cn+1
provided the limit exists.
28.2.4 Convergence at an Endpoint
If the radius of convergence of a power series is R > 0 , then the interval of convergence
of the series is one of the following
(a − R, a + R ), (a − R, a + R ], [a − R, a + R ), [ a − R, a + R ]
To determine which of these intervals is the interval of convergence, we must conduct
separate investigations for the numbers x =a − R and x = a+R.
∞ ∞
1
Example 3 Consider the power series ∑ an = ∑ n
xn
=n 1=n 1

a x n+1 n
Then lim n+1 lim
= ⋅ n
n→∞ an n→∞ n +1 x

an+1 n n
or =
lim lim = ⋅ x lim = |x| |x|
n→∞ an n→∞ n +1 n→∞ n +1
Therefore, it follows from the Ratio Test that the power series converges absolutely for
those values of x which satisfy x < 1

This means that the power series converges if x belongs to the interval ( − 1,1)
The series diverges outside this interval i.e. when x > 1 or x < − 1 . The convergence of
the power series at the numbers 1 and − 1 must be investigated separately by substituting
into the power series.
a) When we substitute x = 1 , we obtain
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ (1) n =1 + + ++ +
n =1 n 2 3 n
1
which is a divergent p -series, with p = .
2

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b) When we substitute x = − 1 , we obtain

∞
1 1 1 (− 1) n
∑ n
(− 1) n =− 1 +
2
−
3
+ +
n
+
n =1
which converges, by alternating series test.
Hence, the interval of convergence of the power series is [ − 1,1) . This means that the
series is convergent for those vales of x which satisfy
−1 ≤ x < 1
Example 4 Find the interval of convergence of the power series
∞ ∞
( x − 3 )n
∑ an = ∑ 2n ⋅ n
=n 1=n 1
Solution The power series is centered at 3 and the radius of convergence of the series is

2n+1 ( n + 1 )
= =
R lim 2
n→∞ 2n ⋅ n
Hence, the series converges absolutely for those values of x which satisfy the inequality
x −3 < 2 ⇒1< x < 5
(a) At the left endpoint we substitute x = 1 in the given power series to obtain the series
∞ ∞
( − 1 )n
of constants: ∑
an = ∑ n
=n 1= n 1
This series is convergent by the alternating series test.
(b) At the right endpoint we substitute x = 5 in the given series and obtain the following
∞
1
harmonic series of constants ∑n
n =1
Since a harmonic series is always divergent, the above power series is divergent.
Hence, the series the interval of convergence of the given power series is a half open and
half closed interval [1, 5 ) .

28.3 Absolute Convergence

Within its interval of convergence a power series converges absolutely. In other words,
∞
the series of absolute values ∑ cn (x − a )n
n =o

converges for all values x in the interval of convergence.

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28.4 Power Series Representation of Functions

∞
∑ cn ( x − a )
n
A power series determines a function f whose domain is the interval of
n =0
convergence of the power series. Thus for all x in the interval of convergence, we write
∞
f ( x ) = ∑ cn ( x − a )n = c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a )2 + c3 ( x − a )3 + 
n =0

∞
∑ cn ( x − a )
n
If a function is f is defined in this way, we say that is a power series
n =0
representation for f ( x) . We also say that f is represented by the power series

28.4.1 Theorem
∞
∑ cn ( x − a )
n
Suppose that a power series has a radius of convergence R > 0 and for
n =0
every x in the interval of convergence a function f is defined by
∞
f ( x ) = ∑ cn ( x − a )n = c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a )2 + c3 ( x − a )3 + 
n =0

Then

 The function f is continuous, differentiable, and integrable on the interval

( a − R, a + R).
 Moreover, f ′( x ) and ∫ f ( x )dx can be found from term-by-term differentiation
and ntegration.
Therefore
∞
f ′ ( x ) = c1 + 2c2 ( x − a ) + 3c3 ( x − a ) +  = ∑ ncn ( x − a )
2 n −1

n =1

( x − a )2 ( x − a )3
∫ f ( x) dx =C + c0 ( x − a ) + c1
2
+ c2
3
+

∞
( x − a )n+1
= C + ∑ cn
n =0 n +1
The series obtained by differentiation and integration have same radius of convergence.
However, the convergence at the end points x= a − R and x= a + R of the interval

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may change. This means that the interval of convergence may be different from the
interval of convergence of the original series.
Example 5 Find a function f that is represented by the power series

1 − x + x 2 − x3 +  + (− 1) n x n + 
Solution The given power series is a geometric series whose common ratio is r = − x .
Therefore, if x < 1 then the series converges and its sum is

a 1
=S =
1− r 1+ x
Hence we can write
1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x3 +  + (− 1) n x n + 
1+ x
1
This last expression is the power series representation for the function f ( x) = .
1+ x
28.4.2 Series that are Identically Zero
If for all real numbers x in the interval of convergence, a power series is identically zero
i.e.
∞
∑ cn ( x − a )=
n
0, R>0
n =o
Then all the coefficients in the power series are zero. Thus we can write
c=
n 0, ∀=
n 0,1, 2, 
28.5 Analytic at a Point
A function f is said to be analytic at point a if the function can be represented by power
series in ( x − a ) with a positive radius of convergence. The notion of analyticity at a
point will be important in finding power series solution of a differential equation.

Example 6 Since the functions e x , cos x , and ln ( 1 + x ) can be represented by the

power series

x 2 x3
e x =1 + x + + +
2! 3!
x2 x4
cos x =−
1 + −
2 24
x 2 x3
ln(1 + x) =x − + −
2 3

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Therefore, these functions are analytic at the point x = 0.

28.6 Arithmetic of Power Series
 Power series can be combined through the operations of addition, multiplication,
and division.
 The procedure for addition, multiplication and division of power series is similar
to the way in which polynomials are added, multiplied, and divided.
 Thus we add coefficients of like powers of x , use the distributive law and collect
like terms, and perform long division.
Example 7 If both of the following power series converge for x < R
∞ ∞
=f ( x) ∑
= cn x n , g ( x ) ∑ bn x n
=n 0=n 0
∞
Then f (x ) + g (x ) = ∑ (cn + bn )x n
n =0

and f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) = c0 b0 + ( c0 b1 + c1b0 ) x + ( c0 b2 + c1b1 + c2 b0 ) x 2 +

Example 8 Find the first four terms of a power series in x for the product e x cos x .

Solution: From calculus the Maclaurin series for e x and cos x are, respectively,

x 2 x3 x 4
e x
=1 + x + + + +
2 6 24
x2 x4
cos x =−
1 + − .
2 24
Multiplying the two series and collecting the like terms yields
 x 2 x3 x 4  x2 x4 
e cos x = 1 + x +
x
+ + +  1− + − . 
 2 6 24  2 24 
  
 1 1  1 1  1 1 1  4
= 1 + ( 1 ) x +  − +  x 2 +  − +  x3 +  − +  x +
 2 2  2 6  24 4 24 
x3 x 4
=1 + x − − +
3 6
The interval of convergence of the power series for both the functions e x and cos x is
(− ∞, ∞ ) . Consequently the interval of convergence of the power series for their product
e x cos x is also (− ∞, ∞ ) .
Example 9 Find the first four terms of a power series in x for the function sec x .

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1 x2 x4 x6
Solution We know that sec x = , cos x =−
1 + − +
cos x 2 24 720
Therefore using long division, we have
x 2 5 x 4 61x 6
1+ + + +
2 24 720
x2 x4 x6
1− + − + 1
2 24 720
x2 x4 x6
1− + − +
2 24 720
x2 x4 x6
− + −
2 24 720
x2 x4 x6
− + −
2 4 48
5x4 7 x6
− +
24 360
5x4 5x6
− +
24 48
61x 6
−
720
Hence, the power series for the function f ( x) = sec x is

x 2 5 x 4 61x 6
sec x = 1 + + + +
2 24 720
The interval of convergence of this series is (− π / 2, π / 2 ) .
Note that
 The procedures illustrated in examples 2 and 3 are obviously tedious to do by
hand.
 Therefore, problems of this sort can be done using a computer algebra system
(CAS) such as Mathematica.

 When we type the command: Series  Sec [ x ] , { x, 0, 8}  and enter, the

Mathematica immediately gives the result obtained in the above example.
 For finding power series solutions it is important that we become adept at
simplifying the sum of two or more power series, each series expressed in
summation (sigma) notation, to an expression with a single . This often ∑
requires a shift of the summation indices.

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 In order to add any two power series, we must ensure that:

(a) That summation indices in both series start with the same number.
(b) That the powers of x in each of the power series be “in phase”.
Therefore, if one series starts with a multiple of, say, x to the first power, then the
other series must also start with the same power of the same power of x .
Example 10 Write the following sum of two series as one power series
∞ ∞
∑ 2ncn x n −1
+ ∑ 6ncn x n+1
n =1 n =0

Solution To write the given sum power series as one series, we write it as follows:
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
∑ 2ncn x n−1 + ∑ 6ncn x n+1 =
2 ⋅1c1 x 0 + ∑ 2ncn x n−1 + ∑ 6ncn x n+1
=n 1=n 0 =n 2=n 0

The first series on right hand side starts with x1 for n = 2 and the second series also
starts with x1 for n = 0 . Both the series on the right side start with x1 .
To get the same summation index we are inspired by the exponents of x which is n − 1
in the first series and n + 1 in the second series. Therefore, we let
k=
n − 1, k =
n +1
in the first series and second series, respectively. So that the right side becomes:
∞ ∞
2c1 + ∑ 2 ( k + 1) ck +1 x k + ∑ 6(k − 1)ck −1 x k .
=k 1=k 1

Recall that the summation index is a “dummy” variable. The fact that k = n − 1 in one
case and k = n + 1 in the other should cause no confusion if you keep in mind that it is
the value of the summation index that is important. In both cases k takes on the same
successive values 1,2,3, for n = 2,3,4, (for k = n − 1 )and n = 0,1,2, (for k = n + 1 )
We are now in a position to add the two series in the given sum term by term:
∞ ∞ ∞
∑ 2ncn x n−1 + ∑ 6ncn x n+1 = 2c1 + ∑  2 ( k + 1 ) ck +1 + 6(k − 1)ck −1  x k
=n 1=n 0 =k 1
If you are not convinced, then write out a few terms on both series of the last equation.

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29 Power Series Solution of a Differential Equation

We know that the explicit solution of the linear first-order differential equation
dy
− 2 xy = 0
dx
2
is y = ex

x 2 x3 x 4
Also e x =1 + x + + + +
2 6 24
2 x
If we replace x by x in the series representation of e , we can write the solution of the
differential equation as
∞
x 2n
y=∑
n =0 n!

This last series converges for all real values of x . In other words, knowing the solution
in advance, we were able to find an infinite series solution of the differential equation.
We now propose to obtain a power series solution of the differential equation directly;
the method of attack is similar to the technique of undetermined coefficients.
Example 11
dy
Find a solution of the DE: − 2 xy = 0 in the form of power series in x .
dx
Solution If we assume that a solution of the given equation exists in the form
∞ ∞
=
y ∑ cn x=
n
c0 + ∑ cn x n
=n 0=n 1

The question is that: Can we determine coefficients cn for which the power series
converges to a function satisfying the differential equation? Now term-by-term
differentiation of the proposed series solution gives

dy ∞
= ∑ ncn x n−1
dx n=1
Using the last result and the assumed solution, we have
∞ ∞
dy
− 2 xy = ∑ ncn x n−1 − ∑ 2cn x n+1
dx n =1 n =0

We would like to add the two series in this equation. To this end we write

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∞ ∞
dy
− 2 xy = 1 ⋅ c1 x 0 + ∑ ncn x n−1 − ∑ 2cn x n+1 and then proceed as in the previous
dx n=2 n =0
example by letting k=
n − 1, k=
n + 1 in the first and second series, respectively.
∞ ∞
dy
Therefore, last equation becomes − 2 xy =c1 + ∑ ( k + 1 ) ck +1 x − ∑ 2ck −1 x k
k
dx
= k 1= k 1
After we add the series term wise, it follows that
∞
− 2 xy = c1 + ∑ [(k + 1)ck +1 − 2ck −1 ]x k
dy
dx k =1

Substituting in the given differential equation, we obtain

∞
c1 + ∑  ( k + 1 ) ck +1 − 2ck −1  x k =
0
k =1
In order to have this true, it is necessary that all the coefficients must be zero. This means
that
c1 = 0, ( k + 1 ) ck +1 − 2ck −1 = 0, k = 1, 2, 3,
This equation provides a recurrence relation that determines the coefficient ck . Since
k + 1 ≠ 0 for all the indicated values of k , we can write as
2ck −1
ck +1 =
k +1
Iteration of this last formula then gives
2
k = 1, c 2 = c0 = c0
2
2
k = 2, c3 = c1 = 0
3
2 1 1
=
k 3, =
c4 = c2 = c0 c0
4 2 2!
2
k = 4, c5 = c3 = 0
5
2 1 1
k = 5, c6 = c 4 = c0 = c0
6 3 ⋅ 2! 3!
2
k = 6, c7 = c5 = 0
7

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2 1 1
k = 7, c8 = c6 = c0 = c0
8 4 ⋅ 3! 4!
and so on. Thus from the original assumption (7), we find
∞
y=∑ cn x n =c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x3 + c4 x 4 + c5 x5 + 
n =0
1 1
= c0 + 0 + c0 x 2 + 0 + c0 x 4 + 0 + c0 x 6 + 0 + 
2! 3!
∞
 1 1  x 2n
= c0 1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 6 +  = c0 ∑
 2! 3!  n =0 n !

Since the coefficient c0 remains completely undetermined, we have in fact found the
general solution of the differential equation.
Note that
The differential equation in this example and the differential equation in the following
example can be easily solved by the other methods. The point of these two examples is to
prepare ourselves for finding the power series solution of the differential equations with
variable coefficients.
Example 12
Find solution of the de: 4 y ′′ + y = 0 in the form of a powers series in x .
Solution We assume that a solution of the given differential equation exists in the form
∞ ∞
of =
y ∑ cn x=n c0 + ∑ cn x n
=n 0=n 1
Then term by term differentiation of the proposed series solution yields
∞ ∞
y=′ ∑ ncn x n−1= c1 + ∑ ncn x n−1
=n 1=n 2
∞
=y ′′ ∑ n ( n − 1 ) cn x n−2
n=2

Substituting the expression for y ′′ and y , we obtain

∞ ∞
′′ + y
4 y= ∑ 4n ( n − 1 ) cn x n−2
+ ∑ cn x n
=n 2=n 0

Notice that both series start with x 0 . If we, respectively, substitute

k=
n − 2, k =
n, k =
0,1, 2, 

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in the first series and second series on the right hand side of the last equation. Then we
after using, in turn, n= k + 2 and n = k , we get
∞ ∞
4 y ′′=
+y ∑ 4 ( k + 2 ) ( k + 1 ) ck +2 x k + ∑ ck x k
=k 0=k 0
∞
or 4 y′′ + y = ∑  4 ( k + 2 )( k + 1 ) ck +2 + ck  x k
k =0
Substituting in the given differential equation, we obtain
∞
∑  4 ( k + 2 )( k + 1 ) ck +2 + ck  x k =
0
k =0
From this last identity we conclude that
4(k + 2 )(k + 1)ck + 2 + ck = 0
− ck
or ck + 2 = , k = 0,1,2,
4(k + 2)(k + 1)
From iteration of this recurrence relation it follows that
−c0 c
c2 = = − 20
4.2.1 2 .2!
−c1 c
c3 = = − 21
4.3 ⋅ 2 2 .3!
−c2 c
c4 = = + 40
4.4.3 2 .4!
−c3 c
c5 = = + 41
4.5.4 2 .5!
−c4 c
c6 = = − 60
4.6.5 2 .6!
−c5 c
c7 = = − 61
4.7.6 2 .7!
and so forth. This iteration leaves both c0 and c1 arbitrary. From the original assumption
we have
y=c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + c4 x 4 + c5 x 5 + c6 x 6 + c7 x 7 + 
c0 2 c c c c c
=c0 + c1 x − 2
x − 2 1 x3 + 4 0 x 4 + 4 1 x5 − 6 0 x 6 − 6 1 x 7 + 
2 .2! 2 .3! 2 .4! 2 .5! 2 .6! 2 .7!

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or
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
y = c0 1 − 2 x 2 + 4 x 4 − 6 x 6 +   + c1  x − 2 x3 + 4 x5 − 6 x 7 +  
 2 .2! 2 .4! 2 .6!   2 .3! 2 .5! 2 .7! 
is a general solution. When the series are written in summation notation,

( −1)  x  ( −1) 2 k +1
k 2k k
∞ ∞
x
y1 ( x ) = c0 ∑   and y2 ( x ) = 2c1 ∑  
k = 0 ( 2k ) !  2  k = 0 ( 2k + 1) !  2 

the ratio test can be applied to show that both series converges for all x . You might also
recognize the Maclaurin series as y2 ( x ) = c0 cos ( x / 2 ) and y 2 ( x ) = 2c1 sin ( x / 2 ) .

29.1 Exercise
Find the interval of convergence of the given power series.
∞
2k k
1. ∑ x
k =1 k
∞
( x + 7 )n
2. ∑ n
n =1
∞
3. ∑ k !2k x k
k =0
∞
k −1
4. ∑ k 2k
xk
k =0
Find the first four terms of a power series in x for the given function.

5. e x sin x
6. e x ln ( 1 − x )
2
 x3 x5 x 7 
7.  x − + − +
 3 5 7 
 
Solve each differential equation in the manner of the previous chapters and then compare
the results with the solutions obtained by assuming a power series solution
∞
y = ∑ cn x n
n =0

8. y ′ − x 2 y = 0
9. y ′′ + y = 0
10. 2 y ′′ + y ′ = 0

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30 Solution about Ordinary Points

30.1 Analytic Function
A function f is said to be analytic at a point a if it can be represented by a power series in
(x-a) with a positive radius of convergence.
Suppose the linear second-order differential equation
a 2 ( x) y ′′ + a1 ( x) y ′ + a 0 ( x) y = 0 (1)
is put into the form
y ′′ + P ( x) y ′ + Q( x) y = 0 (2)
by dividing by the leading coefficient a 2 ( x) .

30.2 Ordinary and singular points

A point x0 is said to be a ordinary point of a differential equation (1) if both P(x) and
Q(x) are analytic at x0 . A point that is not an ordinary point is said to be singular point
of the equation.
30.2.1 Polynomial Coefficients
If a 2 ( x) , a1 ( x) and a 0 ( x) are polynomials with no common factors, then x = x0 is

(i) an ordinary point if a 2 ( x) ≠ 0 or

(ii) a singular point if a 2 ( x) = 0 .
Example

(a) The singular points of the equation ( x 2 − 1) y′′ + 2 xy′ + 6 y =0 are the solutions of
x − 1 = 0 or x = ±1 . All other finite values of x are the ordinary points.
2

(b) The singular points need not be real numbers.

The equation ( x 2 + 1) y′′ + 2 xy′ + 6 y =

0 has the singular points at the solutions of
x 2 + 1 = 0 , namely, x = ±i .
All other finite values, real or complex, are ordinary points.
Example The Cauchy-Euler equation ax 2 y ′′ + bxy ′ + cy = 0 , where a, b and c are
constants, has singular point at x = 0 .
All other finite values of x, real or complex, are ordinary points.

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30.3 Theorem (Existence of Power Series Solution)

If x = x0 is an ordinary point of the differential equation y ′′ + P( x) y ′ + Q( x) y = 0 , we
can always find two linearly independent solutions in the form of power series centered at
∞
x0 : y = ∑ c n ( x − x0 ) n . A series solution converges at least for x − x0 < R , where R
n =0

is the distance from x0 to the closest singular point (real or complex).

Example Solve y ′′ − 2 xy = 0 .
Solution
We see that x = 0 is an ordinary point of the equation. Since there are no finite singular
∞
points, there exist two solutions of the form y = ∑ c n x n convergent for x < ∞.
n =0
Proceeding, we write
∞
y′ = ∑ ncn x n −1
n =1

∞
=y′′ ∑ n(n − 1)c x
n=2
n
n−2

∞ ∞

=n 2=
n y′′ − 2 xy=
n−2

n 0
∑ n(n − 1)c x − ∑ 2cn x n +1

∞ ∞
= 2 ⋅ 1c 2 x 0 + ∑ n(n − 1)c n x n − 2 − ∑ 2c n x n +1

n =3
 
n =0

both series start with x

Letting k = n − 2 in the first series and k = n + 1 in the second, we have
∞ ∞
y′′ − 2 xy = 2c2 + ∑ (k + 2)(k + 1)ck + 2 x k − ∑ 2ck −1x k
=k 1=k 1
∞
= 2c 2 + ∑ [(k + 2)(k + 1)c k + 2 − 2c k −1 ]x k = 0
k =1

2c 2 = 0 and (k + 2)(k + 1)c k + 2 − 2c k −1 = 0

The last expression is same as
2c k −1
ck +2 = , k = 1,2,3, 
(k + 2)(k + 1)

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2c0
Iteration gives c3 =
3⋅ 2
2c1
c4 =
4⋅3
2c2
=
c5 = 0 because c2 = 0
5⋅ 4
2c3 22
c6 = = c0
6⋅5 6⋅5⋅3⋅ 2
2c 4 22
c7 = = c1
7⋅6 7⋅6⋅4⋅3
2c 5
c8 = =0
8⋅7
2c 6 23
c9 = = c0
9 ⋅8 9 ⋅8⋅6 ⋅5⋅3⋅ 2
2c7 23
c10 = = c1
10 ⋅ 9 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3
2c 8
c11 = =0 , and so on.
11 ⋅ 10

It is obvious that both c0 and c1 are arbitrary. Now

y = c0 + c1 x + c 2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + c 4 x 4 + c5 x 5 + c6 x 6 + c7 x 7 + c8 x 8 + c9 x 9 + c10 x 10 + c11 x 11 + 

2 2 22 22
y = c0 + c1x + 0 + c0 x3 + c1x 4 + 0 + c0 x6 + c x7 + 0
3⋅ 2 4⋅3 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3⋅ 2 7 ⋅6⋅ 4⋅3 1
23 23
+ c0 x9 + c x10 + 0 + 
9 ⋅8 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3⋅ 2 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 1

2 3 22 23
y=
c0[1 + x + x6 + x9 + ]
3⋅ 2 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3⋅ 2 9 ⋅8 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3⋅ 2
2 4 22 23
+c1[ x + x + x7 + x10 + ].
4⋅3 7 ⋅6⋅ 4⋅3 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3

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Example Solve ( x 2 + 1) y′′ + xy′ − y =0.

Solution
Since the singular points are x = ±i , x = 0 is the ordinary point, a power series will
∞
converge at least for x < 1 . The assumption y = ∑ c n x n leads to
n =0

∞ ∞ ∞
− −
( x 2 + 1)
n(n −1)cn x n
∑ 2 + x ncn x −
n 1 cn x n∑ ∑
=n 2 = n 1= n 0
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
−
= ∑
n(n −1)cn x +
n n(n −1)cn x n 2
∑+ ncn x −
n cn x n∑ ∑
= n 2 = n 2 = n 1= n 0

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
=2c2 x 0 − c0 x 0 + 6c3 x + c1 x − c1 x + ∑ n(n − 1)cn x n + ∑ n(n − 1)cn x n − 2 + ∑ ncn x n − ∑ cn x n
=

n 2
=
  n 4
 =
  
n 2=
  n 2


k=n k=n-2 k=n k=n
∞
= 2c2 − c0 + 6c3 x + ∑ [k (k −1)ck + (k + 2)(k + 1)ck + 2 + kck − ck ]xk = 0
k =2
∞
or 2c2 − c0 + 6c3 x + ∑ [(k + 1)(k −1)ck + (k + 2)(k + 1)ck + 2 ]xk =
0.
k =2
Thus 2c 2 − c 0 = 0

c3 = 0
(k + 1)(k −1)ck + (k + 2)(k + 1)ck + 2 =
0
This implies
1
c2 = c0
2
c3 = 0
−(k − 1)
ck + 2 = ck , k = 2,3,
(k + 2)
Iteration of the last formula gives
1 1 1
c4 = − c2 = − c0 = − 2 c0
4 2⋅4 2 2!

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2
c5 = − c3 = 0
5
3 3 1⋅ 3
c6 = − c 4 = c0 = 3 c0
6 2⋅4⋅6 2 3!
4
c 7 = − c5 = 0
7
5 3⋅5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5
c8 =
− c6 =
− c0 =
− 4 c0
8 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 ⋅8 2 4!
6
c9 = − c 7 = 0
9
7 3⋅5⋅7 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7
c10 = − c8 = − c0 = c0 and so on.
10 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 10 2 5 5!

Therefore

y=
c0 + c1x + c2 x 2 + c3 x3 + c4 x 4 + c5 x5 + c6 x6 + c7 x7 + c8 x8 +

1 1 1⋅ 3 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 10
y =c1x + c0[1 + x 2 − 2 x 4 + 3 x6 − 4 x8 + 5 x −]
2 2 2! 2 3! 2 4! 2 5!

The solutions are

1 2 ∞ 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 (2n − 3) 2n
y1( x) =c0[1 + x + ∑ (−1)n −1 x ], x <1
2 n=2 2n n !
y2 ( x) = c1x.
∞
Example If we seek a solution y = ∑ c n x n for the equation y′′ − (1 + x) y =
0,
n =0

c0
we obtain c 2 = and the three-term recurrence relation
2
c k + c k −1
ck +2 = , k = 1,2,3, 
(k + 1)(k + 2)
To simplify the iteration we can first choose c0 ≠ 0, c1 = 0; this yields one solution. The
other solution follows from next choosing c0 = 0, c1 ≠ 0 . With the first assumption we
find

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1
c2 = c0
2
c1 + c0 c 1
c3 = = 0 = c0
2⋅3 2⋅3 6
c 2 + c1 c0 1
c4 = = = c0
3⋅ 4 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 24
c3 + c 2 c 1 1 1
c5 = = 0 [ + ] = c0 and so on.
4⋅5 4 ⋅ 5 2 ⋅ 3 2 30
Thus one solution is
1 1 1 1
y1( x) =c0[1 + x 2 + x3 + x 4 + x5 +].
2 6 24 30
Similarly if we choose c0 = 0 , then

c2 = 0
c1 + c0 c 1
c3 = = 1 = c1
2⋅3 2⋅3 6
c 2 + c1 c 1
c4 = = 1 = c1
3⋅ 4 3 ⋅ 4 12
c3 + c 2 c1 1
c5 = = = c1 and so on.
4⋅5 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 120
1 1 1
Hence another solution is y2 ( x) = c1[ x + x3 + x4 + x5 +].
6 12 120
Each series converges for all finite values of x.
30.4 Non-polynomial Coefficients
The next example illustrates how to find a power series solution about an ordinary point
of a differential equation when its coefficients are not polynomials. In this example we
see an application of multiplication of two power series that we discussed earlier.
Example Solve y ′′ + (cos x) y = 0
Solution The equation has no singular point.
x2 x4 x6
Since cos x = 1 − + − +  , it is seen that x = 0 is an ordinary point.
2! 4! 6!
∞
Thus the assumption y = ∑ c n x n leads to
n =0

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∞ ∞
x2 x4
=
y′′ + (cos x=
n
)y ∑ n(n − 1)c x
n
2=
+
2! 4!
− ) ∑n−2

n 0
− (1 −
cn x n

x 2 x 4 x6
= (2c2 + 6c3 x + 12c4 x 2 + 20c5 x3 + ) + (1 − + − + )(c0 + c1x + c2 x 2 + )
2! 4! 6!
1 1
= 2c2 + c0 + (6c3 + c1) x + (12c4 + c2 − c0 ) x 2 + (20c5 + c3 − c1) x3 +
2 2
If the last line be identically zero, we must have
c
2c2 + c0 = 0 ⇒ c2 =
− 0
2
c
6c3 + c1 =⇒
0 c3 = − 1
6
1 c
12c4 + c2 − c0 =0 ⇒ c4 = 0
2 12
1 c
20c5 + c3 − c1 =0 ⇒ c5 = 1 and so on. c0 and c1 are arbitrary.
2 30
Now y =
c0 + c1x + c2 x 2 + c3 x3 + c4 x 4 + c5 x5 + 
c c c c
or y =c0 + c1x − 0 x 2 − 1 x3 + 0 x 4 + 1 x5 − 
2 6 12 30
1 1 1 1
y = c0 (1 − x 2 + x 4 −) + c1( x − x3 + x5 − )
2 12 6 30
1 2 1 4 1 1
y1 ( x) = c0 [1 − x + x − ] and y2 ( x) = c1[ x − x3 + x 5 −]
2 12 6 30
Since the differential equation has no singular point, both series converge for all finite
values of x.
30.5 Exercise
In each of the following problems find two linearly independent power series solutions
about the ordinary point x = 0 .
1. y′′ + x y =
2 0
2. y′′ − xy′ + 2 y = 0
3. y′′ + 2 xy′ + 2 y = 0
4. ( x + 2) y′′ + xy′ − y =0
5. ( x 2 + 2) y′′ − 6 y =
0

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31 Solutions about Singular Points

If x = x 0 is singular point, it is not always possible to find a solution of the form
∞
=y ∑ cn ( x − x0 )n for the equation a2 ( x) y′′ + a1 ( x) y′ + a0 ( x) y =
0
n =0
However, we may be able to find a solution of the form
∞
=y ∑ cn ( x − x0 )n + r , where r is constant to be determined.
n =0
To define regular/irregular singular points, we put the given equation into the standard
form y′′ + P( x) y′ + Q( x) y =
0

31.1 Regular and Irregular Singular Points

A Singular point x = x 0 of the given equation a2 ( x) y′′ + a1 ( x) y′ + a0 ( x) y =
0 is said to be
a regular singular point if both ( x − x0 ) P( x) and ( x − x0 )2 Q( x) are analytic at x0 . A
singular point that is not regular is said to be an irregular singular point of the equation.
31.1.1 Polynomial Coefficients
If the coefficients in the given differential equation a2 ( x) y′′ + a1 ( x) y′ + a0 ( x) y =
0 are
polynomials with no common factors, above definition is equivalent to the following:
a1 ( x) a ( x)
Let a2 ( x0 ) = 0 Form P (x) and Q(x) by reducing and 0 to lowest
a 2 ( x) a 2 ( x)
terms, respectively. If the factor ( x − x0 ) appears at most to the first powers in
the denominator of P(x) and at most to the second power in the denominator of
Q(x), then x = x0 is a regular singular point.

Example 1 x = ±2 are singular points of the equation ( x 2 − 4)2 y′′ + ( x − 2) y′ + y =0

Dividing the equation by ( x 2 − 4) 2 = ( x − 2) 2 ( x + 2) 2 , we find that
1 1
P( x) = and Q( x) =
( x − 2)( x + 2) 2
( x − 2) ( x + 2) 2
2

1. x = 2 is a regular singular point because power of x − 2 in P(x) is 1 and in

Q(x) is 2.
2. x = −2 is an irregular singular point because power of x + 2 in P(x) is 2.
The 1st condition is violated.
Example 2
Both x = 0 and x = −1 are singular points of the differential equation.

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x 2 ( x + 1)2 y′′ + ( x 2 − 1) y′ + 2 y =
0
Because x 2 ( x + 1) 2 = 0 or x = 0 ,-1
Now write the equation in the form

x2 − 1 2
y′′ + y′ + y=
0
2 2
x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1)2
2

x −1 2
or y′′ + y′ + y=
0
x 2 ( x + 1) x 2 ( x + 1)2
x −1 2
So P( x) = and Q( x) = 2
x ( x + 1)
2
x ( x + 1) 2

Shows that x = 0 is a irregular singular point since ( x − 0) appears to the second

powers in the denominator of P(x).
Note, however, x = −1 is a regular singular point.
Example 3
a) x = 1 and x = −1 are singular points of the differential equation

(1 − x 2 ) y′′ + −2 xy′ + 30 y = 0
Because 1 − x 2 = 0 or x = ±1 .
Now write the equation in the form

2x 30
y′′ − y′ + y=
0
2
(1 − x ) 1 − x2

2x 30
or y′′ − y′ + y=
0
(1 − x )(1 + x) (1 − x)(1 + x)

−2 x 30
P( x) = and Q( x) =
(1 − x)(1 + x) (1 − x )(1 + x)
Clearly x = ±1 are regular singular points.
(b) x = 0 is an irregular singular points of the differential equation

x3 y′′ − 2 xy′ + 5 y =
0
2 5 5
or y′′ − y′ + y=
0 giving Q( x) = .
x2 x3 x3
(c) x = 0 is a regular singular points of the differential equation

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x y′′ − 2 xy′ + 5 y =
0
5
Because the equation can be written as y′′ − 2 y′ + y=
0 giving P( x) = −2 and
x
5
Q( x) = .
x
In part (c) of Example 3 we noticed that ( x − 0 ) and ( x − 0) 2 do not even appear in the
denominators of P(x) and Q(x) respectively. Remember, these factors can appear at
most in this fashion. For a singular point x = x0 , any nonnegative power of ( x − x0 ) less
than one (namely, zero) and nonnegative power less than two (namely, zero and one) in
the denominators of P( x) and Q(x) , respectively, imply x0 is a regular singular point.
Please note that the singular points can also be complex numbers.
For example, x = ± 3i are regular singular points of the equation
( x 2 + 9) y′′ + −3 xy′ + (1 − x) y = 0
Because the equation can be written as
3x 1− x
y ′′ − y′ + 2 y = 0.
x +9
2
x +9
− 3x 1− x
∴ P( x) = . Q( x) = .
( x − 3i )( x + 3i ) ( x − 3i )( x + 3i )

31.2 Method of Frobenius

To solve a differential equation a2 ( x) y′′ + a1 ( x) y′ + a0 ( x) y =
0 about a regular singular
point we employ the Frobenius’ Theorem.
31.2.1 Frobenius’ Theorem
If x = x 0 is a regular singular point of equation a2 ( x) y′′ + a1 ( x) y′ + a0 ( x) y =
0 , then
there exists at least one series solution of the form
∞ ∞
( x − x0 )r
y= ∑ cn ( x − x0 )n + r
∑ cn ( x − x0 )n =
=n 0=n 0
where the number r is a constant that must be determined. The series will converge at
least on some interval 0 < x − x0 < R.
∞
Note that the solutions of the form y = ∑ cn ( x − x0 )n + r are not guaranteed.
n =0
Method of Frobenius
1. Identify regular singular point x0 ,

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∞
2. Substitute y = ∑ cn ( x − x0 )n + r in the given differential equation,
n =0
3. Determine the unknown exponent r and the coefficients c n .
4. For simplicity assume that x0 = 0 .
Example 4
As x = 0 is regular singular points of the differential equation
3 xy ′′ + y ′ − y = 0.
∞
We try a solution of the form y = ∑ cn x n+r .
n =0

∞
Therefore y ′ = ∑ (n + r )c n x n + r −1 .
n =0

∞
And y ′′ = ∑ (n + r )(n + r − 1)c n x n + r − 2 .
n =0

∞ ∞ ∞
3 xy ′′ + y ′ − y = 3∑ (n + r )(n + r − 1)c n x n+ r −1 + ∑ (n + r )cn x n + r −1 - ∑c n x n+r .
n =0 n =0 n =0

∞ ∞
= ∑ (n + r )(3n + 3r − 2)cn xn + r −1 − ∑ cn x n+r .
n =0 n =0

[
∞ ∞
= x r r (3r − 2)c0 x −1 + ∑ (n + r )(3n + 3r − 2)c n x n −1 − ∑ c n x n ].
n =1 n =0

k = n −1 k=n

 ∞

= x r  r (3r − 2)c0 x −1 + ∑ [(k + r + 1)(3k + 3r + 1)ck +1 − ck ]x k  =0
 k =0 
which implies r (3r − 2)c0 = 0

(k + r + 1)(3k + 3r + 1)c k +1 − c k = 0 , k = 0,1, 2,...

Since nothing is gained by taking c0 = 0 , we must then have
2
r (3r − 2) = 0 [called the indicial equation and its roots r = ,0 are called
3
indicial roots or exponents of the singularity.]

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ck
and c k +1 = , k = 0,1, 2,...
(k + r + 1)(3k + 3r + 1)
2
Substitute r1 = and r2 = 0 in the above equation and these values will give two
3
different recurrence relations:
2 ck
For r1 = , c k +1 = , k = 0,1, 2,... (1)
3 (3k + 5)(k + 1)

ck
For r2 = 0 c k +1 = , k = 0,1, 2,... (2)
(k + 1)(3k + 1)
c0
Iteration of (1) gives c1 =
5.1
c1 c
c2 = = 0
8.2 2!5.8
c2 c0
=
c3 =
11.3 3!5.8.11
c3 c0
=
c4 =
14.4 4!5.8.11.14
.
c0
In general cn = , n = 1, 2,...
n !5.8.11.14...(3n + 2)
Iteration of (2) gives
c0
c1 =
1. 1
c1 c
c2 = = 0
2.4 2!1.4
c2 c0
=
c3 =
3.7 3!1.4.7
c3 c0
=
c4 =
4.10 4!1.4.7.10
c0
In general cn = , n = 1, 2,...
n !1.4.7...(3n − 2)
Thus we obtain two series solutions

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2 ∞
 1 
=y1 c 0 x3 1 + ∑ xn  (3)
 n =1 n !5.8.11.14...(3n + 2) 

 ∞
1 
=y2 c0 x 1 + ∑
0
xn  . (4)
 n =1 n !1.4.7...(3n − 2) 
By the ratio test it can be demonstrated that both (3) and (4) converge for all finite values
of x. Also it should be clear from the form of (3) and (4) that neither series is a constant
multiple of the other and therefore, y1 ( x) and y 2 ( x) are linearly independent on the x-
axis. Hence by the superposition principle
 2 ∞ 1 n+ 
2
C1  x 3 + ∑ x 3
y = C1 y1 ( x) + C 2 y 2 ( x) =  n =1 n !5.8.11.14...(3n + 2) 

 ∞
1 
+C2 1 + ∑ xn 
 n =1 n !1.4.7...(3n − 2)  , x <∞

is an other solution of the differential equation. On any interval not containing the
origin, this combination represents the general solution of the differential equation
Note: The method of Frobenius may not always provide 2 solutions.
Example: The differential equation xy′′ + 3 y′ − y =0 has regular singular point at x = 0
∞
We try a solution of the form y = ∑ cn x n + r
n =0
∞ ∞
=
Therefore y′ ∑ (n + r )cn xn + r −1 and y ′′ = ∑ (n + r )(n + r − 1)c n x n + r − 2 .
n =0 n =0

 ∞

so that xy ′′ + 3 y ′ − y = x r  r (r + 2)c0 x −1 + ∑ [(k + r + 1)(k + r + 3)ck +1 − ck ]x k  =0
 k =0 
so that the indicial equation and exponent are r (r + 2) = 0 and r1 = 0 , r2 = −2 ,
respectively.
Since (k + r + 1)(k + r + 3)c k +1 − c k = 0 , k = 0,1, 2,... (1)

it follows that when r1 = 0 ,

ck
c k +1 = ,
(k + 1)(k + 3)

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c0
c1 =
1.3
c1 2c
c2 = = 0
2.4 2!4!
c 2 2c0
=
c3 =
3.5 3!5!
c3 2c0
=
c4 =
4.6 4!6!


2c0
cn = , n = 1, 2,...
n!(n + 2)!
Thus one series solution is
∞ ∞
y1 = c0 x 0 [1 + ∑ ]
2 2
xn = c0 ∑ xn , x < ∞ .
n =1 n!(n + 2)! n =0 n !(n + 2)!
Now when r2 = −2 , (1) becomes
(k − 1)(k + 1)c k +1 − c k = 0 (2)
but note here that we do not divide by (k − 1)(k + 1) immediately since this term is zero
for k = 1 . However, we use the recurrence relation (2) for the cases k = 0 and k = 1 :
− 1.1c1 − c0 = 0 and 0.2c 2 − c1 = 0

The latter equation implies that c1 = 0 and so the former equation implies that c0 = 0 .
Continuing, we find
ck
c k +1 = k = 2,3,...
(k − 1)(k + 1)
c2
c3 =
1.3
c3 2c
c4 = = 2
2.4 2!.4!
c4 2c2
=
c5 = ,...
3.5 3!.5!

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2c 2
In general cn = , n = 3, 4, 5,...
(n − 2)!n!
 ∞
2 
Thus =y2 c2 x −2  x 2 + ∑ xn  . (3)
 n =3 ( n − 2)! n ! 
However, close inspection of (3) reveals that y 2 is simply constant multiple of y1 .
To see this, let k = n − 2 in (3). We conclude that the method of Frobenius gives only one
series solution of the given differential equation.
31.3 Cases of Indicial Roots
When using the method of Frobenius, we usually distinguish three cases corresponding to
the nature of the indicial roots. For the sake of discussion let us suppose that r1 and r2 are
the real solutions of the indicial equation and that, when appropriate, r1 denotes the
largest root.
31.3.1 Case I (Roots not Differing by an Integer)
If r1 and r2 are distinct and do not differ by an integer, then their exist two linearly
independent solutions of the differential equation of the form
∞ ∞
y1 = ∑ c n x n + r1 . . c0 ≠ 0 , and y 2 = ∑ bn x n + r2 , b0 ≠ 0.
n =0 n =0

Example 6 Solve 2 xy ′′ + (1 + x) y ′ + y = 0.
∞
Solution: If y = ∑ cn x n+ r , then
n =0

∞ ∞
2 xy ′′ + (1 + x) y ′ + y = 2∑ (n + r )(n + r − 1)c n x n + r −1 + ∑ ( n + r )c n x n + r −1 +
n =0 n =0
∞ ∞

∑ ( n + r )c
n =0
n x n+r + ∑c
n =0
n x n+r

∞ ∞
= ∑ (n + r )(2n + 2r − 1)c n x n + r −1 + ∑ (n + r + 1)c n x n+r
n =0 n =0

[
∞ ∞
= x r r (2r − 1)c0 x −1 + ∑ (n + r )(2n + 2r − 1)c n x n −1 + ∑ (n + r + 1)c n x n ]
n =1 n =0

n= k + 1 k=n
 ∞

= x r  r (2r − 1)c0 x −1 + ∑ [(k + r + 1)(2k + 2r + 1)ck +1 + (k + r + 1)ck=
]x k  0
 k =0 
which implies r (2r − 1) =0
(k + r + 1)(2k + 2r + 1)c k +1 + (k + r + 1)c k = 0 , k = 0,1, 2,... (1)

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1 3
For r1 = , we can divide by k + in the above equation to obtain
2 2
− ck
c k +1 = ,
2(k + 1)
− c0
c1 =
2.1
− c1 c
c2 = = 20
2.2 2 .2!
−c2 −c0
=
c3 =
2.3 23.3!


(−1) n c0
In general cn = , n = 1, 2,3,...
2 n n!
∞
(−1) n n
1
Thus we have y1 = c0 x [1 + ∑
2
x ], which converges for x ≥ 0 .As given, the
n =1 2 n n!
1
series is not meaningful for x < 0 because of the presence of x . 2

Now for r2 = 0 , (1) becomes

− ck
c k +1 =
2k + 1
− c0
c1 =
1
− c1 c0
c2 = =
3 1.3
− c 2 − c0
c3 = =
5 1.3.5
− c3 c0
c4 = =
7 1.3.5.7

.
(−1) n c0
In general cn = , n = 1, 2, 3,...
1.3.5.7...(2n − 1)
Thus second solution is

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 ∞
(−1) n 
y2 c0 1 + ∑
= xn  . x < ∞.
 n =1 1.3.5.7...(2n − 1) 
On the interval ( 0, ∞ ), the general solution is
y = C1 y1 ( x) + C 2 y 2 ( x).

32 Solutions about Singular Points

32.1 Method of Frobenius (Cases II and III)
When the roots of the indicial equation differ by a positive integer, we may or may not
be able to find two solutions of
a 2 ( x) y ′′ + a1 ( x) y ′ + a 0 ( x) y = 0 (1)
∞
having form y = ∑ c n ( x − x0 ) n + r (2)
n =0

If not, then one solution corresponding to the smaller root contains a logarithmic term.
When the exponents are equal, a second solution always contains a logarithm. This latter
situation is similar to the solution of the Cauchy-Euler differencial equation when the
roots of the auxiliary equation are equal. We have the next two cases.
32.1.1 Case II (Roots Differing by a Positive Integer)
If r1 − r2 = N , where N is a positive integer, then there exist two linearly independent
solutions of the form
∞ n + r1
=y1 ∑ cn x , c0 ≠ 0 (3a )
n =0
∞ n + r2
y2 =
Cy1( x) ln x + ∑ bn x , b0 ≠ 0 (3b)
n =0
Where C is a constant that could be zero.
Equal Indicial Roots:
If r1 = r2 , there always exist two linearly independent solutions of (1) of the form
∞ n + r1
=y1 ∑ cn x , c0 ≠ 0 (4a )
n =0

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∞ n+ r1
=y2 y1( x)ln x + ∑ bn x  r1 = r 2 (4b)
n =1

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Example 7: Solve xy ′′ + ( x − 6) y ′ − 3 y = 0 (1)

∞
Solution: The assumption y = ∑ c n x n + r leads to
n =0

xy ′′ + ( x − 6) y ′ − 3 y
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
= ∑ (n + r )(n + r − 1)c n x n + r −1 − 6∑ (n + r )c n x n + r −1 + ∑ (n + r )c n x n + r − 3∑ c n x n + r
n =0 n =0 n =0 n =0

 ∞ ∞

= x r  r (r − 7)c0 x −1 + ∑ (n + r )(n + r − 7)cn x n −1 + ∑ (n + r − 3)cn x n 
=  n 1= n 0 
 ∞

x r  r (r − 7)c0 x −1 + ∑ [ (k + r + 1)(k + r − 6)ck +1 + (k + r − 3)ck ]x k  =0
 k =0 
Thus r(r - 7) = 0 so that r1 = 7,r 2 = 0, r1 − r2 = 7, and
(k + r + 1)(k + r − 6) ck +1 + (k +=
r − 3)ck 0, =k 0,1, 2,3,... (2)
For smaller root r2 = 0, (2)becomes

(k + 1)(k − 6)c k +1 + (k − 3)c k = 0 (3)

recurrence relation becomes
(k − 3)
ck +1 = − ck
(k + 1)(k − 6)
Since k-6=0, when, k=6, we do not divide by this term until k>6.we find
1.(−6)c1 + (−3)c0 =0
2.(−5)c2 + (−2)c1 =0
3.(−4)c3 + (−1).c2 =0
4.(-3)c4 + 0.c3 =
0
5. (-2)c5 + 1.c4 =
0
6. (-1)c6 + 2.c5 =
0
7.0.c7 + 3.c6 =
0
This implies that
c 4 = c5 = c6 = 0, But c0 and c7 can be chosen arbitrarily.
1
Hence c1 = − c0
2
1 1
c2 = − c1 = c0
5 10

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1 1
c3 = − c2 = − c0 (4)
12 120
and for k ≥ 7
−(k − 3)
ck +1 = ck
(k + 1)(k − 6)
−4
c8 = c7
8.1
5 4.5
c9 = − c8 = c7
9.2 2!8.9
−6 −4.5.6
=c10 = c9 c7
10.3 3!8.9.10
⋅
⋅
⋅
(−1) n +1 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅⋅⋅ (n − 4)
=cn c7 , =n 8,9,10, ⋅⋅⋅ (5)
(n − 7)!8 ⋅ 9 ⋅10 ⋅⋅⋅ (n)
If we choose c7 = 0andc0 ≠ 0 It follows that we obtain the polynomial solution

1 1 1 3
y1 = c0 [1 − x + x2 − x ],
2 10 120
But when c7 ≠ = 0andc0 = 0 , It follows that a second, though infinite series solution
is
(−1) n +1 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅⋅⋅ (n − 4) n
∞
y2 c7 [ x + ∑
= 7
x ]
n =8 ( n − 7)! 8 ⋅ 9 ⋅10 ⋅⋅⋅ n

∞
(−1) k 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅⋅⋅ (k + 3) k +3
= c7 [ x 7 + ∑ x ], x<∞ (6)
k =1 k !8 ⋅ 9 ⋅10 ⋅⋅⋅ ( k + 7)

Finally the general solution of equation (1) on the interval (0, ∞ ) is

Y = c1 y 1 ( x) + c 2 y 2 ( x)
∞
(−1) k 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅⋅⋅ (k + 3) k + 7
x ] + c2 [ x 7 + ∑
1 1 1 3
= c1 [1 − x + x2 − x ]
2 10 120 n =1 k !⋅ 8 ⋅ 9 ⋅10 ⋅⋅⋅ ( k + 7)

It is interesting to observe that in example 9 the larger root r 1 =7 were not used. Had we
done so, we would have obtained a series solution of the form*
∞
y = ∑ cn x n+7 (7)
n =0

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Where c n are given by equation (2) with r1 =7

−(k + 4)
=ck +1 = ck , k 0,1, 2...
(k + 8)(k + 1)
Iteration of this latter recurrence relation then would yield only one solution, namely the
solution given by (6) with c0 playing the role of c7 )
When the roots of indicial equation differ by a positive integer, the second solution may
contain a logarithm.
On the other hand if we fail to find second series type solution, we can always use the
fact that

e ∫
− p ( x ) dx

y 2 = y1 ( x) ∫ 2
dx (8)
y1 ( x)
is a solution of the equation y ′′ + P ( x) y ′ + Q( x) y = 0 ,whenever y1 is a known solution.
Note: In case 2 it is always a good idea to work with smaller roots first.
Example8 Find the general solution of xy ′′ + 3 y ′ − y = 0
Solution The method of Frobenius provide only one solution to this equation, namely,
∞
2
y1 = ∑ x n = 1 + 1 x + 1 x 2 + 1 x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅
n = 0 n!( n + 2)! 3 24 360 (9)
From (8) we obtain a second solution

e ∫
− p ( x ) dx
dx
y 2 = y1 ( x) ∫ 2
dx = y1 ( x) ∫
y1 ( x) 1 1 2 1 3
x 3 [1 + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅]2
3 24 360
dx
= y1 ( x) ∫ 2 7 1
x 3 [1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅]
3 36 30
1 2 1 19 3
∫ x [1 − 3 x + 4 x − x + ⋅⋅⋅]dx
2
= y1 ( x) 3
270

 1 2 1 19 
= y1 ( x)  − 2 + + ln x − x + ...
 2 x 3x 4 270 
1  1 2 19 
= y1 ( x) ln x + y1 ( x)  − 2 + − x + ... (*)
4  2 x 3 x 270 
1  1 2 19 
=
∴ y c1 y1 ( x) + c2  y1 ( x) ln x + y1 ( x)  − 2 + − x + ...   (**)
4  2 x 3 x 270 

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Example 9 Find the general solution of

xy′′ + 3y′ − y =0
Solution :
∞
y 2 y1 ln x + ∑ b n x n − 2
= (10)
n =0
∞
2
y1 = ∑ xn (11)
n = 0 n!(n + 2)!

differentiate (10) gives

∞
y
y 2′ =1 + y1′ ln x + ∑ (n − 2)b n x n −3
x n =0

y 2y ′ ∞
− 12 + 1 + y1′′ ln x + ∑ (n − 2)(n − 3)b n x n − 4
y 2′′ =
x x n =0

so that
∞
2y
− y 2 ln x  xy1′′ + 3y1′ − y1  + 2y1′ + 1 + ∑ (n − 2)(n − 3)b n x n −3
xy′′2 + 3y′2=
  x n =0
∞ ∞
+3∑ (n − 2)b n x n −3 − ∑ b n x n − 2
=n 0=n 0

2y1 ∞ ∞
+ ∑ (n − 2)nb n x n −3 − ∑ b n x n − 2
= 2y1′ + (12)
= x n 0=n 0
where we have combined the1st two summations and used the fact that
xy1′′ + 3y1′ − y1 =
0
Differentiate (11) we can write (12) as
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
4n 4
∑
n =0 n! ( n + 2 )!
x n −1
+ ∑
n =0 n! ( n + 2 )!
x n −1
+ ∑
n =0
( n − 2 ) nbn x n −3
− ∑
n =0
bn x n − 2

∞
4(n + 1) n −1 ∞ ∞
= 0(−2)b0 x −3 + (−b0 − b1 ) x − 2 + ∑ x + ∑ (n − 2)nbn x n −3 − ∑ bn x n − 2
n = 0 n!( n + 2)! n=2 n =1

∞
 4(k + 1) 
−(b0 + b1 ) x −2 + ∑  + k (k + 2)bk + 2 − bk +1 x k −1. (13)
k = 0  k !( k + 2)! 
Setting (13) equal to zero then gives b 1 = −b 0 and

4(k + 1)
+ k (k + 2)bk + 2 − bk +1 = 0, For k=0, 1, 2, … (14)
k!(k + 1)!

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When k=0 in equation (14) we have 2+0 ⋅ 2b2 − b1 = 0 so that but

b1 = 2, b0 = −2, but b2 is arbitrary
Rewriting equation (14) as
bk +1 4(k + 1)
bk + 2 = − (15)
k (k + 2) k!(k + 2)!k (k + 2)
and evaluating for k=1,2,… gives
b2 4
b3 = −
3 9
1 1 1 25
b4 = b3 − = b2 −
8 32 24 288
and so on. Thus we can finally write
y 2 = y1 ln x + b0 x −2 + b1 x −1 + b2 + b3 x + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅

b 4
= y1 ln x − 2 x − 2 + 2 x −1 + b2 +  2 −  x + ⋅ ⋅ (16)
 3 9
Where b2 is arbitrary.
Equivalent Solution: At this point you may be wondering whether (*) and (16) are really
equivalent. If we choose c 2 = 4 in equation (**), then
 2 8 38 
y 2 = y1 ln x +  − 2 + − x + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 x 3 x 135 
 1 1 2 1 3 
 1+ x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅   2 8 38 
y2 = y1 ln x +  3 24 360  − 2 + − x + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (17)
 x 3 x 135 

29 19
= y1 ln x − 2 x −2 + 2 x −1 + − x + ...
36 108
29
Which is precisely obtained what we obtained from (16). If b2 is chosen as
36
The next example illustrates the case when the indicial roots are equal.

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Example :10
Find the general solution of xy′′ + y′ − 4 y =
0 (18)
∞
Solution :The assumption y= ∑ c n x n + r leads to
n=0
∞ ∞ ∞
xy′′ + y′ − 4 y
= ∑ (n+r)(n+r-1)cn x n+r −1 + ∑ (n+r)cn x n+r −1 − 4∑ cn x n+r
n=0 n=0 n=0
∞ ∞
= ∑ (n+r) 2 c n x n + r −1 − 4∑ c n x n + r
n=0 n=0

 ∞ ∞

= x r  r 2 c0 x −1 + ∑ (n+r) 2 c n x n −1 − 4∑ c n x n 
 n=1 n=0 
 ∞
 k
= x r  r 2 c0 x −1 + ∑ (k+r+1) 2 c k+1 − 4c k  x= 0
 k=0 
Therefore r 2 =0, and so the indicial roots are equal: r1 = r2 = 0. Moreover we have
(k + r + 1) 2 c k +1 − 4c k = 0, k=0,1,2,… (19)

Clearly the roots r1 = 0 will yield one solution corresponding to the coefficients defined
by the iteration of
4c k
c k +1 = k=0,1,2,…
(k + 1) 2
The result is
∞ 4n n
y1 = c0 ∑ 2
x ,x <∞ (20)
n = 0 ( n!)

1
− ∫ x ) dx
e dx
y2 = y1 ( x) ∫ 2
dx = y1 ( x) ∫ 2
y1 ( x)  16 3 
x 1 + 4 x + 4 x + x + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2

 9 

1 1472 3 
= y1 (x) ∫ 1 − 8x + 40x 2 − x + ⋅⋅⋅dx
x 9 

1 1472 2 
= y1 (x) ∫  − 8 + 40x − x + ...dx
x 9 

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 1472 3 
= y1 (x) ln x − 8x + 20x 2 − x + ⋅⋅⋅
 27 
Thus on the interval (0, ∞ ) the general solution of (18) is
  1472 3 
=
y c1 y1 (x) + c 2  y1 (x) ln x + y1 (x)  −8x + 20x 2 − x + ...  
  27 
where y1 ( x) is defined by (20)
In case II we can also determine y2 ( x) of example9 directly from assumption (4b)
Exercises
In problem 1-10 determine the singular points of each differential equation. Classify each
the singular point as regular or irregular.
1 x 3y′′ + 4 x 2 y′ + 3 y = 0
2 xy′′ − ( x + 3) −2 y = 0
3 ( x 2 − 9) y′′ + ( x + 3) + 2 y = 0
1 1
4 y′′ − y′ + y=0
x ( x − 1)3

5 ( x 3 + 4 x) y′′ − 2 xy′ + 6 y = 0 )
6 x 2 ( x − 5) 2 y′′ + 4 xy′ + ( x − 2) y = 0
7 ( x 2 + x − 6) 2 y′′ + ( x + 3) y′ + ( x − 2) y = 0
8 x( x 2 + 1) 2 y′′ + y = 0
9 x 3 ( x 2 − 25)( x − 2) 2 y′′ + 3x( x − 2) y′ + 7( x + 5) y = 0
10 ( x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3 x) 2 y′′ + x( x + 3) 2 y′ + ( x + 1) y = 0
In problem 11-22 show that the indicial roots do not differ by an integer. Use the method
of Frobenius to obtain two linearly independent series solutions about the regular singular
point x0 = 0 Form the general solution on (0, ∞ )
11. 2 xy′′ − y′ + 2 y = 0
12. 2 xy′′ + 5 y′ + xy = 0
1
13. 4 xy′′ + y′ + y = 0
2
14. 2 x 2 y′′ − xy′ + ( x 2 + 1) y = 0

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15. 3 xy′′ + (2 − x) y′ + y = 0

 2
16. x 2 y′′ −  x −  y′ + xy = 0
 9
17. 2 xy′′ + (3 + 2 x) y′ + y = 0

 4
18. x 2 y′′ + xy′ +  x 2 −  y = 0
 9
19. 9 x 2 y′′ + 9 x 2 y′ + 2 y = 0

20. 2 x 2 y′′ + 3 xy′ + (2 x − 1) y = 0

21. 2 x 2 y′′ − x( x − 1) y′ − y = 0
22. x( x − 2) y′′ − y′ − 2 y = 0
In problem 23-34 show that the indicial roots differ by an integer. Use the method of
Frobenius to obtain two linearly independent series solutions about the regular singular
point x0 = 0 Form the general solution on (0, ∞ )
23. xy′′ + 2 y′ − xy = 0

 1
24. x 2 y′′ + xy′ +  x 2 −  y = 0
 4
25. x( x − 1) y′′ + 3 y′ − 2 y = 0
3
26. y′′ + y′ − 2 y = 0
x
27. xy′′ + (1 − x) y′ − y = 0
28. xy′′ + y = 0
29. xy′′ + y′ + y = 0
30. xy′′ − y′ + y = 0

31. x 2 y′′ + x( x − 1) y′ + y = 0
32. xy′′ + y′ − 4 xy = 0

33. x 2 y′′ + ( x − 1) y′ − 2 y = 0

34. xy′′ − y′ + x 3 y = 0

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33 Bessel’s Differential Equation

A second order linear differential equation of the form x 2
d2y
2
dy
( )
+ x + x2 − v2 y = 0
dx
dx
is called Bessel’s differential equation.
Solution of this equation is usually denoted by J v (x ) and is known as Bessel’s
function. This equation occurs frequently in advanced studies in applied mathematics,
physics and engineering.
33.1 Series Solution of Bessel’s Differential Equation
Bessel’s differential equation is x 2 y′′ + xy′ + x 2 − v 2 y =
0 ( ) (1)

∞ ∞
If we assume that y = ∑ C n x n+ r ⇒ y ′ = ∑ Cn (n + r )x n+r −1 ⇒
n =0 n =0
∞
y ′′ = ∑ Cn (n + r )(n + r − 1)x n+r −2
n =0

So that

( ) ∑C
∞ ∞
x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ + x 2 − v 2 y = n (n + r )(n + r − 1)x
n+ r
+ ∑ C n (n + r ) x n+ r
n =0 n =0
∞ ∞
+ ∑ C n x n+ r + 2 − v 2 ∑ C n x n+ r = 0
n =0 n =0

∞ ∞
( )
Co r 2 − v 2 x r + x r ∑ Cn ( n + r )( n + r − 1) + ( n + r ) − v 2  x n + x r

n 1=n 0
 ∑ Cn xn + 2 =0 … (2)
From (2) we see that the indicial equation is r 2 − v 2 = 0 , so the indicial roots are r1 = v ,
r2 = −v . When r1 = v then (2) becomes

∞ ∞
x v ∑ C n n ( n + 2v ) x n + x v ∑ C n x n + 2 =
0
=n 1=n 0

 
 ∞ ∞

x v (1 + 2v ) C1 x + ∑ Cn n ( n + 2v ) x n + ∑ Cn x n+ 2  =
0
=  
n 2 =
   n 0

 k= n−2 k=
n 

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 ∞

x (1 + 2v ) C1 x + ∑ ( k + 2 )( k + 2 + 2v ) Ck + 2 + Ck  x k + 2  =
v
0
 k =0 
We can write

(1 + 2v ) C1 =
0
(k + 2)(k + 2 + 2v )C k +2 + C k =0
− Ck
Ck +2 = (3)
(k + 2)(k + 2 + 2v )
k = 0,1,2, 

The choice C1 = 0 in (3) implies

C=
1 C=
3 C=
5 = 0

so for k = 0,2,4,  we find, after letting k + 2 = 2n , n = 1,2,3,  that

−C2 n−2
C2 n = (4)
2 n(n + v)
2

Thus
C0
C2 = −
22 ⋅1 ⋅ (1 + v )
C2 C0
C4 =
− =
2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ ( 2 + v ) 2 ⋅1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ (1 + v )( 2 + v )
2 4

C4 C0
C6 =
− =
− (5)
22 ⋅ 3 ⋅ ( 3 + v ) 26 ⋅1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ (1 + v )( 2 + v )( 3 + v )
  

=C2n =
( −1) C0
n
n 1, 2,3,
22n ⋅ n!(1 + v )( 2 + v ) ( n + v )

It is standard practice to choose C 0 to be a specific value namely

1
C0 =
v
2 Γ(1 + v)
where Γ(1 + v) the Gamma function. Also
Γ(1 + α ) = αΓ(α ) .

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

Using this property, we can reduce the indicated product in the denominator of (5) to one
term. For example
Γ(1 + v + 1) = (1 + v ) Γ (1 + v )

Γ(1 + v + 2) = ( 2 + v ) Γ(2 + v)
= ( 2 + v )(1 + v ) Γ(1 + v)
Hence we can write (5) as

C2n =
( −1)
n

22n + v n!(1 + v )( 2 + v ) ( n + v ) Γ(1 + v)

=
(
=
−1)
n
, n 0,1, 2,
22n + v n!Γ(1 + v + n)
So the solution is
2n + v
∞
 x
2n + v
∞
( −1)n
=y ∑
∑ n !Γ(1 + v + n)  2 
= C2n x
=n 0=n 0

If v ≥ 0 , the series converges at least on the interval [0 ∞ ) .

33.2 Bessel’s Function of the First Kind

As for r1 = v , we have
2n + v
∞
( −1)n x
Jv ( x ) = ∑ (n !)Γ(1 + v + n)  2  (6)
n =0

Also for the second exponent r2 = −v , we have

2n − v
∞
( −1)n  x
J −v ( x ) = ∑ (n !)Γ(1 − v + n)  2  (7)
n =0

The function J v ( x ) and J −v ( x ) are called Bessel function of the first kind of order v and
− v respectively.
Now some care must be taken in writing the general solution of (1). When v = 0 , it is
clear that (6) and (7) are the same. If v > 0 and r1 − r2 = v − (− v ) = 2v is not a positive
integer, then J v ( x ) and J −v ( x ) are linearly independent solutions of (1) on (0, ∞ ) and
so the general solution of the interval would be
y = C1J v ( x ) + C 2 J −v ( x )
If r1 − r2 = 2v is a positive integer, a second series solution of (1) may exists.
Example 1 Find the general solution of the equation

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 Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

 1
x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ +  x 2 −  y = 0
 4 on (0, ∞ )
Solution The Bessel differential equation is
(
x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ + x 2 − v 2 y = 0) (1)

 1
x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ +  x 2 −  y = 0 (2)
 4
1 1
Comparing (1) and (2), we get v2 = , therefore v = ±
4 2
So general solution of (1) is y = C1J1/ 2 ( x ) + C 2 J −1/ 2 ( x )

 1
Example 2 Find the general solution of the equation: x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ +  x 2 −  y = 0
 9
1 1
Solution: We identify v 2 = , therefore v = ±
9 3
So general solution is y = C1J1 / 3 ( x ) + C 2 J −1 / 3 ( x )

J′v ( x ) vJ v ( x ) − xJ v +1 ( x )
Example 3 Derive the formula x=

Solution
2n + v
∞
As J v ( x ) = ∑
( −1)n  x
 
n =0
n !Γ(1 + v + n)  2 

∞
( −1)n ( 2n + v )  x 2n + v
xJ′v ( x ) = ∑  
n !Γ(1 + v + n)  2 
n =0

2n + v 2n + v
= v⋅ ∑
 x
∞∞
( −1)n
( −1) n  x  n
 
n !Γ(1 + v + n)  2 
+ 2 ⋅ ∑  
n !Γ(1 + v + n)  2 
= n 0= n 0
2 n + v −1
= vJ v ( x ) + x ⋅ ∑
∞
( −1)
n
 x
 
=0 (
n − 1)!Γ(1 + v + n)  2 
n  
k = n −1

2 k + v +1
= vJ v ( x ) − x ∑
∞
 x( −1)k
 
k =0
k !Γ(2 + v + k )  2 

= vJ v ( x ) − xJ v +1 ( x )

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

So J′v ( x ) vJv ( x ) − xJv +1 ( x )

x=

Example 4 Derive the recurrence relation 2 J n′ ( x ) = J n−1 ( x ) − J n+1 ( x )

Solution:

J n (x ) = ∑
∞
(− 1)  x 
s n+ 2 s
As  
s =0 s!(n + s )!  2 

n + 2 s −1
J n′ ( x ) ∑
( −1)
∞ s
 x 1
= ( n + 2s )    
s =0 (
s ! n + s )!  2  2

∞
( −1)s n + s + s  x n + 2s −1  1 
= ∑ s ! n + s )! ( )   
s =0 (  2  2

=∑
∞
(− 1)
s
(n + s ) 
 x
n + 2 s −1
 1  ∞ (− 1)
s
 x
n + 2 s −1
1
 +∑ s ⋅   
s =0 s!(n + s )!  2  2  s =0 s!(n + s )!  2   2

=∑
∞
(− 1)
s
(n + s )   x
n + 2 s −1
1
 
s =0 s!(n + s )(n + s − 1)!  2  2

+∑
∞
(− 1) s
s
 x
⋅ 
n + 2 s −1
1
 
s =0 s (s − 1)!(n + s )!  2   2
1 ∞
= ∑
(− 1)  x 
s n −1+ 2 s
1 ∞
+ ∑
(− 1) s
 x
⋅ 
n + 2 s −1

 
2 s =0 s!(n − 1 + s )!  2  2 s =1 (s − 1)!(n + s )!  2 

1 1 ∞
= J n−1 ( x ) + ∑
(− 1) s
 x
n + 2 s −1

 
2 2 s =1 (s − 1)!(n + s )!  2 
Put s − 1 = p in 2nd term ⇒ s = p + 1
n + 2 ( p +1)−1
1 1 ∞
= J n−1 ( x ) + ∑
(− 1) p +1
 x
 
2 2 p =0 p!(n + p + 1)!  2 

1 ∞ − 1(− 1)
p n +1+ 2 p
1  x
= J n−1 ( x ) + ∑  
2 (
2 p =0 p! n + 1 + p !  2  )
1 1
J n′ ( x )
= J n −1 ( x ) − J n +1 ( x )
2 2

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⇒ 2 J n′ ( x ) = J n−1 ( x ) − J n+1 ( x )
1
Example 5 Derive the expression of J n ( x ) for n = ±
2

J n (x ) = ∑
∞
(− 1)  x 
s n+ 2 s
Solution: Consider  
s =0 s!(n + s )!  2 

As n ! =Γ(n + 1)
n + 2s
∞
( −1)s
 x
∑ Γ(s + 1)Γ(n + s + 1)  2 
⇒ Jn ( x) =
s =0

put n = 1 / 2
1
+ 2s
J1/ 2 ( x ) = ∑
∞
( −1)s  x 2
 
s =0
Γ( s + 1)Γ(1/ 2 + s + 1)  2 
1
+ 2s
=∑
∞
( −1)s  x 2
 
s =0
Γ( s + 1)Γ( s + 3 / 2)  2 

Expanding R.H.S of above

1 1
+0 + 2(1)
=J1/ 2 ( x )
( −1)0
 x 2
+
( −1)1  x 2
   
Γ(0 + 1)Γ(0 + 3 / 2)  2  Γ(1 + 1)Γ(1 + 3 / 2)  2 
1 1
+ 2( 2 ) + 2( 3)
+
( −1)2  x 2
+
( −1)3  x 2
+
   
Γ(2 + 1)Γ(2 + 3 / 2)  2  Γ(3 + 1)Γ(3 + 3 / 2)  2 
1 5 9
2  x 2 2 ⋅ 2  x 2 2⋅2⋅2  x 2
=   −   +   −
π  2 3 π  2 2⋅5⋅3 π  2
1  x 4 x ⋅ x2 4 x ⋅ x4 
= 2 ⋅ − + − 
π  2 3 2 5/ 2
15 2 9/ 2

x 2 4x2 4 x4 
=  − + − 
π  2 3 ⋅ 25 / 2 15 29 / 2 
2⋅ x 2 4x2 4x4 
=  − + − 
π  2 2 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 25 / 2 15 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 29 / 2 

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2 ⋅ x  x2 x4 
= 1 − + − 
π  6 120 
2 ⋅ x 1 x3 x5 
= ⋅  x − + − 
π x 3! 5! 
2⋅ x
= sin x
π
2
⇒ J1/ 2 ( x ) = sin x
πx
Similarly for n = −1/ 2 , we proceed further as before,

J n (x ) = ∑
∞
( − 1)  x 
s n+ 2 s

  where n ! =Γ(n + 1)
s =0 s! (n + s )!  2 
n + 2s
∞
( −1)s
 x
∑ Γ(s + 1)Γ(n + s + 1)  2 
⇒ Jn ( x) =
s =0

1
put n = −
2
1
− + 2s
∞
( −1) s
 x 2
J −1/ 2 ( x ) = ∑ Γ(s + 1)Γ(−1/ 2 + s + 1)  2 
s =0
1
− + 2s
J −1/ 2 ( x ) = ∑
∞
( −1)s  x 2
 
s =0
Γ( s + 1)Γ( s + 1/ 2)  2 

Expanding the R.H.S of above we get

1 1
− − + 2(1)
=J −1/ 2 ( x )
 x 2( −1)0 ( −1)  x 2
1
  +  
Γ(0 + 1)Γ(0 + 1/ 2)  2  Γ(1 + 1)Γ(1 + 1/ 2)  2 
1
− + 2( 2 )
+
( −1)2  x 2
+
 
Γ(2 + 1)Γ(2 + 1/ 2)  2 

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3 7
1 2 1  x 2 1  x 2
J −1/ 2 ( x ) = −   +   −
Γ(1)Γ(1/ 2) x Γ(2)Γ(3 / 2)  2  Γ(3)Γ(5 / 2)  2 

3 7
1 2 1  x 2
1  x 2
= −   + 3 1   −
(1)Γ(1/ 2) x 1 ⋅ ⋅ Γ(1/ 2)  2 
1
2 ⋅ ⋅ Γ(1/ 2)  2 
2 2 2

1  2 2 x3 / 2 2 ⋅ 2 x7 / 2 
=  − + − 
Γ(1/ 2)  x 23 / 2 2 ⋅ 3 27 / 2 

1  2 2x3/ 2 2 x7 / 2 
=  − + − 
π  x 23 / 2 3 27 / 2 
2 2 2x3/ 2 2 x7 / 2 
=  − + − 
π  x 2 4 3 16 
2 2 x3/ 2 1 x7 / 2 
=  − + − 
π  x 2 2 3 8 
2 1 x3/ 2 x7 / 2 
=  − + − 
π  x 2 24 
2  x x3/ 2 x7 / 2 
=  − + − 
π x x 2 24 
2  x2 x4 
= 1 − + − 
πx  2! 4! 
2 x2 x4
= cos x  cos x = 1 − + −
πx 2! 4!
2
⇒ J −1/ 2 ( x ) = cos x
πx
Remarks:
Bessel functions of index half an odd integer are called Spherical Bessel functions. Like
other Bessel functions spherical Bessel functions are used in many physical problems.

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Exercise
Find the general solution of the given differential equation on ( 0, ∞ ) .

 1
1. x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ +  x 2 − y=
0
 9

(
2. x 2 y ′′ + xy ′ + x 2 − 1 y =
0)
( )
3. 4 x 2 y ′′ + 4 xy ′ + 4 x 2 − 25 y =
0

( )
4. 16 x 2 y ′′ + 16 xy ′ + 16 x 2 − 1 y =
0

Express the given Bessel function in terms of sin x and cos x , and power of x .
5. J 3 / 2 ( x )

6. J 5 / 2 ( x )

7. J 7 / 2 ( x )

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34 Legendre’s Differential Equation

A second order linear differential equation of the form
(1 − x )y′′ − 2 xy′ + n(n + 1)y = 0
2

is called Legendre’s differential equation and any of its solution is called Legendre’s
function. If n is positive integer then the solution of Legendre’s differential equation is
called a Legendere’s polynomial of degree n and is denoted by Pn ( x ) .
∞
We assume a solution of the form y = ∑ Ck xk
k =0

( )
∴ 1 − x 2 y′′ − 2 xy′ + n ( n + 1) y =
∞ ∞ ∞
(
=
1 − x ) ∑ Ck k ( k − 1) x
k 2 =
2
k 1=
k −2
− 2 ∑ Ck kx + n ( n + 1) ∑ Ck x k
k 0
k

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
= ∑ Ck k (k − 1)x k −2 − ∑ Ck k (k − 1)x k − 2∑ Ck kx k + n(n + 1)∑ Ck x k
k =2 k =2 k =1 k =0
∞
= [n(n + 1)C0 + 2C 2 ]x + [n(n + 1)C1 − 2C1 + 6C3 ]x + ∑ C k k (k − 1)x k −2
0

k
= 4 
j =k −2
∞ ∞ ∞
− ∑ C k k (k − 1)x k − 2 ∑ C k kx k + n(n + 1)∑ C k x k
k
= 2  =
k2   k

= 2 

j =k j =k j =k

=  n ( n + 1) C0 + 2C2  + ( n − 1)( n + 2 ) C1 + 6C3  x

∞
+ ∑ ( j + 2 )( j + 1) C j + 2 + ( n − j )( n + j + 1) C j  x j =
0
j =2

⇒ n(n + 1)C0 + 2C 2 = 0
( n − 1)( n + 2 ) C1 + 6C3 =
0

( j + 2 )( j + 1) C j + 2 + ( n − j )( n + j + 1) C j = 0, j = 2,3, 4,...

n(n + 1)
or C2 = − C0
2!

C3 = −
( n − 1)( n + 2 ) C
1
3!

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C j+2 =
−
( n − j )( n + j + 1) C ; j =
2,3, (1)
( j + 2 )( j + 1) j
From Iteration formula (1)

C4 = −
(n − 2)(n + 3) C =
(n − 2)(n )(n + 1)(n + 3) C
4⋅3
2 0
4!

C5 = −
(n − 3)(n + 4) C =
(n − 3)(n − 1)(n + 2)(n + 4) C
5⋅4
3 1
5!

C6 =
−
( n − 4 )( n + 5) C =−
( n − 4 )( n − 2 ) n ( n + 1)( n + 3)( n + 5) C
5⋅6
4 0
6!

C7 = −
(n − 5)(n + 6) C =−
(n − 5)(n − 3)(n − 1)(n + 2)(n + 4)(n + 6) C
7⋅6
5 1
7!
and so on. Thus at least x < 1 , we obtain two linearly independent power series
solutions.
 n(n + 1) 2 (n − 2 )n(n + 1)(n + 3) 4
y1 ( x ) = C0 1 − x + x
 2! 4!

−
(n − 4)(n − 2) n(n + 1)(n + 3)(n + 5) x 6 + 
6! 


y 2 ( x ) = C1  x −
(n − 1)(n + 2) x 3 + (n − 3)(n − 1)(n + 2)(n + 4) x 5
 3! 5!

−
(n − 5)(n − 3)(n − 1)(n + 2)(n + 4)(n + 6) x 7 + 
7! 

Note that if n is even integer, the first series terminates, where y 2 ( x ) is an infinite series.
For example if n = 4 , then

 4⋅5 2 2⋅4⋅5⋅7 4  35 
y1 ( x ) = C0 1 − x + x  = C0 1 − 10 x 2 + x 4 
 2! 4!   3 
Similarly, when n is an odd integer, the series for y 2 ( x ) terminates with x .i.e when n
n

is a non-negative integer, we obtain an nth-degree polynomial solution of Legendre’s

equation. Since we know that a constant multiple of a solution of Legendre’s equation is
also a solution, it is traditional to choose specific values for C0 and C1 depending on
whether n is even or odd positive integer, respectively.
For n = 0 , we choose C0 = 1 and for n = 2,4,6,

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C0 = (− 1)
n/2 1⋅ 3 ⋅ (n − 1)
2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ (n )
Whereas for n = 1 , we choose C1 = 1and for n = 3,5,7,
1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ n
C1 = ( −1)( n −1) 2
2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ ( n − 1)

For example, when n = 4 , we have

1⋅ 3  35 4 
y1 ( x ) = (− 1) − +
4/ 2 2
1 10 x x
2 ⋅ 4  3 
3 30 2 35 4
= − x + x
8 8 8

y1 ( x ) =
1
8
(
35 x 4 − 30 x 2 + 3 )
34.1 Legendre’s Polynomials
Legendre’s Polynomials are specific nth degree polynomials and are denoted by Pn ( x ) .
From the series for y1 ( x ) and y 2 ( x ) and from the above choices of C 0 and C1 , we find
that the first several Legendre’s polynomials are
P0 ( x ) = 1
P1 ( x ) = x

P2 ( x ) = (
1 2
2
3x − 1 )
P3 ( x ) = (
1 3
2
5 x − 3x )
P4 ( x ) =
1
8
(
35 x 4 − 30 x 2 + 3)
P5 ( x ) =
1
8
(63 x 5 − 70 x 3 + 15 x )
Note that P0 ( x ), P1 ( x ), P2 ( x ), P3 ( x ), are, in turn particular solution of the differential
equations

n=0 (1 − x )y′′ − 2 xy′ = 0

2

n =1 (1 − x )y′′ − 2 xy′ − 2 y = 0
2

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n=2 (1 − x )y′′ − 2 xy′ + 6 y = 0

2

n=3 (1 − x )y′′ − 2 xy′ + 12 y = 0

2

… … … … …
34.2 Rodrigues Formula for Legendre’s Polynomials
The Legendre Polynomials are also generated by Rodrigues formula

Pn ( x ) =
1 dn 2
2 n n! dx n
x − (
1
n
)
34.3 Generating Function For Legendre’s Polynomials
The Legendre’s polynomials are the coefficient of z n in the expansion of
1
φ =(1 − 2xz + z 2 )
−
2

in ascending powers of z .
1 1
φ =(1 − 2xz + z ) −
Now 2 −2
{1 z ( 2 x − z )}
=− 2

Therefore by Binomial Series

1  −3  1  −3   −5 
−   −   
2 2  2  2  2 
φ=
1
1+ z ( 2x − z ) +
2 2!
{ − z ( 2 x − z )} +
2
3!
{ − z ( 2 x − z )} +
3

=1 +
1
2
3
8
( 5
) (
z ( 2 x − z ) + z 2 4 x 2 + z 2 − 4 xz + z 3 8 x3 − z 3 − 12 x 2 z + 6 xz 2 +
16
)
1 2 3 2 2 3 4 3 3 5 3 3 5 6 15 2 4 15 5
=1 + zx − z + x z + z − xz − x z − z − x z + xz +
2 2 8 2 2 16 4 8

=1 + xz +
1
2( ) 1
2 ( 1
)
3 x 2 − 1 z 2 + 5 x3 − 3 x z 3 + 35 x 4 − 30 x 2 + 3 z 4 + 
8 ( ) (1)

Also
∞

∑ P ( x) z
n =0
n
n
=P0 ( x ) + P1 ( x ) z + P2 ( x ) z 2 + P3 ( x ) z 3 + 

Equating Coefficients of (1) and (2)

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P0 ( x ) = 1
P1 ( x ) = x

=
P2 ( x)
1
2
( 3 x 2 − 1)

=
P3 ( x)
1
2
( 5 x3 − 3x )

P4 ( x )= ( 35 x 4 − 30 x 2 + 3)
1
8
Which are Legendre’s Polynomials
34.4 Recurrence Relation
Recurrence relations that relate Legendre’s polynomials of different degrees are also very
important in some aspects of their application. We shall derive one such relation using
the formula
1 ∞
(1 − 2 xt + t 2=
)2
−
∑ P ( x) ⋅ t
n =0
n
n
(1)

Differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to t gives

3 ∞ ∞
(1 − 2 xt + t =
) ( x − t ) ∑ nP
2 −2
n = ( x ) t ∑ nP ( x ) t n −1
n
n −1

=n 0= n 1

so that after multiplying by 1 − 2xt + t , we have

2

1 ∞
( x − t ) (1 − 2 xt + t 2 ) =(1 − 2 xt + t 2 ) ∑ nPn ( x ) t n−1
−
2

n =1

∞ ∞
( x − t ) ∑ Pn ( x ) t n
=(1 − 2 xt + t 2
) ∑ nP ( x ) t n
n −1

=n 0=n 1

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

=
n
n 0=
n
n 0= n 1
∑ xP ( x ) t − ∑ P ( x ) t
n n +1
− ∑ nPn ( x ) t
=n 1
n −1
+ 2 x ∑ nPn ( x ) t n
∞
−∑ nPn ( x ) t n+1 =
0
n =1

∞ ∞
 3x 2 − 1 
x + x 2t + ∑ xPn ( x ) t n − t − ∑ Pn ( x ) t n+1 − x − 2  t
= n 2= n 1  2 
∞ ∞ ∞
−∑ nPn ( x ) t n−1 + 2 x 2t + 2 x ∑ nPn ( x ) t n − ∑ nPn ( x ) t n+1 =
0
=n 3 =n 2=n 1

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Observing the appropriate cancellations, simplifying and changing the summation indices
∞

∑ − ( k + 1) P ( x ) + ( 2k + 1) xP ( x ) − kP ( x ) t
k =2
k +1 k k −1
k
=
0

k
Equating the total coefficient of t to zero gives the three-term recurrence relation

( k + 1) Pk +1 ( x ) − ( 2k + 1) xPk ( x ) + kPk −=
1 ( x) 0, =k 2,3,4,

34.5 Orthogonally of Legendre’s Polynomials

Proof:

Legendre’s Differential Equation is (1 − x2 ) y′′ − 2xy′ + n ( n + 1) y =

0

Let Pn ( x ) and Pm ( x ) are two solutions of Legendre’s differential equation then

(1 − x2 ) Pn′′ ( x ) − 2xPn′ ( x ) + n ( n + 1) Pn ( x ) =
0 , and

(1 − x2 ) Pm′′ ( x ) − 2xPm′ ( x ) + m ( m + 1) Pm ( x ) = 0

which we can write

( n)
 1 − x 2 P ′ ( x ) ′ + n ( n + 1 ) P ( x ) =
 n 0 (1)

( m)
 1 − x 2 P ′ ( x ) ′ + m ( m + 1 ) P ( x ) =
 m 0 (2)

Multiplying (1) by Pm ( x ) and (2) by Pn ( x ) and subtracting, we get

{(
Pm ( x ) 1 − x 2 Pn′) }′ − Pn ( x ){(1 − x2 ) Pm′ ( x )}′ (3)
+ { n ( n + 1 ) − m ( m + 1 ) } Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) =
0
Now

Add and subtract (1 − x 2 ) P 'm P 'n to formulize the above

{ } { }
' '
Pm ( x) (1 − x 2 ) P 'n − Pn ( x) (1 − x 2 ) P 'm

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( ) ( )
1 − x 2 Pm′ ( x ) Pn′ ( x ) + Pm ( x )  1 − x 2 Pn′ ( x ) 
=
 
′

− ( 1 − x 2 ) Pm′ ( x ) Pn′ ( x ) + Pn ( x )  ( 1 − x 2 ) Pm′ ( x ) 

′
 

=(1 − x2 ) [ Pn ( x)Pn′ ( x) − Pm′ ( x)Pn ( x) ]′

Which shows that (3) can be written as

(
 1 − x2
 ) { Pm ( x ) Pn′ ( x ) − Pm′ ( x ) Pn ( x )}  ′

+  n ( n + 1 ) − m ( m + 1 )  Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) =0

( (1 − x ) { P } ) + ( n − m )( n + m + 1 ) Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) =
′
m ( x ) Pn′ ( x ) − Pm
′ ( x ) Pn
2 0

( (1 − x ) { P′ ( x ) P ( x ) − P })
′
( n − m ) ( m + n + 1 ) Pm ( x ) Pn ( x )= 2
m n m ( x ) Pn′ ( x )

( (1 − x ) { P′ ( x ) P ( x ) − P } ) dx
b b
′
( n − m ) ( m + n + 1 ) ∫ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x )dx= ∫ 2
m n m ( x ) Pn′ ( x )
a a

(1 − x2 ) { Pm′ ( x ) Pn ( x ) − Pm ( x ) Pn′ ( x )} a
b b
( n − m ) ( m + n + 1 ) ∫ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x )dx =
a

As 1 − x 2 =
0 for x = ± 1 so
1
( n − m ) ( n + m + 1) ∫ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) dx =
0 for x = ± 1
−1
Since m & n are non-negative
1
⇒ ∫ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) dx =
0 for m ≠ n
−1
which shows that Legendre’s Polynomials are orthogonal w.r.to the weight function
w ( x ) = 1 over the interval [ − 1 1]

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34.6 Normality condition for Legendre’ Polynomials

Consider the generating function
1 ∞
( )
−
1 − 2 xt + t 2
∑
2 = Pm ( x ) t m (1)
m=0
Also
1 ∞
( )
−
∑
1 − 2 xt + t 2 2 = Pn ( x ) t n (2)
n =0
Multiplying (1) and (2)
∞ ∞
(1 − 2xt + t ) 2 −1
∑
=
= 0=
m n 0
∑ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) t m + n
Integrating from -1 to 1
1
⌠ ∞ ∞ 1
dx = ∑ ∑ ∫ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) t m + n dx
1


−1
(
 1 − 2 xt + t 2
⌡ = 0=
m )
n 0 −1

1
∞ ∞ 1
1 ⌠ − 2t
−  ∑
dx = ∑ ∫ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) t m + n dx

(
2t ⌡ 1 − 2 xt + t
−1
2
= 0=
m n 0 −1)
∞ ∞ 1
( )
1
Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) t m + n dx
1
− ln 1 − 2 xt + t
2t
2 =∑
−1 m
∑ ∫
= 0=
n 0 −1

∞ ∞ 1
⇒ ∑ ∑ ∫
= 0=
m n 0 −1
Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) t m + n dx =−
1 
2t 
 ( ) ( )
ln 1 − 2t + t 2 − ln 1 + 2t + t 2 


=
−
1
2t  ( )
 ln ( 1 − t )2 − ln 1 + t 2 


− { ln ( 1 + t ) − ln ( 1 − t 2 )}
1 2
=
2t

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Differential Equations (MTH401) VU

1
=−  ln ( 1 + t ) − ln ( 1 − t ) 
t

1   t 2 t3 t 4   t 2 t3 t 4 
=   t − + − +   −  −t − − − −   
t   2 3 4  
  2 3 4 



1  2t 3 2t 5 
=  2t + + +  
t  3 5 

2  t 3 t 5 
=  t + + +  
t  3 5 
 t 2 t 4 
= 2 1 + + +  
 3 5 
∞ ∞ 1  2 
 t t4
⇒ ∑ ∑ ∫ Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) t m + n dx = 2 1 + + + 
= 0=
m n 0 −1  3 5 
for m = n
∞ 1  t 2 t 4 
n + n dx =
⇒ ∑ ∫ n P ( x ) Pn ( x ) t 2  1 + +
3 5
+  
n =0 −1  

∞ 1  t ( ) t ( ) t 2n 
2 1 2 2
∑ ∫  Pn ( x )  t dx= 2 1 +
2 2n
⇒ + + + 
n=0 −1  2 (1) + 1 2 ( 2 ) + 1

2 ( n ) +1


Equating coefficient of t 2n on both sides

1
2
 Pn ( x )  dx =
2
⇒ ∫ 2n + 1
−1
1
2
⇒ ∫ Pn ( x ) Pn ( x )dx =
2n + 1
−1
1
2n + 1
⇒ ∫ Pn ( x ) Pn ( x ) dx =
1
2
−1

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which shows that Legender polynomials are normal with respect to the weight function
2n + 1
w( x) = over the interval − 1 < x < 1 .
2
Remark:
Orthognality condition for Pn ( x ) can also be written as

1
 2 
∫ Pn ( x ) Pn ( x )dx =   δ m, n
 2n + 1 
−1
0 , if m ≠ n
where δ m, n = 
1 ,otherwise
34.7 Exercise
1. Show that the Legendre’s equation has an alternative form
d 

dx 
(
1 − x2
dy 
dx 
)+ n ( n + 1) y =
0

2. Show that the equation

d2y dy
sin θ + n ( n + 1 ) ( sin θ ) y =
+ cos θ 0 can be
dθ 2 dθ
transformed into Legendre’s equation by means of the substitution x = cos θ
3. Use the explicit Legendre’s polynomials P1 ( x ) , P2 ( x ) , P2 ( x ) , and P3 ( x )
1
to evaluate ∫
Pn2 dx for n = 0,1, 2, 3. Generalize the results.
−1
4. Use the explicit Legendre polynomials P1 ( x ) , P2 ( x ) , P2 ( x ) , and P3 ( x )
1
to evaluate Pn ( x ) Pm ( x ) dx for n ≠ m . Generalize the results.
∫
−1
5. The Legendre’s polynomials are also generated by Rodrigues’ formula
1 dn
( )
n
= Pn ( x ) x2 − 1
n n
2 n ! dx
verify the results for n = 0,1, 2, 3.

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35 Systems of Linear Differential Equations

 Recall that the mathematical model for the motion of a mass attached to a spring
or for the response of a series electrical circuit is a differential equation.
d2y dy
a +b + cy =f ( x)
dx 2 dx
 However, we can attach two or more springs together to hold two masses m1
and m2 . Similarly a network of parallel circuits can be formed.

 To model these latter situations, we would need two or more coupled or

simultaneous equations to describe the motion of the masses or the response of
the network.
 Therefore, in this lecture we will discuss the theory and solution of the systems of
simultaneous linear differential equations with constant coefficients.
Note that
An nth order linear differential equation with constant coefficients a0 , a1 ,  , an is
an equation of the form
dny d n−1 y dy
an + a − +  + a + a0 y =
g ( x)
dx n−1
n 1 1
dx n dx
d d2 dn
If we write D = , D2 = ,, D n = then this equation can be written as follows
dx dx 2 dx n

(a D n
n
+ an−1D (
n −1 )
) g (t )
+  + a1D + a0 y =

35.1 Simultaneous Differential Equations

The simultaneous ordinary differential equations involve two or more equations that
contain derivatives of two or more unknown functions of a single independent variable.

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Example 1 If x, y and z are functions of the variable t , then

d 2x
4 = −5 x + y
dt 2
d2y
2 = 3x − y
dt 2
and
x′ − 3x + y ′ + z ′ = 5
x + y′ − 6z′ = t − 1
are systems of simultaneous differential equations.
35.2 Solution of a System
A solution of a system of differential equations is a set of differentiable functions
x = f (t ), y = g (t ), x = h(t ), 
those satisfy each equation of the system on some interval I .
35.2.1 Systematic Elimination (Operator Method)
 This method of solution of a system of linear homogeneous or linear non-
homogeneous differential equations is based on the process of systematic
elimination of the dependent variables.
 This elimination provides us a single differential equation in one of the dependent
variables that has not been eliminated.
 This equation would be a linear homogeneous or a linear non-homogeneous
differential equation and can be solved by employing one of the methods
discussed earlier to obtain one of the dependent variables.
Notice that the analogue of multiplying an algebraic equation by a constant is operating
on a differential equation with some combination of derivatives.
Step 1 First write the differential equations of the system in a form that involves the
differential operator D .
Step 2 We retain first of the dependent variables and eliminate the rest from the
differential equations of the system.
Step 3 The result of this elimination is to be a single linear differential equation with
constant coefficients in the retained variable. We solve this equation to obtain the value
of this variable.
Step 4 Next, we retain second of the dependent variables and eliminate all others
variables
Step 5 The result of the elimination performed in step 4 is to be again a single linear
differential equation with constant coefficients in the retained 2nd variable. We again
solve this equation and obtain the value of the second dependent variable. This process of
elimination is continued untill all the variables are taken care of.

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Step 6 The computed values of the dependent variables don’t satisfy the given system for
every choice of all the arbitrary constants. By substituting the values of the dependent
variables computed in step 5 into an equation of the original system, we can reduce the
number of constant from the solution set.
Step 7 We use the work done in step number 6 to write the solution set of the given
system of linear differential equations.
dy dx
= 2=
Example 1 Solve the system of differential equations x, 3y
dt dt
Solution:
Step 1 The given system of linear differential equations can be written in the differential
operator form as
Dy = 2 x, Dx = 3 y
or 2 x − Dy = 0, Dx − 3 y = 0
Step 2 Next we eliminate one of the two variables, say x , from the two differential
equations. Operating on the first equation by D while multiplying the second by 2 and
then subtracting eliminates x from the system. It follows that
− D 2 y + 6 y = 0 or D 2 y − 6 y = 0.
Step 3 Clearly, the result is a single linear differential equation with constant coefficients
in the retained variable y . The roots of the auxiliary equation are real and distinct
m1 = 6 and m2 = − 6 ,

Therefore, y ( t ) c1e
= 6 t + c e−
2
6 t

Step 4 We now eliminate the variable y that was retained in the previous step.
Multiplying the first equation by − 3 , while operating on the second by D and then
adding gives the differential equation for x,

D 2 x − 6 x = 0.
Step 5 Again, the result is a single linear differential equation with constant coefficients
in the retained variable x . We now solve this equation and obtain the value of the second
dependent variable. The roots of the auxiliary equation are m = ± 6 . It follows that

x ( t ) c3 e 6 t + c4 e − 6 t
=
Hence the values of the dependent variables x(t ), y (t ) are.

x ( t ) c3 e
= 6 t + c e− 6 t
4

y ( t ) c1e 6 t + c2 e − 6 t
=

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Step 6 Substituting the values of x(t ) and y (t ) from step 5 into first equation of the
given system, we have

( ) ( )
6c1 − 2c3 e 6t + − 6c 2 − 2c 4 e − 6t = 0.
Since this expression is to be zero for all values of t , we must have
6c1 − 2c3 = 0, − 6 c 2 − 2c 4 = 0

6 6
or c3 = c1 , c4 = − c2
2 2
Notice that if we substitute the computed values of x(t ) and y (t ) into the second
equation of the system, we shall find that the same relationship holds between the
constants.
Step 7 Hence, by using the above values of c1 and c2 , we write the solution of the given
system as

c2 c − 6t
6 6
=x(t ) c1e 6t −
2 2

y ( t ) c1e 6t + c2e− 6t
=
Example 2
Solve the following system of differential equations
Dx + (D + 2 ) y = 0
(D − 3) x − 2y = 0
Solution:
Step 1 The differential equations of the given system are already in the operator form.
Step 2 We eliminate the variable x from the two equations of the system. Thus operating
on the first equation by D − 3 and on the second by D and then subtracting eliminates x
from the system. The resulting differential equation for the retained variable y is
[(D − 3)(D + 2) + 2 D] y = 0
(D 2 + D − 6) y =0
Step 3 The auxiliary equation of the differential equation for y obtained in the last step
is

m 2 + m − 6 = 0 ⇒ (m − 2 )(m + 3) = 0
Since the roots of the auxiliary equation are
m1 = 2, m2 = −3

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Therefore, the solution for the dependent variable y is

y (t ) = c1e 2t + c 2 e −3t
Step 4 Multiplying the first equation by 2 while operating on the second by ( D + 2) and
then adding yields the differential equation for x
(D 2
)
+ D − 6 x = 0,
Step 5 The auxiliary equation for this equation for x is

m 2 + m − 6 = 0 = (m − 2)(m + 3)
The roots of this auxiliary equation are
m1 = 2, m2 = −3
Thus, the solution for the retained variable x is

x(t ) = c3e 2t + c 4 e −3t

Writing two solutions together, we have

x(t ) = c3e 2t + c 4 e −3t

y (t ) = c1e 2t + c 2 e − 3t
Step 6 To reduce the number of constants, we substitute the last two equations into the
first equation of the given system to obtain

(4c1 + 2c3 ) e 2t + (− c2 − 3c4 ) e −3t =0

Since this relation is to hold for all values of the independent variable t . Therefore, we
must have
4c1 + 2c3 = 0, − c 2 − 3c 4 = 0.
1
or c3 = −2c1 , c4 = − c2
3
Step 7 Hence, a solution of the given system of differential equations is

x(t ) = −2c1e 2t − c 2 e − 3t
1
3
y (t ) = c1e 2t + c 2 e − 3t
Example 3
Solve the system

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dx d2y 2
− 4x + 2 =t
dt dt
dx dy
+ x + =
0
dt dt
Solution:
Step 1 First we write the differential equations of the system in the differential operator
(D − 4)x + D 2 y = t 2
form:
(D + 1)x + Dy = 0
Step 2 Then we eliminate one of the dependent variables, say x . Operating on the first
equation with the operator D + 1 , on the second equation with the operator D − 4 and then
subtracting, we obtain [(D + 1) D 2 − (D − 4 ) D] y = (D + 1) t 2

or (D 3 + 4D) y = t 2 + 2t.
Step 3 The auxiliary equation of the differential equation found in the previous step is

m 3 + 4m = 0 = m (m 2 + 4)
Therefore, roots of the auxiliary equation are
m1 = 0, m2 = 2 i, m3 = −2 i
So that the complementary function for the retained variable y is
y c = c1 + c 2 cos 2t + c3 sin 2t.

To determine the particular solution y p we use undetermined coefficients. Therefore, we

assume: y p = At 3 + Bt 2 + Ct. ⇒ y ′p = 3 At + 2 Bt + C ,
2

′ = 6 At + 2 B, y ′p′′ = 6 A
⇒ y ′p

Thus y′′′p + 4 y′= 2

p 12 At + 8 Bt + 6 A + 4C

Substituting in the differential equation found in step, we obtain

12 At 2 + 8 Bt + 6 A + 4C =t 2 + 2t
Equating coefficients of t 2 , t and constant terms yields
12 A = 1, 8 B = 2, 6 A + 4C = 0,
Solving these equations give
A = 1/12, B = 1/ 4, C = −1/ 8.
Hence, the solution for the variable y is given by

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y = yc + y p

1 3 1 2 1
or y = c1 + c 2 cos 2t + c3 sin 2t + t + t − t.
12 4 8
Step 4 Next we eliminate the variable y from the given system. For this purpose we
multiply first equation with 1 while operate on the second equation with the operator D
and then subtracting, we obtain

[( D − 4) − D( D + 1)]x = t 2

or ( D 2 + 4) x = −t2
Step 5 The auxiliary equation of the differential equation for x is

m 2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ m = ±2 i
The roots of the auxiliary equation are complex. Therefore, the complementary function
for x is: xc = c 4 cos 2t + c5 sin 2t
The method of undetermined coefficients can be applied to obtain a particular solution.
We assume that x p = At 2 + Bt + C.
Then x ′p = 2 At + B, x ′p′ = 2 A

Therefore x ′p′ + 4 x p = 2 A + 4 At 2 + 4 Bt + 4C

Substituting in the differential equation for x , we obtain

4 At 2 + 4 Bt + 2 A + 4C = −t 2

Equating the coefficients of t 2 , t and constant terms, we have

4 A = −1, 4 B = 0, 2 A + 4C = 0
Solving these equations we obtain
A = −1 / 4, B = 0, C = 1 / 8
1 1
Thus xp = − t2 +
4 8
1 1
So that x = xc + x p = c 4 cos 2t + c5 sin 2t − t 2 +
4 8
Hence, we have
1 1
x = xc + x p = c 4 cos 2t + c5 sin 2t − t 2 +
4 8
1 3 1 2 1
y = c1 + c 2 cos 2t + c3 sin 2t + t + t − t.
12 4 8

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Step 6 Now c4 and c5 can be expressed in terms of c 2 and c3 by substituting these

values of x and y into the second equation of the given system and we find, after
combining the terms, (c5 − 2c4 − 2c2 )sin 2t + (2c5 + c4 + 2c3 )cos 2t = 0

So that c5 − 2c4 − 2c2 =

0, 2c5 + c4 + 2c3 = 0
Solving the last two equations for c 4 and c5 in terms of c2 and c3 gives

c4 = −
1
(4c2 + 2c3 ) , c5 =
1
(2c2 − 4c3 ).
5 5
Step 7 Finally, a solution of the given system is found to be

x(t ) = − (4c2 + 2c3 )cos 2t + 1 (2c2 − 4c3 )sin 2t − 1 t 2 + 1 t

1
5 5 4 8
y (t ) = c1 + c2 cos 2t + c3 sin 2t + t + t − t.
1 3 1 2 1
12 4 8
Exercise
Solve, if possible, the given system of differential equations by either systematic
elimination.
dx dy
1. = x + 7 y, = x − 2y
dt dt
dx dy
2. − 4 y = 1, x+ =2
dt dt
3. (D + 1)x + (D − 1) y = 2, 3 x + (D + 2) y = −1

d 2x dy dx dy
4. + = −5 x, + = −x + 4 y
dt 2 dt dt dt

5. D 2 x − Dy = t , (D + 3)x + (D + 3) y = 2
dx dy d 2x dx
6. + = et , − + + x+ y=0
dt dt dt 2 dt
7. (D − 1)x + (D 2 + 1)y = 1, (D 2 −1)x + (D + 1)y = 2
8. Dx = y, Dy = z , Dz = x
dx dy dz
9. = − x + z, = − y + z, = −x + y
dt dt dt

10. Dx − 2 Dy = t 2 , (D + 1)x − 2(D + 1) y = 1

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36 Systems of Linear Differential Equations

36.1 Solution of Using Determinants
If L1 , L2 , L3 and L4 denote linear differential operators with constant coefficients, then a
system of linear differential equations in two variables x and y can be written as
L1 x + L2 y = g1 (t )
L3 x + L4 y = g 2 (t )
To eliminate y , we operate on the first equation with L4 and on the second equation with
L2 and then subtracting, we obtain : (L1 L4 − L2 L3 )x = L4 g1 − L2 g 2
Similarly, operating on the first equation with L3 and second equation with L1 and then
subtracting, we obtain: (L1 L4 − L2 L3 ) y = L1 g 2 − L3 g1

L1 L2 g1 L2
 L1 L4 − L2 L3 = ⇒ L4 g1 − L2 g 2 =
L3 L4 g2 L4

L1 g1
And L1 g 2 − L3 g1 =
L3 g2

Hence, the given system of differential equations can be decoupled into nth order
differential equations. These equations use determinants similar to those used in Cramer’s
rule:
L1 L2 g1 L2 L1 L2 L g1
x= and y= 1
L3 L4 g2 L4 L3 L4 L3 g2
The uncoupled differential equations can be solved in the usual manner.
Note that
 The determinant on left hand side in each of these equations can be expanded in
the usual algebraic sense. This means that the symbol D occurring in Li is to be
treated as an algebraic quantity. The result of this expansion is a differential
operator of order n , which is operated on x and y .
 However, some care should be exercised in the expansion of the determinant on
the right hand side. We must expand these determinants in the sense of the
internal differential operators actually operating on the functions g1 and g 2 .
Therefore, the symbol D occurring in Li is to be treated as an algebraic quantity.
36.2 Solution Method
The steps involved in application of the method of detailed above can be summarized as
follows:

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Step 1 First we have to write the differential equations of the given system in the
differential operator form
L1 x + L2 y = g1 (t )
L3 x + L4 y = g 2 (t )
Step 2 We find the determinants
L1 L2 g1 L2 L1 g1
, ,
L3 L4 g 2 L4 L3 g2
Step 3 If the first determinant is non-zero, then it represents an nth order differential
operator and we decoupled the given system by writing the differential equations
L1 L2 g L2
⋅x = 1
L3 L4 g2 L4
L1 L2 L g1
⋅y= 1
L3 L4 L3 g2
Step 4 Find the complementary functions for the two equations. Remember that the
auxiliary equation and hence the complementary function of each of these differential
equations is the same.
Step 5 Find the particular integrals x p and y p using method of undetermined
coefficients or the method of variation of parameters.
Step 6 Finally, we write the general solutions for both the dependent variables x and y
x = xc + x p , y = y c + y p .
Step 7 Reduce the number of constants by substituting in one of the differential
equations of the given system
Note that
If the determinant found in step 2 is zero, then the system may have a solution containing
any number of independent constants or the system may have no solution at all. Similar
remarks hold for systems larger than system indicated in the previous discussion.
Example 1
Solve the following homogeneous system of differential equations
dx dy
2 − 5x + = et
dt dt
dx dy
−x+ = 5et
dt dt
Solution: Step 1 First we write the differential equations of the system in terms of the
differential operator D

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( 2 D − 5 ) x + Dy =
et
5et
( D − 1) x + Dy =
Step 2 We form the determinant

2D − 5 D et D 2D − 5 et
, ,
D −1 D 5et D D −1 5et
Step 3 Since the 1st determinant is non-zero
2D − 5 D
= (2 D − 5) D − ( D − 1) D
D −1 D
2D − 5 D
or = D2 − 4D ≠ 0
D −1 D
Therefore, we write the decoupled equations

2D − 5 D et D
x=
D −1 D 5et D

2D − 5 D 2 D − 5 et
y=
D −1 D D − 1 5et
After expanding we find that

( D2 − 4D ) x =Det − D(5 et ) = − 4e t

( D2 − 4D ) y =(2D − 5)(5et ) − (D − 1)et =−15et

Step 4 We find the complementary function for the two equations. The auxiliary
equation for both of the differential equations is:

m 2 − 4m =0 ⇒ m =0, 4
The auxiliary equation has real and distinct roots

xc= c1 + c2 e4t
yc= c3 + c4 e4t
Step 5 We now use the method of undetermined coefficients to find the particular
integrals x p and y p .

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Since − 4 et , g 2 ( t ) =
g1 ( t ) = − 15 et
We assume that
t
= =
x p Ae , y p Bet

Then D x p = Aet , D 2 x p = Aet

And D y p = Bet , D 2 y p = Bet

Substituting in the differential equations, we have

Aet − 4 Aet =
− 4et
Bet − 4 Bet =
− 15et
or − 3 Aet =
− 4et , − 3Bet =
− 15et

Equating coefficients of e t and constant terms, we obtain

4
=A = , B 5
3
4 t
So that =xp = e , y p 5et
3
Step 6 Hence, the general solution of the two decoupled equations
4
x =xc + x p =c1 + c2 e4t + et
3

y =yc + y p =c3 + c4 e4t + 5et

Step 7 Substituting these solutions for x and y into the second equation of the given
system, we obtain

−c1 + ( 3c2 + 4c4 ) e4t =0

3
or c1 = 0, c4 = − c2 .
4

Hence, the general solution of the given system of differential equations is

4 t
x ( t ) c2 e4t +
= e
3

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3
y (t ) =
c3 − c2 e 4t + 5et
4
If we re-notate the constants c2 and c3 as c1 and c2 , respectively. Then the
solution of the system can be written as:
4 t
( t ) c1e4t +
x= e
3
3
y (t ) =
− c1e4t + c2 + 5et
4
x′ = 3x − y − 1
Example 2 Solve
y ′ = x + y + 4e t
Solution:
Step 1 First we write the differential equations of the system in terms of the
differential operator D
(D − 3)x + y = −1
− x + (D − 1) y = 4e t
Step 2 We form the determinant
D−3 1 −1 1 D−3 1
, ,
−1 D − 1 4e t D −1 −1 4e t
Step 3 Since the 1st determinant is non-zero
D−3 1
= D 2 − 4D + 4 ≠ 0
−1 D −1
Therefore, we write the decoupled equations
D−3 1 −1 1
x= t
−1 D −1 4e D −1

D −3 1 D − 3 −1
y=
−1 D − 1 −1 4et
After expanding we find that

(D − 2)2 x = 1 − 4 e t
(D − 2)2 y = −1 − 8 e t .
Step 4 We find the complementary function for the two equations. The auxiliary
equation for both of the differential equations is:

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(m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2,2
The auxiliary equation has real and equal roots

xc c1e2t + c2te2t
=
yc c3e2t + c4te2t
=
Step 5 We now use the method of undetermined coefficients to find the particular
integrals x p and y p . As g1 ( t ) =1 − 4 et , g 2 ( t ) =− 1 − 8 et

So we assume that

A + Bet ,
xp = C + Eet
yp =

Then D x p = Be t , D 2 x p = Be t

And D y p = Eet , D 2 y p = Eet

Substituting in the differential equations
(D − 2)2 x p = D 2 x p − 4 Dx p + 4 x p = 1 − 4e t
( D − 2 )2 y p = D 2 y p − 4 Dy p + 4 y p = −1 − 8e t

Therefore, we have

Bet − 4 Bet + 4 A + 4 Bet =−

1 4e t
Eet − 4 Eet + 4C + 4 Eet =− 1 − 8et

or Bet + 4 A =1 − 4et , E et + 4C =− 1 − 8et

1
=B =
-4, A
4
Equating coefficients of e t and constant terms, we obtain
1
C=
− , E=
−8
4
1 1
So that x p = − 4et , y p =− − 8et
4 4
Step 6 Hence, the general solution of the two decoupled equations
1
x = xc + x p = c1e 2t + c 2 te 2t + − 4e t
4
1
y = y c + y p = c3 e 2t + c 4 te 2t − − 8e t
4

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Step 7 Substituting these solutions for x and y into the second equation of the given
system, we obtain: (c3 − c1 + c 4 )e 2t + (c 4 − c 2 )te 2t = 0

or c 4 = c 2 , c3 = c1 − c 4 = c1 − c 2 .
Hence, a solution of the given system of differential equations is

x(t ) = c1e 2t + c2te 2t +

1
− 4e t
4

y (t ) = (c1 − c2 )e 2t + c2te 2t −
1
− 8e t
4
Example 3 Given the system
Dx + Dz = t2
2x + D 2 y = et
− 2 Dx − 2 y + (D + 1) z = 0
Find the differential equation for the dependent variables x, y and z .
Solution:
Step1 The differential equations of the system are already written in the differential
operator form.
Step 2 We form the determinant

D 0 D t2 0 D D t2 D D 0 t2
2
2 D 0 , et D 2 0 , 2 et 0 , 2 D 2 et
− 2D − 2 D + 1 0 − 2 D + 1 − 2D 0 D + 1 − 2D − 2 0

D 0 D
D2 0 2 D2
Step 3  1 determinant ≠ 0 ⇒ 2 D
st 2
0 =D +D
− 2 D +1 − 2D − 2
− 2D − 2 D + 1

D 0 D
2 D 2
(
0 = D 3D 3 + D 2 − 4 ≠ 0 )
− 2D − 2 D + 1
Therefore, we can write the decoupled equations

D 0 D t2 0 D
2 D20 ⋅ x = et D 2 0
− 2D − 2 D + 1 0 − 2 D +1

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D 0 D D t2 D
2 D2 0 ⋅y= 2 et 0
− 2D − 2 D + 1 − 2D 0 D + 1

D 0 D 0 t2 D
2 D2 ⋅z =
0 D 2 et 2
− 2D − 2 D + 1 − 2D − 2 0

The determinant on the left hand side in these equations has already been expanded. Now
we expand the determinants on the right hand side by the cofactors of an appropriate row.

t2 0 D
t 2 D2 0 2 et D 2
e D 0 = t +D
− 2 D +1 0 −2
0 − 2 D +1

= D 2 ( D + 1)t 2 + D(−2e t ) = ( D 3 + D 2 )t 2 − 2e t
= 2 − 2e t

D t2 D
et 0 2 0 2 2 et
2 et 0 =D − t +D
0 D + 1 − 2D D + 1 − 2D 0
− 2D 0 D + 1

= D[( D + 1)e t ] − [( D + 1)(2t 2 )] + D[2 De t ]

= 2e t − 4t − 2t 2 + 2e t = 4e t − 2t 2 − 4t.

D 0 t2
2 t D 2 et 2 D2 2
2 D e =D + t
−2 0 − 2D − 2
− 2D − 2 0

= D (2e t ) + (−4 + 2 D 3 )t 2 = 2e t − 4t 2 + 0
= 2e t − 4t 2
Hence the differential equations for the dependent variables x, y and z can be written as

( )
D 3D 3 + D 2 − 4 y x = 2 − 2e t

or D (3D 3 + D 2 − 4 y ) y = 4e t − 2t 2 − 4t.

D (3D 3 + D 2 − 4 y ) z = 2e t − 4t 2
Again we remind that the D symbol on the left-hand side is to be treated as an algebraic
quantity, but this is not the case on the right-hand side.

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36.3 Exercise
Solve, if possible, the given system of differential equations by use of determinants.
dx dy
11. =
2 x − y, =
x − 2y
dt dt
dx dy
12. =− y + t , =x − t
dt dt

(
13. D 2 + 5 x= )
− 2 y 0, (
-2 x + D 2 = )
+2 y 0

d2x d2y
14. 4 y + et ,
= 4 x − et
=
dt 2 dt 2
d2x dy dx dy
15. + =
− 5 x, + =
−x + 4 y
dt 2 dt dt dt

16. Dx + D
= 2 y e3t , ( D + 1) x + ( D −=
1) y 4e3t

(
17. D 2 −= )
1 x − y 0, ( D − 1 )=
x + Dy 0

18. (2 D 2 − D − 1) x − (2 D + 1) y =
1, ( D − 1) x + Dy =
−1

dx dy d2x dx
19. + = et , − + +x+
= y 0
dt dt dt 2 dt

20. 2 Dx + ( D =
− 1) y t , + Dy t 2
Dx =

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37 Systems of Linear First-Order Equation

In the preceding lectures we dealt with linear systems of the form
P11 ( D ) x1 + P12 ( D ) x2 +  + P1n ( D ) xn =
b1 ( t )
P21 ( D ) x1 + P22 ( D ) x2 +  + P2n ( D ) xn =
b2 ( t )
   
bn ( t )
Pn1 ( D ) x1 + Pn 2 ( D ) x2 +  + Pnn ( D ) xn =

where the Pij were polynomials in the differential operator D.

37.1 The nth Order System

1. The study of systems of first-order differential equations
dx1
= g1 ( t , x1 , x2 ,  , xn )
dt
dx2
= g 2 ( t , x1 , x2 ,  , xn )
dt

dxn
= g n ( t , x1 , x2 ,  , xn )
dt
is also particularly important in advanced mathematics. This system of n first-order
equations is called and nth-order system.
2. Every nth-order differential equation

(
y ( ) = F t , y, y′, , y ( )
n n −1
)
as well as most systems of differential equations, can be reduced to the nth-order system.
37.2 Linear Normal Form
A particularly, but important, case of the nth-order system is of those systems having the
linear normal or canonical form:
dx1
= a11 (t )x1 + a12 (t )x 2 +  + a1n (t )x n + f1 (t )
dt
dx 2
= a 21 (t )x1 + a 22 (t )x 2 +  + a 2 n (t )x n + f 2 (t )
dt
  
dx n
= a n1 (t )x1 + a n 2 (t )x 2 +  + a nn (t )x n + f n (t )
dt

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where the coefficients aij and the fi are the continuous functions on a common interval I .
When fi ( =t ) 0,=i 1, 2,  , n, the system is said to be homogeneous; otherwise it is
called non-homogeneous.
37.3 Reduction of a Linear Differential Equation to a System
Suppose a linear nth-order differential equation is first written as

dny
y − 1 y ′ −  − n −1 y (n −1) + f (t ).
a0 a a
n
=−
dt an an an
If we then introduce the variables

y = x1 , y ′ = x2 , y ′′ = x3 ,, y (n −1) = xn
it follows that

y ′ = x1′ = x2 , y ′′ = x2′ = x3 ,, y (n −1) = xn′ −1 = xn , y ( ) = xn′

n

Hence the given nth-order differential equation can be expressed as an nth-order system:
x1′ = x2
x2′ = x3
x3′ = x4

xn′ −1 = xn
a0 a a
xn′ =− x1 − 1 x2 −  − n−1 xn + f ( t ) .
an an an

Inspection of this system reveals that it is in the form of an nth-order system.

Example 1
Reduce the third-order equation
2 y ′′′ = − y − 4 y ′ + 6 y ′′ + sin t
or 2 y ′′′ − 6 y ′′ + 4 y ′ + y = sin t
to the normal form.
Solution: Write the differential equation as
1 1
y ′′′ =
− y − 2 y ′ + 3 y ′′ + sin t
2 2
Now introduce the variables

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y = x1 , y ′ = x 2 , y ′′ = x3 .
Then
x1′ = y ′ = x 2
x 2′ = y ′′ = x3

x3′ = y ′′′
Hence, we can write the given differential equation in the linear normal form
x1′ = x2
x2′ = x3
1 1
x3′ =
− x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 + sin t
2 2
Example 2
Rewrite the given second order differential equation as a system in the normal form

d2y dy
2 +4 − 5y =
0
2 dx
dx
Solution:
We write the given the differential equation as

d2y dy 5
=
−2 + y
dx 2 dx 2
Now introduce the variables
= 1, y ′ x2
y x=
Then
y=′ x=1′ x2
y′′ = x2′
So that the given differential equation can be written in the form of a system
x1′ = x2
5
x2′ =
−2 x2 + x1
2
This is the linear normal or canonical form.
Example 3
Write the following differential equation as an equivalent system in the Canonical form.

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d3y
4 3 + y = et
dt
Solution:
First write the given differential equation as

d3y
4 3
= − y + et
dt
dividing by 4 on both sides

d3y 1 1 t
or = − y + e
dt 3 4 4
Now introduce the variables
= 1 , y ′ x2=
y x= , y ′′ x3
Then
y=′ x= 1′ x2
y=′′ x= 2′ x3
y ′′′ = x3′
Hence, the given differential equation can be written as an equivalent system.
x1′ = x2
x2′ = x3
1 1
x3′ =
− x1 + et
4 4
Clearly, this system is in the linear normal or the Canonical form.

Example 4
Rewrite the differential equation in the linear normal form

t 2 y ′′ + ty ′ + (t 2 − 4) y =
0
Solution:
First we write the equation in the form
(
t 2 y ′′ = −ty ′ − t 2 − 4 y)
or
1
y ′′ = − y ′ −
(t 2
− 4)
y, t≠0
t t2

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1 t2 − 4
or ′′
y = ′
− y − 2 y
t t
Then introduce the variables
= 1 , y ′ x2
y x=

Then
y=′ x= 1′ x2
y ′′ = x2′
Hence, the given equation is equivalent to the following system.
x1′ = x2
1 t2 − 4
x2′ =
− x2 − 2 x1
t t
The system is in the required linear normal or the cnonical form.
37.3.1 Systems Reduced to Normal Form
Using Procedure similar to that used for a single equation, we can reduce most systems of
the linear form
P11 ( D ) x1 + P12 ( D ) x2 +  + P1n ( D ) xn =
b1 ( t )
P21 ( D ) x1 + P22 ( D ) x2 +  + P2n ( D ) xn =
b2 ( t )
   
bn ( t )
Pn1 ( D ) x1 + Pn 2 ( D ) x2 +  + Pnn ( D ) xn =
to the canonical form. To accomplish this we need to solve the system for the highest
order derivative of each dependent variable.
Note: It is not always possible to solve the given system for the highest-order derivative
of each dependent variable.
Example 5
Reduce the following system to the normal form

(D 2
)
− D + 5 x + 2D2 y =
et

−2x + (D 2
)
+2 y =
3t 2

Solution:

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First write the given system in the differential operator form

D 2 x + 2 D 2 y = et − 5 x + Dx
D 2 y = 3t 2 + 2 x − 2 y
Then eliminate D 2 y by multiplying the second equation by 2 and subtracting from first
equation to have
D 2 x = e t − 6t 2 − 9 x + 4 y + Dx.

Also D 2 y = 3t 2 + 2 x − 2 y
We are now in a position to introduce the new variables. Therefore, we suppose that
=
Dx u=
, Dy v
Thus, the expressions for D 2 x and D 2 y , respectively, become

Du = e t − 6t 2 − 9 x + 4 y + u
Dv = 3t 2 + 2 x − 2 y.
Thus the original system can be written as
Dx = u
Dy = v

Du =−9 x + 4 y + u + et − 6t 2

Dv = 2 x − 2 y + 3t 2
Clearly, this system is in the canonical form.
Example 6
If possible, re-write the given system in the canonical form
x′ + 4 x − y ′ =
7t
x′ + y′ − 2 y =
3t
Solution:
First we write the differential equations of the system in the differential operator form
Dx + 4 x − Dy =
7t
Dx + Dy − 2 y =
3t
To eliminate Dy we add the two equations of the system, to obtain
2 Dx = 10t − 4 x + 2 y
or Dx =− 2 x + y + 5t

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Next to solve for the Dy , we eliminate Dx . For this purpose we simply subtract the first
equation from second equation of the system, to have
− 4 x + 2 Dy − 2 y =
− 4t
2 Dy = 4 x + 2 y − 4t
or Dy = 2 x + y − 2t
Hence the original system is equivalent to the following system
Dx =− 2 x + y + 5t
Dy = 2 x + y − 2t
Clearly the system is in the normal form.
Example 7 If possible, re-write the given system in the linear normal form

d3x d2x dy
=
4x − 3 +4
dt 3 dt 2 dt
d2y dx dy
= 10t 2 − 4 +3
dt 2 dt dt
Solution:
First write the given system in the differential operator form

D3 x =
4 x − 3D 2 x + 4 Dy
D 2 y = 10t 2 − 4 Dx + 3Dy
No need to eliminate anything as the equations are already expressing the highest-order
derivatives of x and y in terms of the remaining functions and derivatives. Therefore, we
=
are now in a position to introduce new variables. Suppose that Dx u= , Dy v

⇒ D=
2
= w
x Du = =
⇒ D 2 y Dv , D3 x Dw

Then the expressions for D3 x and for D 2 y can be written as

Dw = 4 x + 4v − 3w
Dv= 10t 2 − 4u + 3v
Hence, the given system of differential equations is equivalent to the following system
Dx = u
Dy = v
Du = w
Dv= 10t 2 − 4u + 3v
Dw = 4 x + 4v − 3w

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This new system is clearly in the linear normal form.

37.4 Degenerate Systems
The systems of differential equations of the form
b1 ( t )
P11 ( D ) x1 + P12 ( D ) x2 +  + P1n ( D ) xn =
b2 ( t )
P21 ( D ) x1 + P22 ( D ) x2 +  + P2n ( D ) xn =
   
Pn1 ( D ) x1 + Pn 2 ( D ) x2 +  + Pnn ( D ) xn =
bn ( t )
those cannot be reduced to a linear system in normal form is said to be a degenerate
system.
Example 8 If possible, re-write the following system in a linear normal form
(D + 1)x + (D + 1) y = 0
2 Dx + (2 D + 1) y = 0
Solution:
The given system is already written in the differential operator form. The system can be
written in the form
Dx + x + Dy + y =
0
2 Dx + 2 Dy + y =
0
We eliminate Dx to solve for the highest derivative Dy by multiplying the first
equation with 2 and then subtracting second equation from the first one. Thus we have
2 Dx + 2 x + 2 Dy + 2 y =
0
± 2 Dx ± 2D y ± y = 0
2x + y=
0
Therefore, it is impossible to solve the system for the highest derivative of each
dependent variable; the system cannot be reduced to the canonical form. Hence the
system is a degenerate.
Example 9
If possible, re-write the following system of differential equations in the canonical form
x ′′ + y ′ =
1
x ′′ + y ′ =−1
Solution:
We write the system in the operator form

D 2 x + Dy =1
D 2 x + Dy =
−1

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To solve for a highest order derivative of y in terms of the remaining functions and
derivatives, we subtract the second equation from the first and we obtain

D 2 x + Dy =1
± D 2 x ± Dy =
−1
0=2
This is absurd. Thus the given system cannot be reduced to a canonical form. Hence the
system is a degenerate system.
Example 10
If possible, re-write the given system
(2 D + 1) x − 2 Dy =4
Dx − Dy =
et
Solution:
The given system is already in the operator form and can be written as
2 Dx + x − 2 Dy =4
Dx − Dy =
et
To solve for the highest derivative Dy , we eliminate the highest derivative Dx .
Therefore, multiply the second equation with 2 and then subtract from the first equation
to have
2 Dx + x − 2 Dy =4
± 2 Dx  2Dy =
± 2e t
x = 4 − 2et
Therefore, it is impossible to solve the system for the highest derivatives of each variable.
Thus the system cannot be reduced to the linear normal form. Hence, the system is a
degenerate system.
37.5 Applications of Linear Normal Forms
The systems having the linear normal form arise naturally in some physical applications.
The following example provides an application of a homogeneous linear normal system
in two dependent variables.
Example 11
Tank A contains 50 gallons of water in which 25 pounds of salt are dissolved. A second
tank B contains 50 gallons of pure water. Liquid is pumped in and out of the tank at rates
shown in Figure. Derive the differential equations that describe the number of pounds
x1 (t ) and x 2 (t ) of salt at any time in tanks A and B, respectively.

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Pure water 3 gal / min Mixture 1 gal / min

a b

A B

c d
Mixture 3 gal / min
Mixture 4 gal / min

Solution:
Tank A
Input through pipe a = ( 3 gal/min ) ⋅ ( 0 lb/gal ) =
0

x  x2
Input through pipe b = ( 1 gal/min ) ⋅  2 lb/gal  = lb / min
 50  50
x2 x2
Thus, total input for the tank A = 0 + =
50 50
 x  4 x1
Output through pipe c = ( 4 gal/min ) ⋅  1 lb/gal  = lb / min
 50  50
Hence, the net rate of change of x1 (t ) in lb / min is given by
dx1
= input - output
dt
dx1 x2 4 x1
or = −
dt 50 50
dx1 − 2 x
or = x1 + 2
dt 25 50
Tank B
4 x1
Input through pipe c is 4 gal/min = lb / min
50
x
Output through pipe b is 1 gal/min = 2 lb / min
50
3 x2
Similarly output through pipe d is 3 gal/min = lb / min
50

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x2 3x2 4 x2
Total output for the tank b = + =
50 50 50
Hence, the net rate of change of x 2 (t ) in lb / min
dx2
= input − output
dt
dx2 4 x1 4 x2
or = −
dt 50 50
dx2 2 x1 2 x2
or = −
dt 25 25
Thus we obtain the first order system
dx1 − 2 x
= x1 + 2
dt 25 50
dx 2 2 x1 2 x 2
= −
dt 25 25
We observe that the foregoing system is accompanied the initial conditions
x1 (0 ) = 25, x 2 (0 ) = 0.

Exercise
Rewrite the given differential equation as a system in linear normal form.

d2y dy
1. −3 + 4y =
sin 3t
dt 2 dt
2. y ′′′ − 3 y ′′ + 6 y ′ − 10 y =t 2 + 1
d4y d2y dy
3. −2 +4 +y=
t
dt 4 dt 2 dx
d4 y d3y
4. 2 + − 8y =
10
dt 4 dt 3
Rewrite, if possible, the given system in the linear normal form.

5. ( D − 1) x − Dy =t 2 , x + Dy =5t − 2
6. x ′′ −=
2 y ′′ sin t , x′′= + y ′′ cos t
7. m1 x1′′ = − k1 x1 + k2 ( x2 − x1 ), m2 x2′′ =
− k2 ( x2 − x1 )
8. D 2 x + Dy = 4t , − D 2 x + (D + 1) y = 6t 2 + 10

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38 Introduction to Matrices
38.1 Matrix
A rectangular array of numbers or functions subject to certain rules and conditions is
called a matrix. Matrices are denoted by capital letters A, B,  , Y , Z . The numbers or
functions are called elements or entries of the matrix. The elements of a matrix are
denoted by small letters a, b,  , y, z .

38.2 Rows and Columns

The horizontal and vertical lines in a matrix are, respectively, called the rows and
columns of the matrix.
38.3 Order of a Matrix
If a matrix has m rows and n columns then we say that the size or order of the matrix is
m × n . If A is a matrix having m rows and n columns then the matrix can be written as
 a11 a12  a1n 
  a2 n 
 a21 a22
A=     
 
    
a  amn 
 m1 am 2
38.4 Square Matrix
A matrix having n rows and n columns is said to be a n × n square matrix or a square
matrix of order n. The element, or entry, in the ith row and jth column of a m × n
matrix A is written as aij . Therefore a 1 x 1 matrix is simply a constant or a function.

38.5 Equality of matrix

Any two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if they have the same orders
and the corresponding elements of the two matrices are equal. Thus if A = [aij ]m × n and
B = [bij ]m × n then

A = B ⇔ aij = bij , ∀ i, j

38.6 Column Matrix

A column matrix X is any matrix having n rows and only one column. Thus the column
matrix X can be written as

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 b11 
 
b 
 21 
X =  b31  = [bi1 ]n ×1
 
  
 
 
 bn1 
A column matrix is also called a column vector or simply a vector.
38.7 Multiple of matrices
A multiple of a matrix A is defined to be

 ka11 ka12  ka1n 

 
 ka 21 ka 22  ka 2n 
kA =   = [kaij ]m × n
     
 
ka m1 ka m 2  ka mn 

Where k is a constant or it is a function. Notice that the product kA is same as the

product Ak . Therefore, we can write
kA = Ak
Example 1
 2 − 3 10 − 15
   
(a) 5 ⋅  4 − 1 = 20 −5
   
1 / 5 6   1 30 

1   e 
t
   
(b) e t ⋅ − 2 = − 2e t 
   
 4   4e 
t
 

− 3t
2 2e − 3t  2 − 3t
Since we know that kA = Ak . Therefore, we can write e ⋅  =  =  e
5 5e − 3t  5

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38.8 Addition of Matrices

Any two matrices can be added only when they have same orders and the resulting
matrix is obtained by adding the corresponding entries. Therefore, if A = [aij ] and
B = [bij ] are two m × n matrices then their sum is defined to be the matrix A + B defined
by A + B = [aij + bij ]

Example 2 Consider the following two matrices of order 3× 3

 2 −1 3  4 7 − 8
   
A= 0 4 6  , B = 9 3 5 
   
− 6 
− 5  −1 2 
 10 1
Since the given matrices have same orders. Therefore, these matrices can be added and
their sum is given by

 2+4 −1+ 7 3 + (−8)   6 6 − 5

   
A+ B =  0+9 4+3 6+5  = 9 7 11 
   
− 6 +1
 10 + (−1) − 5 + 2   − 5 9 − 3 
Example 3 Write the following single column matrix as the sum of three column vectors
 3t 2 − 2e t 
 2 
 t + 7t 
 5t 
 
Solution

 3t 2 − 2et   3t 2   
  0   − 2e  0   −2 
t
    3

 t 2 + 7t =  t 2  +  7t  +  0 =
 1  t 2 +  7  t +  0  et
       
 
0
   
5  0 
 5t   0   5t   0       
   
38.9 Difference of Matrices
The difference of two matrices A and B of same order m × n is defined to be the matrix
A − B = A + (− B)
The matrix − B is obtained by multiplying the matrix B with − 1 . So that
− B = ( −1) B

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38.10 Multiplication of Matrices

Any two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB , if the number of
columns in the first matrix A is equal to the number of rows in the second matrix B .
Thus if the order of the matrix A is m × n then to make the product AB possible order
of the matrix B must be n × p . Then the order of the product matrix AB is m × p . Thus
Am× n ⋅ Bn × p = C m × p

If the matrices A and B are given by

 a11 a12  a1n   b11 b12  b1 p 
   
 a 21 a 22  a 2n  b21 b22  b2 p 
A= , B =  
           
   
a m1 a m 2  a mn  bn1 bn 2
  bnp 

Then
 a11 a12  a1n   b11 b12  b1 p 
  
 a 21 a 22  a 2n  b21 b22  b2 p 
AB =   
          
  
a m1 a m 2  a mn  bn1 bn 2  bnp 

 a11b11 + a12 b21 +  + a1n bn1  a11b1 p + a12 b2 p +  + a1n bnp 

 
 a b + a b +  + a b a b + a b +  + a b 
 21 11 22 21 2 n n1 21 1 p 22 2 p 2 n np 

=  


  
 
 
 a m1b11 + a m 2 b21 +  + a mn bn1  a m1b1 p + a m 2 b2 p +  + a mn bnp 

 n 
=  ∑ aik bkj 
 
 k =1  n× p

Example 4
If possible, find the products AB and BA , when
4 7 9 − 2
(a) A= , B= 
 3 5 6 8 
   

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5 8
   − 4 − 3
(b) A = 1 0 ,
 B= 
   2 0 
2 7  
 
Solution
(a) The matrices A and B are square matrices of order 2. Therefore, both of the products
AB and BA are possible.
 4 7  9 − 2   4 ⋅ 9 + 7 ⋅ 6 4 ⋅ (−2) + 7 ⋅ 8   78 48 
AB =   = = 
 3 5  6 8   3 ⋅ 9 + 5 ⋅ 6 3 ⋅ (−2) + 5 ⋅ 8   57 34 
      
 9 − 2  4 7   9 ⋅ 4 + (−2) ⋅ 3 9 ⋅ 7 + (−2) ⋅ 5   30 53 
Similarly BA =   = = 
 6 8  3 5   6 ⋅ 4 + 8 ⋅ 3 6 ⋅ 7 + 8 ⋅ 5   48 82 
 
   
(b) The product AB is possible as the number of columns in the matrix A and the
number of rows in B is 2. However, the product BA is not possible because the number of
rows in the matrix B and the number of rows in A is not same.
 5 ⋅ (−4) + 8 ⋅ 2 5 ⋅ (−3) + 8 ⋅ 0   − 4 − 15 
   
AB =  1 ⋅ (−4) + 0 ⋅ 2 1 ⋅ (−3) + 0 ⋅ 0  =  − 4 −3 
   
 2 ⋅ (−4) + 7 ⋅ 2
 2 ⋅ (−3) + 7 ⋅ 0   6 − 6 
Note that
In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative. This means that AB ≠ BA . For
example, we observe in part (a) of the previous example
 78 48   30 53 
AB =   , BA =  
 57 34   48 82 
   
Clearly AB ≠ BA. . Similarly in part (b) of the example, we have
− 4 − 15 
 
AB =  − 4 −3 
 
 6
 − 6 
However, the product BA is not possible.
Example 5

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 2 − 1 3  − 3   2 ⋅ (−3) + (−1) ⋅ 6 + 3 ⋅ 4   0 
      
(a)  0 4 5  6  =  0 ⋅ (−3) + 4 ⋅ 6 + 5 ⋅ 6  =  44 
      
 1 − 7 9  4   1 ⋅ (−3) + (−7) ⋅ 6 + 9 ⋅ 4   − 9 
      

 − 4 2  x   − 4 x + 2 y 
(b)    =  
 3 8  y   3 x + 8 y 
    

38.11 Multiplicative Identity

For a given positive integer n , the n × n matrix
1 0 0  0
 
0 1 0  0
 
I = 0 0 1  0
 

     
 
0 0 0  1
is called the multiplicative identity matrix. If A is a matrix of order n × n , then it can be
verified that
I ⋅ A = A⋅ I = A
Also, it is readily verified that if X is any n × 1 column matrix, then I ⋅ X = X

38.12 Zero Matrix

A matrix consisting of all zero entries is called a zero matrix or null matrix and is denoted
by O . For example
0 0
0  0 0  
O =  , O= , 
O = 0 0
0  0 0  
    0 0
 
and so on. If A and O are m × n matrices, then
A+O = O+ A = A

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38.13 Associative Law

The matrix multiplication is associative. This means that if A, B and C are m × p , p × r
and r × n matrices, then A( BC ) = ( AB)C .The result is a m × n matrix.

38.14 Distributive Law

If B and C are matrices of order r × n and A is a matrix of order m × r , then the
distributive law states that A( B + C ) = AB + AC
Furthermore, if the product ( A + B)C is defined, then ( A + B)C = AC + BC
38.15 Determinant of a Matrix
Associated with every square matrix A of constants, there is a number called the
determinant of the matrix, which is denoted by det( A) or A
Example 6 Find the determinant of the following matrix
 3 6 2
 
A = 2 5 1

 
 −1 2 4
 
Solution
The determinant of the matrix A is given by
3 6 2

det( A) = 2 5 1
−1 2 4

We expand the det( A) by cofactors of the first row, we obtain

3 6 2
5 1 2 1 2 5
det( A) = 2 5 1 =3 -6 +2
2 4 −1 4 −1 2
−1 2 4

or det( A) = 3(20 - 2) - 6(8 + 1) + 2(4 + 5) = 18

38.16 Transpose of a Matrix

The transpose of a m × n matrix A is obtained by interchanging rows and columns of the
matrix and is denoted by Atr . In other words, rows of A become the columns of Atr . If

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 a11 a12 . . .  a1n 

 
 a 21 a 22 . . .  a 2n 
A= 
    .  .
 
a 
 m1 a m2 . . . . a mn 

Then
 a11 a21  am1 
 
a a  am 2 
 12 22 
Atr =  
 
 
   
 
 a1n a2n  amn 

Since order of the matrix A is m × n , the order of the transpose matrix Atr is n × m .
Example 7
(a) The transpose of matrix
 3 6 2
 
A = 2 5 1

 
 −1 2 4
 

 3 2 − 1
 
is A = 6 5 2
tr 
 
2 1 4 
 
(b) If X denotes the matrix
5
 
X = 0
 
 3
 

Then X tr = [5 0 3]

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38.17 Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix

Suppose that A is a square matrix of order n × n . If there exists an n × n matrix B such
that
AB = BA = I
Then B is said to be the multiplicative inverse of the matrix A and is denoted by
B = A −1 .
38.18 Non-Singular Matrices
A square matrix A of order n × n is said to be a non-singular matrix if
det( A) ≠ 0
Otherwise the square matrix A is said to be singular. Thus for a singular A we must
have
det( A) = 0
Theorem If A is a square matrix of order n × n then the matrix has a multiplicative
−1
inverse A if and only if the matrix A is non-singular.
Theorem Let A be a non singular matrix of order n × n and let C ij denote the cofactor
(signed minor) of the corresponding entry aij in the matrix A i.e.

Cij = (−1) i + j M ij

M ij is the determinant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix obtained by deleting the ith row and
jth column from A . Then inverse of the matrix A is given by
1
A −1 = (Cij ) tr
det( A)
Further Explanation
1. For further reference we take n = 2 so that A is a 2 × 2 non-singular matrix given by

 a11 a12 
A= 
a 
 21 a 22 
Therefore C11 = a 22 , C12 = −a 21 , C 21 = −a12 and C 22 = a11 . So that

tr
−1 1  a 22 − a 21  1  a 22 − a12 
A = =
det( A)  − a12 a11  det( A)  − a 21 a11 

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2. For a 3 × 3 non-singular matrix

 a11 a12 a13 

 
A=  a21 a22 a23 
a a33 
 31 a32

a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
C11 = , C12 = − , C 13 =
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

and so on. Therefore, inverse of the matrix A is given by

C 
 11 C 21 a31 
1  
A −1 =  C12 C 22 C32  .
det A  
 C13 C 23 C33 
 

Example 8
Find, if possible, the multiplicative inverse for the matrix
1 4 
A= .
 2 10 
 
Solution:
The matrix A is non-singular because
1 4
det( A) = = 10 - 8 = 2
2 10

Therefore, A −1 exists and is given by

.

1  10 − 4   5 − 2 
A −1 =  =
2  − 2 1   − 1 1 / 2 

Check

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 1 4  5 − 2   5 − 4 − 2 + 2   1 0 
AA −1 =   = = =I
 2 10  − 1 1 / 2  10 − 10 − 4 + 5   0 1 
      

 5 − 2  1 4   5 − 4 20 − 20   1 0 
AA −1 =   = = =I
 − 1 1 / 2  2 10   − 1 + 1 − 4 + 5   0 1 
      
Example 9
Find, if possible, the multiplicative inverse of the following matrix
 2 2
A= 
 3 3
 
Solution:
The matrix is singular because
2 2
det( A) = = 2⋅3− 2⋅3 = 0
3 3

Therefore, the multiplicative inverse A −1 of the matrix does not exist.

Example 10
Find the multiplicative inverse for the following matrix

 2 2 0
 

A=  − 2 1 1 .

 3
 0 1

Solution:
2 2 0

Since det( A) = − 2 1 1 = 2(1 − 0) − 2(−2 − 3) + 0(0 − 3) = 12 ≠ 0

3 0 1

Therefore, the given matrix is non singular. So that, the multiplicative inverse A −1 of the
matrix A exists. The cofactors corresponding to the entries in each row are

1 1 −2 1 −2 1
C11 = = 1, C12 = − = 5, C13 = = −3
0 1 3 1 3 0

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2 0 2 0 2 2
C 21 = − = −2, C 22 = = 2, C 23 = − =6
0 1 3 1 3 0
2 0 2 0 2 2
C31 = = 2, C32 = − = −2, C33 = =6
1 1 −2 1 −2 1

 1 − 2 2   1 / 12 − 1 / 6 1 / 6 
1 
−1
  
Hence A =  5 2 − 2  =  5 / 12 1 / 6 − 1 / 6 
12 
− 3 6 6   − 1 / 4 1 / 2 1 / 2 

Please verify that A ⋅ A −1 = A −1 ⋅ A = I

38.19 Derivative of a Matrix of functions
Suppose that

A(t ) =  aij (t ) 
m× n
is a matrix whose entries are functions those are differentiable on a common interval,
then derivative of the matrix A(t ) is a matrix whose entries are derivatives of the
corresponding entries of the matrix A(t ) . Thus

dA  daij 
= 
dt  dt 
m× n
The derivative of a matrix is also denoted by A′(t ).

38.20 Integral of a Matrix of Functions

Suppose that (
A(t ) = aij (t ) )
m× n
is a matrix whose entries are functions those are
continuous on a common interval containing t , then integral of the matrix A(t ) is a
matrix whose entries are integrals of the corresponding entries of the matrix A(t ) . Thus
t
 t 
∫ A(s)ds =  ∫t0 aij (s)ds m×n
t0
Example 11
Find the derivative and the integral of the following matrix
 sin 2t 
 
X (t ) =  e3t 
 8t − 1 
 
Solution:

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The derivative and integral of the given matrix are, respectively, given by
d 
 (sin 2t )   2 cos 2t 
 dt   
d 3t  
X ′(t ) =  (e ) = 3e 3t 
 dt   
d   8 
 (8t − 1)   
 dt 
t 
 sin 2tds 
∫ 
0   − 1 / 2 cos 2t + 1 / 2 
t  t 3t   
∫ X (s)ds =  ∫ e ds  = 1 / 3e − 1 / 3 
 3t

0
t
0
  4t 2 − t 

 8t − 1ds 
∫ 
0 
38.21 Augmented Matrix
Consider an algebraic system of n linear equations in n unknowns
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 +  + a1n x n = b1
a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 +  + a 2n x n = b2
   
a n1 x1 + a n 2 x 2 +  + a nn x n = bn

Suppose that A denotes the coefficient matrix in the above algebraic system, then

 a11 a12  a1n 

 
 a 21 a 22  a 2n 
A= 
     
 
a m1 a m 2  a mn 

It is well known that Cramer’s rule can be used to solve the system, whenever det( A) ≠ 0 .
However, it is also well known that a Herculean effort is required to solve the system if
n > 3 . Thus for larger systems the Gaussian and Gauss-Jordon elimination methods are
preferred and in these methods we apply elementary row operations on augmented
matrix.
The augmented matrix of the system of linear equations is the following n × (n + 1)
matrix

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 a11 a12  a1n b1 

 
a 211 a 22  a 2n b2 
Ab =  
     
 
 a n1 a n 2  a nn bn 

If B denotes the column matrix of the bi , ∀i =1, 2, , n then the augmented matrix of
the above mentioned system of linear algebraic equations can be written as ( A | B ) .

38.22 Elementary Row Operations

The elementary row operations consist of the following three operations
 Multiply a row by a non-zero constant.
 Interchange any row with another row.
 Add a non-zero constant multiple of one row to another row.
These row operations on the augmented matrix of a system are equivalent to, multiplying
an equation by a non-zero constant, interchanging position of any two equations of the
system and adding a constant multiple of an equation to another equation.
38.23 The Gaussian and Gauss-Jordon Methods
In the Gaussian Elimination method we carry out a succession of elementary row
operations on the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations to be solved until it
is transformed into row-echelon form, a matrix that has the following structure:
 The first non-zero entry in a non-zero row is 1.
 In consecutive nonzero rows the first entry 1 in the lower row appears to the right
of the first 1 in the higher row.
 Rows consisting of all 0’s are at the bottom of the matrix.
In the Gauss-Jordan method the row operations are continued until the augmented matrix
is transformed into the reduced row-echelon form. A reduced row-echelon matrix has the
structure similar to row-echelon, but with an additional property.
 The first non-zero entry in a non-zero row is 1.
 In consecutive nonzero rows the first entry 1 in the lower row appears to the right
of the first 1 in the higher row.
 Rows consisting of all 0’s are at the bottom of the matrix.
 A column containing a first entry 1 has 0’s everywhere else.
Example 1
(a) The following two matrices are in row-echelon form.

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1 5 0 2
  0 0 1 − 6 2 2 
0 1 0 − 1 ,  
  0 0 0 0 1 4 
0 0 0 
 0 

Please verify that the three conditions of the structure of the echelon form are satisfied.
(b) The following two matrices are in reduced row-echelon form.
1 0 0 7
  0 0 1 − 6 0 −6 
0 1 0 − 1 ,  
  0 0 0 0 1 4 
0 0 0 
 0 

Please notice that all remaining entries in the columns containing a leading entry 1 are 0.
Notation
To keep track of the row operations on an augmented matrix, we utilized the following
notation:

Symbol Meaning

Interchange the rows i and j.

Rij

Multiply the ith row by a nonzero constant c .

cRi

cRi + R j Multiply the ith row by c and then add to the jth row.

Example 2
Solve the following system of linear algebraic equations by the (a) Gaussian elimination
and (b) Gauss-Jordan elimination
2 x1 + 6 x2 + x3 =7
x1 + 2 x1 − x3 =
−1
5 x1 + 7 x2 − 4 x3 =9
Solution
(a) The augmented matrix of the system is

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2 6 1 7 
 
 1 2 − 1 − 1
5 7 − 4 9 
 
By interchanging first and second row i.e. by R12 , we obtain

 1 2 − 1 − 1
 
2 6 1 7 
5 7 − 4 9 
 

Multiplying first row with − 2 and − 5 and then adding to 2nd and 3rd row i.e. by
− R1 + R 2 and − 5 R1 + R3 , we obtain

 1 2 −1 −1
 
0 2 3 9 
 
 0 −3 1 14 
1
Multiply the second row with 1 / 2 , i.e. the operation R2 , yields
2

1 2 −1 −1 
 
 0 1 3 / 2 9 / 2
 0 − 3 1 14 
 
Next add three times the second row to the third row, the operation 3R2 + R3 gives

1 2 −1 −1 
 
0 1 3/ 2 9 / 2 
 0 0 11 / 2 55 / 2 
 
2
Finally, multiply the third row with 2 / 11 . This means the operation R1
11

1 2 −1 −1 
 
 0 1 3 / 2 9 / 2
0 0 1 5 
 

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The last matrix is in row-echelon form and represents the system

x1 + x 2 − x3 = 1
3
x 2 + x3 = 9 / 2
2
x3 = 5
Now by the backward substitution we obtain the solution set of the given system of linear
algebraic equations
x1 =
10, x2 =
− 3, x3 =
5
(b) W start with the last matrix in part (a). Since the first in the second and third rows are
1's we must, in turn, making the remaining entries in the second and third columns 0s:
1 2 −1 −1 
 
 0 1 3 / 2 9 / 2
0 0 1 5 
 
Adding − 2 times the 2nd row to first row, this means the operation − 2 R2 + R1 , we have

 1 0 − 4 − 10 
 
0 1 3/ 2 9 / 2
0 0 1 5 
 
Finally by 4 times the third row to first and − 1 / 2 times the third row to second row, i.e.
−1
the operations 4 R3 + R1 and R + R2 , yields
2 3

 1 0 0 − 10 
 
0 1 0 − 3  .
 
0 0 1 5 
 
The last matrix is now in reduce row-echelon form .Because of what the matrix means in
terms of equations, it evident that the solution of the system
x1 =
10, x2 =
− 3, x3 =
5
Example 3
Use the Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the following system of linear algebraic
x + 3 y − 2 z = −7
equations: 4 x + y + 3 z = 5
2 x − 5 y + 7 z = 19
Solution:

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1 3 − 2 − 7
 
The augmented matrix is  4 1 3 5 
 
 2 − 5 7 19 
1 3 − 2 − 7
 
− 4 R1 + R2 and − 2 R1 + R3 yields  0 − 11 11 33 
 0 − 11 11 33 
 
1 3 − 2 − 7
−1 −1  
R and R produces  0 1 − 1 − 3 
11 2 11 3
 0 1 − 1 − 3
 
1 0 1 2 
 
3 R 2 + R1 and − R2 + R3 gives  0 1 − 1 − 3 
 
0 0 0 0 
In this case the last matrix in reduced row-echelon form implies that the original system
of three equations in three unknowns.
x + z = 2, y − z = −3
We can assign an arbitrarily value to z . If we let z = t , t ∈ R , then we see that the system
has infinitely many solutions:
x = 2 − t , y = −3 + t , z = t
Geometrically, these equations are the parametric equations for the line of intersection of
the planes
x + 0 y + 0 z = 2, 0 x + y − z = −3

38.24 Exercise
Write the given sum as a single column matrix
 2  − 1  3t 
     
1. 3t t + (t − 1) − t − 2 4
     
 − 1  3   − 5t 
     
 1 − 3 4   t   −t   2 
 2 5 − 1   2t − 1  +  1  −  8 
2.
      
 0 − 4 − 2   −t   4   − 6 
      
Determine whether the given matrix is singular or non-singular. If singular, find A− 1 .

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 3 2 1
 
3. A =  4 1 0
− 2 5 − 1

 4 1 − 1
 
4. A =  6 2 − 3
− 2 − 1 2 

dX
Find
dt
1 
 sin 2t − 4 cos 2t 
5. X =2 
 − 3 sin 2t + 5 cos 2t 
 
e 4 t
cos π t  2 t
6. If A ( t ) =   then find (a) ∫ A(t )dt , (b) ∫ A(s)ds.
 2t 3t 2 − 1 
  0 0

2
 6t 2
7. Find the integral ∫ B (t )dt if B ( t ) =  
1 1/ t 4t 
Solve the given system of equations by either Gaussian elimination or by the Gauss-
Jordon elimination.

8. 5 x − 2 y + 4 z =
10
x + y+z = 9
4 x − 3 y + 3z =
1
9. x1 + x2 - x3 - x4 = - 1
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 3
x1 - x2 + x3 - x4 = 3
4 x1 + x2 - 2 x3 + x4 = 0
10. x1 + x2 − x3 + 3 x4 =
1
x2 − x3 − 4 x4 =
0
x1 + 2 x2 − 2 x3 − x4 =
6
4 x1 + 7 x2 − 7 x3 =
9

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39 The Eigenvalue problem

39.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Let A be a n × n matrix. A number λ is said to be an eigenvalue of A if there exists a
nonzero solution vector K of the system of linear differential equations:
AK = λK
The solution vector K is said to be an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ .
Using properties of matrix algebra, we can write the above equation in the following
alternative form
( A − λI )K = 0
where I is the identity matrix.

 k1 
 
 k2 
If we let K =  k3 
 
 
k 
 n
Then the above system is same as the following system of linear algebraic equations
( a11 − λ ) k1 + a12 k2 +  + a1n kn =
0
a21k1 + ( a22 − λ ) k2 +  + a2 n kn =0
  
an1kn + an 2 k2 +  + ( ann − λ ) kn =
0
Clearly, an obvious solution of this system is the trivial solution
k1 = k 2 =  = k n = 0
However, we are seeking only a non-trivial solution of the system.
39.2 The Non-trivial solution
The non-trivial solution of the system exists only when

det ( A − λI ) = 0
This equation is called the characteristic equation of the matrix A . Thus the Eigenvalues
of the matrix A are given by the roots of the characteristic equation. To find an
eigenvector corresponding to an eigenvalue λ we simply solve the system of linear
algebraic equations
det ( A − λ I ) K =
0

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This system of equations can be solved by applying the Gauss-Jordan elimination to the
augmented matrix

( A − λI 0)
Verify that the following column vector is an eigenvector
 1
 
K=  −1
 1
 

is an eigenvector of the following 3 × 3 matrix

 0 − 1 − 3
 
A= 2 3 3 
− 2 1 1 

Solution:
By carrying out the multiplication AK , we see that

 0 −1 −3   1   −2 
     
AK = 2 3 3   − 1  =( − 2 )  2  =( − 2 ) K
 −2 1 1   1   1 
  
Hence the number λ = −2 is an eigenvalue of the given matrix A .
Example 5
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
1 2 1
 
A =  6 −1 0 
 − 1 − 2 − 1
 
Solution:
Eigenvalues
The characteristic equation of the matrix A is
1− λ 2 1
det ( A −=
λI ) 6 −1− λ =
0 0
−1 −2 −1− λ
Expanding with respect to 3rd column

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6 −1 − λ 1− λ 2
⇒ − 0 + ( −1 − λ ) =0
−1 −2 6 −1 − λ
⇒ −λ − 13 + ( −λ − 1) ( λ 2 − 13) =0
⇒ −λ ( λ + 4 )( λ − 3) =0
⇒ λ = 0, −4,3
Eigenvectors
For λ1 = 0 we have

 1 2 1 0
 
( A − 0 | 0 ) =  6 −1 0 0
 −1 −2 −1 0 

By − 6 R1 + R2 , R1 + R3

1 2 1 0
 
 0 − 13 − 6 0 
 0 0 
0 0

1
By − R2
13
1 2 1 0
 
 0 1 6 / 13 0 
0 0 0 0 

By − 2R2 + R1

 1 0 1 / 13 0 
 
 0 1 6 / 13 0 
0 0 0 0 

Thus we have the following equations in k1 , k2 and k3 . The number k3 can be chosen
arbitrarily
k1 = − ( 1 / 13 ) k3 , k2 = − ( 6 / 13 ) k3

Choosing k 3 = −13 , we get k1 = 1 and k2 = 6 . Hence, the eigenvector corresponding λ1 = 0

is

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 1 
 
K1 =  6 
 − 13 
 
For λ2 = −4 , we have
 5 2 1 0
 
( A+ 4 0) =
 6 3 0 0
 −1 −2 3 0 
 
By (− 1) R3 , R32

 1 2 −3 0 
 
6 3 0 0
5 2 1 0
 
By − 6 R1 + R2 , − 5 R1 + R3

 1 2 −3 0 
 
 0 − 9 18 0 
 0 − 8 16 0 
 
1 1
By − R2 , − R3
9 8
 1 2 −3 0 
 0 1 −2 0 
 
 0 1 −2 0 
 
1 0 1 0
 
By − 2 R2 + R1 , − R2 + R3  0 1 −2 0 
0 0 0 0
 

Hence we obtain the following two equations involving k1 , k2 and k3 .

k1 = −k3 , k 2 = 2k3
Choosing k 3 = 1 , we have k1 =
− 1, k2 =
2 . Hence we have an eigenvector
1
 
corresponding to the eigenvalue λ2 = −4 , K 2 =  2 
1
 

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 −2 2 1 0
Finally, for λ3 = 3 , we have ( A − 3I | 0 ) =  6
 
−4 0 0 
 
 −1 −2 −4 0 
By using the Gauss Jordon elimination as used for other values, we obtain (verify!)
1 0 1 0
 
0 1 3/ 2 0
0 0 0 0
 
So that we obtain the equations k1 =
− k3 , k2 =
(− 3 / 2)k3
The choice k3 = − 2 leads=
to k1 2,=k2 3 . Hence, we have the following eigenvector

 2 
 
K3 =  3 
 − 2
 
Note that:

The component k 3 could be chosen as any nonzero number. Therefore, a nonzero

constant multiple of an eigenvector is also an eigenvector.
Example 6
 3 4
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A =  
 − 1 7 
Solution:
From the characteristic equation of the given matrix is
3−λ 4
det ( =
A − λI ) = 0
−1 7 − λ

(3 − λ )(7 − λ ) + 4 = 0 ⇒ ( λ − 5 ) = 0
2
or
Therefore, the characteristic equation has repeated real roots. Thus the matrix has an
eigenvalue of multiplicity two. λ1 = λ2 = 5
In the case of a 2 × 2 matrix there is no need to use Gauss-Jordan elimination. To find the
eigenvector(s) corresponding to λ1 = 5 we resort to the system of linear equations
( A − 5I ) K =
0
or in its equivalent form
− 2k1 + 4k2 =
0
k1 + 2k2 =
0

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It is apparent from this system that k1 = 2k 2 .

 2
Thus if we choose k 2 = 1 , we find the single eigenvector K1 =  
1 
Example 7
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
 9 1 1
 
A =  1 9 1
 1 1 9
 
Solution
The characteristic equation of the given matrix is

9−λ 1 1
det ( A − λ=
I) 1 9−λ 1= 0
1 1 9−λ

Or ( λ − 11 ) ( λ − 8 ) = 0 ⇒ λ =11, 8, 8
2

Thus the eigenvalues of the matrix are λ=

1 11, λ=
2 λ=
3 8
 −2 1 1 0
For λ1 = 11 , we have ( A − 11I | 0 ) = 1 − 2 1 0 
 
 1 1 − 2 0 

 1 0 −1 0 
 
The Gauss-Jordan elimination gives  0 1 − 1 0 
0 0 0 0 

1
 
K1 = 1
1
Hence, k1 = k 3 , k 2 = k 3 . If k 3 = 1 , then  
1 1 1 0 
λ = 8 we have , ( A − 8 I | 0 ) =
 
Now for 2 1 1 1 0 
1 1 1 0 
 
1 1 1 0
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Again the Gauss-Jordon elimination gives  

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Therefore, k1 + k 2 + k 3 = 0
We are free to select two of the variables arbitrarily. Choosing, on the one hand,
k 2 = 1, k3 = 0 and, on the other, k 2 = 0, k3 = 1 , we obtain two linearly independent
 − 1  − 1
   
eigenvectors corresponding to a single eigenvalue K 2 = 1  , K 3 =  0 
0  1 
   
Note that
Thus we note that when a n × n matrix A possesses n distinct eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 ,  , λn
, a set of n linearly independent eigenvectors K1 , K 2 ,  , K n can be found.
However, when the characteristic equation has repeated roots, it may not be possible to
find n linearly independent eigenvectors of the matrix.

39.3 Exercise
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the given matrix.
 − 1 2
1.  
 − 7 8
 2 1
2.  
 2 1
 − 8 − 1
3.  
 16 0 
5 − 1 0
 
4.  0 − 5 9
5 − 1 0 

3 0 0
 
5.  0 2 0
4 0 1 

0 4 0 
 
6.  − 1 − 4 0 
0 0 − 2 

Show that the given matrix has complex eigenvalues.
 − 1 2
7.  
 − 5 1

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 2 −1 0
 
8.  5 2 4
 0 1 2
 

40 Matrices and Systems of Linear First-Order Equations

40.1 Matrix form of a system
Consider the following system of linear first-order differential equations

dx1
= a11 (t ) x1 + a12 (t ) x2 +  + a1n (t ) xn + f1 (t )
dt
dx2
= a21 (t ) x1 + a22 (t ) x2 +  + a2 n (t ) xn + f 2 (t )
dt

dxn
= an1 (t ) x1 + an 2 (t ) x2 +  + ann (t ) xn + f n (t )
dt
Suppose that X , A(t ) and F (t ) , respectively, denote the following matrices

 x1 (t )   a11 (t ) a12 (t )  a1n (t )   f1 (t ) 

     
 x2 (t )   a21 (t ) a22 (t )  a2 n (t )   f 2 (t ) 
=X = , A(t ) = , F(t)
           
 x (t )   a (t ) a (t ) 
 ann (t )   f (t ) 
 n   n1 n2  n 

Then the system of differential equations can be written as

 x1 (t )   a11 (t ) a12 (t )  a1n (t )   x1 (t )   f1 (t ) 
      
d  x2 (t )   a21 (t ) a22 (t )  a2 n (t )   x2 (t )   f 2 (t ) 
+
dt              
      
 xn (t )   an1 (t ) an 2 (t )  ann (t )   xn (t )   f n (t ) 

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or simply
dX
= A(t ) X + F (t )
dt
If the system of differential equations is homogenous, then F (t ) = 0 and we can write
dX
= A(t ) X
dt
Both the non-homogeneous and the homogeneous systems can also be written as

X/ =
AX + F , X / =
AX
Example 1
Write the following non-homogeneous system of differential equations in the matrix form
dx
= −2 x + 5 y + et − 2t
dt
dy
= 4 x − 3 y + 10t
dt
Solution:
If we suppose that
 x
X = 
 y
Then, the given non-homogeneous differential equations can be written as

dX  − 2 5   et − 2t 
=   X +  
dt  4 − 3   10 t 
 −2 5   1  t  −2 
or =
X/   X +  0  e +  10  t
 4 −3     
Solution Vector
Consider a homogeneous system of differential equations
dX
= AX
dt
A solution vector on an interval I of the homogeneous system is any column matrix

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 x1 (t ) 
 
 x2 (t ) 
X=
  
 
 xn (t ) 
The entries of the solution vector have to be differentiable functions satisfying each
equation of the system on the interval I .
Example 2
Verify that

 1  − 2t  e− 2t   3  6t  3e6t 
=X1  = e  =, X 2 = e  
−
 1  −e− 2t   
5  5e6t 
   
are solution of the following system of the homogeneous differential equations

 1 3
X/ = X
 5 3
on the interval ( − ∞, ∞ )
Solution
Since
 e− 2t   − 2e− 2t 
X1 
=  ⇒=
X1/  
 −e− 2t   2e− 2t 
   
Further
− 2t   e− 2t − 3e− 2t
 1 3   e  


=AX1 = 
 5 3 
  −e − 2t   5e− 2t − 3e− 2t 
  
 − 2e− 2t 
or =AX1 =  X/
 2e− 2t  1
 
Similarly
3 e6t   18 e6t 
2   ⇒ X=  
X= /
5 e6t  2  30 e 
6t
  

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 1 3   3 e   3 e6t + 15 e6t 
6t
and =AX 2 =   
 5 3   5 e6t   15 e6t + 15 e6t




 18e6t 
or AX 2 =
=  X/
 30e6t  2
 
Thus, the vectors X1 and X 2 satisfy the homogeneous linear system

 1 3
X/ = X
 5 3

Hence, the given vectors are solutions of the given homogeneous system of differential
equations.
Note that
Much of the theory of the systems of n linear first-order differential equations is similar
to that of the linear nth -order differential equations.
40.2 Initial –Value Problem
Let t0 denote any point in some interval denoted by I and

 x1(to )   γ1 
   
= 
X (to ) =
x2 (to ) 
, Xo  γ2 
     
   
 xn (to )   γn 
γ i ; i = 1, 2,  , n are given constants. Then the problem of solving the system of
differential equations
dX
= A(t ) X + F (t )
dt
Subject to the initial conditions
X (t0 ) = X 0
is called an initial value problem on the interval I .

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40.3 Theorem: Existence of a unique Solution

Suppose that the entries of the matrices A(t ) and F (t ) in the system of differential
dX
= A(t ) X + F (t )
equations dt being considered in the above mentioned initial value
problem, are continuous functions on a common interval I that contains the point t0 .
Then there exist a unique solution of the initial–value problem on the interval I .
40.4 Superposition Principle
Suppose that X1 , X 2 ,  , X n be a set of solution vectors of the homogenous system

dX
= A(t ) X
dt
on an interval I . Then the principle of superposition states that linear combination

X= c1 X1 + c2 X 2 +  + ck X k
ci ; i = 1, 2,  , k being arbitrary constants, is also a solution of the system on the same
interval I .
Note that
An immediate consequence of the principle of superposition is that a constant multiple of
any solution vector of a homogenous system of first order differential equation is also a
solution of the system.
Example 3
Consider the following homogeneous system of differential equations
 1 0 1 
X/ =  1 1 0  X
 −2 0 −1
 
Also consider a solution vector X1 of the system that is given by

 cos t 
 
 1 1 
X1 = − cos t + sin t
 2 2 
 − cos t − sin t 
 
For any constant c1 the vector X = c1 X1 is also a solution of the homogeneous system.
To verify this we differentiae the vector X with respect to t

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 − sin t 
dX dX  1 1 
= c=
1 c1  cos t + sin t 
dt dt 2 2 
 − cos t + sin t 
 
Also
 cos t 
 1 0 1  
  1 1
=AX c1  1 1 0   − cos t + sin t 
 −2 0 −1  2 2 
   − cos t − sin t 
 

 − sin t 
1 1 
=AX c1  cos t + sin t 
2 2 
 − cos t + sin t 
 
Thus, we have verified that:
dX
= AX
dt
Hence the vector c1 X1 is also a solution vector of the homogeneous system of differential
equations.
Example 4
Consider the following system considered in the previous example 4

 1 0 1 
X / =  1 1 0  X
 −2 0 −1
 
We know from the previous example that the vector X1 is a solution of the system

 cos t 
 1 
 − cos t + 1 sin t 
X1 =
 2 2 
 − cos t − sin t 
 

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0
 
If X 2 =  et 
0
 
0
 
Then X 2 =  et 
/

0
 

 1 0 1  0  0 
    t 
and =AX 2 = 1 1 0   et  e 
 − 2 0 − 1   0   0 
    
Therefore

AX 2 = X 2/

Hence the vector X 2 is a solution vector of the homogeneous system. We can verify that
the following vector is also a solution of the homogeneous system.

=
X c1 X1 + c2 X 2

 cos t  0 
   
1 1
or c1  − cos t + sin t  + c2  et
X= 
 2 2   0 
 − cos t − sin t   
 
40.5 Linear Dependence of Solution Vectors
Let X1, X 2 , X 3 ,  , X k be a set of solution vectors, on an interval I, of the homogenous
system of differential equations
dX
= AX
dt
We say that the set is linearly dependent on I if there exist constants c1, c2 , c3  , ck not
all zero such that
X (=
t ) c1 X1 (t ) + c2 X 2 (t ) +  + ck X k (=
t ) 0, ∀ t∈I
Note that
 Any two solution vectors X1 and X 2 are linearly dependent if and only if one
of the two vectors is a constant multiple of the other.

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 For k > 2 if the set of k solution vectors is linearly dependent then we can
express at least one of the solution vectors as a linear combination of the
remaining vectors.
40.6 Linear Independence of Solution Vectors
Suppose that X1 , X 2 ,  , X k is a set of solution vectors, on an interval I, of the
homogenous system of differential equations
dX
= AX
dt
Then the set of solution vectors is said to be linearly independent if it is not linearly
dependent on the interval I . This means that
X=
(t ) c1 X1 (t ) + c2 X 2 (t ) +  + ck X k=
(t ) 0
only when each ci = 0.
Example 5
Consider the following two column vectors
 3et   e −t 
=X1 = , X2  
 et   e −t 
   

−t
dX1  3e  dX 2  − e 
t
Since = = ,  
dt  et  dt  − e −t 
   

 2 − 3   3e   6et − 3et   3et  dX

t
 =    = 
= 1
and 
 1 − 2   et   3et − 2et 
 
 e  dt

t

Similarly
−t  2e−t − 3e−t   − e−t  dX
 2 −3   e 
 1 −2=  −t 
  =  =  2
  e   e−t − 2e −t   − e −t  dt
   
Hence both the vectors X1 and X 2 are solutions of the homogeneous system

 2 − 3
X / =   X
1 − 2
Now suppose that c1 , c2 are any two arbitrary real constants such that

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c1 X1 + c2 X 2 =
0

 3 1 0
or c1   et + c2   e−t =
 
1 1 0
This means that

3c1et + c2 e−t =
0
c1et + c2 e−t =
0

The only solution of these equations for the arbitrary constants c1 and c2 is

c=
1 c=
2 0
Hence, the solution vectors X 1 and X 2 are linearly independent on (−∞, ∞) .
Example 6
Again consider the same homogeneous system as considered in the previous example
 2 − 3
X / =   X
1 − 2
We have already seen that the vectors X1 , X 2 i.e.

 3et   e −t 
=X1 =  , X2  
 et   e −t 
   
are solutions of the homogeneous system. We can verify that the following vector X 3

 et + cosh t 
X3 = 
 cosh t 
 
is also a solution of the homogeneous system However, the set of solutions that consists
of X1 , X 2 and X 3 is linearly dependent because X 3 is a linear combination of the
other two vectors
1 1
X3 = X1 + X 2
2 2
40.7 Exercise
Write the given system in matrix form.

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dx
1. = x − y + z + t −1
dt
dy
= 2 x + y − z − 3t 2
dt
dz
= x + y + z + t2 − t + 2
dt
− 3 x + 4 y + e−t sin 2t
dx
2. =
dt
= 5 x + 9 y + 4e−t cos 2t
dx
dt
dx
3. = − 3x + 4 y − 9 z
dt
dy
= 6x − y
dt
dz
= 10 x + 4 y + 3 z
dt
− 3 x + 4 y + e−t sin 2t
dx
4. =
dt
= 5 x + 9 y + 4e −t cos 2t
dy
dt
Write the given system without of use of matrices
 7 5 −9  0 8
 X/    5t   − 2t
=
5. 4 1 1  X + 2e −0e
 0 −2 3  1  3
     
d  x   3 −7   x   4   t − 4  4t
6. =      +   sin t +  +  e
dt  y   1 1   y   8   2t 1 
 x  1 −1 2   x   1   3 
d    3 − 4 1   y  +  2  e −t −  − 1  t
7. =y
dt       
 −2 5 6   z   2 
 
 
z       1 
Verify that the vector X is the solution of the given system
dx
8. = −2 x + 5 y
dt
dx  5 cos t  t
= −2 x + 4 y , X =  e
dt  3 cos t − sin t 

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 2 1 1  4  t
9. X / =  , X   et + 
 X=  te
 −1 0  
3 −
  4
 1 2 1   1 
dX    6 
10. = 6 −1 0  X ; X =
 
dt    − 13 
 − 1 − 2 − 1   

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41 Matrices and Systems of Linear 1st-Order Equations

(Continued)
41.1 Theorem
A necessary and sufficient condition that the set of solutions, on an interval I., consisting
of the vectors
 x11   x12   x1n 
     
 x21   x21= , ..., X  x2n 
=X1 = ,X
   2    n   
 x   x   x 
 n1   n2   nn 
of the homogenous system X / = AX to be linearly independent is that the Wronskian of
these solutions is non-zero for every t ∈ I . Thus
x11 x12  x1n
x21 x22  x2n
=
W ( X1, X 2 ,..., X n ) ≠ 0, ∀ t ∈ I
   
xn1 xn 2  xnn
Note that
 It can be shown that if X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n are solution vectors of the system, then
either
W ( X1, X 2 ,..., X n ) ≠ 0, ∀ t ∈ I
or W ( X1, X 2 ,..., X n )= 0, ∀ t ∈ I
Thus if we can show that W ≠ 0 for some t0 ∈ I , then W ≠ 0, ∀ t ∈ I and hence
the solutions are linearly independent on I
 Unlike our previous definition of the Wronskian, the determinant does not involve
any differentiation.
Example 1
As verified earlier that the vectors
 1  − 2t  3  6t
=X1 =  e , X 2  e
 −1 5
are solutions of the following homogeneous system.
 1 3
X/ = X
 5 3

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Clearly, X 1 and X 2 are linearly independent on (−∞, ∞) as neither of the vectors is a

constant multiple of the other. We now compute Wronskian of the solution vectors X 1
and X 2 .

e− 2t 3e6t
W ( X1 , X=
2) = 8e4t ≠ 0, ∀ t ∈ (−∞, ∞)
−e− 2t 5e6t
41.2 Fundamental set of solution
Suppose that { X1, X 2 ,..., X n } is a set of n solution vectors, on an interval I , of a
homogenous system X / = AX . The set is said to be a fundamental set of solutions of the
system on the interval I if the solution vectors X1, X 2 ,..., X n are linearly independent.
41.2.1 Theorem (Existence of a Fundamental Set)
There exist a fundamental set of solution for the homogenous system X / = AX on an
interval I
41.3 General solution
Suppose that X1, X 2 ,..., X n is a fundamental set of solution of the homogenous system

X / = AX on an interval I . Then any linear combination of the solution vectors

X1, X 2 ,..., X n of the form
X= c1 X1 + c2 X 2 +  + cn X n
ci ; i = 1, 2,  , n being arbitrary constants is said to be the general solution of the system
on the interval I .
Note that
For appropriate choices of the arbitrary constants c1, c2 ,..., cn any solution, on the
interval I, of the homogeneous system X = AX can be obtained from the general
/

solution.
Example 2
As discussed in the Example 1, the following vectors are linearly independent solutions
 1  − 2t 3
=X1 =  e , X 2   e6t
 −1 5
of the following homogeneous system of differential equations on (−∞, ∞)

 1 3
X / =   X
 5 3

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Hence X1 and X 2 form a fundamental set of solution of the system on the interval
(−∞, ∞) . Hence, the general solution of the system on (−∞, ∞) is

 1   3
X =c1 X1 + c2 X 2 =c1   e− 2t + c2   e6t
 −1 5
Example 3
Consider the vectors X1 , X 2 and X 3 these vectors are given by

 cos t   sin t 
 1  0  
 1    t  1 1
− sin t − cos t 
X1 = − cos t + sin t , X 2 =
 1  e , X3 =
 2 2  0  2 2 
 − cos t − sin t     − sin t + cos t 
   
It has been verified in the last lecture that the vectors X1 and X 2 are solutions of the
homogeneous system
 1 0 1 
X/ =  1 1 0  X
 −2 0 −1
 
It can be easily verified that the vector X 3 is also a solution of the system. We now
compute the Wronskian of the solution vectors X1 , X 2 and X 3

cos t 0 sin t
1 1 1 1
W ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) = − cos t + sin t et − sin t − cos t
2 2 2 2
− cos t − sin t 0 − sin t + cos t
Expand from 2nd column
cos t sin t
or W ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) = et
− cos t − sin t − sin t + cos t

or W ( X1 , X 2 , X 3 )= et ≠ 0, ∀t ∈ R
Thus, we conclude that X1 , X 2 and X 3 form a fundamental set of solution on (−∞, ∞)
. Hence, the general solution of the system on (−∞, ∞) is
X =c1 X1 + c2 X 2 + c3 X 3
or

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 cos t   sin t 
  0  
1 1   1 1
X = c1 − cos t + sin t + c2  1  e + c3 − sin t − cos t 
  t 
 2 2  0  2 2 
 − cos t − sin t     − sin t + cos t 
   
41.4 Non-homogeneous Systems
As stated earlier in this lecture that a system of differential equations such as
dX
= A(t ) X + F (t )
dt
is non-homogeneous if F (t ) ≠ 0, ∀ t . The general solution of such a system consists of a
complementary function and a particular integral.
41.4.1 Particular Integral
A particular solution, on an interval I , of a non-homogeneous system is any vector X p
free of arbitrary parameters, whose entries are functions that satisfy each equation of the
system.
Example 4
Show that the vector
 3t − 4 
Xp = 
 − 5t + 6 
is a particular solution of the following non-homogeneous system on the interval (- ∞,∞)

 1 3  12t − 11 
=X′   X +  − 
 5 3  3 
Solution:
Differentiating the given vector with respect to t , we obtain
 3
X ′p =  
 −5 
Further
 1 3  12t − 11   1 3   3t − 4   12t − 11 
 5 3  X p +  −= +
   3   5 3   − 5t + 6   − 3 

 1 3  12t − 11   ( 3t − 4 ) + 3(− 5t + 6)   12t − 11 

or   X p +=
 −   + 
 5 3   3   5(3 t − 4) + 3( − 5t + 6)   −3 

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 1 3  12t − 11   − 12t + 14   12t − 11 

or   Xp + − =  + − 
 5 3   3   − 2   3 

1 3  12t − 11   3  '
or   Xp + − =− = XP
 5 3  3   5
Thus the given vector X p satisfies the non-homogeneous system of differential
equations. Hence, the given vector X p is a particular solution of the non-homogeneous
system.
41.5 Theorem
Let X1, X 2 ,..., X k be a set of solution vectors of the homogenous system X ' = AX on
an interval I and let X p be any solution vector of the non-homogenous system
X ' AX + F (t ) on the same interval I . Then ∃ constants c1 , c2 ,..., ck such that
=

X p= c1 X1 + c2 X 2 + ... + ck X k + X p
is also a solution of the non-homogenous system on the interval.
41.5.1 Complementary function

Let X1 , X 2 ,  , X n be solution vectors of the homogenous system X ' = AX on an

interval I , then the general solution

X= c1 X1 + c2 X 2 + ... + cn X n

of the homogeneous system is called the complementary function of the non-

X ' AX + F (t ) on the same interval I .
homogeneous system =
41.5.2 General solution of a Non homogenous systems
Let X p be a particular integral and X c the complementary function, on an interval I , of
the non-homogenous system

=
X / A(t ) X + F (t ) .
The general solution of the non-homogenous system on the interval I is defined to be
=
X Xc + X p
Example 5
In Example 4 it was verified that

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 3t − 4 
Xp = 
 − 5t + 6 

is a particular solution, on (−∞, ∞) , of the non-homogenous system

 1 3 12t − 11
X / =   X +  
 5 3  −3 
As we have seen earlier, the general solution of the associated homogeneous system i.e.
the complementary function of the given non-homogeneous system is
 1 3
=X c c1   e− 2t + c2   e6t
 −1 5
Hence the general solution, on (− ∞, ∞) , of the non-homogeneous system is
=
X Xc + X p

 1 3  3t − 4 
X= c1   e− 2t + c2   e6t +  
 −1 5  − 5t + 6 
41.6 Fundamental Matrix
Suppose that the a fundamental set of n solution vectors of a homogeneous system
X / = AX , on an interval I , consists of the vectors

 x11   x12   x1n 

     
 x21   x22=  ,..., X  x2n 
=X1 = ,X
   2    n   
     
 xn1   xn 2   xnn 
Then a fundamental matrix of the system on the interval I is given by

 x11 x12  x1n 

 
x x22  x2n 
φ (t ) =  21
     
 
 xn1 xn 2  xnn 

Example 6
As verified earlier, the following vectors

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 1  − 2t  e− 2t 
=X1 = e  
−
 1  −e− 2t 
 
 3  6t  3e 
6t
=
X 2 = e  
5  5e6t 
 
 1 3
form a fundamental set of solutions of the system on (−∞, ∞) , X / =   X
 5 3
 1  − 2t  3
So that the general solution of the =
system is X c1   e + c2   e6t
 −1 5
 e− 2t 3e6t 
Hence, a fundamental matrix of the system on the interval is φ (t ) =  
 −e− 2t 5e 
6t

Note that
 The general solution of the system can be written as
 e− 2t 3e6t   c1 
C= ( c1 c2 )
tr
X =  ⇒ X = φ (t )C ,
 −e− 2t 6t   c2 
 5e 
 Since X = φ (t )C is a solution of the system X / = A(t ) X . Therefore
φ ′(t )C = A(t )φ (t )C ⇒ [φ ′(t ) − A(t )φ (t )]C =
0
Since the last equation is to hold for every t in the interval I for every possible column
matrix of constants C , we must have φ ′(t ) − A(t )φ (t ) =
0 ⇒ φ ′(t ) = A(t )φ (t )
Note that
 The fundamental matrix φ (t ) of a homogenous system X / = A(t ) X is non-
singular because the determinant det(φ (t )) coincides with the Wronskian of the
solution vectors of the system and linear independence of the solution vectors
guarantees that det(φ (t )) ≠ 0 .
 Let φ (t ) be a fundamental matrix of the homogenous system X / = A(t ) X on an
interval I . Then, in view of the above mentioned observation, the inverse of the
matrix φ −1 (t ) exists for every value of t in the interval I .

41.7 Exercise
The given vectors are the solutions of a system X ′ = AX . Determine whether the vectors
form a fundamental set on (− ∞, ∞ ) .

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 1  t  2 t  8  t
=
11. X1   e= , X2  6  e +  − 8  te
 −1    
 1  1   2 
12. X1 =
=   = − 4t   3t
 6  , X2  −2  e , X3  3  e
 − 13   −1   −2 
     
2 1 1  t 1 t  1 t
13. X ′ =
  X − e ; X p =
  e +   te
 3 4 7 1  −1
Verify that vector X p is a particular solution of the given systems

dx dy
14. =x + 4 y + 2t − 7, =3 x + 2 y − 4t − 18
dt dt
 2  5
=
X p  t + 
 −1  1 

2 1  − 5
15. X / =   X +  ; X p =  1 
1 − 1  2   3
 1 2 3  −1  sin 3t 
 − 4 2 0  X +  4  sin 3t ;
16. X ′ =  
Xp  0 
   
 −6 1 0   3   cos 3t 
     
 1  − 2t  1  − 6t
=
17. X1 =  e , X2  e
1  −1
 1 1  1   3  2
         
18. X1 = − 2  + t  2  , X 2 = − 2  , X 3 = − 6  + t  4 
 4  2 4   12   4 
         
19. Prove that the general solution of the homogeneous system

0 6 0
 
X = 1 0 1X
/

1 1 0
 
on the interval (−∞, ∞) is

 6   −3   2
  −t   − 2t  
X=c1  − 1  e + c2  1  e + c3  1  e3t
 −5   1  1
     

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42 Homogeneous Linear Systems

Most of the theory developed for a single linear differential equation can be extended to a
system of such differential equations. The extension is not entirely obvious. However,
using the notation and some ideas of matrix algebra discussed in a previous lecture most
effectively carry it out. Therefore, in the present and in the next lecture we will learn to
solve the homogeneous linear systems of linear differential equations with real constant
coefficients.
Example 1
Consider the homogeneous system of differential equations
dx
= x + 3y
dt
dy
= 5x + 3 y
dt
In matrix form the system can be written as
 dx / dt   1 3   x 
 =  
 dy / dt   5 3   y 
If we suppose that
 x
X = 
 y
Then the system can again be re-written as

 1 3
X′= X
 5 3 
Now suppose that X1 and X 2 denote the vectors

 e− 2t   3 e6t 
=X1 =  , X2  
 − e− 2t   5e6t 
   
Then
 − 2e− 2t   18 e6t 
=X1′ =  , X 2′  
 − 2t   30 6t 
 2e   e 
− 2t  e− 2t − 3e − 2t
 1 3 e  
=
Now AX1 =     
 5 3   − e− 2t   5e− 2t − 3e− 2t




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 − 2e− 2t 
or =AX1 =  X1′
 2e− 2t 
 
Similarly

 1 3   3e   3e6t + 15e6t 
6t
=AX 2 =    
 5 3   5e6t   15e6t + 15e6t



 18 e6t 
or AX 2 =
=  X 2′
 30 e6t 
 
Hence, X1 and X 2 are solutions of the homogeneous system of differential equations
X / = AX . Further

e− 2t 3e6t
W ( X1 , X =
2) = 8e4t ≠ o, ∀ t ∈ R
−e− 2t 5e6t

Thus, the solutions vectors X1 and X 2 are linearly independent. Hence, these vectors
form a fundamental set of solutions on (−∞, ∞) . Therefore, the general solution of the
system on (−∞, ∞) is
=
X c1 X1 + c2 X 2

 1 3
=X c1   e− 2t + c2   e6t
 −1 5
Note that
 Each of the solution vectors X1 and X 2 are of the form

k 
X =  1  eλ t
 k2 
Where k1 and k2 are constants.
 The question arises whether we can always find a solution of the homogeneous
system X ′ = AX , A is n × n matrix of constants, of the form

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 k1 
 
k2  λ t
=X = e Keλ t
  
 
 kn 
for the homogenous linear 1st order system.
42.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Suppose that
 k1 
 
k2  λ t
=X = e Keλ t
  
 
 kn 
is a solution of the system
dX
= AX
dt
where A is an n × n matrix of constants then

= K λ eλ t
dX
dt
Substituting this last equation in the homogeneous system X ′ = AX , we have

K λ eλt= AKeλt ⇒ AK = λ K

or (A − λ I ) K =
0
This represents a system of linear algebraic equations. The linear 1st order homogenous
system of differential equations
dX
= AX
dt
has a non-trivial solution X if there exist a non-trivial solution K of the system of
algebraic equations
det( A − λI ) = 0
This equation is called characteristic equation of the matrix A and represents an nth
degree polynomial in λ .

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42.1.1 Case 1 (Distinct real eigenvalues)

Suppose that the coefficient matrix A in the homogeneous system of differential
equations
dX
= AX
dt
has n distinct eigenvalues λ1, λ2 , λ3 ,..., λn and K1 , K 2 ,  , K n be the corresponding
eigenvectors. Then the general solution of the system on (−∞, ∞) is given by

λ1t λ2t λ3t

X= c1k1e + c2k2e + c3k3e + ...... + cn kneλnt
Example 2
Solve the following homogeneous system of differential equations
dx
= 2x + 3y
dt
dy
= 2x + y
dt
Solution
The given system can be written in the matrix form as
 dx 
 dt   2 3   x 
 =  
 dy   2 1   y 
 
 dt 
Therefore, the coefficient matrix
 2 3
A= 
 2 1
Now we find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the coefficient A . The characteristics
equation is
2−λ 3
det( A − λ I ) =
2 1− λ

det( A − λ I ) = λ 2 − 3λ − 4
Therefore, the characteristic equation is

det( A − λ I ) =0 =λ 2 − 3λ − 4
or (λ + 1)(λ − 4) =⇒
0 λ=− 1, 4

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Therefore, roots of the characteristic equation are real and distinct and so are the
eigenvalues.
For λ = − 1 , we have
 2 + 1 3   k1 
( A − λ I )K =
  
 2 1 + 1   k2 
 3k1 + 3k2 
or ( A − λ I )K =
 
 2k1 + 2k2 
 3k + 3k2 =0
Hence 0⇒ 1
( A − λ I )K =
 2k1 + 2k2 =
0
These two equations are no different and represent the equation
k1 + k2 =⇒
0 k1 =
− k2
Thus we can choose value of the constant k2 arbitrarily. If we choose k2 = − 1 then
k1 = 1 . Hence the corresponding eigenvector is
1
K1 =  
 − 1
For λ = 4 we have
2−4 3   k1 
( A − λ I )K =
  
 2 1 − 4   k2 

 − 2k1 + 3k2 
or ( A − λ I )K =
 2k − 3k 
 1 2 

 − 2k1 + 3k2 =
0
Hence ( A − λ I )K =
0⇒
 2k1 − 3k2 = 0

Again the above two equations are not different and represent the equation
3k
2k1 − 3k2 =0 ⇒ k1 = 2
2
Again, the constant k2 can be chosen arbitrarily. Let us choose k2 = 2 then k1 = 3 .
Thus the corresponding eigenvector is
3
K2 =  
2

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Therefore, we obtain two linearly independent solution vectors of the given homogeneous
system.
 1  −t  3  4t
=X1 =  e , X 2  e
 −1  2
Hence the general solution of the system is the following
=
X c1 X1 + c2 X 2

 1   3
or =X c1   e−t + c2   e4t
 −1  2
−t
 x(t )   c1e + 3c2 e 
4t
or   =  

 y (t )   −c1e−t + 2c2 e4t 
This means that the solution of the system is

x(t ) c1e−t + 3c2 e4t

=
−c1e−t + 2c2 e4t
y (t ) =
Example 3
Solve the homogeneous system
dx
= −4 x + y + z
dt
dy
= x + 5y − z
dt
dz
= y − 3z
dt
Solution:
The given system can be written as

 dx / dt   −4 1 1   x 
    
=dy / dt   1 5 −1   y 
 dz / dt   0 1 −3   z 
    
Therefore the coefficient matrix of the system of differential equations is
 −4 1 1 
=A  1 5 − 1 
 0 1 −3 
 

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 −4 − λ 1 1 

A − λI  1 5−λ 
Therefore = −1 
 0 − 3 − λ 
 1
Thus the characteristic equation is
−4 − λ 1 1
det( A −
= λI) 1 5−λ =
−1 0
0 1 −3 − λ
Expanding the determinant using cofactors of third row, we obtain

− (λ + 3)(λ + 4)(λ − 5) = 0
λ=
− 3, − 4, 5
Thus the characteristic equation has real and distinct roots and so are the eigenvalues of
the coefficient matrix A . To find the eigenvectors corresponding to these computed
eigenvalues, we need to solve the following system of linear algebraic equations for
k1 , k2 and k3 when λ = − 3, − 4, 5 , successively.

 −4 − λ 1 1   k1   0 
    
det( A − λ I ) K =
0⇒ 1 5−λ − 1   k2  = 0
 0 − 3 − λ   k3   0 
 1
For solving this system we use Gauss-Jordon elimination technique, which consists of
reducing the augmented matrix to the reduced echelon form by applying the elementary
row operations. The augmented matrix of the system of linear algebraic equations is
 −4 − λ 1 1 0
 1 5−λ −1 0 

 0 − 3 − λ 0 
 1
For λ = −3 , the augmented matrix becomes:
 −1 1 1 0
 
 1 8 −1 0 
 0 1 0 0 

Appling the row operation R12 , R2 + R1 , R23 , R3 − 9 R2 , R1 − 8 R2 in succession
reduces the augmented matrix in the reduced echelon form.

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1 0 −1 0
 
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
 
So that we have the following equivalent system
 1 0 − 1 k1   0 
    
 0 1 0  k2  =  0 
 0 0 0  k   0 
  3   

or k1 = k3 , k2 = 0
Therefore, the constant k3 can be chosen arbitrarily. If we choose k3 = 1 , then k1 = 1 , So
that the corresponding eigenvector is
1
K1 =  0 
1
 
For λ2 = −4 , the augmented matrix becomes

0 1 1 0
 
(( A + 4 I ) | 0) =
 1 9 −1 0 
0 1 1 0
 
We apply elementary row operations to transform the matrix to the following reduced
echelon form:
 1 0 − 10 0 
 
0 1 1 0
 0 0 0 0
 

Thus k1 = 10k3 , k2 = − k3
Again k3 can be chosen arbitrarily, therefore choosing k3 = 1 we get k1 = 10, k2 = − 1
Hence, the second eigenvector is

 10 
K 2 =  − 1 
 1 
 

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Finally, when λ3 = 5 the augmented matrix becomes

 −9 1 1 0 
((A - 5 I) | 0) =  1 0 − 1 0 
 0 1 −8 0 
 
The application of the elementary row operation transforms the augmented matrix to the
reduced echelon form
1 0 −1 0
 
 0 1 − 8 0
 0 0 0 0
 

Thus =k1 k=
3 , k2 8k3
If we choose k3 = 1 , then k1 = 1 and k2 = 8 . Thus the eigenvector corresponding to
λ3 = 5 is

1
K3 =  8 
1
 
Thus we obtain three linearly independent solution vectors

1  10  1
X1 =  0  e− 3t , X 2 =
 1  e− 4t , X
− 
 8  e5t
3=
 
1  1  1
     
Hence, the general solution of the given homogeneous system is
1  10  1
=  
X c1  0  e − 3t  
+ c2  − 1  e − 4t
+ c3  8  e5t
1  1  1
     

42.1.2 Case 2 (Complex eigenvalues)

Suppose that the coefficient matrix A in the homogeneous system of differential
equations
dX
= AX
dt

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has complex eigenvalues. This means that roots of the characteristic equation
det( A − λ I ) =
0
are imaginary.
42.2 Theorem (Solutions corresponding to complex eigenvalues )
Suppose that K is an eigenvector corresponding to the complex eigenvalue

λ1 =
α + iβ ; α , β ∈ R
of the coefficient matrix A with real entries, then the vectors X1 and X 2 given by

λ1t λ1t
=X1 K=
1e , X 2 K 1e
are solution of the homogeneous system.
dX
= AX
dt
Example 4
Consider the following homogeneous system of differential equations
dx
= 6x − y
dt
dy
= 5x + 4 y
dt
The system can be written as
 dx / dt   6 − 1   x 
or  =  
 dy / dt   5 4   y 
Therefore the coefficient matrix of the system is
 6 −1
A= 
5 4 
So that the characteristic equation is
6 − λ −1
A − λI)
det(= = 0
5 4−λ

or (6 − λ )(4 − λ ) + 5 = 0 = λ 2 − 10λ + 29
Now using the quadratic formula we have
λ1 =
5 + 2i, λ2 =
5 − 2i

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For, λ1= 5 + 2i , we must solve the system of linear algebraic equations

(1 − 2i )k1 − k2 =0 
 ⇒ (1 − 2i )k1 − k2 =
0
5k1 − (1 + 2i )k2 =0
or k2= (1 − 2i )k1
Therefore, it follows that after we choose k1 = 1 then k2 = 1 − 2i. So that one
eigenvector is given by
 1 
K1 =  
 1 − 2i 
Similarly for λ2= 5 − 2i we must solve the system of linear algebraic equations
(1 + 2i )k1 − k2 =0 
 ⇒ (1 + 2i )k1 − k2 =
0
5k1 − (1 − 2i )k2 =0
or k2= (1 + 2i )k1
Therefore, it follows that after we choose k1 = 1 then k2 = 1 + 2i. So that second
eigenvector is given by
 1 
K2 =  
 1 + 2i 
Consequently, two solution of the homogeneous system are

 1  (5 + 2i )t  1  (5 − 2i )t
X1 =   e , X2 =  e
 1 − 2i   1 + 2i 
By the superposition principle another solution of the system is

 1  (5 + 2i )t  1  (5 − 2i )t
=X c1   e + c2  e
 1 − 2i   1 + 2i 
Note that
The entries in K 2 corresponding to λ 2 are the conjugates of the entries in K1
corresponding to λ 1. Further, λ2 is conjugate of λ1 . Therefore, we can write this as

=λ2 λ=
1, K 2 K1

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42.3 Theorem(Real solutions corresponding to a complex eigenvalue)

Suppose that
 λ1 = α + iβ is a complex eigenvalue of the matrix A in the system
dX
= AX
dt
 K1 is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigen value λ1

1 i
 B1 = ( K1 + K 1 ) =Re( K1 ), B2 = (− K1 + K 1 ) =Im( K1 )
2 2
Then two linearly independent solutions of the system on (−∞, ∞) are given by

=X1 ( B1 cos β t − B2 sin β t )eα t

=X 2 ( B2 cos β t + B1 sin β t )eα t

Example 5
Solve the system
2 8 
X / =   X
 −1 − 2
The coefficient matrix of the system is
 2 8 
A = 
−1 
 − 2

Therefore
2−λ 8 
A − λI =
 −
 1 − 2 − λ 
Thus, the characteristic equation is
2−λ 8
det( A − λ I ) ==
0
−1 −2 − λ

−(2 − λ )(2 + λ ) + 8 = 0 = λ 2 + 4

Thus the Eigenvalues are of the coefficient matrix are λ1 = 2i and λ2 = λ1 = − 2i .

For λ1 we see that the system of linear algebraic equations ( A − λ I ) K =

0

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(2 − 2i )k1 + 8k2 =
0
− k1 − (2 + 2i )k2 =
0
Solving these equations, we obtain
k1 =−(2 + 2i )k2
Choosing k2 = − 1 gives k1= (2 + 2i )k2 . Thus the corresponding eigenvector is

 2 + 2i   2   2 
=
K1  =   −1 + i  0 
 − 1     
 2   2
So that = =
B1 Re( K1 )  =  =
, B2 Im( K1 )  
 −1 0
Since α = 0 , the general solution of the given system of differential equations is

 2   2   2   2  
=
X c1    cos 2t −   sin 2t  + c2    cos 2t +   sin 2t 
 −1 0   0   −1 
 2 cos 2t − 2 sin 2t   2 cos 2t + 2 sin 2t 
=X c1   + c2  
 − cos 2t   − sin 2t 
Example 6
Solve the following system of differential equations
 1 2
X/ = X
 −1 / 2 1 
Solution:
The coefficient matrix of the given system is
 1 2
A= 
 − 1/ 2 1 
 1− λ 2 
Thus A − λI =
− 
 1/ 2 1− λ 
So that the characteristic equation is
1− λ 2
det( A − λ I ) ==
0
−1 / 2 1− λ

or λ 2 − 2λ + 2 =0
Therefore, by the quadratic formula we obtain

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(
λ = 2± 4−8 / 2 )
Thus the eigenvalues of the coefficient matrix are

λ1 =
1 + i, λ2 =
λ1 =
1− i
Now an eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue λ1 is

2 2 0

=
K1 =   +i 
 i  0 1
 2 0
From =B1 =  , B2  
0 1
So that we have the following two linearly independent solutions of the system
 2  0  t  0   2  t
X1 =
   cos t −   sin t  e , X 2 =
   cos t +   sin t  e
 0  1   1  0 
Hence, the general solution of the system is
 2  0   0   2 
X = c1    cos t −   sin t  et + c2    cos t +   sin t  et
 0  1   1  0 
 2 cos t  t  2 sin t  t
or =X c1   e + c2 e
 − sin t   cos t 
42.4 Exercise
Find the general solution of the given system
dx
1. = x + 2y
dt
dy
= 4x + 3y
dt
dx 1
2. = x + 9y
dt 2
dy 1
= x + 2y
dt 2
 − 6 2
3. X ′ =   X
 − 3 1
dx
4. = 2y
dt
dy
= 8x
dt

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 1 0 1
 
5. X ′ =  0 1 0  X
 1 0 1
 
dx
6. = 6x − 9 y
dt
dy
= 5x + 2 y
dt
dx
7. = x+ y
dt
dy
= −2 x − y
dt
dx
8. = 4x + 5 y
dt
dy
= −2 x + 6 y
dt
 4 − 5
9. X ′ =   X
 5 − 4
1 − 8 
10. X ′ =   X
1 − 3 

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43 Real and Repeated Eigenvalues

In the previous lecture we tried to learn how to solve a system of linear differential
equations having a coefficient matrix that has real distinct and complex eigenvalues. In
this lecture, we consider the systems
X ′ = AX
in which some of the n eigenvalue λ1 , λ 2 , λ3 ,  , λ n of the n × n coefficient matrix
A are repeated.
43.1 Eigenvalue of multiplicity m
Suppose that m is a positive integer and (λ − λ1 )m is a factor of the characteristic
equation
det( A − λI ) = 0

Further, suppose that (λ − λ1 )m + 1 is not a factor of the characteristic equation. Then the
number λ1 is said to be an eigenvalue of the coefficient matrix of multiplicity m .
43.1.1 Method of solution
Consider the following system of n linear differential equations in n unknowns
X ′ = AX
Suppose that the coefficient matrix has an eigenvalue of multiplicity of m . There are two
possibilities of the existence of the eigenvectors corresponding to this repeated
eigenvalue:
 For the n × n coefficient matrix A , it may be possible to find m linearly
independent eigenvectors K1 , K 2 ,  , K m corresponding to the eigenvalue λ1 of
multiplicity m ≤ n . In this case the general solution of the system contains the
linear combination

c1K1e λ1t + c 2 K 2 e λ1t +  + c n K n e λ1t

 If there is only one eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ1 of multiplicity
m , then m linearly independent solutions of the form
X 1 = K11eλ1t
X 2 K 21eλ1t + K 22 eλ1t
=

t m −1 λ1t t m−2
=X m K m1 e + Km2 eλ1t +  + K mm eλ1t
( m − 1)! ( m − 2 )!
where the column vectors K ij can always be found.

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43.1.2 Eigenvalue of Multiplicity Two

We begin by considering the systems of differential equations X ′ = AX in which the
coefficient matrix A has an eigenvalue λ1 of multiplicity two. Then there are two
possibilities;
 Whether we can find two linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to
eigenvalue λ1 or
 We cannot find two linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to
eigenvalue λ1 .
The case of the possibility of us being able to find two linearly independent eigenvectors
K1 , K 2 corresponding to the eigenvalue λ1 is clear. In this case the general solution of
the system contains the linear combination
c1 K1teλ1t + c2 K 2 eλ1t
Therefore, we suppose that there is only one eigenvector K1 associated with this
eigenvalue and hence only one solution vector X 1 . Then, a second solution can be found
of the following form:

X 2 = Kte λ1t + Pe λ1t

In this expression for a second solution, K and P are column vectors
k   p1 
 1  
 k2   p2 
K =  , P =  
 
   
k  p 
 n  n

We substitute the expression for X 2 into the system X ′ = AX and simplify to obtain

( AK − λ1K ) t eλ t + ( AP − λ1P − K ) eλ t =
1 1
0
Since this last equation is to hold for all values of t , we must have:

( A − λ1I )K = 0, ( A − λ1I )P = K
First equation does not tell anything new and simply states that K must be an eigenvector
of the coefficient matrix A associated with the eigenvalue λ1 . Therefore, by solving this
equation we find one solution
X 1 = Keλ1t

To find the second solution X 2 , we only need to solve, for the vector P , the additional
system

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( A − λ1I ) P = K
First we solve a homogeneous system of differential equations having coefficient matrix
for which we can find two distinct eigenvectors corresponding to a double eigenvalue and
then in the second example we consider the case when cannot find two eigenvectors.
Example 1
Find general solution of the following system of linear differential equations
 3 − 18 
X′= X
2 − 9 
 
Solution:
The coefficient matrix of the system is
 3 − 18 
A= 
2 − 9 
 
3−λ − 18
Thus det( A − λI ) =
2 −9−λ
Therefore, the characteristic equation of the coefficient matrix A is
3−λ − 18
det( A − λI ) = 0 =
2 −9−λ
or − (3 − λ )(9 + λ ) + 36 = 0

or (λ + 3)2 = 0 ⇒ λ = −3, − 3
Therefore, the coefficient matrix A of the given system has an eigenvalue of multiplicity
two. This means that
λ1 = λ2 = −3
3− λ −18   k1   0 
Now ( A − λ I )K =
0⇒   =  
 2 −9 − λ   k2   0 
For λ = −3 , this system of linear algebraic equations becomes

 6 − 18  k1   0  6k1 − 18k 2 = 0
   =   ⇒
 2 − 6  k   0   2k − 6k = 0
  2     1 2
However

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6k1 − 18k 2 = 0

 ⇒ k1 − 3k 2 = 0
2k1 − 6k 2 = 0 

Thus k1 = 3k 2
This means that the value of the constant k 2 can be chosen arbitrarily. If we choose
k 2 = 1 , we find the following single eigenvector for the eigenvalue λ = −3 .
 3
K =  
1 
The corresponding one solution of the system of differential equations is given by
 3
X 1 =  e − 3t
1 
But since we are interested in forming the general solution of the system, we need to
pursue the question of finding a second solution. We identify the column vectors K and
P as:
 3 p 
K =  , P =  1 
1   p2 
 6 − 18  p1   3 
Then ( A + 3I )P = K ⇒   = 
 p 2  1 
 2 − 6 
Therefore, we need to solve the following system of linear algebraic equations to find P

6 p1 − 18 p 2 = 3
 ⇒ 2 p1 − 6 p 2 = 1
2 p1 − 6 p 2 = 1 
or p2 =−(1 − 2 p1 ) / 6

Therefore, the number p1 can be chosen arbitrarily. So we have an infinite number of

choices for p1 and p 2 . However, if we choose p1 = 1 , we find p 2 = 1 / 6 . Similarly, if
we choose the value of p1 = 1 / 2 then p 2 = 0 . Hence the column vector P is given by

1
P =  2 

0
 
Consequently, the second solution is given by

 3 1
X 2 =   t e − 3 t +  2 e − 3 t
1   
0 

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Hence the general solution of the given system of linear differential equations is then
X = c1 X 1 + c 2 X 2
 3 
  −3t   − 3t 
1
 3  − 3t 
X = c1  e + c 2  te + 2 e
1  1    
 0  
Example 2
Solve the homogeneous system

 1 −2 2 
 
X ′ =  − 2 1 − 2 X
 2 −2 1 
 
Solution:
The coefficient matrix of the system is:
 1 −2 2 
 −2 1 −2 
A=
 
 2 −2 1 
 
To write the characteristic we find the expansion of the determinant:
1− λ −2 2
det ( A − λ I ) =− 2 1 − λ − 2
2 −2 1− λ
The value of the determinant is
det ( A − λ I ) =5 + 9λ + 3λ 2 − λ 3
Therefore, the characteristic equation is

5 + 9λ + 3λ 2 − λ 3 =
0
− (λ + 1) (λ − 5) = 0
2
or

or λ=
− 1, − 1, 5
Therefore, the eigenvalues of the coefficient matrix A are
λ1 =
λ2 =
− 1, λ3 =
5
Clearly − 1 is a double root of the coefficient matrix A .

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 1− λ −2 2   k1   0 
 
Now ( A − λ I ) K =0 ⇒  − 2 1 − λ − 2   k2  = 0 

 2 − 2 1 − λ   k3   0 

For λ1 = −1 , this system of the algebraic equations become

 2 − 2 2   k1   0 
−    
 2 2 − 2   k2  =
0
 2 −2 2   k   0 
  3   
The augmented matrix of the system is
 2 −2 2 0 
 −2 2 −2 0 
( A+ I 0) =
 
 2 −2 2 0 
 
By applying the Gauss-Jordon method, the augmented matrix reduces to the reduced
echelon form
 1 −1 1 0 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
 
Thus k1 − k2 + k3 =0 ⇒ k1 =k2 − k3
By choosing k 2 = 1 and k 3 = 0 in k1 = k 2 − k 3 , we obtain k1 = 1 and so one
eigenvector is

1 
 
K 1 = 1 
 0
 
But the choice k 2 = 1, k 3 = 1 implies k1 = 0 . Hence, a second eigenvector is given by

 0
 
K 2 = 1 
1 
 
Since neither eigenvector is a constant multiple of the other, we have found,
corresponding to the same eigenvalue, two linearly independent solutions

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1  0
  −t   −t
=X 1 =
1 e , X2 1  e
0 1 
   

Last for λ3 = 5 we obtain the system of algebraic equations

 − 4 − 2 2   k1   0 
−    
 2 − 4 − 2   k2  =
0
 2 −2 −4   k   0 
  3   

The augmented matrix of the algebraic system is

 −4 −2 2 0 
 2 −4 −2 0 
( A − 5I 0 ) =−
 
 2 −2 −4 0 
 
By the elementary row operation we can transform the augmented matrix to the reduced
echelon form
 1 0 −1 0 
0 1 1 0
 
0 0 0 0
 
or k1 = k3 , k2 = − k3

Picking k 3 = 1, we obtain k1 = 1, k 2 = −1 . Thus a third eigenvector is the following

1 
 
K 3 =  − 1
1 
 
Hence, we conclude that the general solution of the system is
1  0 1 
  −t   −t  
=X c1  1  e + c2  1  e + c3  − 1  e5t
0 1  1 
     

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43.1.3 Eigenvalues of Multiplicity Three

When a matrix A has only one eigenvector associated with an eigenvalue λ1 of
multiplicity three of the coefficient matrix A , we can find a second solution X 2 and a
third solution X 3 of the following forms
λt λt
=
X 2 Kte 1 + Pe 1
t 2 λ1t λt λt
X 3= K e + Pte 1 + Qe 1
2
The K , P and Q are vectors given by

 k1   p1  q 
     1
k  p  q 
K =  2 , P =  2  and Q =  2 
     
k  p  q 
 n  n  n
By substituting X 3 into the system X ′ = AX , we find the column vectors K , P and Q
must satisfy the equations
( A − λ1 I )K = 0
( A − λ1 I )P = K
( A − λ1 I )Q = P
The solutions of first and second equations can be utilized in the formulation of the
solution X 1 and X 2 .

Example
Find the general solution of the following homogeneous system

 4 1 0
 
X ′ = 0 4 1X
 0 0 4
 
Solution
The coefficient matrix of the system is
4 1 0
A =  0 4 1 
 0 0 4
 

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4− λ 1 0
Then det ( A − λI
= ) 0 4− λ 1
0 0 4− λ
Therefore, the characteristic equation is
4− λ 1 0
det ( A − λI ) ==
0 0 4− λ 1
0 0 4− λ
Expanding the determinant in the last equation w.r.to the 3rd row to obtain
4−λ 1
(− 1)3+3 (4 − λ ) =0
0 4−λ
or ( 4 − λ )  ( 4 − λ ) ( 4 − λ ) − 0  =0
(4− λ)
3
or = 0 ⇒ λ = 4, 4, 4
Thus, λ = 4 is an eigenvalue of the coefficient matrix A of multiplicity three. For λ = 4 ,
we solve the following system of algebraic equations

4 − λ 1 0  k1   0 
    
( A − λI )K = 0 ⇒  0 4 − λ 1  k 2  =  0 
 0
 0 4 − λ  k3   0 

 0 1 0  k1   0 
    
 0 0 1  k 2  =  0 
 0 0 0  k   0 
⇒   3   
0k1 + 1k 2 + 0k3 = 0
 k =0
0k1 + 0k 2 + 1k3 = 0 ⇒ 2
k3 = 0
0k1 + 0k 2 + 0k3 = 0
Therefore, the value of k1 is arbitrary. If we choose k1 = 1 , then the eigen vector K is

1 
 
K = 0
0
 

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1 
  λt
=
Hence the first solution vector =  0  e 4t
X 1 Ke
0
 
Now for the second solution we solve the system

 0 1 0   p1   1  0 p1 + 1 p2 + 0 p3 = 1  p1 = 1
  p  =    p =1
( A − λI ) P = K ⇒  0 0 1   2   0  ⇒ 0 p1 + 0 p2 + 1 p3 = 0 ⇒ 2
 0 0 0 p   0  p =0
   3    0 p1 + 0 p2 + 0 p3 = 0 3

1 
 
Hence, the vector P is given by P = 1 
0
 
Therefore, a second solution is

1  1  1  1  
λt   4 t   4t
λt       4t
X 2 Kte + Pe =
= ⇒ X2  0  te +  1  e ⇒
= X2  0  t + 1   e
0 0   0   0  
   
Finally for the third solution we solve ( A − λI )Q = P

 0 1 0  q1  1  0q1 + 1q2 + 0q3 = 1  q1 = 1

     
or  0 0 1  q 2  = 1  0q1 + 0q2 + 1q3 = 0  ⇒ q2 = 1
⇒
 0 0 0  q   0  0q1 + 0q2 + 0q3 = 0  q3 = 1
  3   
1
 
Hence, the vector Q is given by Q = 1
1
 
Therefore, third solution vector is
t 2 λt
X 3= K e + Pteλt + Qeλt
2
1  2 1  1 1  2 1  1 
  t 4t   4t   4t   t     
X 3 =  0  e +  1  te +  1  e X 3=   0  +  1  t +  1   e 4t
 2     ⇒   0 
2    
0 0 1  0   1  
The general solution of the given system is

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X =c1 X 1 + c2 X 2 + c3 X 3

1  1  1   1  2 1  1 

  4t       4 t    t      4t
=
X c1  0  e + c2   0  t +  1   e +   0  +  1  t +  1   e
0 2    
    0   0     0   0   1  
Exercise
Find the general solution of the give systems
dx
1. = −6 x + 5 y
dt
dy
= −5 x + 4 y
dt
dx
2. = −x + 3y
dt
dy
= −3 x + 5 y
dt
dx
3. = 3x − y − z
dt
dy
=x+ y−z
dt
dz
=x− y+z
dt
5 − 4 0
 
4. X ′ =  1 0 2X
0 2 5
 
1 0 0
 
5. X ′ =  0 3 1  X
0 −1 1
 
1 0 0 
 
6. X ′ =  2 2 − 1 X
0 1 0 
 

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44 Non-Homogeneous System
44.1 Definition
Consider the system of linear first order differential equations
dx1
= a11 ( t ) x1 + a12 ( t ) x2 +  + a1n ( t ) xn + f1 ( t )
dt
dx2
= a21 ( t ) x1 + a22 ( t ) x2  + a2 n ( t ) xn + f 2 ( t )
dt
    
dxn
= an1 ( t ) x1 + an 2 ( t ) x2 +  + ann ( t ) xn + f n ( t )
dt
where aij are coefficients and f i are continuous on common interval I . The system is
said to be non-homogeneous when fi ( t ) ≠ 0, ∀ i =
1, 2, , n . Otherwise it is called a
homogeneous system.
44.2 Matrix Notation
In the matrix notation we can write the above system of differential can be written as
 x1   a11 ( t ) a12 ( t ) ... a1n ( t )   x1   f1 ( t ) 
      
=
d  x2   a21 ( t ) a22 ( t ) ... a2 n ( t )   x2  +  f2 (t ) 
dt             
       
 xn   an1 ( t ) an 2 ( t ) ... ann ( t )   xn   f n ( t ) 
Or X ′ = AX + F (t )

44.3 Method of Solution

To find general solution of the non-homogeneous system of linear differential equations, we need to find:
 The complementary function X c , which is general solution of the corresponding homogeneous

system X ′ = AX .

 Any particular solution X p of the non-homogeneous system X ′ = AX + F (t ) by the

method of undetermined coefficients and the variation of parameters.
The general solution X of the system is then given by sum of the complementary function and the
particular solution.
=
X Xc + X p
44.4 Method of Undetermined Coefficients
44.4.1 The form of F (t )
As mentioned earlier in the analogous case of a single nth order non-homogeneous linear differential
equations. The entries in the matrix F (t ) can have one of the following forms:
 Constant functions.
 Polynomial functions
 Exponential functions
 sin( β x), cos(β x)
 Finite sums and products of these functions.

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Otherwise, we cannot apply the method of undetermined coefficients to find a particular

solution of the non-homogeneous system.
44.4.2 Duplication of Terms
The assumption for the particular solution X p has to be based on the prior knowledge of
the complementary function X c to avoid duplication of terms between X c and X p .

Example 1
Solve the system on the interval
( −∞, ∞ )
 −1 2   −8 
= X′  X + 
 −1 1  3 
Solution
To find X c , we solve the following homogeneous system
 −1 2 
X′ =  X
 −1 1 
We find the determinant
−1 − λ 2
det ( A − λI ) =
−1 1− λ
det ( A − λ I ) = ( − 1 − λ ) (1 − λ ) + 2
det ( A − λ I ) = λ 2 + λ − λ − 1 + 2= λ 2 + 1
The characteristic equation is
det ( A − λ I ) =0 =λ 2 + 1
or λ 2 =− 1 ⇒ λ =± i

So that the coefficient matrix of the system has complex eigenvalues λ1 = i and λ2 = −i
with α = 0 and β = ± 1 .
To find the eigenvector corresponding to λ1 , we must solve the system of linear algebraic
equations
−1− i 2  k1   0 
   =  
 − 1 1 − i  k 2   0 
or
− ( 1 + i ) k1 + 2k2 =
0
−k1 + ( 1 − i ) k2 =
0
Clearly, the second equation of the system is (1 + i ) times the first equation. So that both
of the equations can be reduced to the following single equation
k1 = (1 − i ) k 2

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Thus, the value of k2 can be chosen arbitrarily. Choosing k 2 = 1, we get k1 = 1 − i .

Hence, the eigenvector corresponding to λ1 is
1 − i  1  − 1
K 1 =   =   + i 
 1  1  0 
Now we form the matrices B1 and B2
1  −1
= =
B1 Re ( k1 ) = , B2 I=m ( k1 )  0 
1  
Then, we obtain the following two linearly independent solutions from:
= X1 ( B1 cos β t − B2 sin β t ) eα t
=X 2 ( B2 cos β t + B1 sin β t )eα t
 1  −1 
Therefore =X1    cos t −   sin t  e0t
 1  0  
  −1   1  
X 2 =  cos t   +   sin t  e0t
  0  1 
 cos t   sin t   cos t + sin t 
or X1 =  + =  
 cos t   0   cos t 
 − cos t   sin t   − cos t + sin t 
X2=  + =  
 0   sin t   sin t 

Thus the complementary function is given by

X c = c1 X 1 + c1 X 2
 cos t + sin t   − cos t + sin t 
or = X c c1   + c2  
 cos t   sin t 
Now since F (t ) is a constant vector, we assume a constant particular solution vector
a 
Xp = 1
 b1 
Substituting this vector into the original system leads to
 −1 2   a1   −8 
= X ′p    +  
 −1 1   b1   3 
 0
Since X ′p =  
 0
0  −a1 + 2b1   − 8 
=   +
−a1 + b1   3 
Thus
0 
0  −a1 + 2b1 − 8 
or  = −a1 + b1 + 3 

0 

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This leads to the following pair of linear algebraic equations

−a1 + 2b1 − 8 = 0
−a1 + b1 + 3 = 0
Subtracting, we have
b1 − 11 =0 ⇒ b1 =11
Substituting this value of b1 into the second equation of the above system of algebraic
equations yields
a1 = 11 + 3 = 14
Thus our particular solution is
 14 
Xp = 
 11 
Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous system is
 cos t + sin t   − cos t + sin t  14 
X = c1   + c2   +  
 cos t   sin t  11 
Note that
 In the above example the entries of the matrix F (t ) were constants and the

complementary function X c did not involve any constant vector. Thus there was
no duplication of terms between X c and X p .

 However, if F (t ) were a constant vector and the coefficient matrix had an

eigenvalue λ = 0 . Then X c contains a constant vector. In such a situation the
assumption for the particular solution X p would be

a  a 
X p =  2 t +  1 
 b2   b1 
instead of
 a1 
X p =  
 b1 

Example 2
Solve the system
dx
= 6 x + y + 6t
dt
dy
= 4 x + 3 y − 10t + 4
dt
Solution
In the matrix notation
 6 1  6  0
X ′ =   X + 
  t +  4 
 4 3   − 10   

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 6 1
or X ′ =   X + F (t )
 4 3
 6  0
Where F (t ) =   t +  
 − 10   4 
We first solve the homogeneous system
 6 1
X ′ =   X
 4 3
Now, we use characteristic equation to find the eigen values
6−λ 1
det (A − λI ) = =0
4 3−λ
⇒ (6 − λ )(3 − λ ) − 4 = 0
⇒ λ2 − 9λ + 14 = 0
So λ1 = 2 and λ2 = 7
The eigen vector corresponding to eigen value λ = λ1 = 2 , is obtained from
 k1 
(A − λI )K1 = 0, Where K1 =  
 2
k
Or (A − 2I )K1 = 0,
Therefore

6 − 2 1  k1   0   4 1 k1   0 
   =   ⇒    =  
 4 3 − 2  k 2   0   4 1 k 2   0 
 4k1 + k 2   0 
  =  
 1
4 k + k 2   0
or
4k1 + k 2 = 0
 ⇒ 4k1 + k 2 = 0
4k1 + k 2 = 0
we choose k1 = 1 arbitrarily then k 2 = −4
Hence the related corresponding eigen vector is
1
K1 =  
 −4 
Now an eigen vector associated with λ = λ2 = 7 is determined from the following
system

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 k1 
K 2 =  
(A − λ2 I ) K 2 = 0 , where  k2 
 − 1 1  k1   0 
   =  
or  4 − 4  k 2   0 
− k1 + k 2 = 0
 ⇒ − k1 + k 2 = 0
4k1 − 4k 2 = 0
or
1
K 2 =  
Therefore 1
Consequently the complementary function is
 1  1
X c = c1  e 2t + c2  e 7t
 − 4 1
 6  0
F (t ) =  t +  
Since  − 10   4

Now we find a particular solution of the system having the same form.
 a2   a1 
X p =  t +  
 b2   b1 
where a1 , a 2 , b1 and b2 are constants to be determined.
in the matrix terms we must have
6 1  6  0
X ′p =   X p +  t +  
4 3  − 10   4 
 a2   6 1   a2   a1   6   0 
  =    t +   +  t +  
 b2   4 3   b2   b1   − 10   4 
 a2   6 1  a2t + a1   6t + 0 
  =    +  
 2 
b 4 3  2b t + b1   − 10 t + 4 
 a2   6a2t + 6a1 + b2t + b1   6t + 0 
  =   +  
 2  2
b 4 a t + 4 a1 + 3 b 2 t + 3 b1  − 10t + 4 
 a2   6a2t + b2t + 6t + 6a1 + b1 
  =  
 b2   4a2t + 3b2t − 10t + 4a1 + 3b1 + 4 
⇒ 
 (6a2 + b2 + 6)t + (6a1 + b1 − a2 )   0 
 (4a + 3b − 10)t + (4a + 3b − b + 4) =  0 
 2 2 1 1 2   

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from this last identity we conclude that

6a2 + b2 + 6 = 0
And
4a2 + 3b2 − 10 = 0
6a1 + b1 − a2 = 0
4a1 + 3b1 − b2 + 4 = 0
Solving the first two equations simultaneously yields
a2 = −2 and b2 = 6
Substituting these values into the last two equations and solving for a1 and b1 gives
4
a1 = −
7
10
b1 =
7
It follows therefore that a particular solution vector is
 − 2  − 4 / 7
X p =  t +  
  
6 10 / 7 
and so the general solution of the system on (− ∞, ∞ ) is
X = Xc + X p

1  1  − 2  − 4 / 7
= c1  e 2t + c2  e 7t +  t +  
−
 4  
1   
6 10 / 7 
Example 3
Determine the form of the particular solution vector X p for
dx
= 5 x + 3 y − 2e − t + 1
dt
dy
= − x + y + e −t − 5t + 7
dt
Solution
First, we write the system in the matrix form

 dx / dt   5 3  x   − 2  −t  0  1 
  =    +  e +  t +  
 dy / dt   − 1 1  y   1   − 5  7 
 5 3
or X ′ =   X + F (t )
 − 1 1

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 dx / dt   x
where X ′ =  , X =   and
 dy / dt   y
 −2   0  1 
F ( t )=   e − t +   t +  
1  −5   7 
 5 3
Now we solve the homogeneous system X ′ =   X to determine the eigen values,
 − 1 1
we use the characteristic equation
det (A − λI ) = 0
5−λ 3
or = (5 − λ )(1 − λ ) + 3 = 0
−1 1− λ
⇒ λ 2 − 6λ + 8 = 0
⇒ λ = 2, 4
So the eigen values are λ1 = 2 and λ2 = 4
For λ = λ1 = 2 , an eigen vector corresponding to this eigen value is obtained from
(A − 2I )K1 = 0
 k1 
Where K1 =  
 k2 
5 − 2 3  k1   0 

− −  k  =  0 
 1 1 2  2   
 3 3  k1   0 
   =  
 − 1 − 1 k 2   0 
3k1 + 3k 2 = 0
 ⇒ −k1 − k 2 = 0
− k1 − k 2 = 0
We choose k 2 = −1 then k1 = 1
1
Therefore K1 =  
 − 1
Similarly for λ = λ2 = 4
1 3  k1   0 
   =  
 − 1 − 3  k 2   0 
k1 + 3k 2 = 0
 ⇒ k1 + 3k 2 = 0
− k1 − 3k 2 = 0

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Choosing k 2 = −1 , we get k1 = 3

3
Therefore K2 =  
 −1
Hence the complementary solution is
1  3
X c = c1  e 2t + c2  e 4t
 − 1  − 1
Now since
 − 2  0  1 
F (t ) =  e −t +  t +  
 1   − 5  7 

We assume a particular solution of the form

 a3   a2   a1 
X p =  e −t +  t +  
 b3   b2   b1 
Note:

If we replace e in F (t ) on e ( λ = 2 an eigen value), then the correct form of the

−t 2t

particular solution is

 a4   a3   a2   a1 
X p =  te 2t +  e 2t +  t +  
 b4   b3   b2   b1 
44.5 Variation of Parameters
Variation of parameters is more powerful technique than the method of undetermined
coefficients.
We now develop a systematic produce for finding a solution of the non-homogeneous
linear vector differential equation
dX
= AX + F (t ) (1)
dt
Assuming that we know the corresponding homogeneous vector differential equation
dX
= AX (2)
dt
Let φ (t ) be a fundamental matrix of the homogeneous system (2), then we can express
the general solution of (2) in the form

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X c = φ (t ) C

where C is an arbitrary n-rowed constant vector. We replace the constant vector C by a

column matrix of functions

 u1 (t ) 
 
 u 2 (t )
U (t ) = 
 
 
 n 
u (t )
so that X p = φ (t ) U (t ) (3)

is particular solution of the non-homogeneous system (1).

The derivative of (3) by the product rule is
X ′p = φ (t ) U ′(t ) + φ ′(t )U (t ) (4)

Now we substitute equation (3) and (4) in the equation (1) then we have
φ (t ) U ′(t ) + φ ′(t )U (t ) = Aφ (t ) U (t ) + F (t ) (5)

Since φ ′(t ) = Aφ (t )
On substituting this value of φ ′(t ) into (5),
We have
φ (t )U ′(t ) + Aφ (t )U (t ) = Aφ (t )U (t ) + F (t )
Thus, equation (5) become s
or φ (t ) U ′(t ) = F (t ) (6)

Multiplying φ −1 (t ) on both sides of equation (6), we get

φ −1 (t ) φ (t ) U ′(t ) = φ −1 (t ) F (t )
or U ′(t ) = φ −1 (t ) F (t )
or U (t ) = ∫ φ −1 (t ) F (t ) dt
Hence by equation (3)

X p = φ (t )∫ φ −1 (t ) F (t ) dt (7)

is particular solution of the non-homogeneous system (1).

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To calculate the indefinite integral of the column matrix φ

−1
(t ) F (t ) in (7), we integrate
each entry. Thus the general solution of the system (1) is
X = Xc + X p
or

X = φ (t )C + φ (t ) ∫ φ −1 (t ) F (t ) dt (8)

Example
Find the general solution of the non-homogeneous system
− 3 1   3t 
X ′ =   X +  −t 
 2 − 4 e 
on the interval (− ∞, ∞ )
Solution
We first solve the corresponding homogeneous system
 −3 1 
X′ = X
 2 −4 
The characteristic equation of the coefficient matrix is
−3−λ 1
det (A − λI ) = =0
2 −4−λ
or (− 3 − λ )(− 4 − λ ) − 2 = 0
⇒ λ2 + 4λ + 3λ + 12 − 2 = 0
⇒ λ2 + 7λ + 10 = 0
⇒ λ2 + 5λ + 2λ + 10 = 0
⇒ λ (λ + 5) + 2(λ + 5) = 0
⇒ (λ + 5)(λ + 2) = 0
⇒ λ1 = −2, λ2 = −5
So the eigen values are λ1 = −2 and λ2 = −5

Now we find the eigen vectors corresponding to λ1 and λ2 respectively,

Therefore

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(A − λ1I 2 )K1 = 0
(A − 2I 2 )K1 = 0
− 3 + 2 1  k1   0 
so    =  
 2 − 4 + 2  k 2   0 
 − k1 + k 2   0 
  =  
 1
2 k − 2 k 2   0

or
− k1 + k 2 = 0
 ⇒ k1 = k 2
2k1 − 2k 2 = 0
We choose k 2 = 1 arbitrarily then k1 = 1
Hence the eigen vector is
1
K1 =  
1
Now an eigen vector associated with λ2 = λ = −5 is determined from the following
system
(A − λ2 I 2 )K 2 = 0
− 3 + 5 1  k1   0 
or    =  
 2 − 4 + 5  k 2   0 
 2 1 k1   0 
⇒    =  
 2 1  k 2   0 
 2k + k 2   0 
⇒  1  =  
 2k1 + k 2   0 
2k1 + k 2 = 0
⇒  ⇒ k 2 = −2k1
2k1 + k 2 = 0
We choose arbitrarily k1 = 1 then k 2 = −2

 1 
Therefore K 2 =  
 − 2
The solution vectors of the homogeneous system are

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1  1 
X 1 =  e −2t And X 2 =  e −5t
1  − 2

X 1 and X 2 can be written as

 e −2t   e −5t 
X 1 =  −2t , X 2 =  
e   − 2e −5t 
   
The complementary solution
=
X c c1 X 1 + c2 X 2

 e −2t   e −5t 
= c1  −2t  + c2  
e   − 2e −5t 
   
Next, we form the fundamental matrix

 e −2t e −5t 
φ (t ) =  
e
−2t
− 2e −5t 
and the inverse of this fundamental matrix is

 2 e2t 1 2t 
e 
φ (t ) =  31
−1 3
 e5t −1 5t 
e
3 3 
Now we find X p by

X p = φ (t )∫ φ −1 (t ) F (t ) dt

e −5t ⌠  3 e2t
1 2t 
 e −2t e  3t 
2
X p =  −2t  3  dt
e − 2e −5t   1 e5t −1 5t  −t
e e 

⌡3 3 
⌠  2t 1 t   1
t

 ∫ ∫3 
2te + e   2te dt + e dt 
 
2 t
 e −2t e −5 t
 e −2t e −5 t
X p =  −2t    3 
dt =  −2t 
e − 2e −5t   5t 1 4t  e
 − 2e −5t  1 4t 
 −   ∫ te dt − ∫ e dt 
5t
te e
⌡ 3   3 

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 e 2t ⌠ e 2t 1 t 
 2 t − 2  dt + e 
 e −2t e −5t  2 ⌡ 2 3 
X p =  −2t 
−5t  
e − 2e  e 5 t ⌠ e 5 t 1
 t − dt − e 
4 t

 5 ⌡ 5 3.4 
 e 2t e 2t 1 t 
 2t − + e 
 e −2t e −5t  2 2 3 
X p =  −2t 
−5t  5t
− 2e  te 5t 
e  −
e 1
− e 4t 
 5 25 12 
 1 1 −t t 1 1 
t − + e + − − e −t 
Xp = 
2 3 5 25 12
 1 1 −t 2t 2 1 −t 
t − + e − + + e 
 2 3 5 25 6 
 6 27 1 − t 
 5 t − 50 + 4 e 
Xp = 
 3 t − 21 + 1 e − t 
 
 5 50 2 
Hence the general solution of the non-homogeneous system on the interval (− ∞, ∞ ) is

X = Xc + X p

= φ ( t ) C + φ ( t ) ∫ φ −1 ( t ) F ( t ) dt
 6 27 1 − t 
or 1 1  5 t − 50 + 4 e 
=c1   e −2t + c2   e −5t + 
1  −2   3 t − 21 + 1 e − t 
 
 5 50 2 
44.6 Exercise
Use the method of undetermined coefficients to solve the given system on (− ∞, ∞ )

dx
1. = 5x + 9 y + 2
dt
dy
= − x + 11 y + 6
dt

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dx
2. = x + 3 y − 2t 2
dt
dy
= 3x + y + t + 5
dt
dx
3. = x − 4 y + 4t + 9e 6t
dt
dy
= 4 x + y − t + e 6t
dt
 4 1/ 3  − 3
4. X ′ =   X +  e t
9 6   10 
 − 1 5  sin t 
5. X ′ =   X +  
 − 1 1  − 2 cos t 
Use variation of parameters to solve the given system
dx
6. = 3x − 3 y + 4
dt
dy
= 2x − 2 y − 1
dt
 2 − 1  sin 2t  2t
7. X ′ =   X +  e
4 2   2 cos t 
 0 2  2 
8. X ′ =   X +  −3t 
 − 1 3 e 
 3 2 1
9. X ′ =   X +  
 − 2 − 1 1
 0 − 1  sec t 
10. X ′ =   X +  
1 0   0 

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