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CONTROLS

Level1. F Cdontrols
. un amentals

Technical Development Program

 Technical Development Programs (TDP) are modules of technical training on HV AC theory,
system design, equipment selection and application topics. They are targeted at engineers and
designers who wish to develop their knowledge in this field to effectively design, specify, sell or
apply HVAC equipment in commercial applications.
Although TDP topics have been developed as stand-alone modules, there are logical group-
ings of topics. The modules within each group begin at an introductory level and progress to
advanced levels. The breadth of this offering allows for customization into a complete HVAC
curriculum - from a complete HVAC design course at an introductory-level or to an advanced-
level design course. Advanced-level modules assume prerequisite knowledge and do not review
. basic concepts.

Introduction to HVAC

Psychrometries

Load Estimating

Refrigeration Cycle

Distribution Systems

Applications

The fundamentals of HVAC controls introduces the basic concepts of control and the vocabu-
lary necessary to understand HVAC controls that are part of the design of HVAC systems. This
TDP will take the elements and building blocks ofHVAC controls and show how comfort control
systems create the desired equipment responses for maintaining space environmental condition
set points. Direct digital controls (DDC) will be the focal point of this TDP. Level 2 in the series
will continue the discussion covering DDC networking. Actual design of control systems is not
covered in this program; consult the references listed in the back of this module.

© 2005 Carrier Corporation. All rights reserved.

The information in this manual is offered as a general guide for the use of industry and consulting engineers in designing systems.
Judgment is required for application of this information to specific installations and design applications. Carrier is not responsible for
any uses made of this information and assumes no responsibility for the performance or desirability of any resulting system design.

The information in this publication is subject to change without notice. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose, without the express written permission of Carrier Corporation.

Printed in Syracuse, NY
CARRIER CORPORATION
Carrier Parkway
Syracuse, NY 13221, U.S.A.
 Table of Contents
Introduction .................. ............. ....... ........ ...... ................ ...... .................... .............. ...................... .... 1
What are Controls, What is Control? ........... ................ .. ..... ........ ........................... ...... ................ 1
Control Levels .. .................. ............................................. .... ......................................................... 2
Purposes of HVAC Control ......................................... ...... ........ .. .. ........... ......... ..... ..................... 2
Elementary Control ........... ................. ........... ... .......... ................................ ............. ..................... 3
Control Actions ...................................... ..................... ........................................... .......................... 4
Control Terms ........................... ............... .... ............. ...... ........................ ..................................... 4
Two-Position (On-Off) ........ ... .. ..... ........ ........... .............................. ............................................. 5
Timed Two-Position ........ .. ......... ... ....... ....... ............. .... ........................................ ....................... 5
Floating-Point ... ....................... .. ..... ....... ............. ...................................................... .... ............... 6
Proportional (P) .................. ................. .......... .. .. .................. ....................... ......... ..... .. .................. 7
P Algorithm .. .. .................... ... ..... .. ......................................... ........... ..... .. .. ........................ .. .. ... 7
Proportional+ Integral (PI) .... ................. ........ ............................................................................. 8
PI Algorithm ... ............ ... .... .... .... .......................... ..... ................................... ..... ........... ............ 9
Proportional+ Integral + Derivative (PID) ............................ ...... .. ....................... ..... .................. 9
PID Algorithm .......... .... .. ................................................................. ...................................... 10
Control Action Analysis ....... ..... ........ ........ ........ .. ......... ..... .. ............ ....................... ....................... 10
Overshoot/Undershoot/Settling Time .... .. ... ........ ..... ... .... ................. ....... .............. .............. ... 11
Gain .. ..................... ....... .. ....... ..... .. ....................... .... .. ......................................... ................... . 11
Offset ............ .............................. .............. .. ............................ .. ................ ............. ................ 12
Integral Term ...... ........ .. ... .. .. ...... .. ............. .. .... ............................................... ......... ............... 12
Derivative Term ... ............... .. ...... ... ........................... ........... ............ ... ............................ .. ..... 12
Common HVAC Control Strategies ............................................ .. ......... .. ............ ................. 13
Control Devices versus Controlled Devices ...................... ..... .... ..... .. ........................... ................. 13
Types of Control Devices ............... .......... .................... ......... ....... ................ ............................. 14
Relays and Contactors ......................... .. ... .. ............ ... ..... ................................. ....... ............... 14
Actuators ......... .... ................................ ...... .. ...... ...... ... ................................................... ... ...... 14
Switches ............................................ ....................... ............... ......... ...................... ........ ........ 14
Sensors ................................... .................... ....... .. .......................... ......... ... ............................. 14
. Types of Controlled Devices ......................................................... ......... ............................ ....... 14
Types of Control Systems ..... .... ......... ...... ..... ...... .............................................. ........................ .. .. . 15
Pneumatic Control .. .................... ........................... ............................................... ..................... 15
Pneumatic Control System Requirements ...... ......................... ...... ....................................... . 17
Pneumatic Control Characteristics ............ ... ....................................................... ................... 17
Electric Control .......................... ................ ... ........... ..... .. ........................................................... 17
Electric Control Diagrams ...... .............. ................................ ..... ............................................ 18
Electric Control System Requirements ..................... .. ....... ........ ................................ ........ .... 18
Electric Control Characteristics ........................................................................... .................. 19
Electronic or Direct Digital Control (DDC) ............ ........... ......... .. .......... ........ ......... ... .............. 19
History ofDDC ............ ... ............ .. ..... ................... .... .... ................. ......................... .......... ..... 20
DDC System Requirements ....... .............. ........... ...... .. ... ..................................................... ... 21
DDC Control Characteristics .................................................. .......... ..................................... 21
DDC Architecture .. .................................... .............. .. ....... .......... .................... ....... .. ........... ... 22
· Defining a General-Purpose Controller ..................................................................... .. .. ........ 23
DDC Network ........................................... ... ......... ......... ... ...... ... ...... ...................................... 24
User Interfaces ....................................................... ....... ..................... ........... ......................... 24
Direct Digital Control Theory ............................... .. .......... .. ..... .. ...... .......... ....... ........... .................. 25
Control Loops ........................ ............ .... ...... ................................ .. ...... ......... ........... .......... ........ 25
Open-Loop ........... ...................................... .. ... ........ ...... ................. ........................................ 25
Closed-Loop ..... ........................ ..... .... ..................................................................................... 25
Control Point Classification ........................................................................................................... 26
Typical Input and Output Channel Signals ................................................................................ 27
Analog Input (AI) ...................................................................................................................... 27
Discrete Input (DI) ..................................................................................................................... 27
Analog Output (AO) .................................................................................................................. 27
Discrete Output (D0) ................................................................................................................. 28
Points List ...................................................................................................................................... 28
DDC Design for HVAC Equipment .............................................................................................. 29 ~
Rooftop Unit Example ............................................................................................................... 29
Step 1 -Desired Control Strategies ...................................................................................... 29
Step 2 -Desired Controlled Devices ..................................................................................... 30
Step 3 - Control Action Selections ..................................................................................... 30 0 ..

Step 4- Sequences of Operation ........................................................................................... 30

Steps 5 and 6 - Sensor Selection/Input Control Devices ....................................................... 31
Step 7- Required Controller Channel Capacity (or points required) .................................. 31
Rooftop Unit System Diagram ............................................................................................... 32
Summary ..... oooo···o··················································································o························o·o·············32
Work Session 1 .............................................................................................................................. 33
References: ................................................................................................................................. 37
W orlc Session Answers ............................................................ 0 38
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
 CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction
This Technical Development Program (TDP) describes the fundamentals of HVAC controls.
This module will be used to introduce the concepts of control and the vocabulary necessary to
understand HVAC controls that are part of the design of HVAC systems. This TDP will take the
basic elements and building blocks of HVAC controls and show how comfort control systems
create the desired equipment responses for maintaining space set points like temperature, relative
humidity, and carbon dioxide (C02 ) level.

What are Controls, What is Control?

To understand what controls are, Graphic Symbol Graphic Symbol

one has to understand the difference
between the noun controls and the ~--
verb control. The noun controls refers
to the instruments, devices, and soft- Thermostat ~-- Solenoid Valve

ware that sense conditions and cause Cooling ~

actions to happen. These can be

thought of as the eyes and ears, and
mouth and arms of the control system.
These are the hardware items like sen- Temperature Sensor
8
3-WayValve

sors, timers, contactors, valves,

solenoids, switches, actuators, and
relays. These are connected into a Fan Status Switch
controller, the brain of the control sys-
Figure 1
tem, where the logic exists to execute
the control sequences of operation. Controls (Hardware Elements)
The verb control refers to the action
plan of using controls to provide desired results through a control sequence of operation.
A control sequence of operation is the order in which control devices and equipment are en-
abled, disabled, reset, and otherwise instructed to insure the proper air conditioning of building
spaces, along with the safe and reliable operation of the HVAC equipment. This is done with the
use of sensors, switches, contacts,
relays, and timers that turn things on
and off, or in the case of valves and
dampers, open and close them.

Figure 2
Control Equals An Action Plan

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Control Levels

Many buildings are divided into zones that have unique control requirements. HV AC systems
can have control devices at the zone level, the equipment level, and at the building level.
Control at the zone
level can consist of a duct
airflow damper and room
temperature sensor or a
bimetallic thermostat con-
trolling a VAV terminal.
Another zone control
scheme would use CV ter-
minals with hot water
reheat valve control.
Control at the equip-
ment level would expand
the zone control to include
an air handling UJ}it with its
fan, a cooling valve or DX
staging, and a mixing box
with return, relief, and out-
door air dampers.
Figure 3
The most encompass- contro1Levels
ing level of control
involves an entire building. Building control goes beyond the system control found in zone and
equipment to include tower pumps, bypass valves, chillers, chilled water pumps, boilers, dedi-
cated ventilation system air handling units, and direct exhaust fans. The complexity caused by the
interaction of the control devices increases significantly as you attempt to control more pieces of
equipment and include control requirements beyond basic HVAC comfort.

Purposes of HVAC Control

At the zone level the HV AC industry measures physical phenomena and talks about control
in terms of the temperature (°F), humidity (% rh), flow (cfm or gpm), pressure (duct static) and
quality (C0 2) of air conditioned by an HVAC system. Since temperature is easiest to measure,
and building occupants are able to sense dry bulb temperature, it is the primary choice as a con-
trolling value. Maintaining the space or room temperature at a comfortable level, which becomes
the control value or set point, then begins the process of controlling the room comfort level.
Comfort is not the only thing that controls maintain. At the equipment level, the focus of the
control is to provide a desired equipment output. Depending on the type of equipment this may be
a supply air temperature, a leaving water temperature, a leaving tower water temperature or pip-
ing system water pressure. Controlling these values are not the only thing that equipment controls
maintain. There are control devices, sensors and switches on HVAC equipment that have a safety
or reliability function. These devices protect the equipment or system, lowering the risk of harm
to the occupants or building, and preventing premature failure or damage to other building sys-
tems and equipment.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

At the building level, the focus is on coordinating the activities of different building systems,
like lighting and security, and central pieces of HVAC equipment (e.g. boilers and cooling tow-
ers), as well as maintaining the overall IAQ level in a building. In addition, there are issues
beyond HVAC and basic fire, and life safety, such as emergency response to a chemical, biologi-
cal or radioactive threat. These all have to do with the complete building level approach to
control.

Elementary Control

There are two types of control, open-loop and closed-loop. Open-loop control consists of a
switch connected to a piece of equipment. If the switch is working properly, you can tum the
switch on and the equipment or device is energized. If the switch is turned off, the equipment or
device is de-energized. However, to
control the temperature in a room you
would have to get up and turn the
switch on if the room was too warm,
then get up again if the room was too
cold. If the switch were located in an
area that the temperature could not be
sensed physically, then there would be
no way to know if the actions of using
the switch produced the desired re- Open- Loop Control (Manual Switch)
sults. All that is known is the switch - If the person in this room is too cold, they
have to get up and turn off the equipment
closed so the equipment or device was
- There is no feedback to tum the equipment
told to go on. This kind of control of- on or off
ten uses a time clock to tum things
like lights or lawn sprinklers on and Figure 4
off. Typically, this type of control is Open-Loop Control Provides No Feedback.
never used by itself for the control of
comfort or equipm~nt.
Closed-loop control would replace the manual switch with a bi-
metallic switch, or thermostat, that would tum on equipment or tum
off equipment as the temperature changed. If this bimetallic switch
energized a rooftop unit with a cooling coil, then you would see the
unit turning on and off as the air temperature warmed and cooled.
The affect of the unit running with the cooling coil changes the air
temperature that causes the bimetallic switch to move, to either tum
on or tum off the air handler unit. This in effect feeds back the result
of the action of the rooftop unit and cooling coil.

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Control Actions
One of the things that must be looked at is the kind of control action required to produce the
desired result in a controlled device, equipment or system. There are several different types of
control actions:
• Two-position
• Timed two-position
• Floating-point
• Proportional (P)
• Proportional + Integral (PI)
• Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID)
Control of devices, equipment, and systems will use any one or combination of these actions
to produce the desired result. A brief description of each follows , after which we will analyze in
more detail the three control actions used in DDC (direct digital control).

Control Terms

Before discussing the various control actions, here is a short list of terms and abbreviations
used in this section. The meanings and uses of the terms will become clear as we progress
through the next couple sections.
Controlled Variable is the changing measured value that needs to be held constant.
Set point is the fixed value to which a controlled variable needs to be maintained. This is often
referred to as the control value.
Measured Value is the actual sensed condition of a controlled variable. This could be tempera-
ture, humidity, cfm, gpm, or static pressure to mention a few.
Analog is a continuously changing condition with an infinite number of measured values.
Discrete is a condition that has two and only two measured conditions.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the set point that initiates corrective ac-
tion to maintain set point.
Gain is a constant value that is used to amplify or reduce the effect of the error on the output of a
control loop.
Dead Band is the control area of a controlled variable in which the measured value will not initi-
ate any form of corrective action.
Limits (high and low) are conditions that define the range of the dead band of normal operation.
This is often referenced as a+/- value from set point.
Control Differential is the span between the high and low limits.
Operating Differential is the span of the measured value of the controlled variable from its high-
est measured value to its lowest measured value when under control.
Offset is the steady state difference between the set point and measured value. Offset is often in-
correctly referred to as error. This term is only significant in a proportional control action. In
other control actions the value of offset tries to go to zero.
Overshoot is the maximum measured value above the set point.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Undershoot is the minimum measured value below the set point.

Control devices are the sensors and actuators (specific hardware devices) that perform an action
that is used to control equipment.
Controlled devices are the valves, fans and dampers that implement the actions requested by the
logic within the controller.

Two-Position (On-Off)

Two-position control action pro-

duces a change that has only two
values (i.e. on-off, opened-closed,
enabled-disabled). For example, a
constant volume fan status (e.g. an
indicator light or control system in-
put) is either on or off while the fan
relay is energized or de-energized. A
solenoid valve is commonly either
open or closed. In the digital control-
ler world, this is either a "1" or a "0"
state. Where " 1" is a positive state or
true or on and "0" is a negative state
or false or off.
A simple example of a two- Figure 5
position control is that of a window Two-Position (On-Ojj) Control Action
air conditioner where the compressor
is cycled on and o"ff using a bimetallic thermostat in an effort to provide comfort. Other examples
might be a parking lot lighting control using a photocell, or a pressure switch to turn an air com-
pressor on and off as the pressure in the system goes up and down.

Timed Two-Position

Timed two-position control action is known as pulsed width modulation (PWM). This control
action is one that uses a two-position device with a timing circuit to control how long the device
is held open and how long it is held
On Time Off Time
closed. The time the device is enabled
or disabled is determined by how far
the measured value is from the control (Op~~ed)
point (set point). This produces a form
of modulating control action. This
form of control was used early in the OFF
-
"'"'
~

development of Direct Digital Control (Closed) T1 T2 T3 T4 Ts

(DDC) systems. As true analog modu- Fixed Cycle Time
lating control devices have become
available, the use of this control has Figure 6
all but disappeared. Timed Two-Position Control Action

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

A typical example of a timed two-position control action would be the power control in ami-
crowave oven. The oven power output is fixed, so to get different power levels, the microwave is
cycled on for a short time period and then off for a short period. The result is an average power
output close to the desired required power level. An HVAC application using this same technique
would be an air terminal electric heater.

Floating-Point

Floating-point control action is a form of modulating control. It requires a control device that
uses a signal to drive to one position and a different signal to drive back to a starting position. In
floating-point control, when the measured value exceeds either control value limit, a signal is sent
to the control device to move in one
direction or the other. If the measured
value is within the control differential,
no signal is sent and the device would
stay in its last position. This is differ-
ent than true modulating control
because the measured value is al-
lowed to wander between the high and
low limits.
Measured
Value

Figure 7
Floating-Point Control Action

Floating-point control does perform a reasonable job at providing modulation control for
some systems where the reaction of the system to changes is not significant. Floating-point actua-
tors are less expensive then true modulating actuators. An example of a floating-point actuator
would be a hot water valve on a 1/2-in hot water supply line to a fan coil unit, where the set point
is 72° F with a high limit of 73° F and a low limit of 71 o F. The control differential is+/- 1 o F.
The heating valve will open when the measured value is below 71 ° F and will stop opening if the
measured value is greater then 71 o F but below the high limit of 73 o F. The heating valve will
stay in that position until the measured value gets to be greater then 73 o F at which point the heat-
ing valve will start to close. When the measured value drop below 73 o F the heating valve will
stop closing and stay in that position until the measured value drops below 71 o F.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Proportional (P)

Proportional control action is the basis for all proportional control systems. This type of con-
trol action changes the amount of action taken based on how far the measured value is from the
/Overshoot desired control value or set point. The farther
Offset
the measured value is from the set point the
more action will be taken to try to get back to
the desired control value. The difference be-
tween the actual measured value and this set
point is called error. The proportional output
value, or Pterm, is derived by multiplying this
error by a constant called a proportional gain, or
Kp, which is a fixed value giving an output
value that is proportional to the error. There is a
term called the start value that is added to this
output value for instances where the initial out-
put should not be zero, such as the minimum
Figure 8 setting for an outdoor air damper being 10 per-
Proportional (P) Control Action cent open.
Now is a good time to introduce a term called a control algorithm. As a mathematical proce-
dure, algorithms form the basis of all control activities. An HVAC algorithm is a programmed
mathematical control routine that looks at sensor inputs
and set point values, corrects with proportional, integral
and derivative gains, and is configured for a specific
application to control an output device. Many equip-
ment-specific HVAC algorithms are normally pre-
engineered and programmed directly into DDC control-
lers.
Proportional control action is the most basic example of a single-value control algorithm. In
this case, it changes the output action as the measured value moves away from the set point value.

P Algorithm

Output Value= Pterm + start value

Pterm = (set point - measured value) * Kp (error)* Kp
or
Output Value = (error * Kp) +start value
Here is an example of a simple cooling valve control using a proportion control. For this ex-
ample, the set point is 70° F and the sensor measures 72° F. To calculate the error, take the set
point minus measured value, which is 2° F, or 2. For this example, the start value is zero (0).
This example will use a proportional gain Kp of -20. From above the error is -2° F. When Kp
multiplies this, the proportional output will be 40 (the output value represents the controlled de-
vice, say a valve, percent open) or 40 percent open.

Output= ((70 - 72) * (-20)) + 0 = 40

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Now if the error is -4° F, the proportional output likewise doubles to 80 percent open. The
change in output is proportional to the change in error.
Proportional control action does provide reasonable control for many systems. It requires that
there be a change in the difference between the measured value and the set point (error) to have
the output value change. This will stay constant until there is change in the error. Therefore, for a
given error the output is constant. If there is no change in this error, the output will stay constant.
As a result, the measured value may never get to the set point value. The difference between the
measured value after a long period of time and the set point is known as the offset.
Proportional control action also allows actions to be taken that cause over and under achiev-
ing the desired result. If the measured value changes and the response is too great, the device will
overcompensate repeatedly, moving from a full-open position to a full-closed position, never
reaching the set point. This control condition is referred to as hunting. It is a waste of energy and
it reduces the life of the controlled device.
A typical example of proportional control that you might encounter in normal HVAC applica-
tions is space temperature control, where a sensor or thermostat located in the room provides set
point feedback that establishes the error signal driving the algorithm that varies the capacity of
the cooling or heating supplied to the room.

Proportional + Integral (PI)

Proportional + integral control action uses the proportional control action, but with an addi-
tional value in the resulting output. This additional value is called the integral output or Iterm.
While the proportional value does not
change with time, the integral value is Overshoot
time-dependent. The integral term looks
at the error just like the proportional
t ~ Measured Value
Set Point
term and multiples the error with an in-
tegral gain, or K~, which is also a fixed
value. The K1 value is usually signifi-
cantly smaller than the Kp value. The
result of this calculation is an integral
value. This integral value is added to the
proportional value to give you an output
value. However, this value will be re-
calculated over time and the last integral
value added to the new calculated value
plus the proportion term. The result is
that the output value will change with
time. PI control action also adds a start- Figure 9
ing value to the output value for
Proportional + Integral (PI) Control Action
instances where the initial output is not
zero.
Proportional + integral control action is an example of a two-value control algorithm. In this
case, there is an additional value called the integral term that wants to make the error zero over
time by increasing or reducing this value. Even if the error value is constant, this term will con-
tinue to change to reduce this error to zero.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

PI Algorithm

Output Value= Pterm + !term + start value

Pterm =(error)* Kp
!term = (error * KJ) + !value (last calculated !term)
Start value= a specific control value required for the application (This is a fixed value or constant.)
From the example above, the first error was -2° F and the start value was zero (0). If the Kr value
were -1 , the integral term would be the error multiplied by the Kr, plus the previous integral
value, or !term = (-2 * -1) + 0 = 2
The PI output would be the proportional term from above, 40, plus the integral term of 2 for
an output value of 42. Now, the next time we calculate the output with the PI control the propor-
tional term will not change the second calculation of the (I) valve will again be 2. The integral
term will be 2 plus the last value of 2, for a total value of 4. The new PI output is now 44. Each
time the (I) value is recalculated the integral term will increase or decrease depending on the er-
ror. This has the effect of dampening the proportional output and avoiding overshooting.
The timing of the recalculating algorithm is important
to the PI control action. The timing set for recalculation
will address how quickly and how often the output value
will change. Recalculating every minute will give you a
different output than recalculating every 2 minutes.
PI control action, with the addition of an integral term to the proportional term, allows the
output to change when the error is constant. The integral term eliminates offset quickly and helps
to reduce the amount of hunting seen in the proportional only control action. These two features
make PI control well suited for most HV AC control applications.
A typical example of proportional + integral control that you might encounter in normal
HVAC applications is fan static pressure control in the supply ductwork, where a sensor located
in the downstream ductwork provides set point feedback that establishes the error signal driving
the algorithm that varies the speed of the fan.

Proportional+ Integral+ Derivative (PID)

Measured Value
Proportional + integral + deriva-
Set Point
tive control action builds on PI
control action by adding a third value • Rroport!dn~l term
to the resulting output. This last term i- Propoitiorial to error
• lrhegraljterm
is called the derivative term, or r C~an~~s ~ith time even with constant error
Dterm. The derivative term looks at • Deriyahve term
r Chang~s ~ith change in error
the rate of change in error and multi-
ples this by a derivative gain, or K 0 .
This is usually a value smaller then
the Kp or Kr values. Once again, a
starting value is added to the output
value where the initial output is not
zero. Figure 10
Prop ortional + Integral+ Derivative (PID) Control Action

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CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

PID Algorithm

Output Value= Pterm + !term + Dterm + start value

Pterm =(error)* K p
!term = (error) * K 1 + !term (last calculated)
Dterm = (current error - previous error) * K D
Start Value= specific control value
The PID control action, with the addition of a derivative term, is now a three-value control
algorithm. The total output value is now a combination of the proportional value, which was pro-
portional to the error. The integral value increases with time if the error did not decrease and the
derivative value that changes with the change in the error. If the error does not change, the deriva-
tive term goes to zero (0). If the error is decreasing in value, the derivative term becomes negative
and acts like a "brake" to reduce the effective output.
If the change in error is increasing, the derivative
term acts like a booster to help increase the effective
output. The derivative term helps to eliminate offset
and hunting. The need for critical control in HVAC
systems is usually limited to steam heating systems
where the energy content in the system requires PID
control action for the steam valves.
In most HV AC applications, the large thermal inertia of the conditioned spaces within the
building lengthens the time cycle for responding to temperature changes, making PI control ac-
tion adequate in most applications. This will become more apparent in the next section as we
analyze the three DDC control actions in greater depth.

Control Action Analysis

Each of the control actions has unique characteristics that dictate how they are used in control
strategies. The proportional, integral, and derivative terms can be adjusted, as needed, to get the
desired loop control response. When one of the terms is not desired, it is simply zeroed out. The
adjustment is made either by user configuration or automatically, using a special loop tuning
software program, in which case it is called a self-tuning loop.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Overshoot/Undershoot/Settling Time

The proportional control action has no way to anticipate the rate at which the controlled vari-
able approaches the set point.
If the output increase is large in Measured Value\ /Overshoot
comparison to the load increase, the
rate at which the output change ap- i 1---1---+---+-~------set
(])
Point
proaches the set point will be rapid. ::0
ro
By the time the control responds, the
output correction will overshoot. ~
Next, the control will react, over- "0
~
responding in the opposite direction, j:;
c:
causing the control loop to under- 0

shoot, and so forth. Once the system u ~~--~--~--~--~---------~

l Time-J
equilibrium is disturbed by a load or v
capacity change, the time it takes for Settling
Time
this oscillation to calm down to a rea-
sonable variation around set point is Figure 11
called the settling time.
Lengthy Settling Time With Proportional Control

Gain

Not all devices being controlled need to respond the same to changes. The specific applica-
tion and the type of device being controlled will determine the response needed to a given error
(set point value - measured value). The output response will depend on the multiplier applied to
the error. This multiplier in a proportional control loop is called the gain or the proportional gain
(Kp ). The greater the gain, the greater the response to a change in the error (the difference be-
tween the sensor value and the set point value).
For example, with a Kp or gain of 1 would mean that if the temperature measured is 72° F and
the set point 70° F, the error is 2. Multiple the error by the gain of 1, the output response would be
2. Now if the Kp is 4, the output response will be 8, and if the Kp is 10, the output response will
be 20. The result is that the larger the Kp or gain, the more sensitive the output response will be to
a small change of the sensed value.
The amount of sensitivity will also affect the amount of overshoot and undershoot of the pro-
portional control strategy. The greater the gain the greater the overshoot and undershoot. Gain can
be changed through user-selectable configuration of a DDC proportional control loop. This is of-
ten referred to as the proportional gain.

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CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

Offset

There is an inherent characteristic of proportional control called offset. Offset is the differ-
ence between the stabilized, or settled, controlled variable condition and the set point. Offset
occurs because of proportional gain.
It will happen whenever the error is
less than the gain setting. In propor-
tional control action, if the error does
not change, the output stays constant,
and you are left with an offset.
"0
Like proportional control action, ~

the added affect in PI control is a

gc:
0
change based on the difference of the 0 ~~--~--~--~---------------
control value to the measured vari- Time-
able multiplied by another gain, the Figure 12
integral gain.
Offset Remains In Proportional Control

Integral Term
PI control will continue to re-calculate the output value over time. In doing so it will be in- .
creasing or decreasing the output value by the integral term. For a fixed difference in the error
value, there will be changing output over time as the control tries to move closer to the control
value. The integral term changes the output to help produce a desired result, like moving the
measured value closer to set point in a shorter time.
The integral term eliminates the offset over a very short time. The integral term also helps to
reduce the amount of hunting seen in the propmiional control action. Such features make PI con-
trol action appropriate for most HVAC control strategies.

Derivative Term

The addition of the derivative term to the proportional and integral terms adds the change in
the error to the control output. The derivative term keeps the over and undershooting of the con-
trol value to a minimum by adding an opposite value to the output, acting like a braking system.
The derivative value is not used in most HVAC algorithm applications because in HVAC applica-
tions measured values change in minutes. The slow change of values, along with the large
thermal inertia of a typical HVAC system, makes the effect of a derivative term in the algorithm
unnecessary. When quick and precise responses are required to prevent a safety concern or a reli-
ability concern, a derivative term is used in the control strategy. Typically, this occurs when
control of steam is involved. When using steam, extreme pressure and water hammer can cause
safety and reliability concerns.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Common HVAC Control Strategies

Different devices or equipment

Application Strategy Action or Algorithm
components in HVAC systems re-
quire different control strategies to Mixed Air Dampers PI

Chilled Water Coil Valve with

perform effectively. Figure 13 shows Discharge Sensor
PI
a list of common HVAC control
Hot Water Coil Valve with
strategies that are found in DDC sys- Discharge Sensor PI

tems. Remember, HVAC system

Static Pressure Control of Supply
characteristics do not change the Fan PI

same as in industrial process control.

Flow Tracking
Factors such as space temperature do Control of Return Air PI

not change in fractions of a second, Hot Water Converter

PI
or seconds, but in minutes. For ex- (Mixing/Diverting Valve)
ample, the outside air temperature Temperature Control p
will not significantly change in tens
Steam Heating Valve PID
of minutes. Therefore, the kind of
control strategy for a device will re- PI
p = Proportional
= Proportional + Integral
flect this. If you look at this chart, PID = Proportional + Integral + Derivative
you will see that only the control of a
steam control valve has a full PID Figure 13
control Strategy. Common HVAC Control Strategies

Control Devices versus Controlled Devices

Control devices, like sensors and actuators, have been described in relation to actions as input
and output points. These input and output points are specific hardware devices that perform an
action that is used to control equip-
ment.
Controlled devices, like valves, Control Thermostat
fans and dampers, implement the ac- Devices Temperature Sensor Fan Status Switch
tions requested by the logic within
the controller.
Both are grouped into one of the
following four point types: Analog
Input (AI), Discrete Input (DI), Ana- Controlled Solenoid Valve C?
8
Fan
log Output (AO), or Discrete Output Devices Pump
l\!\t\ISI\1
(DO). Outdoor Air Damper
3-WayValve

Figure 14
Control Devices and Controlled Devices Are Different.

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Types of Control Devices

Relays and Contactors
DDC systems are not powerful enough to directly energize equipment, they use relays and
contactors to activate other devices or start motors. Relays are used for lower power applications
and contactors for higher power application like turning equipment, fans, and pumps on and off.
These are typically DO (Discrete Output) devices

Actuators
The DDC system will provide a signal (4 to 20 milliamp or 0 to 10 vdc signals) to devices
called actuators. These actuators will take signal from the DDC system and drive devices like
valves and dampers opened or closed. These are typically AO (Analog Output) devices.

Switches
The DDC system requires information about the status of equipment during operation and re-
lies on a wide family of switches to provide the information. Switches provide important
information to control the sequence of operation. These include start/stop, end limit, minimum
position, and level limit switches, along with safety limit switches. Some of these switches are
internal to sensing devices used to determine things like fan status, filter status, and high and low
safety limits. These are typically DI (Discrete Input) devices.

Sensors
The DDC system relies heavily on sensor input to function effectively. Sensors measure
many conditions used in the proper operation of equipment and control of building systems, such
as temperature (space, duct, outside air, mixed air and return air), pressure (in ductwork, piping
and the building), liquid flow, airflow, humidity (space, return and outside), current (equipment
and building), voltage, and carbon dioxide (indoors and outdoors) just to name a few. These are
typically AI (Analog Input) devices.

Types of Controlled Devices

Whereas the control device responds to or inputs signals associated with the controller, the
controlled device is the end piece of equipment or component that the control acts upon. Another
way to think of controlled devices is that they are those items noted in the sequences of operation,
including such common HVAC items as the following:
1) Valve (water, steam, refrigerant, and compressed air)
2) Heater elements
3) Equipment (boiler, chiller, and tower)
4) Drive motorNFD (fans and pumps)
5) Damper (outdoor, return, and zone)
6) Pilot positioner (for inlet guide vanes, valves, dampers, etc)
Application of control and controlled devices is presented in many of the product TDPs, but
detailed treatment of the subject is reserved for other texts, many of which are noted in the refer-
ences at the back of this TDP.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Types of Control Systems

There are several typical types of control systems in use today on HVAC systems:
• Pneumatic control
• Electric control
• Electronic or Direct Digital Control (DDC)
These control systems dictate the type and degree of control for the devices, equipment, or
systems that are being controlled. Pneumatic control is often used where power and speed of ac-
tions are of concern, like large dampers that must close quickly. In addition, pneumatic controls
are better suited to harsh environments. Electric control is used with equipment with specific ap-
plication requirements and where modification to the operation of the equipment needs to be
restricted to qualified service personnel. Troubleshooting of electric controls is quite simple, not
requiring anything more then a standard multi-meter and an elementary understanding of electric-
ity. Electronic or DDC systems are used were more complex control logic is required involving
multiple layered sequences of control, along with applications requiring a high degree flexibility
in modifying sequences. DDC systems allow for sharing of information between controllers as
well as the ability to display information on a computer screen.

Pneumatic Control
Pneumatic control systems have been around the longest and have provided the foundation
for control concepts used by other control systems. A pneumatic control system is an inherently
analog logic control system. A pneumatic control system operates on air pressure between 0 and
20 psig. This allows for variable control output (modulated output), unlike electric control that
would per-
form on and Outside
off control. Air Temp.
Sensor

IActuators I

Electric/
Pneumatic ~_..;;;f,....;;'f"""\1
Devices

Temp. Ctrl. Panel

Figure 15
VA V Air Handler, with Pneumatic Controls

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

An example of pneumatic control is the simple thennostat and water or steam valve that has
been around since before 1900. This device works by using compressed main air that is con-
stantly supplied from a compressor through tubing to the thermostat. The throttling range
indicated in Figure 17 is actually a
combination of the operating range
(end points of the line) and the pro- Thermostat and Valve
portional gain (slope of the line).
Inside the thermostat is a bimetallic 'i (100 )
~

element that flexes in reaction to tem- Vi {90)

l
perature changes. This movement "'::> (70)
(80)
MINIMUM
THROTILING RANG E =
5F (2.8C)
(/)
(60)
determines the amount of branch air illa. (50)(/)

w (40)
necessary to adjust the position of the z
::; (30)
I
valve. u
z
(20)

~ (10)
"' 0 (8) (7) (6) (5) 14) (3) (2) (1) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
BELOW SET POINT SET POINT ABOVE SET PO INT
DEVIATION IN SPACE TE MPERATURE· DEGREES F (C)

Figure 16
Pneumatic Control Action

Pneumatic control systems have the advantage of being able to cost-effectively modulate de-
vices like hot water valves, cooling valves, inlet guide vanes, and dampers, such as outdoor air
and exhaust dampers. A pneumatic control system cannot easily share measured values with other
devices being controlled.
A pneumatic control system uses the characteristics of bellows, spring rates, balance beams,
and bimetallic elements or pressure differences to produce the required control. To change the
operating conditions (set points) of an HVAC system using pneumatic controls requires mechani-
cal adjustments to be made to the bellows, spring tensions, balance beams pivot points, and
bimetallic elements of the hardware. If the change were in the control logic then it would require
hardware changes along with the addition of more devices to the system.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Pneumatic Control System Requirements

The typical pneumatic system requires the following :

1) An air compressor for control signals, and power to drive actuators. Most pneumatic de-
vices are bleed devices that allow air to escape, so the compressor replaces the lost air.
2) A way to dry the compressed air. Moisture is a big enemy of pneumatic systems because
it will damage pneumatic devices and plug bleed ports.
3) There is a large network of tubing to distribute compressed air to all the devices within
the building doing the controlling and being controlled. There are typically two sets of
pneumatic tubing, the first is called the main lines (typically 1/2-in. copper) and the sec-
ond set is the branch lines (typically fire retardant 1/8-in. tubing).
4) Sensors for temperature, pressure, position, and status.
5) Actuators to drive open and drive close dampers, heating and cooling valves, and inlet
guide vanes.
6) Pneumatic logic devices such as receiver-controllers, comparators, accumulators, and
converting devices like a P/E (converts a pneumatic signal to an electrical), and its coun-
terpart the E/P.
The air compressors on these systems have to be available all day, all week, and all year to
replenish the air lost by the bleed-type sensors and actuators. In addition, pneumatic systems are
composed of mechanical linkages, springs, and balance beams that require frequent calibration
and maintenance. Often the re-calibration of key elements varies, leaving control loops operating
inconsistent!y.

Pneumatic Control Characteristics

Pneumatic systems can operate in extreme conditions, both indoors and outdoors. The actua-
tors can be powerful, quick to open and close, cost effective, reliable, and will even operate for a
while during power interruption. However, pneumatic sensors are not as sensitive as electronic
sensors. The sharing of measured values is not easy, and there are limitations on how many sen-
sors can be joined to a signal comparator that will average the values or pass through the high or
low signal. In HVAC systems pneumatics are still applied as part of a hybrid system using a DDC
controller, with pneumatic operators on valves and dampers.

Electric Control

Electric control is often called relay logic because so much of the control logic is imple-
mented with relays, which are electrically activated switches that change the state of a component
or reconfigure a circuit pathway. Relays are used to switch the power to the devices being con-
trolled. Typically, a device is in either the on or off mode or position. Electric control will use
other devices that contain switches to tum the relays on or off. The switching function is built into
control devices like thermostats, pressure and flow sensors, level indicators, time clocks, and po-
sition-indicating devices. The control logic of electric control, like that of a pneumatic control,
has to be built into the hardware that is being used.

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CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

Electric Control Diagrams

For electric control sys- • ..----120VCONTROL
11me
Clock
VOLTAGE - - - - · ·

tems, the logic and layout of

controls is done with a ladder
diagram. It is called a ladder Fan Motor
or
diagram because there are hori- FC-1
Fan Ol OL OL
Starter Coil
zontal lines of control for each
item being controlled. These 4 12l • Sequence of operation is
horizontal lines look like rungs typically top to bottom
on a ladder. The vertical lines • Control logic change
HW-1 requires replacement of
represent the control voltage. Pump OL OL OL
components and wiring
The ladder diagram allows
someone to follow the path of
electricity through the switches
and relays to the device that is R1.0

being controlled. With an elec-

tric meter someone can
troubleshoot the control system
to locate a problem. Figure 17
Electric Control Diagram

Electric Control System Requirements

The typical electric control system requires the following:

1) A specific, fixed or pre-determined control sequence of operation
2) All conditions being measured will be viewed as two possible values of acceptable or
unacceptable results with no in-between values.
3) Most actuators for valve or damper control will be two-position or floating-point for
modulation. The starting and stopping of equipment would be done with control volt-
age relays that switch power circuit contactors or equipment motor starters.
4) The control logic will be hardwired into the electric control circuit called a ladder
diagram. Control of items requires direct wiring to and from the control hardware and
the controlled devices.
5) Typical power availability for an electric control system would be the primary AC
voltage supplied to the equipment. If this voltage is too high, then control voltage
would be transformed down to something like 24 or 110 Volts AC.
6) Owner, operator, or technician monitoring is done with gauges, indicator lights or
alarm systems. There is limited ability to modify the electric control systems.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Electric Control Characteristics

The logic of the electric control system is set with Being "hard wired,'':
hardware designed for specific sequences and appli-
cations. Electric control, like pneumatic control, is not
easy to change purpose or application. Such changes
require hardware modifications to control compo-
nents. That is why electric control systems are best
suited for factory-installed packaged equipment ap-
plications.
The concept of fail-safe was first used with pneumatic heating controls in northern climates.
This kept building water piping from freezing if the heating controls lost air pressure. This same
concept is continued with electric and electronic control systems. The heating valves are designed
so they fail in an opened position allowing for maximum heat. The valve used to do this are re-
ferred to as a normally open (NO) valve. For these valves to close, a control signal is required.
Cooling coil valves are normally closed (NC) and air pressure is required to open the valve.
These valves will fail closed.
Electric control systems remain very prevalent at the equipment level for packaged equip-
ment. Residential and light commercial HVAC systems commonly use electric control systems
because of their simplicity and reliability. They are simple to install and troubleshoot. Electric
sensors, actuators and control loops are often the cost-effective solution on many smaller com-
mercial HVAC systems that do not use more complex sequences of control or require PI or PID
algorithms.

Electronic or Direct Digital Control (DDC)

With microprocessor development
(an integrated circuit that contains the
Local
entire central processing unit of a com-
puter on a single chip), the world of
HVAC controls moved into DDC (di- Schedules

rect digital control), utilizing electronic Set Point !Memory ! Pumps

sensors, low-voltage wiring, electronic
actuators, digital computers (called Time/Date Algorithm Valves
controllers), and software written spe- Libraries
!{Temperature Actuators
cifically for HVAC control sequences
(made up of algorithms). w C02 Towers

DDC controllers can be designed to Inputs DOC Controller Outputs

be product-specific or general-purpose
controllers (Figure 22). Figure 18
DDC Control System Elements

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CONTROLS,LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

DDC systems allow for flexibility and easy monitoring of sensors and actuators. Typical
HVAC control sensors and actuators require low voltage (under 24 volts) control wiring to be
installed to transmit the re-
quired measured values to
Supply Air
the controller and the soft- Temperature
ware that defines the control
logic. Control of devices is
done with software and a
microprocessor, along with
appropriate input and output Fan Status
Switch
hardware. Functional logic
is not in the hardware, but in Product-Specific General Purpose
the software, only requiring -Sensors - Sensors
- Actuator - Actuator
changing the software val- - Solenoids I Valves - Solenoids I Valves
ues. This allows for • Factory-Installed • Field-Installed
increased flexibility with a • Specific Purpose • Field Programmable to
DDC system. In addition, all Fixed Program Meet Site Requirements
the measured value informa-
tion about the DDC system Figure 19
is in a digital form and can Typ es of DDC Controllers
be viewed for monitoring
purposes or stored for archiving.

History of DDC

The term DDC has been used for many years now, but it originated in the 1950s in the oil in-
dustry. Over time, the number of industrial process control applications of DDC control systems
steadily increased. It took the energy crisis of the 1970s to bring this technology into the HVAC
environment in the form of the early Energy Management Systems (EMS).
These first applications of microprocessor-controlled equipment were more of an overlay to
existing pneumatic controls of the time. At that time, most large building HVAC systems used
pneumatic devices for comfort control. Companies that tried to apply computer technology to
these systems only overlaid the DDC controllers on top of the pneumatics, which still did the di-
rect equipment control, but the computers monitored and, only occasionally, intervened in the
pneumatic control processes.
Over the years, many industrial controls companies tried to
apply the industrial control system to the HVAC market, but
these powerful industrial control systems were beyond the needs
of the typical buildings of the time.
Eventually, HVAC-specific controllers were developed that
replaced the pneumatic devices with microprocessor modules and
innovative software, which provided direct control using digital
techniques. Computer software replaced hardware logic, but still
interface with electric relays, switches, and direct pneumatic
hardware for actuation purposes.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

DDC System Requirements

The typical DDC system requires the following:

1) A communication bus or wiring network to connect all the controllers, either directly or
indirectly, to each other.
2) Electronic sensors to measure things like temperature, pressure, C0 2 (indoors and out-
doors) , humidity (indoors and outdoors) to mention a few.
3) Electronic actuators for valves or damper control. The may be floating-point or full
modulation, using 4 to 20 milliamp, or 2 to 10 Volt DC signals as controller output. The
starting and stopping of equipment would be done similar to electric controls using re-
lays, contactors or motor starters.
4) The control logic for the sequences of operation would be in a microprocessor controller
that may be pre-programmed for a product specific application or a general purpose con-
troller, field programmed for site-specific requirements.
5) Typical power supply for a DDC system is 24 Volts AC. Many of the controllers and mi-
croprocessors require less then 24 Volts AC to function. Lower voltages and rectification
to DC voltage is performed internally to the controllers.
6) Owner, operator or technician access to view the DDC system components is through a
user interface. This device consists of a PC (Personal Computer) or equipment-mounted
device with vendor-specific software that will allow for monitoring and modifying the
DDC controller software.

DDC Control Characteristics

DDC systems operate in controlled environmental conditions, typically indoors with specially
designed systems for outdoors. The electronic actuators are not as powerful as pneumatic actua-
tors, have limits on how quickly they open and close and they will not operate during power
interruption without a backup power system. However, DDC sensors are extremely sensitive and
accurate.
DDC information can be shared between controllers
as well as with a PC to monitor the system, modify the
system and generate reports about how the system is op-
erating.

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CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

DDC Architecture

DDC systems are available in two architecture types, centralized (polling), and distributed
(peer-to-peer) processing.
A centralized processing system
uses a single microprocessor control
panel for all the activity of the system.
The individual pieces of equipment
are being polled and controlled from a Polling
central DDC processor (with optional DOC Network
panel to the user interface, if re- Communication
quired). They wait for commands on
how to function, along with providing
sensor information to the processor to Optional Panel
help make decisions. The individual
pieces of equipment cannot function
completely alone. They have a safe
mode they operate in if communica-
tions are interrupted. This system can
Figure 20
have the original setup easily changed
from a user interface to match operat- A centralized DDC system is hierarchical.
ing condition changes.
The other type is a distributed
processing system, where activities
for each piece of equipment are lo-
cally controlled and the central system
(normally contained in the user inter-
face microprocessor) is used to
Peer-to-Peer
exchange information and monitor
activities of the equipment. In this
type of system, most of the equipment
is designed to stand alone and run
autonomously without continuing di-
rection or instructions beyond the
original setup. Here too the original
equipment setups can be modified
later to meet the changed job operat-
ing conditions.
Figure 21
A Distributed DDC System Offers Stand-Alone Features.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Defining a General-Purpose Controller

Physically, a general purpose DDC controller is a control system module or "black box" that
has a microprocessor (computer chip or CPU) inside, as well as all the electronics to support it
and provide the signal conditioning
Sensors Human Interface
necessary to interpret sensor readings
(inputs) and to drive actuators (out-
puts). It also needs a source of power
and usually incorporates communica-
. . ...
ae ••• cua
-····
I:U:I Ill • • 1111

tions ports for networking and human

interface.
As with any microprocessor-based
device, the DDC controller is depend-
ent on its software, or internal
programming, for proper functioning.
Some of this software is the operating
system which allows the computer
processor to communicate digitally, Figure 22
process data, store information in
memory, and maintain an internal clock General-Purpose Co ntrollers Are Programmed To Job Needs.
to provide timing functions. The soft-
ware that impacts the HVAC world is the family of algorithms (mathematical procedure that
solves a recurrent computation) that create the control routines and programs specific to HVAC
components. DDC control systems with microprocessors lend themselves to algorithm-based con-
trol logic.
Interoperability (ability of software and hardware
on different systems from many vendors to communi-
cate) has made integrating with lighting controllers,
card access systems, and other, non-traditional HVAC
building components increasingly popular. This is
presented in TDP-802 the Controls, Level 2, DDC
Networking.
The hallmarks of well-designed general-purpose DDC controllers are:
1) Having flexibility of input/output compliment, with sufficient numbers of inputs and out-
puts per controller, usually a minimum of eight of each type.
2) Versatility of control with easy programming procedures or pre-programmed algorithms
to apply to the widest variety of field situations
3) The ability to custom program for non-standard or unique jobsite requirements. In these
cases, the application engineer will write a custom algorithm using the custom program-
ming language.
4) Ability to operate in a stand-alone environment without outside intervention.
5) Ability to monitor, at a PC workstation or remotely from an off-site location.
6) Ability to work with other controllers to exchange information and give commands.
7) Ability to provide alarm reporting.

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CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

DDC Network

DDC systems rely on a commu-

nication network that links all of the
equipment and devices together on a
common network. This network is
used for both information exchanges
as well as for direct control. Some of
these network systems are simple
three-wire networks and others are
Ethemet-based (industry standard
local area network using coaxial ca-
ble) systems. Technology is
constantly changing, allowing the
combining of different DDC net- Figure 23
works to operate together. A DDC Network Links All System Controlled Devices.

User Interfaces
DDC systems are, for the most part, electronically based control systems. The factory mount-
ing of analog readouts on equipment is no longer seen. Therefore, some form of monitoring
capability is required. This monitor-
ing is done with what is call a user
interface or "front-end." This inter-
face can be equipment-mounted
.!11 ...
digital displays, hand-held devices
that plug into equipment, or computer
based software that all use the DDC
network to gather information. Their
purpose is to provide access to the
operating conditions of the HVAC Hand-Held
system by displaying information Devices
about the equipment, along with Computer Software
modification of the equipment se-
quences of operation. Figure 24
User Interfaces Are Available At Many Locations.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Direct Digital Control Theory

DDC operates by means of mathematical formulas imbedded in software that runs continu-
ously in a microprocessor. Therefore, when compared to traditional pneumatic or electric control,
DDC systems are unique in the way they operate regardless of the control action. However, the
result of proportional DDC control action is not unlike a pneumatic control loop. Therefore, we
will start there to illustrate the proportional control concept.

Control Loops
Control loops have to do with how a device is being controlled. In the DDC environment, a
control loop can be called an algorithm. An algorithm is a mathematical procedure that solves a
recurrent computation. In controlling a device with a DDC system, an algorithm is used to define
how a device is going to be controlled as well as what requirements are monitored and what ac-
tion is taken at the output. A simple example would be a mixed air damper control loop, where
the leaving air temperature is the monitored condition and the blending of two airflows of differ-
ent temperature are what is being controlled. The word loop implies that the action ends up back
where it started. A DDC control loop looks at the action taken at the output and insures that the
action is correct. If the actions are not correct then the output is changed or modified to obtain the
correct or desired result.

Open-Loop

An open-loop control algorithm is one ~Input DOC Output

where the action being given at the output is L.::.::::J- Controller
not monitored. All that happens is that a sig-
nal or command is given by the controller for
an action to happen. As an example, when a
DDC system is acting like a time clock and is
just providing a command for something to No Feed Back
go on or offbased on a time schedule.
Figure 25
Open-Loop Control Operates Blind.
Closed-Loop

A closed-loop control algorithm is one

where the action being given at the output is DDC output
monitored. The DDC software is written to Controller
monitor actions taken (feedback). A DDC
system can look at related measured values in
the decision making process to more pre-
cisely determine the correct action to be
taken. Measured values can be used by more Feed Back
than one algorithm, closed-loop control moni-
Figure 26
toring actions provide increased control
accuracy. Closed-Loop Control Monitors The Action.

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Control Point Classification

A control point is a single input or output connected to a controller. Control points are used
by a DDC system in its activity of providing HVAC control. Some of the information that these
points contain comes from sensors or are calculated within the controller and sent out to execute
the algorithm. Control points are physically connected to the controller and are referred to as
hardware points, such as thermostats or damper actuators. A points list is created from all the
points needed to execute the HVAC system sequences of operation. Examples of typical points
are shown in the next section. This is separate from software points within a controller that are
used for calculations. Examples of software points are set point tables, current date and time, and
time schedules that determine occupied and non-occupied.
There are 4 types of control points used in HVAC control. As a mater of fact, there are only
four types of control points used on any control system, even missiles or airplanes. These control
points are broken down into two groups that consist of inputs and outputs. The inputs provide the
information that is used by the different algorithms to make decisions that will result in actions
being taken via the outputs.
The only difference between an HVAC
control system and that of a missile is the
speed at which these inputs are looked at,
decisions are made and action taken at the
outputs. A missile moving a 600 mph or
880 ft/sec needs to do several thousand ob-
servations per second to assure that correct
decisions are made.
Both the input and output groups are further broken down into two types: discrete (digital or
binary) and analog. The discrete points have only two states. One state represents a true or on
condition, and the other is a false or off condition. In the HVAC industry, discrete input points
would represent fan and filter status,
and minimum position switch, while INTERFACES
discrete output points would be to tum
Local
on fans and pumps, open solenoid
valves, and energize relays to stage on
equipment. The analog points are Fan Status DO Fan Start
Relay
variable points that are represented as
dynamic values that continuously ~
I
High Pressure Limit Dl I
Memory DO Pump start
Relay
1

h ·h · I h HVAC · c Temperature AI Algorithm DO Solenoid

c ange w1t t1me. n t e m- ~ Libraries Relay
dustry, analog inputs would be Static Pressure AO Damper
AI
temperature, static pressure, and air- jc P ui
...c__O_..z_ _ _ _... AI L-~==~_j AO Tower Fan
Control

flow. The analog outputs would VFD

control chilled water valves, hot water Inputs DOC Controller Outputs
valves, bypass valves, mixing valves,
inlet guide vanes, variable frequency Figure 27
drives, and damper actuators. Control Point Typ es Are Only Four In Number (AL DL AO, DO).

Tmnt o ili eE~e rt $. Controls

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Typical Input and Output Channel Signals

In DDC systems, inputs and out-

puts are discussed in relation to AI 01
hardware points. These points are • 10,0000 (@77° F) thermistor • Dry contact closure
• 5,0000 (@77° F) thermistor • Can be pulsed
items physically attached to the con-
troller channels (or wiring terminals) • 1,oooo (@70° F) RTD
• 4-20 rnA current
like sensors, switches, actuators and
• 0-1 0 VDC voltage
relays. These inputs and outputs take
some form of an electrical signal or AO DO
characteristic. Voltage, current, and • 4-20 rnA current • Dry contact closure
• 0-1 0 VDC voltage • 24V contact closure
resistance are commonly used to rep-
resent temperature, flow, volume,
Figure 28
status, position (percent open/closed)
or commands (start/stop). Typical I/0 Channel Signals

For a DDC system to understand analog signals, the signals have to be processed and con-
verted into a digital or numeric value that a microprocessor can use. The physical input and
output points are connected to specific input and output channels of the microprocessor that are
designed to convert these signals. This conversion will change the input analog signal from a sen-
sor into digital or numeric value the controller can process and evaluate. The controller then
converts the output digital or numeric value into an output signal that can be using by an actuator
or a VFD speed controller. Figure 25 shows the typical signals seen from a sensor or sent to an
actuator.

Analog Input (AI)

Analog inputs are seen from sensors that provide information about a range of conditions.
These sensors will provide either a variable resistance (Ohms), or a milliamp (4 to 20 rna) signal
or voltage (0 to 10 vdc) signal to the controller to represent the measured value. The magnitude of
these signals will represent specific values of things like temperature, pressure, flows, or levels
(C0 2). In the DDC world, software analog information like time, date, occupancy schedules, and
set point tables are added to help make decisions that will affect how the output points respond.

Discrete Input (DI)

Discrete inputs originate from switched inputs. They are two-state signals represented by
open or closed contacts that will be used to represent if something is on or off, opened or closed.
There are no in between conditions.

Analog Output (AO)

Like the analog input the analog output provides either a variable milliamp (4 to 20 rna) sig-
nal or voltage (0 to 10 vdc) signal outputs. These output signals will control things like variable
frequency drive speed, a desired valve position, or a damper position .

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CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

Discrete Output (DO)

Like the discrete input, the discrete output is a two-state signal that is represented by a change
of state. The output will change state from one condition to another. This would be used to ener-
gized relays to stop and start equipment or devices. There are no in between conditions.

Points List
· A points list is normally prepared to compliment the system diagrams and sequences of op-
eration by summarizing all the required hardware points for each system and defining the
functions each point serves. The list of points is a summary of the DI, DO, AI, or AO points and
whether the AI or AO points have voltage or milliamp signals. Functions such as alarm limits,
graphical display crite-
JobNamo:
ria, and report criteria Input/Output Point List Summary
are selected for many of 0/0
Measured
Analog In
Celc
Sv&tem Features
Discrete1n
Pro rams
Outputs
AJO Alanno
the points.

l l if II pi
System Apparatus
Ot
H fl
Without a points ~ ~ ~~·~
Area Point
i ~ :!! ~
~ §
~~ ! ; L
5l
~.?f
;
ff () 8'
v_8
E

list, controls vendors

may estimate different AHf
~l d . . .. H ~!
~
!le ~ il
§
o: w "'If h :EO 0 0II ~~ ~~~
>=il
~! ~ l
0 > O:I:
§~ H
H j;}
!= O 0 " ' f! li i!
~~
~

control functions for l ocation:

Space AM Temp(2) X X
each output point or Supply AM Temp
M~edAir Temp
X
X
may not provide the Filter Status
Stallc Pressure
X
X
necessary input points to Outskje Air Temperatuce X
R:otum iVf Temp X
effectively control each Fan Status X X X
Mixing Dampers X
system. This will also CooilngCoO Valve X X
Speed Control X X
limit the ability to moni- Star1/Stop X
tor the control system
using one of the differ- Figure 29
ent front-end systems to A Points List Tabulates System Requirements.
keep track of what the
specific system is doing.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

DDC Design for HVAC Equipment

When controlling a rooftop unit, one has to understand what is needed to make the equipment
perform in the manner desired. This information is usually conveyed by the designer through
written sequences of operation that are contained in the project specifications or noted on the
drawings.
One of the things needed is to create a list of control points. How many DI, AI, DO and AO
points are needed to receive the sensor input, send the actuator commands and communicate with
the rest of the system to obtain global information and report alarms? What time schedules, set
points, and safety requirements are needed?

Rooftop Unit Example

This example is a typical rooftop UNIT COMPONENTS
application for a single-story retail _..------..- -T"""t"-r-. - - - - - , 1. Supply Fan
D E
building with an open common area. X l 2. Two-Stage
1 .1 Electric Heating
HVAC Equipment: A constant vol-

~
3. Two-Stage
D E OX Cooling
ume rooftop unit with no factory- X r 4 . Modulating
integrated DDC control as follows: 2 2
Mixed Air Dampers
• Supply fan
Figure 30
• Two stages ofDX cooling
Rooftop Unit Example
• Two stages of electric heat
• Linked outdoor air/return air
dampers

Step 1 -Desired Control Strategies

Temperature Control: Maintain average space temperature at 75° F for cooling and 70° F for
heating during occupied times. During the unoccupied times the average space temperature will
be 80° F for cooling and 64° F for heating.
Sensor Averaging: There will be 2 temperature sensors at each end of the common area with the
average value being used to control the unit.
Mixed Air Damper control: When outside air temperature is >5° F below the room cooling set
point, dampers will modulate to allow additional outdoor air for economizer operation.
Fan Status: A differential pressure switch across the fan inlet and outlet provides indication of
fan operation.
Time Scheduling: A time schedule is required to determine when the common area is occupied
and unoccupied. This schedule will contain the time periods used to sequence the equipment con-
ditioning the common area.
Set Point Table: A temperature set point table is needed to compare against the average sensor
temperature value. This will contain all the temperature control values that the unit will be re-
quired to control to, based on the time schedule.

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Step 2 -Desired Controlled Devices

Based on the rooftop unit compo- Step 2 - Desired Controlled Devices

nents, the following points need to be
Supply Fan
connected to controller output chan- Stop/Start (1 DO)
nels: Electric Heating
Stages (2 DO)
AO: One analog output required to OX Cooling
operate the economizer function of Stages (2 DO)
the outdoor/return air dampers. Dampers (1 AO)

DO: There are several discrete out-

Electric Heating
puts required as follows: Stage#2

• One supply fan start/stop relay Figure 31

• Two relays for the DX cooling
Desired Controlled Devices
stages
• Two relays for the electric heat stages
• One variable current or voltage output for positioning the outdoor air/return air dampers

Step 3 - Control Action Selections

With the simple electric controls used on the rooftop unit, most of the DDC control strategies
can be implemented by using two-position control action connected up as follows:

DO: An algorithm is required to act as a typical staged thermostat with nighttime temperature
setback. This will control the fan, 2 stages ofDX and the 2 stages of electric heat.
AO: An analog algorithm is required to control the linked outdoor air/return air damper.
Additionally, 2 sensor points are used to get the common area average temperature (a sensor-
group averaging algorithm is needed), and one is used for the outside air temperature. These are
considered global points because they can be shared on the DDC network.

Step 4 -Sequences of Operation

With everything properly selected, wired, and configured, the rooftop unit will be controlled
as follows:
• Set point for occupied mode cooling is 75° F and for heating is 70° F. System will control
to the average of the two space sensors as determined by the sensor-group averaging.
• Occupied or unoccupied mode is determined by time schedule, which is set by the user in
advance by time-of-day, day-of-week, and identified holiday periods during the year.
• In the occupied mode, both DX cooling stages will energize when the space temperature is
3° F (adjustable) above the set point; then stage one and stage two will de-energize one at
a time as the set point is approached. The heating stages will react similarly if the space
temperature is well below the set point.
• The supply fan will run continuously during occupied mode and any time there is a call for
cooling or heating during the unoccupied mode.

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 CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

• In the unoccupied mode, if the space temperature goes below 64 ° F or above 80° F, heat-
ing or cooling will be called for, respectively.
• During the unoccupied cooling period (from 12 a.m. to 7 a.m.), when the outside air tem-
perature is below 58° F, the outdoor air damper cycles fully open, with the return damper
fully closed, and the supply fan starts and runs until the space reaches 65° F. Then the fan
turns off and the outdoor air damper returns to its minimum unoccupied position.
All of this is made possible with the proper selection of a few sensors and actuators, five resi-
dent algorithms, a time schedule, and a temperature schedule.

Steps 5 and 6 -Sensor Selection/Input Control Devices

AI:
Step 5 and 6- Sensor Selection/Input Control Points
• One outside air tempera- Supply Air AI
Temperature
ture thermistor Space Temp .
Sensors (2 AI)
• One supply air tempera- D
X Outside Air Temp.
ture thermistor Sensor (1 AI)
• Two space temperature Supply Air Temp.
Sensor (1 AI)
thermistors located to re-
Fan Status
flect typical occupancy
Switch (1 01)
patterns Outside Air
Temperature
DI: ~ ~ Space Temperature Sensors Fan Status

• One supply fan status ~ ~ Space Temperature Sensor#2 Switch

switch (in this case, a dif- ~ Space Temperature Sensor #1

ferential pressure switch
Figure 32
has been selected to be in-
serted in the air stream, Sensor Selection/Input Control Points
which provides proof that
the supply fan is working)

Step 7- Required Controller Channel Capacity (or points required)

The rooftop unit needs channels for six outputs and five inputs on this job. Because a typical
DDC controller allows up to eight input and eight output channels, only one control module is
required to adequately handle the job.

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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Rooftop Unit System Diagram

Now that the controls de- Outside Air Mixed Air OX Cooling Electric Heat
Temp. Dampers Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 1 Stage 2
sign has been completed, a AI AO DO DO
system diagram is used to pre-
sent to the controls contractor
the location and types of con-
trol devices and sensors
needed. This also gives the
quantity of inputs (Als and
Dis) and outputs (AOs and
DOs) being used for the con-
trol strategies used on the
rooftop unit example. This
information can be used to
Rooftop Unit System Diagram T
troubleshoot the job and Figure 33
equipment operation in the Rooftop Unit System Diagram
future.

Summary
An understanding of the fundamentalsofHVAC controls begins with the differences between
the term controls used as a noun and the verb control. Control actions (focusing on P, PI, and
PID) complete the building blocks for the major control system types. Regardless of type, all con-
trol is accomplished with either an open-loop or a closed-loop control.
Direct Digital Control (DDC) is used in some form on most present day HVAC systems.
Even though electric control is built into most equipment, the backbone of the system higher logic
is fonned using DDC product-specific pre-programmed controllers and general purpose field-
. programmable controllers. Each of these control devices has unique and different functions.
The typical DDC system is composed of inputs (i.e. sensors, switches, time, date, occupancy,
and set points), a controller (with memory, a library of pre-programmed algorithms and a micro-
processor), and outputs (i.e. relays, actuator for dampers and valves, along with signals for VFD
drive, etc.). The inputs and outputs are referred to as points, with the overall number of points
needed for control determining the kind of DDC controller that is needed.
A multi-step design process was used on an example for designing DDC for a rooftop unit.
This process allows the designer to decide what control strategy is needed, determine the devices
that need to be controlled, and create the resulting points list.

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 CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

Work Session 1
1. Differentiate between the words "control" and "controls". - - - - -

a. Control is one device and controls are c. Control is comfort and controls is more
more than one device. comfort.
b. Control is a verb meaning action and d. Control is directing equipment and
controls is a noun meaning devices that controls is equipment controlling itself.
control things.

2. The purpose of a control system is to _ _ __ _

a. eliminate an operator c. allow for automation of comfort con-

trol, along with energy efficiency, and
b. add to the expense of a building
safe operation of building equipment
d. allow only one person to control every-
thing in a building

3. What are the different kinds of control actions used in the control of a device? (Pick all that
apply) _ __ _ __ _ _ _

a. Two-position control f. Proportional control

b. Timed two-position control g. Proportional+ integral control
c. Fast control h. Proportional + integral + derivative
d. Floating-point control control
e. Sinking-point control 1. Standard control

4. What do the letters P, I, and D stand for in the HVAC controls environment? _ _ _ __

) a. P is power, I is intensity, and D is divert- c. P is proportional, I is integral, and D is

mg derivative
b. P is passive, I is instant, and D is demand d. P is positive, I is indirect, and D is
displacement

5. Two weaknesses of proportional control action are _ _ _ __

a. limited response and no sensitivity c. ability to get to set point rapidly and
constant adjustment for constant error
b. extreme sensitivity and constant adjust-
ment to error d. inability to get to set point and no
adjustment if error is constant

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CONTROLS,LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

6. What is the characteristic of Proportional control? _ _ _ __

a. The output response is proportional to c. The output response is proportional to

the error and does not change over time the error, along with the change in the
with a constant error. error and does change over time with
constant error.
b. The output response is proportional to
the error and does change over time with d. None of the above
constant error.

7. What is the characteristic of Proportional plus Integral control? _ _ _ __

a. The output response is proportional to c. The output response is proportional to

the error and does not change over time the error, along with the change in the
with a constant error. error and does change over time with
constant error.
b. The output response is proportional to
the error and does change over time with d. None of the above
constant error.

8. What is the characteristic of Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative control? _ _ _ __

a. The output response is proportional to c. The output response is proportional to

the error and does not change over time the error, along with the change in the
with a constant error. error and does change over time with
constant error.
b. The output response is proportional to
the error and does change over time with d. None of the above
constant error.

9. PID control action is not always needed for HVAC systems because _ _ _ __

a. this control action is too expensive for c. this control action is unnecessary for
HVAC control most HV AC applications because
HVAC systems are slow-responding
b. this control action is not sensitive enough
and have large thermal inertias
for the most HV AC applications
d. this control action just does not work
for HVAC systems.

10. The most common control action for the cooling coil valve, hot water coil valve, mixed air
damper and inlet guide vane actuator is - - - --

a. P - proportional control only c. PID - proportional + integral + deriva-

tive control
b. PI - proportional + integral control only
d. None ofthe above

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Controls
 CONTROLS,LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

11. The three most common HVAC controls systems used today are _ __ __

a. system powered control d. electric control

b. pneumatic control e. hydraulic control
c. fluidic control f. direct digital control

12. DDC stand for - -- - -

a. D is direct, the next D is demand, c. D is distributed, the next D is digital,

and C is computer and the C is controllers
b. D is direct, the next D is digital, and d. D is demand the next D is digital, and
the C is control the C is control

13. A typical DDC controller consists of _ _ _ __

a. front-end, actuators, and time clocks c. valves, relays, and solenoids

b. memory, algorithm library, and a micro- d. sensors, switches, and relays
processor

14. The two general types ofDDC systems are around _ _ _ __

a. a specific task pre-programmed control- c. a non-programmable controller and a

ler and a general purpose field time clock
programmable controller
d. an AC-powered controller and a DC-
b. a hard-wired controller and a wireless powered controller
controller

15. What items in a DDC system operate differently than traditional pneumatic or electric control
system? _ _ _ __

a. There is no difference c. The logic for pneumatic and electric

control is in the hardware and cannot
b. The logic for DDC is in the software and
be easily changed
can easily be changed
d. band c

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CONTROLS. LEVEL 1: FUNDAMENTALS

16. A centralized DDC system controller _ _ _ __

a. is put in a comer by itself c. once programmed, does not need other

controllers, computers or devices to
b. cannot be next to another controller
function
or it causes problems
d. is the only controller on the job

17. When the measured value moves higher than the control value, then goes below the control
value, it is described as _ _ _ __

a. too high and too low c. a loss of control

b. overshoot and undershoot d. a stable control system

18. In a DDC system with proportional control only, the measured value will never reach the
control value. The difference between these values is referred to as

a. change c. offset
b. misalignment d. sensitivity

19. How many design steps are there with a DDC system?

a. Just 1 step c. As many steps as it takes

b. 7 steps d. None of the above

20. Which design step is most useful for determining the quantity of control points required on
the DDC controller? - - - - -

a. The first step, desired controls strategies c. Step 7, the controller channel capacity
b. Inputs, outputs, and a controller d. None ofthe above

•., .
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CONTROLS.LEVEL1:FUNDAMENTALS

Work Session Answers

1. b.
2. c.
3. a., b., d., f., g., h.
4. c.
5. d.
6. a.
7. b.
8. c.
9. c.
10. b .
11. b., d., f.
12. b.
13. b.
14. a.
15. d.
16. c.
17. b.
18. c.
19. b.
20. c.

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