PROPERTY OF

Universityof
Mic

AN

Libraries
1817
ARTES SCIENTIA VERITAS
|
.
|
BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE
HOSIOS LUCAS & DAPHNI
BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE
HOSIOS LUCAS & DAPHNI

BY

ERNST DIEZ .
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY OF ART IN BRYN MAWR COLLEGE

AND

OTTO DEMUS
ASSISTANT IN THE FIRST DEPARTMENT FOR HISTORY OF ART
AT THE UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA

OF C
AMERICAN

SCHOOL

CLASSICÄTE
STUDIES
THE

OF
SAT
34sn

ATHENSE
ະ

1886

PUBLISHED FOR

THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS
,

1931
NA
3780
D57

Printed by Adolf Holzhausens Nachfolger , Vienna

Manufactured in Austria
 DEDICATED TO

GABRIEL MILLET
Iub.fa aich lesearch
tan
2.26.32
x 5648

PREFACE
'O survey and discuss the Greek mosaics of the Byzantine period means
to - day about what it meant to work
sixty years ago to back from Winckel
mann's Roman sculpture to the Greek originals . Though a good deal of work
has been done in the field of Eastern mosaic painting by scholars like Ch . Diehl ,
G.Millet , O. Wulff and Th . Schmit , it is in the field of Italian mosaics that such .

research is still in the lead — at least for the earlier period . No accurate coloured
reproductions of Greek mosaics have yet been published , whereas the Roman
all

the colour plates Monsignore

no of
and Ravennate mosaics are almost included
in
Wilpert's monumental work Without such reproductions however true know

,
.
can

be

be
ledge attained nor can any sound comparative study made mosaic

of
;

painting the East and the West

in
in

of
fill
of

the this book depending upon

to

this lacuna
is

Instead
It

aim
.

by
colour prints based upon painted copies the originals Wilpert
as
of

was done
,

,
autochrome photographic plates taken directly from the original mosaics are
here for the first time reproduced
of

Thus the intermediation brushwork which

,
.

by
be

cannot but certain degree subjective has been replaced mechanical

to

,
a

reproduction some retouching

to
of

method True was unavoidable even here

,
.

the

correct certain colour tones Repeated comparison however reproductions

of
,

,
.

with the originals has achieved their correctness with the very minor exceptions
,

noted the text

in

the

hardly any doubt that the next phase the History

of

There study
is

in
the

the
be
of

Painting will thorough investigation

of

that factor which most

is

important picture mosaic besides the design composition i.e. the

or

and
in

,
a

be

and

colour Until now this factor had neglected dismissed largely

to

as
,
.

subordinate because satisfactory colour reproductions were not obtainable But

,

.
far

the day seems not when monochrome reproductions pictures

or
of

distant
,

be

art will hardly accepted

of

other coloured works serious works and

in

a
be

generation art historians may puzzled understand the paradoxical

of

coming
to
-

prejudice still latent not the most significant

as

our time which treats colour

in

,
viii PREFACE

quality of a of art, but as an accident that can be overlooked

coloured work
in scientific research work . If to -day we are still in the midst of a period that
confines itself to the discussion of drawing and composition , the dawn of a not

less important periodof iconographic investigation of colour is in sight .

The autochrome photographs were taken a few years ago by myself and by
Dr. Otto Demus , Assistant in the First Art Department of Vienna University .
Since Dr. Demus had proved his capability by his doctor's dissertation
St. on the

be
mosaics of Mark's Venice asked my collaborator the text

to
him

,
in

in
I

.
His chief contribution chapter iconography

on
the but the initials after
is
each

;
chapter the table of contents will indicate our respective authorship
in

.
be
The historiography Daphni will always closely connected

at
of
the mosaics
im

of
Gabriel Millet published
of

with the name who book classic

,
them

in

a
his
portance We have not much to complete discussions this cycle

to

of
add

;
.

our chapter Analysis figures directly his

on
of
on on

and the founded

is
the
“

”
his
masterly chapter this subject book that has survived whole generation
in

a
the
without losing Three years ago rare opportunity
its

fundamentalvalue we had
.

M. Millet's
of

and the great pleasure attending lectures and seminary talks

in
-
him
this country All who work Byzantine indebted and

to
the field are
in
.
as

respect our master We ask therefore accept the dedication

to
him him
,

,
.
of

as

of

this book sign veneration from America

.
a

The principal indebtness Dr. Rhys Carpenter

be

acknowledged that
to

to

,
is
of

of

of at

Director the American School Classical Studies Athens and Mrs. Carpenter
to
,

,
the
for

their repeated and most careful comparison reproductions with the

original mosaics Hosios Lucas Daphni which enabled Jaffé's printing
at

and
to in

improve the plates

to

office Vienna correspondence

of
the utmost colour
in

by

day
be

that can attained mechanical processes We are furthermore

to
-

.
for

for

indebted Dr. Carpenter having recast passages having

to

certain and
taken the responsibility the proofs my departure
for

after India and China

to

My
the

especial thanks are due Mrs. Beryl Diez Ryder

of

winter 1930.
to

,
in

who helped me the preparation my colleague Miss Georgiana

of

the text and

to
in

Goddard King who undertook the revision the proof sheets

of

of

the text and

,

.
-

printing
of

for

The Viennese office Max Jaffé deserves full acknowledgment

its

successful effort making the colour plates

in

Bryn Mawr Pennsylvania ERNST DIEZ

,

January 1930
 CONTENTS

PAGE
PREFACE vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS . ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi

CHAPTERS

I. The Art of the Middle Byzantine Period ( Diez ) . I

II. Origin and Evolution of the Hieratic Style (Diez ) 24

Iconography
. V. . III

Demus . 37
.

Analysis the Figure Composition Diez

of

76
. .
IV

The Colour Diez 84

.

.
(

.)
VI

Works the Mosaic Cycles

of

The Different Masters

in

-
of

Hosios Lucas and Daphni Demus 92

.

.
(

VII Development and Dissemination the Middle Byzan

of
.

tine Mosaic Style DEMUS 95

.
(

.
)

APPENDIX Historical Remarks DEMUS with contributions from

:

Diez 107
.
)

OF

PLANS SHOWING DISTRIBUTION THE PICTORIAL SUBJECTS 119

·

ILLUSTRATIONS 125
·
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE

1. Hosios Lucas , Katholikon , Eastern part of the Naos

2. Northern part of the Narthex
3. Naos ; Birth of Christ
4. 99

5. > Presentation in the Temple

6. Baptism of Christ
7. Descent of the Holy Spirit , detail
8. » Baptism , detail

9. Narthex ; Washing of the Feet , detail

10 . Doubting of Thomas
II . detail
12 . » Pantokrator
13 . > Bema ; Madonna with Child , in the main Apse
14 . Naos ; Basilios
15 . » » Bema; Athanasios
16 . 99 Naos ; Gregorios
17 . Nikolaos
18 . » Vault in the southern transept
19 . northern
20 . Southern Transept , Madonna
21 . Northern
22 . Naos ; Lucas Stiriotes
23 . " Panteleimon
24 . Lucas Gurnikiotes
25 . Nikon Metanoites
26 . > » Philotheos , Dionysios Areopagites
27 . Hierotheos , Gregorios of Nyssa
28 . 8 > Gregorios of Armenia , Hermes
29 . Kyrillos of Alexandria , Ignatios of Thessalonike
30 . Spyridon , Silvester
31 . Kyprianos, Acheilios
32 . Ananias
33 . Kleopas
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .

34. Hosios Lucas , Naos ; Merkurios

35 . Gabriel
36 . Prokopios , Simon
37 . » Theodoros Tiron
38 . Narthex : Andrew

39 . John
40 . > Paul
41 . > Thomas
42 . Matthew

43. Luke
44 . Philip
45 Michael, Mark
46. Simon
47 . Constantine , Helen and other Saints
48 . Kyros, Mark
49 . . Elpidiphoros , Anempodistos
50 . Middle vault
51. Mokios , Jakobos
52 . Joannes , Kosmas
53. Joannes Prodromos , Gabriel
54. Daphni , Katholikon , Naos , Dome ; Isaiah , Solomon
55 . > Naos ; Moses , David
56 . Joel , Zachariah
57 . 99 Daniel , Micah
58 . Elias , Elysaios
59 . Zephaniah , Malachi
60 . Zephaniah
61. Elias
62 . Ezekiel and Jeremiah
63 . » Jonah and Nahum
64. Main apse : Mary with Child
65 Bema ; Icon of Christ
66 . Michael
67. > Gabriel
68 . Naos ; Bakchos
69 . Sergios
70 . Gregorios Akragantinos
71 . 9 Gregorios Thaumaturgos
72 . Zacharias
73 . Akindynos
74 . Aaron
75 . Auxentios , Eugenios, Eustratios , Bakchos ,
Mardarios , Orestes
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

76.
Daphni Katholikon Naos Aempodistos Elpidiphoros Akindynos Pigasios

;
,

,
77 Stephanos Rufinos Silvester Anthemios

,
,
,
78 Euplos Laurentios Eleutherios Autarkios

,
,
,
.
Samonas Gurias

,
79
.

80 Probos Tarachos Andronikos

,

,
,
81. Annunciation Gabriel

,
82. 9 Mary
. the Magi

of
83 > » doration

of
84 Birth Christ left part

,
.

85 right part
86 . Baptism Christ

,
87 . Baptism John

,
88 Angels
.

89 Transfiguration left part

,
.

90 > right part

.

91 restored
.

92 . Entry into Jerusalem

93 . Awakening Lazaros fragment
of

,
>

Narthex Washing the Feet fragment

, of
95 94

,
;
.

Last supper fragment

.

96 . Betrayal Judas restored

of

,
97 Last supper fragment
,
.

Betrayal Judas unrestored

of

98
,
.

99 Naos Crucifixion
;
»
.

100 Descent into Hell

.

IOI Crucifixion Mary

,
.

102 Descent into Hell Christ

,
.

103 Doubting Thomas unrestored

of

,
.

104 restored
.

of

105 Birth Mary

106 Anne
>
.

the Virgin
Blessing
of

107 Narthex
;
»
.

the Virgin
of

108 Naos Death

;
.

Narthex Annunciation Anne

to
99

109
;
.

the Virgin
of

IIO Presentation
.

111. Nicaea Koimesis Narthex John Christ

,
;
,
,

II2 Koimesis Luke

;
.

of

113. Chios Nea Moni Naos Baptism Christ

;
,
,

114 Crucifixion
9

115 Descent into Hell

»
.

116 Narthex Ascension fragment

;

,
.

117 Naos Michael fragment

;

,
.

118. Kieff Sophia Pantokrator

,
,
xiy LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .

119. Kieff , Sophia , Apostles

I 20 . St. Michael's Church , Apostles
121. Leningrad , Gregorios Thaumaturgos, Icon
122. Seres , Metropolitan Church , Apse ; Divine liturgy , fragment
123 . > »

124. Torcello , Cathedral , Apse ; Apostles

125. Rome , Sta . Francesca Romana , Apse
126. Palermo , Cap . Palatina ; Mosaics
127. Monreale , Cathedral; Washing of the Feet
128. Venice, St. Mark ; Entry into Jerusalem
129 . Angel
130 . Apostles from the Assumption
131. Scene from the Story
of St. Peter
132 . Narthex ; The Tower of Babel
133 . Christ
134 . Micah

of St.
135 . The finding of Mark's body
»

136 Narthex Story Moses

;
9
.

--
--

-
--
 SOURCE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHS
FIGURES FIGURES FIGURES

1-4 Millet 104 Alinari I 20 Ainaloff

5-53 Hamann 105-108 Millet 121-123 Diez
54-64 Millet 109 Alinari I 24 Naya
65 Sotiriu IIO 1 25-129 Alinari
66-90 Millet III Schmit 130 Naya
91 Hamann II2 131 Anderson
92-98 Millet 113-117 Diez 132-133 Alinari
99 Alinari 118 Prachoff 134 Naya
100-103 Millet 119 Millet 135-136 Alinari

COLOUR PLATES
OPPOSITE
PLATE PAGE
I. Daphni, Pantokrator . Frontispiece
II. Hosios Lucas, Medallion of Christ . 32
III . » Vault with Four Medallions 34
IV . St. Peter 36

V. Dome of the Sanctuary and Apse . . 38

VI. Archangel Gabriel . 40

VII . St. Demetrios . 42
VIII . St. Theodoros Tiron 44
IX . Daphni , Annunciation . 46
X. Birth of Christ 48
XI. Baptism of Christ 56

XII . Hosios Lucas, Washing of the Feet . 62

XIII . > » Crucifixion . 66
XIV . 29 Descent into Hell 68
XV . Pentecost , Dome . 72
-
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD

“ Modern art may be considered to have begun with the

Byzantine renaissance of the Xth century .”
Kingsley Porter , Romanesque Sculpture
of the Pilgrimage Roads I, 19.

THERE is no doubt that the civilisation of the Middle Ages and therewith certain phases
of our own culture
to - day would have presented quite a different appearance if Constantinople

had never existed . The Byzantine metropolis played a role such as can be ascribed
to no other city in the world , and occupied a position to which none other is comparable .
in importance .
try

Let imagine the cultural aspect Europe without this connecting link
of
to

us
between and Asia East and West would have remained separate The assimilation
it

.
all

which place between certain degree

its

took with consequences

to

them for
,
a

Europe We should have had

as

mediaeval well would not have occurred

as

later
,

different court ceremonial and church ritual other costumes customs music and art
a

."
of

Constantinople was situated

Though
on

the coasts both continents was neither

,
it

European nor Asiatic but something Byzantine divergent

of
above them The elements
,

the Asiatic and European provinces the Empire were assimilated and transformed
of

in
of

Byzantium The Thracian Slav Dalmatian and Italian adventurers the West and the
,

,
.

Phrygian Armenian Caucasian and Arabian usurpers

of

Isaurian Asia were transformed

,

up

for

here the shortest time into Greeks They gave their barbaric dialects the melodious
in

Greek tongue They abandoned their Northern Hellenistic and Mohammedan superstitions
,
.

and faiths for the orthodox religion the magical attraction

of

which they were unable

,

resist This town transformed the uncultured but alert minded illiterates from all
to

-
.

countries who gathered here into efficient civil servants clerks scholars theologians and
,

high officials She made

of

Macedonia the learned Theophilus

of

Justinian peasant
,
a

a
.
of

Phrygian groom's son the great Emperor Basil

of

Macedonian adventurer
,

,
a

patriarch The neighbouring kingdoms looked with admiratione

of

the Slav Nicetas

a

at be
art

As
all

on

dependent Byzantium would quite possible

of

matter fact medieval western and

, it
is

,
a
"
I

by
its

the whole history

of

which
to

to

determine this art relations that mature Eastern one least after the
des
Die
G.

Iconoclastic Controversy developed uninterruptedly and centrally Swarzenski Regensburger Buchmalerei

,
.”

eipzig 1905
84

zehnten und elften Jahrhunderts

),

f.
(L

Diez Demus
1
-

.
2 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

at the city on the Bosporus ; church and court in Serbia , Bulgaria , Roumania , Russia
I
and the Caucasus imitated its culture .

its
power and culture during the Macedonian dynasty
The city reached the zenith of
At the time

of
the tenth and eleventh centuries Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus
in

,
pilgrimages

of
the barbarians the west made Byzantium formerly the contemporaries

as
to

,
The provinces Syria Egypt North Africa and
of

of
Sulla and Cicero went Athens

to

,
.

by
Armenia which fell away the seventh century were mostly reconquered the
,

,
in
Macedonians and the dangerous Balkan kingdom Bulgaria which was already rivalling

, of
,

,
Byzantium was defeated by Basil Bulgaroktonos and turned into Byzantine province

II
,

.
Byzantine Empire had under Justinian from Syria

as
The extended once more

it

to
,

of ,
the Danube and the Adriatic Sea and from Armenia the south Italy was

to

It
,

.
by

by
helpful vassals kept well diplomatists Armenians Caucasians

its
surrounded hand

in
,

,
-
all

Slavs and Italians upholding and extending the Byzantine culture the glamour

to
,
-

as
of

of
which they were susceptible Byzantium took the place Rome the great
, .
of

barbarians Croatians Serbians Bulgarians and Russians are indebted her

to
educator

, ,
:

for their religion their scientific language their art and their constitutions They all
,

.
Byzantine civilisation At

of
became mild submissive and enlightened under the influence
of ,

.
Emperors
Constantinople was the uncontested queen

of
the time the Macedonian
,
all

cities where the elegance and refinements luxury and art were concentrated the
of
,

,
“

masterpieces
of

industry
of
the marvels
an
choicest treasures the mind the advanced
,

,
architecture the pleasures the circus and the theatre was the Paris
of

of

of
the

it
;
,

‘
Middle Ages brilliancy longing
of

the wealth and which aroused the and admiration

,
of

the whole barbarian world

2
.”
of

After the death Basil decline set and the Empire was unable
II

1025
in

in
a

withstand either the Normans Italy the Seljuks Asia Minor success
or

Southern
to

in

in

the
fully The latter even advanced after the battle Mantzikiert very

to
1071
of
.

)
of

Constantinople But the new dynasty the Comneni succeeded

of

confines

in
.

restoring the Empire

of
its

former splendour true that the

at

reflection least
It
to

is
a

possession were vassals only

of

Turks remained Konia and the Balkan States

in
,
in

by
be

appearance though
their courts continued
even influenced Byzantine culture
to
,

,
exist there long after Byzantium became
an

which continued Ottoman residence

to

.
Nevertheless the Byzantine Empire had last prosperous period which has often enough
,

,
a
by

the epigoni later history

its

been praised
in

As regards this period resulted

the fine arts renaissance which has been called
in
,

be

The second golden age Byzantine art Kondakoff

of

The word renaissance can used

).
“

”
(

here with propriety because art had been more less paralysed during the preceding period
or
of

the Iconoclastic Controversy 726–843 but after recovering from the political weakness
),
(
. A.

L'Empire Grec
au

Rambaud dixième siècle Paris 1870 539

,

),

f.
'

par
Ch

philosophie scientifique
de

Diehl Byzance Grandeur Bibliothèque dirigée

et

Décadence
le
,

, ,

,
2

(
Dr

G. Le
15

Bon Flammarion
),

1919
.p
,

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 3

and iconoclastic fanaticism of the Isaurian period had undergone a creative reaction
along with the growth of material wealth and religious liberation , a reaction which
found an outlet in architecture and painting as well as in the minor arts .

merely passive receptivity for new architectonic types developed somewhere in

A

the vast oriental hinterland of the seat of government became once again transmuted
into a creative power as in the time of Justinian , and once more succeeded in evolving
new types in church building . Two of these types became of decisive significance for
the entire mediaeval as well as for the later ecclesiastical architecture of Eastern Europe :
the cruciform domed church and the single - domed church . The object of both types was
the utmost unification of the interior . Although the scheme of the cruciform domed church

which originated in the Orient had been long known in Constantinople (as a domed tomb of
the fifth century discovered in Makriköi proves ) and was also sometimes employed in the
following period , the conscious development of this type does not take place till the ninth
century . The new type was already completely developed in the palace church of Basil I ,
consecrated 881. "
The Nea was a cruciform domed church with four smaller domes
in

placed diagonally after the scheme of a quincunx , not in the main axes. Though as
a palace church it was not large , it was “ the essential creative Byzantine building ” of
the mid -Byzantine period, and the origin of the canonical form of building which hence
forth predominated . The important innovations were not only the omission of the gallery
and the greatest possible unification of the space , but also the introduction of the drum
which heightened the domes and lessened their lateral pressure on the supporting beams,
while giving these churches their characteristic appearance outside. The cruciform
domed church of this particular type spread within a short time over Russia and the
Balkans . We find beautiful buildings of this type in Greece , especially in and about
Athens. The second church of H. Lucas Stiris is considered the best preserved Greek
in
building of this kind ; in it the dome is supported by four columns and thus the unification
far

of interior as possible attained still more daring and prolific archi

as

the whole
A
.

tectural idea was developedhowever second type for which the term uni dome
,

, ,

of ,
in

-
as by
aim

was the covering over single

its
as

has been chosen here the whole space

an a a

which was fully only later result

an

dome attained Ottoman architecture

in

aim
,

previous Byzantine experience The starting point was the octagon with
of

inner
.

supporting pillars Sergius Bacchus For this purpose the

of

as

system Sts and

in

.
.

put
be

supports possible preferably

of

as

as

the dome had back far into the main

to

,
O.
cf.

the steps the development

of

For the discussion Wulff Die Koimesiskirche Nicäa and Die

in

in
,
der

byzantinische Kunst Handbuch Kunstwissenschaft Strzygowski Byzantinische Zeitschrift 1894 and the
in
);
J.
(
of

index Die Baukunst der Armenier the development Byzantine

of

of

new fundamental examination mid

A
.

-
the

, N.
by

architecture and painting preparation Russian investigators Brunoff and M. Alpatoff who have published
in
is

most promising report their journey Constantinople the Repertorium

in
to
of

of

the results Nicaea and Trebizond

a

für Kunstwissenschaft 1928 vol

49

50–75
p
,

,
.

K.
H.
in Cf.

Wulzinger Byzantinische Baudenkmäler

of

Lafaire Hannover 1925 who gives reconstruction

,

),
2

a
(
fig

26

the plan
.
.

*
I
 4 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

enclosing walls themselves . Daphni , H. Lucas and Nea Moni in Chios belong to

this type . '

Detailed descriptions give us an idea of the magnificence of the Nea , the “ New
Church , ” which was dedicated to the Virgin , the Archangel Michael and the hermit Elias ,
and formed a part of the imperial palace , the buildings of which extended from the
present Atmeidan down to the Sea of Marmora . From entrance hall there was

its

a
glittering metal domes announced the splendour the capital

of
its
view over the sea and

;
approaching

as
ships Within the ceiling ablaze with gold and colour Constan
to

,
.
tine VII Porphyrogenitus reports was ornamented with mosaics which Photius

,
,

of
describes more detail The medallion the Pantokrator formed for the first time
in

,
.
of H. Lucas Daphni and other churches

as
here the center the decoration later

in
,

.
The Almighty was surrounded by his angels

by
But the choir niche illuminated

is
"
.
the Virgin who spreads out her

us
the figure
of

immaculate hands over and endows

,
with bravery and protection against the enemy
emperors The assembly apostles

of
the

.
and martyrs prophets and patriarchs adorns the sanctuary which filled with their
,

is
pictures The walls were faced with marble while the balustrade before the altar

,
.”

as
of

with rows columns well the steps and seats before the altar and the altar
its

as
,
all

itself were covered with gilded silver and inlaid with precious stones and pearls
,

is .
The floor seems swell under silken stuffs and Sidonian textiles everything
to

;
bright
of
ornamented and with the rich colours the inlaid marble slabs and the various
of

of
stripes mosaic which they are set The two much admired wells the atrium
in

in
-
.

the Nea which Porphyrogenitus describes explicitly will be discussed later They were
,

.
that type popular
of

the mediaeval Orient which has often been described and which had
in
,

various mechanical contrivances St. Anna's well Daphni relatively simple parallel

is
in

a
.

.
of by

aphni

of
Further distinctions between them were made Millet He distinguishes two types churches

,
.
|

(D
H.
Lucas H. Nicodemos

H.
XIth cent Hagia Sophia
49

Athens first half Monemvasia Theodoros

in

in
,

).,

,
ff
. ).

to (

Mistra before 1296 and Daphni belong the first type these churches the dome covers the whole quadrangle
In
in

into which the three apses open set upon four double arches and four squinches
is

The dome arcs doubleaux

of (

)
.
an

octagon plan most churches the Macedonian

of
and therefore inscribed into This differs from the scheme
.

IXth Moni XIth cent and Merbaca near Nauplia

as

Comnenian period e.g. the Theotokos Constantinople cent Nea

in
,

,
(

.)

.)
the

the
up

by

XIth cent quadrangle made walls themselves and the dome

In

these churches main outside

is
(

.)
.
the

set

central part
of

only upon four pendentives four columns piers vaultings arches

or
it

covers and The

,
is
It
.

.
he as

for the pressure the dome upon the walls

of

and niches round the dome act intermediaries These are the churches
.

point
de

which Choisy says proprement parler les diverses

en to

refers when n'existe contrefort voûtes

il
,

;
A
:

de
les

les

the les
de

s'appuient proche proche mur d'enceinte L'art bâtir chez

et

unes contre autres dernières contre

le
,

les Byzantins But there are buttresses drawn into walls according the Byzantine Daphni
to

128 manner
in
.p
,

).

not the typical one Daphni s'inspire d'un autre .

de

And this type Millet says this period Au

contraire l'église
in
is
,

“
.
de

de

l'église octogonale Les églises purement octogonales

S.

modèle C'est une transformation comme Vitale Ravenne

,

,
.

On
De

portant
on

sont rares bonne heure essaya d'associer l'octogone coupole avec une enceinte carrée plaça
la
,

,
.

.
ces
de

on

d'abord quatre niches aux angles l'enceinte Ezra 510 Bozra 512 Bientôt appliqua niches aux quatre côtés
,

).
(
de

de

qui rapprocha
SS

on

Ainsi
se

diagonaux l’octogone Sergios Constantinople agrandit l'espace centrale

et

Bacchos
.

).
(

... ...
les
du

carré etc. Dès Xe siècle constructeurs byzantins dressèrent des hautes tambours pour donner leur
le
,

H. à
the
les

les
et

coupoles plus
de

projeter hardiment dans airs plan Lucas

of

sveltesse Other churches modified

.”

Nicaea H. Sophia
its by

and Daphni taking eight supporting points Koimesis XIth cent Nea Moni
in at

Christianu
in

in
,

,
(

.)
.
the

Chios with four niches belongs special type which was traced back little church the Apostles
to

to

of
a
by

H.

Constantinople built Justin Thus we must distinguish three main types the Nea type the Lucas Daphni type
II
,

-
.

and the Nea Moni type

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 5

Though we must not disregard the fact that the Nea was a palace church and , in

,
ornamented in a specially costly manner , yet

be
its
consequence decoration can taken
as

typical of
the Macedonian and following period according program

, of
the new

to
,

of
the Cesaro papal emperors the walls and ceilings and the pavement

of
The mosaics
-

.
addition the iconostasis covered with silver and gold constituted such colourful and
in

a
can
brilliant picture perhaps only the present

or
as

at
suggest

of
the interior San Marco show
day The iconostasis became very convenient wall for the display

of
the decorative arts

,
.

a
especially for wood carving goldsmith's work and enamel Even we can say nothing

if
,

.
of
about the technique the design and the colours the Nea yet their

of
the mosaics
,

,
be
leading typology the description the subjects

of
role can seen from The
in

.
for
the Pantokrator and Demiurgos
of

humanlike face Christ looked down the first

,

,
"

was the greatest and most impressive

of
time from the central dome creation
It
.

of
Byzantine monumental drawing and painting the most significant example which has

,
preserved Daphni angels apse the Virgin

of
been Below was the round the the

,
in

in
.

the nave the apostles and martyrs the prophets and patriarchs thus the
as

Orante
in

;
,

,
by

typical circle prescribed

of
the church after the conclusion the Iconoclastic Contro
versy was fulfilled
.

by

Another magnificent church built Basil the palace quarter was the church
in
I
St.

for
only full splendour magnificence
of

of

Elias not and inside but also outside

,
“

the roof was covered with gold This church was connected with St. Clement's
.”

Oratory and next was the newly built wonderful Oratory

of
the Redeemer The
, it
to
,

.
St.

Emperor built besides

of
the palace quarter
church Paul's Oratory
St. Peter
in
,

,
a

a
as

Archistrategos Virgin oratory

an
Michael chapel well chapel the
an

with
to
as
,

,
a

all

oratory Theologian richly buildings

an

dedicated her for John the decorated

to

,
a
gives the building enthusiasm under this emperor He also
an
of

of

list which idea

.

of
as

the repairing
of

carried out extensive restorations such the mosaics the Church

in

the Apostles and which had been damaged during Constantinople

of

other churches
in

of

the Iconoclastic Controversy well

as

The author the Theophanes

as

new additions
,

Continuatus mentions more than dozen churches which Basil restored.2

a

Nothing
of

the churches and monasteries Basil and his successors nor the
of

of

following dynasty the Comneni has been preserved Constantinople that only
of

so
,
in

the few churches preserved Greece and Macedonia with their mosaics can give
us
in

of

the mosaic painting and decorative art this great period Byzantine art.3
an

of

of

idea
by

The monastery church Nea Moni Chios built Constantine Monomachus

IX
in

St. George's Church and Monastery Constantinople must

of

1042–1054 the founder

),

,
in
(

80 der
P.

Richter Quellen byzantinischen Kunstgeschichte Wien 1897 359

J.

.p
, . ,

, .
' 2

ed

ed

Theoph contin 823 Bonn and Constantinos Rhodios Legrand verses 737–980 Revue des
,
p V
, .

.
(

.)

grecques
IX

Études 58–65
t.

).

are

We will not period Constantinople

of

of

of

deal here with the several ruins churches this which

in

,
•

the

as

hardly more than topographical significance nor with churches oratories and baptisteries such Kalender djami
,

, ,

Kahriye djami and the like entirely the greater part

of
the of

which have been robbed their former ornamentation

,

into

the

the
of

disfigured architectonically changed mosques Kahriye djami

of
,

and
In

one four churches

.

the
of

of

Saviour Constantinople called Chora parts two Comnenian mosaic icons Christ and Hodegetria
in

in
,

, ,
“

”
cf.

are still preserved Wulff Byzant Kunst 513

.p
,
;

.
6 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

all

as

as
be taken into consideration before others Wulff already has emphasised

a
reflection the metropolitan art the eleventh century easy infer that the

to
of

of

It
is
.
emperor had send builders and mosaic workers from the capital order execute

in
to

to
his project Metropolitan art was transplanted Proskynetarion

as

of
Chios the the

to

,
.
monastery authentically reports But the invention the new features which betray

of
.

be
change improvement compared with older monuments can hardly

an
ascribed

or

to
a

We should

IX
the mosaicists whom Constantine Zoe and Theodora sent Chios

or

to

u
.
of

as
rather regard this series pictures the painting greater sanctuaries

of

of
reflection

its of as
originated emperors dynasty Byzantium

of of
which under the last the Macedonian

in

,
,
longer existing church St. George the Mangana
no
for instance the district

in
,

,
a

of
the town The monumental style this time obviously still the heyday

of

is is

in
.

strength and creative power proof the fact that the representations

of
this

in
A
.
many cases are different from the mosaics Kieff executed hardly decade earlier

,
in

a
by

undoubtedly also the of

is
Greek artists from the residence intention

It
1
.”
H. Lucas and Daphni likewise can

of
later chapters that the mosaic cycles
to

show
only the metropolitan though
be

of
art two different
as

considered emanations

in
traditions
.

Let the palaces built The Kainourgion

on

look this time the

us

at
now cast

,
a

.
as Constantine VII
of

New Palace Basil was just splendid his New Church

as
I,

.
“

”
us

Porphyrogenitus description which deserves our gratitude

of

has left

is
It
it
a

, .
“
by

supported standing eight

of
sixteen columns row Thessalian stone which
in

,
a

by
green but six are called Onychites which are ornamented all over the stone
is

of

and pictures all kinds

of

of
cutter with vines animals The two corner columns

)
(?
.”

were spiral and without ornament the ceiling Above the columns

as

as
this row far
.
“

and the eastern dome the room was entirely covered with mosaics which represent the
,

,
commander surrounded by his subordinates
as

creator the work his comrades

of

in
,
a

who present the towns conquered by him gifts Further the emperor's
as

battle
,

,
.

Herculean combats are represented the ceiling the work with the
on

and connected
,

by
of

conquest and the sweat the warlike contests and the trophies granted God
,

,
by
as

under which under starry heaven the bedroom lies created this autocrat
,

,
a

magnificent and full nearly carries away the crown for beauty
of

colour and the

by In
,

the floor the Median bird the peacock depicted

of

centre the brilliant stones

is
,

in
of

art the stonemason well rounded circle

of

enclosed Carian stone from which

in
,

,
a

of

rays are sent out large circle Outside this currents and rivers
of

another
to

,
.

of

green Thessalian stone flow harmony with the four cornered shape the room they
in

;
, -
all

encompass four eagles shapely nature that they

of

coloured stones true

to
so

and
.fly

want live
as

they
on

and The walls both sides are inlaid with coloured

to
if

seem
138
Bd

Byzantinische Zeitschrift Strzygowski

25

Wulff Die Mosaiken von Nea Moni Moni

cf.

Nea
,

.pl ,

,
.

f.
'

auf Chios Byz Ztschft 1896 140-157 und

.p
,

,
V

2
.

.
I
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 7

pieces of glass, so that they seem to be ornamented with the shapes of different flowers .
Above this there is another decoration of flowers on a gold ground , by means of which
the lower part seems to be divided from the upper . On the latter there is another
magnificent decoration of gold mosaic which represents the creator of the work , the
,
Autokrator , and his wife Eudocia on the throne, wearing imperial mantles and adorned
with crowns. Their children are depicted all round the room like glittering stars , likewise
in imperial mantles and with gleaming crowns , under which the boys are holding books
containing the divine precepts which they are brought up to obey ; the female sex is
also seenbe carrying books which contain the divine laws , as the artist perhaps
to
wanted to how not only the male sex , but also the female , was taught the scriptures
show

...
The ceiling

of
and was not left without a share in the divine wisdom this bedroom

all
not lofty but rests upon the walls square gleaming with gold and bearing
is

,
in
a
the victory bringing cross flashing green glass

of
the centre this cross mosaic
in

sc
;

is

.
-

)
all
and round one sees the famous Emperor himself and his wife with their
it

up
children shining like stars the sky lifting their hands God and the life
in

to
,
...
of

giving sign the cross

I
"

King Roger

of
The only remaining this kind
of

the the Palazzo

in
,

room room
us

can give
of

Reale Palermo some idea rooms like the one described above even
,

,
in

magnificent the imperial chamber

as

not Constantinople The description

so
is
if
it

in

.
shows moreover that the decorations were kept entirely accord with the tradi
us
,

in
tions and early Byzantine art Vines with animals belong the most

to
of

the taste
in

ancient repertory Early Christian and Byzantine art We are acquainted with the
of

The Median bird

of

the emperor Vitale Ravenna

at

representation with his suite San

,
in

.
of

the peacock adorned already the Vienna Dioscurides circa 512 A.D. dedicated

to
,

Princess Juliana Anicia.2 symbolises imperial splendour and immortality and one

of is
It

popular Byzantine ,
of

the most
of

emblems court art The cross the centre the

in
.

the imperial family surrounding counterpart many

its

ceiling however with had

,

it,

we put apostles and saints instead in

of
mosaic ceilings Early Christian churches the
in

,
if

imperial family
.

No preserved representative palace

of

of

more has been Blachernes the the

,

Dynasty we possess any

do
at of

Comnenian than the Macedonian nor more exact

,

description the city

of

of

of

Situated the west end the head the Golden Horn

at
it

,
.

this palace looked down the fields and the city The interior surpasses
on

the sea
,

of .
“

Louis VII
of

everything which could say about writes Odo the envoy France
It
,
,

.
“
it
”
I

painted all over gold and bright colours and the floor covered with marble
,

is
in
is

most carefully inlaid and hard say what gives more value and beauty the
it

to

,
;

it
is

of

costly the exquisite workmanship Benjamin Tudela too describes the

or

material
.”

columns and walls covered with molten gold and silver The throne adorned with
is
.

gold and precious stones golden crown hangs over the throne suspended
on
to ,

a
A
.

which just allows the Emperor

sit
of

beneath This
of

chain the same metal the size

,

Richter
J.
P.

Quellen 363
.p
,
,

f.
'

des

III
vol

.fig

Strzygowski's Byzantinische Denkmäler

E.

Die Miniaturen Wiener Dioskurides

,

Diez
2

1
.

.
8 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

crown is ornamented with precious stones of incalculable value . The brilliancy of these
stones is so great , that no other light is needed in the room where they are . ' On the
other hand we have a description of the mosaics and paintings with which Andronicus I
Comnenus (1183–1185 ) had his houses ornamented . “ Horse races and hunting scenes
were painted , the noise of the birds, the barking of the dogs ; stag and hare hunts; and
how the boar with his tusks is caught, and zumpros (an animal living among the
Sauroscyths ) is run through by a lance ; and life on the battlefield and in camp ; and
the simple meals prepared from the spoils of hunting , and Andronicus himself cutting

his

of
up and carefully roasting with own hands the flesh the stag the wild goat

or

;
of
things living depends

on
of
and other which show the manner man who bow and

his
of
sword and swiftfooted horses and flees from home own simplicity

on
account

or
of
bravery Similar mural paintings were already popular the palaces the Iconoclasts

in

;
2
.”

and the Omayyad hunting box ķussayr Amra there has been preserved fine example
in

be
can
sporting picture subject very popular with the Orientals which
of

of

this kind traced

,

,
a

the Assyrians hunting

of
representations well battle scenes and
to

as

as
back Thus

,
.

imperial family portraits the new palacewe have become acquainted

as

such with

in
,
of

painting Byzantine
subjects period
of
Basil were the foremost secular wall the mid
,

in

.
And well liked were fighting scenes that they were painted galleries
so

even

in
belonging churches where they were simply transformed into the gladiatorial contests
3 to

,
of

martyrs
.

of
Illumination most brilliant period after the end
its

reached the Iconoclastic

Controversy Though Leo the Isaurian had had the imperial library

of
about three thousand
.

superintendent
its

an

six hundred volumes burnt because Iconodule offered him resistance

,

,
yet manuscripts with miniatures had been preserved
of

considerable treasure other

in
a

libraries and feeling

as

private property The reawakening national Basil was

I
.

probably inclined compare himself with Alexander the Great induced the artists

at
to

-
of

the old originals the period which were copied

of

of

first return Justinian some

to

to

as .
Thus illuminated manuscripts with secular subjects again came into existence such
,
of of

of
the Vatican library written 813–820 the Apollonius
, of

the Ptolemaeus Kition the

),
of (

Laurentian library surgical treatise the tenth century the Oppianus the Marciana
,
on a

hunting and the Paris Nicander the eleventh century After the
of

Venice poem
in

,
a

for
Oecumenical Council 843 religious court illumination became accessible again
,
in

as

figural representations and books were produced such the Vatican Cosmas the Paris
,

,
.op
cit
J.
P. P.

Richter 374
, ,

,
I

.
2

Richter 384 from Nicetas Choniates Acominatus

J.

P.

gallery ceiling paintings leading

.p . in of

the Nea was decorated with such Richter 255. The staircases
J.
A

.
"

the

the
St.
up

Imperial tribune Sophie Kieff were adorned with games hippodrome Constantinople
to

of

the
in

in
be

the Ludi Gothici Hunting

on

and with the ceiling the Capella

of

Palermo
to

scenes are seen Palatina

in

.
L.

cf. Réau L'art Russe 107f

,

by

der
St.

Migne Patr Graeca

38
cit

Cedrènus Historiarum compendium Beissel Geschichte Evangelienbücher

,

,
(
*

).

Boll Sitzungsberichte der Bayrischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1899

,

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 9

Gregorius 510 illuminated for Basil I (880–886 ), the Vatican Bible of Leo and the Paris
Psalter 139 , both of the tenth century , and the latter the finest work of the socalled
I
aristocratic psalter group . The earliest illuminated characteristic of manuscripts
the Macedonian period are the two magnificent ones made for Basil II (976–1025 ) in
Constantinople , the Psalter of the Marciana and the Menology of the Vatican library ,
17

Gr. 1613.3 The latter , of the lives of saints of the Greek calendar and accounts
a collection
of festivals, contains the enormous number of 436 miniatures , although it does not com
prise the whole year . It is therefore a rich source of information , particularly as the
original types are obviously taken over from monumental painting . The brilliancy of
the colours and gold background are often compared with Daphni . Besides psalters ,
homilies and menologies , richly illustrated octateuchs ( containing the Pentateuch and the
Books of Joshua , Judges and Ruth ) were a favourite combination , of which manuscripts

six
have been preserved Added these are the numerous illuminated Gospels the miniature
to
..

,
conventional pictures
of

of
decoration which most cases limited small number
is

to
in

,
a
generally the four evangelists and canon tables Yet richer exceptions exist such

,
few
a

.
the manuscripts the type the National Library
of

of

of
theol Graec 154
as

the Codex
.

.
masterpiece not only Byzantine miniature painting but also Byzantine
of

of
Vienna
in

,
a

calligraphy with the pictures evangelists

of

the authors the canon tables and

as

the

,
of

thirty nine very small miniatures the empty margins

on
of

the life Christ inserted

,
-

between text and catena They are painted the most minute under

as
with fineness

if
,
.

magnifying glass
of

as
the classicistic style that time was cultivated

it
and show
,

in
a

by

the capital The likeness style supported the iconographic similarity shows striking
in

of ,

a
.

relationship with the mosaics Daphni Though this codex perhaps the most perfect
is
it .

by

manuscript style mignon Kondakoff many others surpass

of of

was called
as

this
,

,
“

number the miniatures As another magnificent example this style the Gospel
of
of it
in

of

Bibliothèque be
.gr

the Nationale century may

64

man the tenth mentioned

,

,
.

.
Its

small figures inserted the text show again the most minute elaboration and
in

in
,
spite their diminutiveness they are filled with grandeur
of

.?

The iconoclastic period was

destructive but bequeathed the following
not entirely
to

legacy
its

enriched animal and initial ornamentation

as

figures
an

of

one The hatred

.

encouraged plants
of

had the use scrolls and animals the initials canon tables and
,

,
in

originated style that was

of

headpieces and the mural painting

of

reflection
so

the period which confined itself quadrupeds and birds

to

churches rinceaux This

in
,

R. XI
on

Art
J. cf.
C.

Morey Notes East Christian Miniatures The Bulletin 1929

,

,
,
1
2?

Tikkanen Psalterillustrationen 133

J.

,
,

f.

vol VIII Menologio Torino 1907

Il

Codices Vaticanis selecti Basilio

di

II
,

,
e

).
"

Hans Gerstinger Die griechische Buchmalerei

29

Wien 1926
,

,
*

SA Muñoz Alcune osservazioni intorno Rotulo Giosue agli illustrati Byzantion

di

Ottateuchi
, in
al
,

",
e

“
.

H. Gerstinger
vol

cf.

11

13
Th
.;

1924 475 Wulff 281 530 Birt Die Buchrolle 291 and
),

.p ,

,
ff

c
.

f.

f.

l.
.

.
(
I

XIII
, .op

.pl

Gerstinger
33
cit

,
,

,
•

.
.

the
51
fig
de

54

Les arts somptuaires Byzance grecs 115

of

cent
of

Jean Ebersolt man the eleventh the

,

.,
;
?

.
74

thirteenth cent and others belong group

to

this
.,

.
by

all

Thus the Church the Blachernes 741–775 with birds

of

Constantine was decorated sorts Aowers

as in

,
V
8

)
as

that the Emperor was reproached

so

and quadrupeds well rinceaux filled with cranes ravens and peacocks
,

,
IO BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

ornamentation very well suited the minuscule letters , which were now generally used ;
and so we frequently find it in the manuscripts of the mid -Byzantine period and later,
up to the fifteenth century . It was , by the way , nothing else but an adaptation of
Hellenistic patterns taken up in the period of the Iconoclastic Controversy and some
what orientalised .
Thus we sometimes even find the headpieces of chapters and the
canon tables filled with genre scenes , such as a man giving water to an elephant and
a dromedary , or a hunt with cheetahs (hunting leopards ), subjects which were popular

too
Islamic painting oriental origin
and are obviously

of
in

.'
Icon painting also shows that the Hellenistic picturesque style had held

its
own
-

up

as
through the first millennium the time the Comneni the two structural

of

of
one

to
Byzantine art the other being the oriental linear abstract style
of

components good

A
.
-
example this picturesque style God
of

of

of

of
the continuation the icon the Mother

is
Wladimir painted Constantinople

or
probably
of

which was the eleventh twelfth

,

in

in
century The cleaning this deeply revered
of
Russian icon 1918 revealed the faces

in
.

the Holy Mother and the Child original

of of

their state that the Russian historians

so
in

,
art were able draw important conclusions with regard Byzantine painting

to

In
to

.
“
these faces the linear graphic element
of

the treatment which predominates most

in
,

,
paintings picturesque
of

of
the Comnenian epoch combined with that tradition Hellenistic
is
,

conception which mainly stressed the colour and the mutual relations between the single
tones these two faces we find picturesque treatment which quite similar
In

is

to
a
.”

large
on

employed the faces angels Adoration the crucified Saviour

of

of
that the the
in

Santa Maria Antiqua Rome from the beginning the eighth century probably

of
in

in

,
, by

executed painter from Constantinople

skilled This technical conformity between
by.:
a

wo works which are chronologically separated proves that

or
two three centuries

,
of
this tradition
on

was where that process

carried Constantinople
torpescence
in

in
the colour which finally led victory the linear conception must have been
of

the
to
,

,
This victory
of
consumated shown for instance the icon Gregory the Miracle
in
,

,
is
.

worker the Russian Museum Leningrad from the second half the twelfth century of
in

,
in

."
the same style many mosaics Daphni and Hosios Lucas and only
as
is

in

is
It

in

it
natural that this style should have triumphed mosaic art and displaced the Hellenistic
in

picturesque style here But we must not conclude from this that the picturesque style
. .

painting disappeared
in

Sculpture
, of

of
After the full plastical representation Christ the Mother God and
,
.

statuary
of

the Saints had been condemned the Council art faded No wonder
at

Nicaea
.

St.
an

an

for having aviary Stephanus Stephen

of

the Life
of

made orchard and instead church Diaconus

in
a

.
(
the

op
by

cit

Younger quoted Gerstinger This iconoclastic painting was called contempt Zoography
in
,

are 4

“
.
.
).

."
by

Examples zoomorphic initials given Zoomorphic Greek and Glagolitic

of

Kondakoff Initials
in
,
|

the Library Mt. Sinai

, at

Manuscripts tenth and eleventh century Petersburg

of

the 1903 Russian Brockhaus

in

;
,

,
(

)
...

Die Kunst den Athosklöstern passim Bordier Description passim L'Ornement slave oriental d'après
et

Stassoff
in

;
,

,
et

les manuscrits anciens modernes Petersburg 1887

.p , (

.)
. Ein

der

der
M.

, V.

Alpatoff and Lasareff byzantinisches Tafelwerk aus Comnenenepoche Jahrbuch preußischen

,
2

Kunstsammlungen vol
46

1925 147
,

,
.

Wilpert Die römischen Mosaiken und Malereien

.pl
IV

671 155
,
3

II,

.
.fig
.op

Alpatoff Lasareff
cit
,

.,

3
-

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD II
that but little has been preserved of the plastic works of the mid -Byzantine period . Isolated
later instances found in Constantinople warn us not to generalise , nor to draw conclusions as
to the plastic style of that period from works,
Byzantine ,” from the provinces . The
called
cosmopolitan capital naturally united schools of sculpture as well as of painting
many
walls Alpatoff compares

of
its

within recently excavated relief the Maria Orans the

in
.

a
Ottoman Museum Constantinople No. 3514 with two long known reliefs Berlin
in

in

,
-
(

of
which were found Constantinople too and treat the same subject Nos 1696 and 1698
in

).
of

The first two these three reliefs date from the eleventh the third from the twelfth

,
century thus from period with the same style Their striking difference style can

in
,

.
be

existing

at
therefore only attributed schools Constantinople the same time but

in
to

,
with different directions The relief recently discovered near the Great Palace belonged
.

the imperial workshops Alpatoff emphasises the remarkable illusionism

to

of
this marble
.

which distinguishes He remarks that the treatment the

of
icon the others
it

from
,

.'
spatial modelling

its
material rouses the greatest account soft and

of
on

admiration and

he
great contrast recognizes
, to

of
forms the schematism the Berlin icon this work

In
a

.
the real Byzantine style which the Nea mosaics undoubtedly also represented and

in
,
as
which characteristic that the garment not regarded amorphous material which
is
is

,
it

simply hangs but filled with expressive dynamic force Only ivory
or

falls few
is
,

a
.

for
carvings Constantinople
of of

of

the eleventh century offer possibility comparative a

a
analysis the style light

of
of

this work Such isolated finds throw the real

on
flood
.

a
of

qualities that metropolitan Byzantine plastic art which has almost entirely disappeared

,
by
and signally help correct our judgment which commonplace
to

has been misled

works We must however confine ourselves here indicating the literary notices
to

few
,

,
.

of
plastic works our period which can give
at

subjects
an
of

idea least the The

in

.
VI
up by

account that bronze statue was erected Constantine 780–797 to his mother
a

Irene shows that sculpture was not given the Iconoclastic Controversy and during
,

Magister his History Basil tells

on
of

of

that the tradition was carried Simeon

in
it

I
.?
of

, of

brazen statue the Senate bishop holding staff round which snake was
in
a

a
of

which Basil altered and placed the foundation

of

coiled also statue Solomon

in
,

God and this building The two

he
of

offered himself
as

the Nea sacrifice

in
if

to

;
,
"

."

the Nea were plastic works special significance for the Mace
of

of

wells the Atrium

in

of

donian period The southern one was Egyptian stone porphyry Round
it
(
.

).
"

"
”

there are dragons which are excellently formed by the art the stone masons
of
,

perforated conical spindle rises the middle turbinata forma perforatusque

in
A

rhombus around standing circle there are small white columns which have
it,

,
in
);

running
all

round the top water streams the bottom

of

wreath from this down

to
;

on
of

the basin and splashes over its contents But the well the south side was
.
49

.) 66

Wulff
fig cf.

Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft 1928 vol Beschreibung der Bildwerke der christ
.p
,

; ,
, ;
.
'

.fig

lichen Epochen and Wulff Byzantinische Kunst Hdbch Kw 515 Diehl Manuel 315
,

II,
d
. (

.
.

.
De

62

Codinus origine Constantinopolis

,

,
*

the
; ) P.

Richter Quellen
in

is

in
J.

of

358 this connection notice also interest that Basil's New Palace
;
,

,
.p
•

and

Kainourgios there were marble columns partly plastically partly

of

ornamented with vine leaves and animals

,

-
(

spiral shape 363

p
.
.
12 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

made of so -called Sagarian stone, and the perforated cone which

rose likewise from the
centre of the basin was of white marble . Over the wreath , bordering the basin , were
cocks , he - goats , and rams , formed by the sculptor from bronze , which poured out water
from varying heights and also wet the ground under the basin . There were also to be
seen goblets in which wine rises from the bottom , to welcome passers -by and to quench
their thirst .” Such magic fountains were often depicted in illuminations and mural paint
ings and mosaics , Daphni Anna

for
reported

of
as instance and Joachim

is
as It
in

).
he
VII Porphyrogenitus that well golden figures

as
Constantine had several statues

,
up
and sculptured works set the apostle Paul His biographer

of
the Tetraconch

in
,

.
reports

of
another place that the emperor restored the roof the hall

of
the nineteen
in

,
opportunity

of
diners the palace tectum novemdecim accubitus and took this adorning
in

)
with different sculptured figures These scanty records prove any rate that

at
it

,
.
monumental sculpture and specially the freestanding figure the round which Wulff

in

,
says was buried live all the same though without playing

to
iconoclasm continued
in

,
important part
an

."

addition monumental art which culminated architecture and mosaic

to
In

in
,

painting the Minor Arts passed through magnificent development unparalleled since
,

,
a

Egyptian and Minoan days The occasion

of of

of
on on
this was the one hand the concentration
.

all the renowned technical workmanship the East the other hand the inexhaustible
,
Byzantium and the lively interest the emperors luxurious art early
of

of

wealth

If
in

.
art
be
can

Byzantine art compared Sung period began

with the Chinese T'ang the

,
Huitsung

its
for Byzantium with the Macedonians and the fourth Macedonian became
,

.
For Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus 912–959 political and administrative work
(

to )
he

was necessary evil which generally left Romanus his associated emperor
,

I,
a

the learned pupil

he

from 919 till 944 and Photius devoted him

of

his officials while

to
,

,
self entirely history the development Byzantine

of
science and art Even
to

the
of
if
.

many counts against this Emperor Chinese history has against Huitsung
as

as

power has

,
of
every impartial historian who can judge historical events from higher point view
a

will that the history

of

have admit human culture more indebted these two

is
to

to

emperors than their epoch Generals were always

of

other more warlike

to

rulers
.

get than The political greatness

of

easier real Maecenas those realms could only

for to

of

brief But some

at

exist time such historical destiny least these works

is
,
a

.
450
De

...
VI

Apostoli
lib

Theophanes Contin Const Porph Pauli tetraconcho varias efformavit

in
.,

.,

“
, :
*

.
ut

imagines specie novus multas figuras imaginesque collocavit

et

vetustate abolita decor accederet aureas

in
;

.”
20

eo

Theophanes Contin 1.c. 449 cum autem deauratus ejus lacunar lapsu temporis diffluxisset ipse prius
.,

,
“
:
*

submoto aspectu novum splendidumque effecit sinus enim octangulos componens eosque foraminibus variisque sculptis
.

figuris exornans vitium malleolos foliaque atque genera figuratos aurique stillis aspersos tanto decore
in

arborum
... mente
ut

cumulavit excedant
."
few

Art
the
are

be

cf.

which are still preserved handbooks Dalton Byzantine

to

The reliefs found and

in

;
,

,
•

Archaeology 159-162 Diehl Manuel d'art byzantin 650–655 Wulff Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft Die byzan
;
,

;
,

,
II

tinische Kunst 605-609

,

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 13

of art not perish , and the monuments which have been preserved are our only
did
means of obtaining a direct notion of the creative power and mentality of those great
periods . According to his contemporaries, Constantine visited regularly the numerous
workshops of his craftsmen , and counselled the stone -masons , workers in marble , gold
and silversmiths and workers in metal . He himself understood the art of painting so well ,
says his biographer , that it was difficult to surpass him ; he taught many painters and
was admired in general as a great master . He likewise was proficient in various allied
arts ,
he
for

as
the Chrysotriclinium

of
made the doors which were mounted silver

of ,

,
in
well
as

different coloured pieces

of
silver and made
table ornamented with wood

,
a

the sight which delighted the guests more than the food

of
he of

the vestibule his

In
.

he
apartment also built himself magnificent custodia waterholder which encircled

,
a

a
he
pillars gleaming gargoyle

as
placed eagle

on

an
with marble and smooth made

it
of

silver which did not look straight forwards but with head turned away and neck
,

writhing snake.2 Finally also made mosaic pictures for the hall
of he

of
bent throttled
a

the imperial abode He was architect and even designed

as
occupied

he an
too course
,

,
.
. of

he

models ships As brought

as

often entered church present costly

as
.

a
biographer Constantine VII prototype
of

us

as
vestments This description his shows

a
imperial Maecenas
of

skill

as
evidently great
an

an
of

and dilettante artist

a

."
His
as

predecessors
for instance Basil had personally stimulated the artists and
,

I,

,
by

all the emperors protected the crafts prosecuting forgers Export laws too were
the reign Nicephorus Phocas 963–969 the Bishop Cremona Liutprand .
of

of
made
II
In

at ),

,
.

up

his return journey having

on

on

of
was held account
as

ambassador the frontier

costly purple stuffs and five pieces were taken away from him And when Desiderius
,

,
.

Constantinople
of

of

the Abbot Montecassino sent one his monks the latter was
to
,

,
for

prudent enough beg the Emperor permission have some goldsmith's work done
to

to
for

the monastery and then take with him The works made the studios under
it

in
to

the protection the emperors were intended the first place adorn the imperial
of

in

to

palaces and churches and provide for the imperial pomp The artists were organised
to

early
as

as

guilds the fourth century measure which assured the continuation

in

,
in

and thus the high quality

of

of

the best tradition the work

.

On the other hand since the fourth century there had been brisk traffic between
,

Constantinople and the Asiatic centres Persia India and China During
of

culture
in

.
of

the Iconoclastic Controversy the Muhammedan influence first became importance and
,

Muhammedan architecture and decoration were directly copied the Bosphorus

on

Thus
.
“

the Emperor Theophilus art was gratified by the fantastic employment

of

829–867 love
'
(

)
, 22

Theophanes Contin 1.c. 450

.p
1

., .,

.: .

pro
24

Theophanes Contin 1.c. 450ff Purpuream quoque custodiam imperialis cubiculi vestibulo exstruxit
,
2

aquarum conceptaculum fabricatus quod columnis marmoreis per ambitum cinxit levore subfulgidis quid igitur magni
,

ficus animus aquilam argento conflatam aquae fistulae imponit non recta aspicientem sed averso vultu oblique erecto
,

,
ac

ac

collo velut capta praeda ferocientem pedibusque serpentem intorquentem suffocantem etc.
,
the

too
art

loving emperors early Byzantine period

—

of

There were some whom Theodosius 408—450

in

II
•

was specially gifted

.

III

Liutprandi relatio hist Script

de

legatione Constantinopolitana annis 968 969 Mon. Germ 347–363

,

,
. ;
•

.
.

.
by
cit
III
33

Chron monast Cassin Ebersolt Les arts sompt

,
,

8
.

.
14 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

of rich materials in luxurious ornament, rather than by durable works of useful grandeur .
His architectural taste alone took at times a direction advantageous to the public .
He his love of display in architecture by constructing palaces at an enormous
gratified
expense in no very durable manner . One of these , built in imitation of the great palace
of the caliphs at Baghdad , was erected at Bryas on the Asiatic shore . The varied form ,
the peculiar arches , the coloured decorations , the geometrical tracery , and the rich gilding
had induced John the Grammarian , when he visited the Caliph Mutassim as ambassador
from Theophilus , to bring back drawings and plans of this building , which was totally
different from the Byzantine style then in use .” ! It was Theophilus too in his predilection
for mechanical playthings , who introduced the mechanical pomp in the imperial palace ,
of which Constantine VII gives a description . According to him a solemn ceremonial took
place on the reception of an ambassador . “ After the whole court had entered and everyone
place disputator
his

had taken asked the ambassador who had entered the

in
the
,

,
'
At this moment
few

meantime conventional questions the gilded lions flanking the

of ,
a

.
roaring and the golden birds the encircling golden trees

on
throne Solomon start
'
*

The wild beasts lying

of
begin sing their feet While
on
each side the throne rise
to

to
, .

.
by
this happens the present brought the protonotar and given the ambassador

to
is

.
Then organ notes peal and the animals are quiet and settle down but rise again and

,
up

lift their voices when the ambassador leaves the hall During this ceremony the

.”
of

Emperor sat

, . of
on

called throne similar throne was the court

at
the Solomon
so

A
-

.
the Caliph Baghdad where Abulfeda describes quite similar ambassadorial reception
in

a
all

pomp goes back

its

cosmic symbolism

to
of

The tradition this the Achaemenids with

by
plane tree
as of

whose golden much admired Xerxes

the Greeks.2 was
so
of

the ninth century Theophanus Continuatus reports the treasures

In

the author
,

,
of

of

India contributed decorate the Oratory the Redeemer which Basil

at
erected
to

I
great expense hall the Great Palace was called The Indians I vool At that
in

).
(o
'
A

”
“
.

time one could buy shops Syria silks tissues and porcelain China which
of

the from
by in

,
by
were transported Islamic traders and bought quantities the Muhammedans
in

.
by

Indian silks were looted the Arabians and brought Constantinople the tenth
to

In
.
century costly
Persian carpets ána pata Tepoixá Tomútipa were spread out the palace in
@
(

by

for ceremonial receptions The Persian blue was shade highly valued the Byzantines

, of ,
a
.

predilection which could hardly have been without influence the deep blue colour
on
a

mosaic From the various victorious battles against the Muhammedans warlike emperors
,
. as

Nicephorus Phocas 961 after the capture

of

such Crete and John Tzimisces 976

I

G. Finlay History the Byzantine Empire veryman's Library according Theoph 61

of

to

139 Cont and

,

.
)
I

(E
lib

IV

Ducange Constantinopolis Christiana 177

,

,
.

.
De

Constantini Porphyrogeniti
15

ad

ceremoniis aulae Byzantinae 567 and Jac Reiskii commentarii

, p II

.p
. ,
,
2

f.

VI

Const Porph Corp. script hist Byz Bonnensis VII

ed

Mon.
lib

642 Liutprand Antapodosis

II

,
,

,
);
ff
2

5
. .

.
. .

E. .
.
, .
.

.
, (

(
338
III

cf.

Germ hist Script Herzfeld Der Thron des Khosro Jahrbuch der preußischen Kunstsammlungen
,
;
.

)
I, 41

painted Latin MS
n of

of

of

vol 1920. This throne miniature the 14th cent the Bibliotheca Casanatensis
in
is
,

. a
.

R.
68
fol

op
cf.

.cit

far
15

a as

as

Byzantium pomp
D.

Ebersolt
3.

Cod 1404 From this travelled Western

,

,
;
2
.

at

Europe and Germany where the Emperor Heinrich 1265 big tournament Nordhausen had similar silver
for in

in
,

a
De up

tree set from which silver leaves were picked the victors the tournament Reiski
in
,

,
c
.

l.
.
.op
...

by

cit
cit

cerimoniis 15. 574 Ebersolt 10–11 Diehl Manuel 418

;
,

,
»

II

II
.

f.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 15

after the campaignSyria , brought abundant loot in textiles , weapons and vessels of
in
gold and silver to Constantinople . In the meantime an Islamic colony had settled in
Constantinople with mosque and became the centre

of
its
Islamic trade

, .
On

be
all these reports which could easily multiplied hardly

an
of
the basis

is
,

it
exaggeration call the Constantinople

of
the Macedonian and Comnenian period the
to

treasure house of the western world Neither India nor China could one find such

in
in
.
seems astonishing that the con

all
varied abundance collected from nations

by It
,
a

all

of
temporary Byzantine art was not more influenced these forms and treasures
ornament and for this conservatism undoubtedly indebted the old guilds which

to
is
,

,
it
opposed everything new and remained faithful their approved traditions Let only

us
to

.
imagine knowledge
far

all
we have the necessary the individual forms what

of
as
so
,

,
by

of
absurd mixtures would have been produced the unrestrained synthesis Hellenistic

,
Chinese Persian Bactrian Indian Islamic Scythian and East Slav elements was

It
,

.
evidently protected guilds from the over hasty
of

the detestation barbarians which the

“

-
foreign elements and
of

adoption those real barbarisms which contemporaneously

so

from

barbarous West Europe

as

appeared Romanism These artists assimilated many

in

.
“

of

productive inspiration technical kind entirely that every attempt

at
even
so
,

,
a

analysis put simply astounding how

Byzantine mosaic painting kept
It

shame
is

to

is
.

spiritual character immaculate

all

of
its

from the tawdriness the older Asiatic arts

.
The Great Palace was real museum where all the treasures were kept They were
a

.
shown occasionally royal guests and ambassadors and barbarian princes such

as
to

. ,
;

”
by

the Seljūķan Sultân ķilij Arslân were made amenable presents When

it
from
II,
-

last forced their way

no
the Latins the city bounds Du
at

into their amazement knew

,

.
“
If ne

de

qui était dans parler

ce

trésor palais convient pas

avait tant que car en
il

il
." ,

y
ni

of

still preserved we are

ni

cela n'avait mesure

fin

few these treasures are

,
2

generosity
the Byzantine emperors At great festivals
of

indebted the occasional

to

churches and monasteries received costly vessels and textiles nor were foreign princes
,

dismissed empty handed consequence we find nothing now Constantinople yet

in
In

,
.
-

various Byzantine art this period many lonely remote monastery

of

of

cimelia
in

a
”

all
or
of

Roman Church just the extant mosaic cycles

as

of

the Orthodox this time are

,

capital
be

only found outside and far from the former

to

The best incentive for the development all the minor arts under the Macedonians
of
by

buildings
. of

provided the Nea the Church

as

was the new church Basil such

,
I,
of

Oratory For their fittings the first place

of

St. Elias and the the Redeemer

in
,

quantity metal works was needed from the altars the fountains and doors and
of

to

;
,
a

of

this work itself especially the altars formed the framework for enamel
the case
in
,

, all ,

painting and ivory carving the next grade not

as

speak
of

finer decoration
in

to
,as

the portable cimelia which were used for divine service such chalices crucifixes
,

gospel books and psalters for the most part works

of

reliquaries icons enamel

,
,
,

&
c
.

painting and the gold and silversmith's craft.3 San Marco the only church
of

Venice
in

is
-
De

Porph imperii
21

Const admin 101

.,

by ,

,
.

, .

, .
op
de

.cit

Geoffroi
15
cit

Villehardouin Ebersolt
2

.p
.,
.

.
P.

F.ichter 356
J.

ff
•

.
16 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

still existing , give us good idea of a mid -Byzantine cathedral ,

its
which can a and

of
Byzantine ecclesiastical wealth Many

of
treasures alone can afford notion them are

.
originals period
the Macedonian and Comnenian
chalices for instance which

of
were

,
by
At the invasion

of
the Xth XIth century

of
bequeathed the emperors
Romanus one

.
-
St. Sophia gold
of

of

of
the Latins the altar the iconostasis

as
described

in

is
,

,
1204

in
Archbishop Anthony Novgorod visiting Constantinople

of
silver 1200 saw more

in
.
than thirty votive crowns hanging over the high altar behind which was golden cross

a
higher than the stature destroyed

of
two men The crusaders the altar the ciborium

,
.'
and the iconostasis St. Sophia

of

.
Metalwork and Enamel silver and gold

of
The art metal work bronze casting

,
-

-
.
smithery and incrustation which was already used with much skill

of
the time the Romans

in
Byzantine court art and attained

its
and Hellenistic art was continued zealously zenith
in

in
likewise the mid Byzantine period Emperor Constantine's book

on
the ceremonies
in

.
gives several particulars Magnaura when great

of
metalwork used the Palace
on

in

,
receptions were prepared draw plated copper chains from column

to
was the custom
It
.

many branched candelabra silver often gilded poly

on

hang

of
column and
to

to

,
them

(
candela which were borrowed for this purpose from the Nea and other churches
),

of .
The hall was further decorated with enamel pictures from the state stores Garments

.
of
all kinds served
as

state such the Scaramangia and costly stuffs and embroideries

,
,

of
wall
as

decoration The floor was covered with Persian carpets great worth about

,
.

technique patterns which we have unfortunately

no
of

the material and completer

,

by
information As already mentioned above the churches built Basil also became
, ,

I,
.

metal workers art The floors walls and capitals

of

museums the Nea and the

in
in
'
.

Oratory were covered with hammered niello silver slabs Theophanes

of

the Redeemer

.
Continuatus compares the pavement
the Nea with Sidonian textiles spread over the
of

Thus the textile patterns were taken model for such work
as
84

floor 326
,
,
(V

a
).

.
larger
of
The niello technique was employed even for the decoration surfaces The silver

.
the walls were ornamented with gold pearls and precious stones The iconostasies
of

slabs
,

gold and silver and adorned with enamel pictures .

of

of

of
churches were
both Christ

."
art made
of

Stray descriptions ecclesiastical metal works

of
good
of

give idea the sort

-
a

Constantinople the twelfth century For instance Olga the widow

on of
the tenth
in

to

,
in

.
of

the grandduke Igor Kieff died 945 had golden paten made Constantinople
in
),

a
, (

precious stone with

of

the occasion her baptism which was sunk

of

the centre
in

Christ engraved Grandduchess Olga presented this

of

the face not carved like cameo

,

Novgorod
as

paten
to

St. Sophia where the pilgrim

of

Antonius well several

as
it

saw
,

of

other costly patens and vessels precious material 1200.- Byzantine patens goblets
in

this period are preserved among the treasures

of

San Marco Venice

of

and chalices
in

."
op

cit

Dalton 333
. ,

.
.

.
15

on
P.
J.

Cerim 570-573 Richter 294–304 Karabacek's book Susanjird Persische Nadelmalerei

II,
,

,
;

, ;
at 2

"
the

from the workshops

of
in an

gives any rate carpets period which were undoubtedly

of

of

idea that obtained

the Caliph's court Baghdad
.

.op
84

87

88

65
cf.

cit

Theoph Cont 326 and 330—331 Itinéraires russes Ebersolt and

,

,
,
,

,
,
V

;
»

n
.

.pl .

.
, 2.
106

XXXIII XLIX XLVIII

50
di

Pasini tesoro San Marco Venezia 108-109 and Ebersolt

in
,

,
;

;
Il
s
66

figs 25–27
1.

.f,
.c

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 17

These vessels account of their costly material , such as chalcedony ,

are remarkable on
jasper , onyx , sardonyx , .,
their elegant shapes with boldly swung handles and
&c and

its
subtly thought - out curves. The antique tradition of handle shapes celebrated here
this mid Byzantine tradition

of
finest renaissance making such precious vessels

It
is
.

-
of
which led
to

another renaissance this art the sixteenth century Italy The foot

in

in

of .
upper edge frequently
of
and the these chalices were ornamented icons cloisonné
enamel framed with pearls
articles for daily use were likewise costly
The secular The
.

.
the imperial palace were partly

or
of
furniture chandeliers

at
of
and silver least with

,
silver fittings The carriage John Tzimisces was gilded bronze his sarcophagus
of

of

is
.

said have been gold but was probably only gilded and ornamented with niello
to

of

)
and enamel.2
of

The court Manuel the magnificence

of
Comnenus 1143-1180 also reminiscent

is
I

)
of

the tenth His throne was covered with

century gold and incrustated with pearls
.

and other precious stones carbuncles and hyacinths

,

.'
the tenth century best illustrated by the famous
of

The culmination enamel work

in

is
reliquary Limburg the Lahn which was made for Constantine VII
of

the true cross

on
in

.*
the Swenigorodskoi Collection date too from the tenth
of

to
The renowned enamels the
eleventh century they are now the Pierpont Morgan Collection the Metropolitan

in
in
;

an

the monastery Djunati

of

of
Museum New York but formerly ornamented icon
,

in
Georgia Finally the Pala d'oro mid Byzantine
of

Marco one the chief works

of
San
in

is
.

-
for

though century only the plaques with the life Christ the

of
enamel the eleventh

in
,

,
upper horizontal the lower part
of

of
row come into consideration .. The influence the
,

enamel style miniature painting and monumental mosaic painting has been noticed
on

and emphasized several times and will have be discussed further connection with
to

in
,

the mosaics of Hosios Lucas

.6

Textiles Byzantine textile art interests

us

The renowned this connection only

in
.

the

for the novelties which produced during Macedonian and Comnenian period
it

These novelties are be seen

of

the period
to

distinction Justinian new

in

in
to

patterns for stuffs sprinkled patterns

of

and the introduction new costumes The

in

,
.

which consisted various leaf and palmette shapes among others the clubs spades
of

,
(
of

and hearts our modern playing cards were employed remain essentially the same
),
for

except passing fashions from the time Constantine the Great

of

The same holds

,

.
for

good the geometric patterns which were much favour the mid yzantine
in
,

in

-B

period and from which other patterns were formed The animal patterns too well
as
,

,
.

the Constantinian age

be

the dragon stuffs are proved Still

of
as

seems that the

it
to
,

.?

purple state garments patterned with large orbiculi and ornamented with winged dragons
,

Cerim 571-573 580-581 592

II,

,
, .

68
III

Preger Script orig Const

76
au

Histoire des arts industriels moyen âge

1.

283 Labarte Ebersolt

II,

, ,

,
;

c
?

.
, .

.
.
by

.pl 86

Cinnamus Hist 205 cit Ebersolt

,

,
V
3

), c
.

l.
.
.

M. Rosenberg Zellenschmelz Frankfurt 1921 III

,
*

.
(

Eitelberger Pala d'oro Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft vol 1887 236

.p
,

, ,

,
X
.

.
G.

The similarity
de

Cf. Millet Michel Hist specially Mss

to

cf. is

l'art 281. miniatures remarkable

in

.pl in
, ,
•

. .
I

XIII
op

Theol Gr 154
n cit
as

with small margin figures with minute execution Vienna Gerstinger

in

in

. .,
;
.
, .

, .
23
G.

by
De

Migne
56
P.

cit

Chrysostomus perfecta Ebersolt

1.

caritate 286.
J.

.p

.p
,

,
.,
;

7
c
t.

.
'

Diez Demus
2
.
-
 18 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

and running animals , were especially fashionable during the iconoclastic period , which had
a predilection for animal patterns, and they appear on works of art in the Macedonian
period .' was revived in the Palaeologan time.2 This decorative style of
This fashion

for

as
the iconoclastic period continued to be used ecclesiastical stuffs such altar cloths

,
predominated entirely large hangings curtains which

as
and almost such the vela

in

(
were hung the palace existing remnants bear witness Partridges eagles

as
in

),

,
.
peacocks griffins and griffin lions well plane trees and figures

as

as

. of
riders were woven
,

-
into the cloth thus imitating Persian animal decoration textiles One must imagine
,

in
a

by
palace hall of
that time hung with such animal stuffs enlivened court dignitaries

,
a

clad animal figured garments Persian costumes order have right conception
in

in

to
,

a
-
of

the completely oriental Persian Byzantium

on
tradition which lived Moreover

,
in

.
by
the figural decoration the stuffs of which had been suppressed the iconoclasts came

,
the fore again the Macedonian period and was combined with the iconoclast plant
to

in

,III

of
decoration Thus stuff which Michael 842–867 soon after the restoration the
a

)
.

Constantinople
at

to
Pope already
of
orthodox faith the Council 843 sent Nicholas was

in

I,

as
Christ Peter and Paul and the other Apostles
of

decorated with the figures well

as
,

,
with shrubs roses and the initials the Emperor Though proved that animal
of

is
.:
,

it
patterns such the dragon stuffs were already
as

use the Constantinian period

in
,

,
in
made between the imported
be

distinction must now Persian and the barbarian

a

of
nomad animal patterns The Persian animal couples were used till the end the
.

Byzantine Empire But they must be distinguished from the animal patterns tapestry

on
, .

Bishop Asterius according

to

about 400 A.D. were spread

, to of
and clothes which Amasea

, by
have been brought Scythian
, of

over the countries the Pontus These seem

in
.

nomads for the lions panthers bears bulls dogs woods rocks and hunters short

in
,

of ,

“
all that the painter knows how create imitation nature are not Persian but
in
to

, ”
nomad types and had spread over the Pontine countries since the Hellenistic period
,

.
Not only are the walls and houses covered with such figured stuffs but also the

,
(

)
“

people their tunics and pallia Beside this nomadic group which corresponded

to
in

,
.”

cultural period fishing and hunting the dynamic mania for expansion the subjects
of

,
of in
a
of

the gospels possession The most pious

us
had taken textile art among have
"
.

the gospel stories woven into their stuffs

of

Christ the midst his apostles and then

in
;

all One sees the marriage

as

the gospels Cana the palsied

of

his miracles related

in
,

,
.

of
away
an

man who carries his bed the man born blind the women with issue blood
,

,
...
of

the raising Lazarus Thus we should have found the same subjects depicted
,
&

4
c
.
"

Murtzuphlos
on

For instance Alexius 1204 wears such purple garment miniature Gerstinger
,
V

a
(

)
., '

XXIV
.op

.pl
cit

.
Cf.

fig

the Grandduke Apokaucus Ms.

, of

54
cf.

the costume grec 2144 Bibl Nat Ebersolt

.;
in

1.
2

,
c
.,
.

.
.
by

ed 61
cit

Liber pontificalis Ebersolt

1.

154
.p
,

,
II

c
.

.
. .
J

.t

X.
by
cit
de

Kraus
of F.

Asterii Amas episc Homil Combefis Auctar Par

et

divite Lazaro 1648

,
;
*

Geschichte der christlichen Kunst 389f Nicephorus corroborates this fashion stuffs with figures saints and
in
I,

San

by
the

for

gospels which was already attested taking

of

scenes from the time Justinian Theodora Vitale

in

it
,

),
(
his

under his protection apologetic pamphlet against the Iconoclasts and points out that such pictures were only
in

,
set
up

et

et
et as

as

objects worship Christi passionem

of

not Idcirco Christum domibus

et

remembrances ecclesiis
ut in
,

in “
.
et

plateis sidonibusque omni loco exsculpimus pingimus spectaculo

et

et

tabulis vestimentis continuo hoc

in

,
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 19

on the tapestry and clothes as we find on the sarcophagi which have been preserved . Accord
ing to these and other examples , the later mural and mosaic painting was descended from
an original tapestry with figural weaving and embroidery , as Kraus has remarked .
On the other hand , when in the iconoclastic period animal painting again came to the
front and even took possession of the walls of churches, this was nothing but an oriental
reaction caused by the Anatolian dynasty . The façades of the church in Achthamar ,
an island in the lake of Van , of the tenth century
and of that of Wladimir (ca. 1190 )
in Russia are good examples of this animal decoration of churches.
The adornment of state garments with precious stones and pearls which had also
been customary earlier , was increased to the utmost limits . Thus the pearls and
carbuncles on the costume of Manuel I Comnenus (1143-1180 ) were placed with such
art and skill that it was like a meadow covered with flowers , as the chronicler puts it .

his
precious stone of extraordinary size and brilliancy was hung on knee aussi

,
A

“
éclatante qu'une rose aussi grosse qu'une pomme When we hear that large silk
et

upa
i
.”
curtain woven gold and ornamented with precious stones was hung before the
in
,

,
received Amaury King
he

glittering this Emperor when

of

of
throne Jerusalem 1171

,
in
as

seems into Byzantium

had been also introduced the old oriental custom kept
if

,
it
up

by the Caliphs Baghdad draping the Emperor for the audience behind
of

curtain
in

a
him

order expose like machina given moment

at

deus the astonished

ex
to

to
in

gaze the foreign potentates and ambassadors Only few ceremonially prescribed
of

a
.

words were spoken there was complete silence during

on

or

such solemn occasions

,

bows and inclinations

of

the ceremony
.

that time seemed specially oriental the imported Persian

at

on

of
The court account
which took much deeper root now the time
at

of
costumes fashion than Constantine
,
a

and Justinian and predominated almost entirely The Scaramangion cloak lined and
,
a
.

Constantine VII was

of

trimmed with fur repeatedly mentioned the ceremonial book

in
,

,
by

garment used
on

the ancient Persians who are represented them the Achaemenid

in
,
a

rock reliefs The Tzitzakion was cloak taken over from the Khazars the eighth
in
.

century The Kandys was Persian origin with sleeves covered precious
of

coat with
,
a
.

stones which was worn by the Comneni

over their cuirasses The Cavvadion was
,

.
by

of

kaftanlike cloak Persian soldiers

also worn Finally the Tiara was Persian
a

origin exclusively Emperors played important

an

and reserved for These state costumes

as .

part court and church ceremonies and still customary the Catholic Church
in

is

in
,

,
for

were changed separate act rite exactly

as

each such described

in

is

in
,
a

We
of

the book ceremonies get good mid

of

of

idea these costumes the

3

can
of .

Byzantine period and their patterns from the ivory reliefs the enamels and especially
:

the miniatures
.

haec ... Nicephori Antirrhetica adversus

ed

commemoremus Epiphanidem Pitra Spicilegium The series

at of

371.
,

,
.
by

by

subjects the way corresponds the subjects upon the relic casket
of

cited Asterius Amasea with rendered

,

Dalton East Christian Art bibliography

cf.

its

Brescia 208 for

p
,

, , ,
.

. .

.
by

1-7
.op
86
, cit

Hist Ebersolt 1.c.

cit

Cinnamus 205 206 Ebersolt 143 and notes

,

,
3,

,
V

ff
•

,
2
.

.
80

86

Cerim passim especially 181 227 440 442 529 where the patterns too are indicated
p
,

,
+ •

.
IX

Thus
to

the crown Monomachus

of

ascribed Constantine Budapest shows

,

1042-1054 the museum

in

,
(

)
the

Emperor and the Empresses

on

golden enamel plaques Kondakoff Hist

2 et

Zoe and Theodora three monum

,
(

.
*
20 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

Expansion of mid - Byzantine art . This summary introductory description of

Byzantine art during the Macedonian and Comnenian period will be concluded with a short
beyond question that Constantinople

its
account of the East and West

at
expansion

to

It
is
.
this time i.e. from the ninth till the beginning the thirteenth century was the richest

of
,

,
art The Caliph courts Baghdad

of
centre the world and Cairo and the court the

in

in
.
Sung emperors China are the only other ones which
come into consideration Though

in

.
Baghdad and other towns Mossul

of
remarkable work was done Western Asia such

as
in

,
of
and Cairo yet the splendour and pomp the Caliphs well the intrinsic value

as

as
in

,
of

the decoration and works the textiles silver and gold vessels

of

of
the minor arts

of ,

,
no

doubt considerably inferior

of
as
was those Byzantium every exact student

to

,
both fields must allow Neither must we forget that Byzantium was nearly always
.
the

be
far
as

giver

as
Damascus and Baghdad are concerned
as

can seen numerous

,
from
writings which mention the request for the sending

of of
builders and craftsmen from

no
Byzantium Although Constantinople made great use the Asiatic tradition had

,
it
.'

of its
Baghdad gaze constantly turned towards the brilliant
of

need whereas the latter had

,

by
capital the Bosphorus Baghdad architecture Constantinople
on

The imitation

in
.

Emperor Theophilus mentioned above was exception without ulti

an
the iconoclastic
,

,
mate effect only discussed curiosity the personal snobism
as

potentate

of

of
result
,

a
-
We know

of
playing the gallery the other hand very little the capitals
on

of
to

the
.

Sung emperors that the splendour

of
Yet their courts and their
almost certain
is
it
.

architectural decorations did not rival Byzantium The Sung culture was too subtle .

as

as
and elevated Sung painting and Byzantine mosaic are far apart the poles the

in
.

history the fine arts and comparisons are

no

purpose here
of

to
,

.
Thus was natural that there was constant flow newly forms
of
the found
it

in
a
of

as
art well art products Byzantium well the west i.e.

to
as

as

from the east on as

to

,
To

Europe with regard

its

the contemporary art

to

of
discuss influence
to

form
.

re

Europe would Byzantine question

be

open the Here we must confine ourselves

to

.”

mentioning ways which

to

summarily the means and art could and did mid Byzantine
-
by
for
of

over Europe
do
its

make use dissemination not intend discuss And this we

to
.

,
Byzantine exports general development European
of

of
on

the influence such the art

topic historically more important but would demand volume
an

which entire
is
a

itself
to

des émaux Byzantins Frankfurt 1892 figs 73–74 Constantine Ducas 1059-1067 and the Empress Eudoxia appear
,

X
.; .)

. (

)
. .

Ms. Bibl Nat

cf.

their costumes grec 922 Omont Facsimiles The wellknown often reproduced ivory
in

in

,
des

Emperor
of

relief Médailles shows the Romanus

IV

the Cabinet Paris 1068-1071 and Eudoxia with

in

.op (

)
fig

them and crowning them

41
on

cit

Christ stard.ng raiseu pedestai wetween Ebersolt Diehl Manuel

,

.,

II,
;
a

.
of This

222 How simple Christ his classical garments appears between the magnificent stiff state garments
in

,
.

I III

Nicephorus
79

Ms. Coislin Bibl Nat

.;

the imperial couple and his wife appear

Botoniates 1078-1081
in

.
, !

)
of 42
43
fig

Ebersolt 1.c. 44. Alexius Comnenus 1081-1118 appears wrapped cloak ornamented with palmettes
on in
,

a
.

)
.fig

Ms. grec 666 Ebersolt 45. His wife Irene appears the Pala d'oro the costumes
of

the Vaticana
in

II ,
;

.fig
for
on

which are the whole enlightening the XIth XIIth centuries Ebersolt 47. John Comnenus and
,
;
-
his

on

appear personifications gospel book

of

son Alexius with wellknown miniature the Vaticana

in

;
a

-
.fig
50

Ebersolt
,

by

the Great Mosque

on

at

that were recently

on of

The mosaics the court façade Damascus laid bare French

1

archaeologists now give superb testimony Byzantine mosaic painting the eighth century
in

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 21

As well known , the expansion began in the Early Byzantine period , especially in
is

the time of Justinian , but hardly reached beyond Italy . In the architectural field it was
only the Early Byzantine architecture that extended to Europe and even then only to a
limited degree . The mid - Byzantine churches were built too late to have any influence
there .On the other hand , Byzantine painting had a decisive influence on Italy , especially
on the Roman churches, as early as the iconoclastic period , and actually decided the
fate of European Romanesque and Early Gothic painting .
The new wave of influence in the mid - Byzantine period , which carried mosaic church
decoration over from Byzantium to Venice and Sicily , is the subject of a special chapter .
This transmission was brought about by the exportation of artists and was thus full of vitality
and enormously productive . For schools arose and traditions took root , which continued
to have an influence on the wall painting which immediately followed . Another means was
the exportation of works of art in response to orders or as gifts to European and Asiatic

all
emperors and princes . An excellent and much quoted example of this the Benedictine

is
monastery colony Byzantine artists worked there
of

of

Monte Cassino the eleventh

in
A
.

on
century besides this the monastery placed orders Constantinople and occasion received
in

,
;

of
gifts Thus Abbot Desiderius obtained the Emperor's permission order ten icons gilded

to
.

silver one medallion icon two large and seven small bronze candlesticks Later this
,

.
monastery received gifts from Alexius Comnenus 1081-1918 among which was purple
II

),

a
(

for
garment with woven thread
, of

gold Abbot Desiderius also ordered bronze doors

.

his monastery Besides these bronze doors were made Byzantium the eleventh
in

in
.

for
of

century for the cathedral Amalfi for San Paolo fuori mura Rome San Michele
le

in
of ,

,
of

Gargano
on

Monte the church Atrani the cathedral Salerno and for San Marco
,

,
Venice.2 Other bronze doors were cast Italy from these models The Pala d'oro
in

in

,
.

which was ordered Byzantium has been mentioned above

in

The following summary list may give the numerous gifts which were
of

notion
a

European Byzantium Ludwig der Deutsche twice received presents

II

sent courts from

to

set

from Basil among which was large crystal vase gold and studded with
I,

in
a

precious got presents all the latter especially

of

stones Otto and Otto sorts when

II

,
I
.

III
he

married Princess Theophano 972. The Emperor Henry received presents from
in

an
IX

Henry hundred pieces purple

IV

of

Constantine 1042–1054 aurea tabula altaris

),

,
a
(

bowl sardonyx from Alexius Likewise presents were often

of

stuff and Comnenus

a

sent popes archbishops and abbots Thus Pope Nicholas goblets

to

received
,

,
.

patens and plates gold and gold bordered textiles with figural scenes from the Emperor
of

-
as

Michael mentioned above Manuel Comnenus 1143-1180 sent the Archbishop

II,

) I

Pisa every year forty byzantios e.g. coins and one textile Abbot Vilibald Stavelot
of

of
(

.
of

Belgium received piece purple stuff striped white and red from the same generous
, ,

,
in

Emperor The Norman Robert Guiscard received several embassies with presents from
.

Michael VII Ducas 1071-1078 the part who paid court

on

of

his son the former's

to
),
(

daughter Helen These passages history naturally

of

from the sources medieval com

.

monast Casin III

by
IV
33

17
ed

Ebersolt op.cit 83f

cit
IV

Chron and Mon. Germ hist Script 451 and 503

,

,
.

.
.

.
.
64

L'art dans l'Italie méridionale Ebersolt 83-86

1.

Bertaux 164 404-408

,
,
,

,
2

c
•

.
.
.
22 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

prise part of the presents sent to Europe . Russia and the Balkans are not
only a

mentioned at all . All the costly remnants of stuffs , with animals woven in , preserved
in European church treasures, formed a part of these gifts . Most of them are parts of
those large hangings already mentioned , mostly purple stuffs woven with gold thread ,
,
which were hung in the imperial palace as decoration , and bear witness to the continuation
of the Sassanid textile decoration in the Zeuxippus , the imperial textile manufactory in
Constantinople ."
Naturally presents were also sent to the Islamic rulers . Among others a silver
box with gold plaques and an enamel portrait of the Emperor Constantine VII to the

III
Omayyad Caliph ‘Abd -ar -Raḥmān 912–961 Cordova Again the Seljūķ Sultân

in
(

, .
Ķilij Arslân Dâwad 1092–1106 received magnificent clothes silver bowls golden vases

,
(

)
-

he
and sumptuous stuffs Manuel Comnenus whom visited Constantinople.2

in
,
from

as few
Byzantine art

be
of

direct influence Islamic works

to

as
on
such

is

in
seen
A

a
the well known Ortuķidan bowl
Innsbruck which has been already
the museum
in

,
in
-

remarked by

of
from the technical point view unthinkable without Byzantine
O.

Falke
is
,
v
.

G. Millet's indication

of
may also be made Byzantine influence

of
influence.3 Mention
moving towards the East the tenth and beginning
at

the eleventh century

of

of
the end
,

,
when Nicephorus Phocas 963–969 John Tzimisces 969-976 and Basil 976-1025

II
),
(

)
the power the Byzantine Empire the Euphrates and their suzerainty
of

to
extended
Armenia At this time the Byzantine types penetrated
to

reached Cappadocia and

to
.

later even as far as Armenia and Mesopotamia without entirely

ex
however

,
tinguishing always maintained some way other

or
the old tradition which itself

in
,

."
extremely important factor
An the expansion Byzantine art was the adoption
of
in
by

Byzantine East Europe Court ceremonies

of

the court ceremonial the courts

in

.
had attained their zenith style and brilliancy under the Macedonians and were
in

by
by

introduced the Russian court first

Vladimir 972–1015 and Jaroslav the Kieff
in

)
by
Great 1016–1054 They were also adopted
and later the Bulgarian
Moscow
in

.
(

by

court under Czar Simeon 893–927 and later the Serbian court under Stephan
(

Dushan 1331–1355 Europe they were imitated Venice and Rome.5

In

in
(

of ).

the expansion rather the scattering the Byzantine Minor Arts

of

The last act

or
by

by

the conquest and pillage Constantinople April

on
of

was ushered the Latins

in

King
of

of
12th 1204.6 Not only did Baldwin Flanders himself send the Pope and the
,

large and valuable part but the rapacious knights

of

France the church loot and

,
a

by
for

stuff were and published Lessing Die Gewebesammlung

of

These remnants collected the first time

,

kgl Kunstgewerbemuseums
O.

Kunstgeschichte der Seidenweberei

cf.

des Berlin Falke passim Ebersolt

in

,
;

;
v
.

.
.op

77

the handbooks
cit

and
ff

.
.
.

Ebersolt 1.c. 61 83-86

2

cf.
für

Falke Kupferzellenschmelz
im

Byzanz
O.

Orient und Monatshefte Kunstwissenschaft 1909 Glück

in

;
,

,
v
•

)
fig

und Diez Die Kunst des Islam Propyläen Kunstgeschichte 452 453 and 583
.p
,

,
I, .

.
-
G.

l'Iconographie l'Évangile XIII

de

Millet Recherches sur

, .p
, ,

6.
*

L.

Ebersolt Mélanges d'Histoire d'Archéologie Byzantines Paris 1917 Réau L'art Russe Paris
et

.p
,

,
s

(
.pp

1921 69-212
.
)

by
the

the description part Les arts somptuaires

of

of

The literature Ebersolt

is

destruction classified
in

,
. 6

102 1-4
n
,

.
 THE ART OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD 23

adventurers , when they returned home, surrendered their booty , sooner or later ,
often under the pressure of conscience , to the churches . Thus innumerable reliquaries
and their precious receptacles came into the possession of the churches of Saint- Denis ,
Troyes, Clairvaux , Soissons , Sainte - Chapelle , Corbie, Trier and Halberstadt . This was apart
from the official distribution , which apportioned one and a half quarters of the loot to
the Republic of Venice , one quarter to the Emperor , half a quarter to the Italian
bishops and the remaining quarter to the Latin clergy . This scattering , however ,
of art , as F. X. out ,

of its
interests the historian Kraus has already pointed only in
bearing these Byzantine works
on

question art influenced those

of
the whether
less import

of

of
contemporary Europe And these objects the minor arts certainly were
.

the development Western European art than the mid Byzantine painting
of

ance for

-
by

and mosaics adopted the Benedictine and Basilian monks Southern Italy and

in
by

over France and Germany

on
of
spread their orders And this Bertaux book the

'
.
art Southern Italy gives the most enlightening account
in

.
der
F.
X.

84
christlichen Kunst Riant gave the scattering

of
Kraus Geschichte .p detailed account

;
,

II,
1,

a
*

les vol

the
the booty over Europe
of

Exuviae sacrae Constantinopolitanae Geneva 1887 and same author's

in

in
),
par2
(

nés

de
au

Des dépouilles religieuses enlevées Constantinople Latins

et
13e siècle des documents hist leur
de à

.
XXXVI
en

de

transport Mémoires des antiquités France

la

Occident Société , 1875

,
t.

).
(
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE HIERATIC STYLE

THE mosaics in Hosios Lucas show the culmination of that style of Byzantine painting
which we might call the hieratic . This style could only have matured in the centre of
the empire at the seat of ecclesiastical power and learning . Yet H. Lucas is the earliest
extant work of a
comprehensive character on such a scale . The mediocrity which appears
every now does not detract from the significance of the Lucas mosaics , hitherto
and then
misjudged . This style has till now hardly been comprehended true being and

its
in
significance for much the same reason that Byzantine art has always played subordinate
,

a
for
part the history popular
iconographic research
of

art long been

It

has field
in

,
.

fora

its
yet was recognised and appreciated artistic importance peculiar

its
seldom and
beauty The powerful shadow Greek art was cast too heavily upon modern
of

of

form
.

taste
.

be fathomed by
its

its

The hieratic style origin and essence can only

in

in

spiritual and As regards subject point departure

its

its

its
analysing formal qualities

of
,
.

gospel the other personifications taken

on

on

was the one hand the from the

,

gnostic systems which were accepted by orthodox theology The latter like the various

,
.
of

conceptions the Virgin the figure the Demiurgos the hierarchies angels etc.
of

of
,

,
were undoubtedly symbols far more suitable for figured representation than the gospel
texts myths and parables product
of

These consist and their formulation the

is
,
.

the late Antique and Judaism The representation gospel events justice

to
do
to of

of

had
.

as

satisfy the theologians and initiated well

to

as

both sides order the uneducated

in
,

The people been permanently painted

of

mass believers would have contented with

.

Santa Maria Maggiore Sant Apollinare Nuovo

be

cycles are
or
as

such found
in
to

in

'

. .
But those who had ears the initiated needed something more profound
to

hear
,

,
“

Nevertheless these representations were parables for them and Christ spoke them
to

only parables Therefore Martha and Mary Lazarus and the rich man the marriage
in

,
.

be
of

Cana and the rich young man have continued parables

of

the heathens and

to
,

Jews The key the secret language these pictures which are purposely
of

the
to

,
.

was given by W.
B.

unintelligible the uninitiated Ecce Deus

to

Smith his book

in
,

.”
be

All these pictures

at

taken from the gospels could regarded and understood from

double point literally and parabolically and some such
as

the Baptism
of

least view
,

,
a

the

the Transfiguration threefold sense -historical mythical and

or

Crucifixion have
,

,
a

esoteric mystical
-

.
--

-
-

-
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE HIERATIC STYLE 25

We will not here discuss the signification of the cross , the symbolism of which
reaches back to the stone age , nor the crucified Saviours (Soters ) who with Osiris
and Adonis were revered in the oldest Mediterranean religions ; yet it is necessary to
be aware of these facts in order to understand the evolution of Christian hieratic art
from the most ancient cultures from , as well as the gospels , and thus be able to
Regarded from this point
its

appreciate

of
super Christian significance view Buddhistic

.
-

of
and Christian art are neither more nor less than the fundamental ideas two ancient
The representation

of
cultures the Eastern Mediterranean and the Indian the Crucifixion
,

.
above all proves how Christian art from the very beginning did not want depict

to
,

historical events but directly sought hieratic forms expression

of
From the first
,

.
, of

the antique cross the martyr

on
representation
no

of
there was which the hands

,
up

, an
were drawn over his head but the arms were shown stretched out which for

,
its
actual execution was not customary With vertical and horizontal lines the cross

is
.

according the antique idea the traversing

of
two dimensional space and

on
the

, it
to

,
a

-
Logos

of
ordermatter into Chi
to

stretched cosmos the Plato the

is

in

,
form

St.
of of

of
serpent rope the Living God
of

of
Moses the Ezekiel the seal John's
,

for
the

the

Apocalypse crux ansata Egyptians which also the hieroglyph im

is
,

mortality Egyptian ritual the stretching out

of on
of
the arms the cross signified
In

a
.'

mystical
of

represented
on

sort birth and some amulets the Stauros Osiris

of is
new
;

with human arms This what

concrete contingent
case shows independence
in
.

historical fact such main types

of

Christian art have developed though they had

to
,
, be

gospel Let also take the Birth

us
story
of

, of
make use order understood
to
in

.
a

Christ myth common Osiris Horus Aion Helios Dionysos Mithras and Jesus
to
as

,
a

according which they were born the night the winter solstice cave the grotto
to

ox of
in

in

,
a

of
the sign
of

the world between the constellation the ass

of

of

the and that the

in
,

celestial Virgo whom the Egyptians call Isis and the Jews Hagia Sophia we add that
If
,

, all
virginity was usual attribute
for

the Mother God that legends

of

ancient times
in
,
in
a

up

gods and half gods were persecuted after their birth and were therefore brought secretly
-

at of
Zeus Dionysos Achilles Romulus Remus Moses that the sun god Horos
.;

son the
,

,
&
-

-
c

Virgin Isis was represented

of

the Virgin
at

being born the winter solstice

as

the
,

of

the appearance the sign Virgo manger the temple -then we become
of

of

moment
in
,

,
in
a

the gospels
of

of

aware that the Christ had have different life from that the
to

historical Jesus and that the myth the sun god

of

incarnated Him anew The

is

in
-

and Last Supper were heathen sacraments the Harrowing

of

Baptism Hell function

,

a
of

Sungods Washing symbolic performed

of

the Soters and the the Feet act with

,

a
be

Neophytes These examples may

of
as

sufficient indication the sources from which

.

the gospels drew and which more less secretly yet decisively the formation
or

influenced
,

cycle mythical and

of

of

pictures They show

an

the Christian hieratic what immense

.
L.

E.

Feiler Die Entstehung des Christentums Diederichs Jena

,
"

; ,
.

.;
Bd
III

Robertson Evangelienmythen Njemojewski Gott Jesus

E.

Drews Der Sternenhimmel Norden

,

, ,

,
;
2

.
des

old
by

Since the Descent into Hell was not mentioned the four gospels
too of

Die Geburt Kindes this function

.

gospel
be

invented and was described the apocryphal Nicodemus The subject

to

of

the Soters had seemed

in

important and popular the cycles

to

have been omitted

in

.
26 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

magian world lies behind the representations which developed into the typical formulae
of the hieratic art of Christianity . Another world , larger than the evangelical

far
legendary one arises when we regard the mature hieratic art exhibited the mosaics

in
,
wherein has attained monumental style

is it

.
evident that hieratic art which was called upon depict this magian
It

to
,
a
spiritual world spatial illusionist painting

be
could
realistic The contemporary
not

,
-
, .
Alexandria was not suitable
was for the new The

of
the centre which aim

.
Orient alone magian mentality had those qualities which could
as

of
the cradle this
,

,
not magical born

of
assimilate and develop hieratic art Yet illusionism which

is

,
a

be

set
, of
the marriage Greek science with Greek art the Mediterranean could not

in

,
any more sculptural plasticity typical

its
easily the Greek with all
so

aside than

for
lasting

of
gesturesand formulae Therefore process assimilation several centuries
.

a
was the condition necessary for the style which H. Lucas

its
shows completion

in

.
be
The ideal qualities hieratic painting the most objectifying forms
of

by of
had

to
spiritual

be
representation Symbols Docetic content could only
of

or
rendered
.

frontality

as by
the representation magian of aspect arrangement rank the formal
as

as
,

in
by
rhythm

all
symbol magian supreme
of

the atomic order the immanent law

of
,

by
outer and inner macrocosmic and
microcosmic life dynamic line and colour

,
by

The placing

of
symbolism the symbolism numbers especially
of

and the triads

.
. no
according hypostasis hierarchy

of
for
as

rank visualised the less than

to

plane composition fundamental significance for hieratic painting We find some

of
is
,
of

these qualities already

earlier oriental art but only quite exceptionally paintings
in

in
,

the pre Christian period

Hardly anything paintings preserved fact the only
of

of

such

In
is
-

.
example which really throws light Byzance
on

the origin the later hieratic style

of

the

is
,
in

for
wall painting Euphrates history
on

of

Dura the The art indebted Dr. Breasted is

to
in

by

recording these paintings before they perished their similarity style the

to
Amazed

he in
."

Justinian and half Vitale

of

Theodora mosaics millennium later San called them

in

,
a

ex
Byzantine painting which they undoubtedly are M. Cumont
of

Oriental forerunners
.
"

of

plained from the archaeological and religious point view the sacrifice depicted yet their

,
art

deep significance for the history has not yet been recognised This significance
of

lies
.
till

the fact that they are the first and only paintings now discovered representing magian
in

their style prove that hieratic Christian painting originated a

by

sacrifice and that they

in
,

pre Christian magian style Unquestionably numerous similar paintings Syria

,
in
a

Mesopotamia and Alexandria have been destroyed

or

entombed
.

Before we examine the qualities magian style quoted above we must have
of

the
,

by

magian expression disrepute

an
of

clear definition which

its

has come into

,
a

as

association with pseudo sciences soothsaying interpretation dreams sorcery

for of

such
,

,
-

necromancy astrology and the like We are indebted Spengler the application
to
,

A.D

the morphological characterisation Spengler's

to
of

of

this notion the first millennium

.:
, H.

Oriental Forerunners Byzantine painting The University Chicago Press 1924

of

of

James Breasted
,
2 *

.
F.

de

Cumont Les Fouilles Doura Europos Syria 1926

, ,
-

.p .

Die
Cf.

this subject
on

Spengler The Decline vol Burckhardt Zeit

of

Oswald the West 183

I.

J.
,

.,

,
ff
•

Konstantin des Großen passim

,

.
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE HIERATIC STYLE 27

fixing of the origin of this culture at the time of Christ , between the Euphrates and
the Nile is also correct , inasmuch as this world - feeling arose at this time at the eastern
end of the Mediterranean

its
in all spheres of religious and spiritual life . Yet previous

for
especially regards religion reaches back years and

of
thousands

as
evolution

its of is
,

as
Egypt

of
well The principles

as
revealed literature
the hieratic the Vedas
in

in

of
the magian attitude transcendental powers and the concrete description

so
to
We take the latter
be

essence may Egyptian well

as

as
derived from Vedic literature

,
.
because we can follow through Buddhism and Krishnaism the Rigveda Atharva
it

In

,
.
the
highly developed magian

of of
veda and Brahmanas we find ourselves sources

at

a
religion gradual evolution from simple worship the gods magian philo
its
in

to
a

a
or
sophy the gods
of

The consciousness being bound

more abstract either

to

to
,

-
.

The spiritual point magic

all

magian

of
cosmic system underlies view attitudes

is
,

in
.
“
diametrically different from the religious one For while the religious man tries

to
.

by
remove the dependence the supreme divine will personal emotional contact
on

,
a
the magian only recognises impersonal connection through magical
an

abstract
he

law which endeavours his purpose

discern and thus make subservient

In
this

to
to
,

.
by

of
way the cult becomes mechanical means which the technique and each act
,
a
be

bondage general applicable rule

to

overcome becomes specific case This of

is

.
God the binding power religion

of
leads further differences the sphere

is
to

,
in
:

always absolute his actions and behaviour determined by His own will The binding
,

.
on

powers magic always impersonal

of

the other hand are

or
abstract substances
,

',
“
who may the same way
be

shadow like pseudo individuals influenced and dominated

in
,
-

by
as

magical technique
of

the abstract .substances means agreement with

of It
in
is
'

this that the relationship between man and God the sphere religion irrational
in

is

,
of

while magic within the limits abstract consistency leaves for divine mercy
no

room
and arbitrary power determines the relationship with the binding powers according
It
, .

simple standard and this way permits the initiated

an

have active influence

in
on to

to
a

happens

an
what not indeed private person favoured individual but
or
as

as
,

,
a

expert and bearer the magic charisma

of

I
.”

marked by the progress

In

the magian
of

India the evolution aspect

of

life
is
of

the Rigvedic worship the gods the magian Brahmanas and finally
to

from
to

Buddhism and Krishnaism The Christian faith the first millennium was impregnated
in
.

fought
as

with magian feeling Fierce contests about single such were out the
to
'i,
a

'
.

the Arians and the Monophysites give evidence

of

death between this essentially magian

point
or

magian was enough

of

of

attitude From the view the addition omission one

'
.

'i

destroy the cosmic order Magian rules were now called dogmas and thus art too
to

became dogmatic The Catholic Mass

its

of

strictness form still saturated with

is
in

nothing but
its

magian symbolism and magian sacrifice

communion
of is

a
'

.
To

Dura the subject the paintings there circa

an

come back animal

75

A.D.
to

is
,

)
for

sacrifice which not represented itself but the magical preparations which are indicated
,
is

dem

den
Die

der
St.

Schayer Struktur magischen Weltanschauung nach Atharva Veda und Brahmana

,

XV
für

. Cf.

do

Separatum Zeitschrift Franklin Edgerton The Upanişads What They

of

Texten Buddhismus 1925

,

,
, ).
(

Seek and Why

49

Journal
of

the American Oriental Society vol 1929 97–122

,
?

p
2,

,
.

.
28 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

by the head of the family , Konon , and the two

acting priests with their symbols and
instruments and their magianThese paintings gestures .
give evidence that the pictorial
representation of the magian world was created in towns like Palmyra , Hierapolis and
Harran , i. e. in Syria and Mesopotamia , where, owing to century -old traditions in art
the conditions were favourable . This was not the case in India , because there religion
had been already so spiritualised by Brahmanism that it could have no more interest in
the pictorial representation Not until the time Buddhistic art did magian

of
of

its
ideas

.
formulation gain footingunder Mesopotamian stimulation

.
of

of
Let consider the formal qualities the magian sacrifice Dura The
us

now

.
designating these works preserved magian painting

of
the earliest

as
reason for evidence
the fact that the frontal figure appears here for the first time
on

in
founded
is

monumental painting Frontality true had already been consciously employed

is
,

,
it
.

of
full sculpture since the time ancient Egyptian art but never hitherto bas relief
in

in
,

-
for
of old
nor painting The Egyptian formula the relief and painted figure well
in

is
.

profile and full face drawing hieroglyphic origin

of
known combination The
a

.
:

Egyptian relief friezes had not developed beyond the level hieroglyphics We

of
find

.
the same formula Crete and Mesopotamia The Greeks developed the three quarter
in

-
.
profile position from the ground

its
the figure and consequence plastic emancipation
of

in
of

plane Representation space and illusionism were the next steps the development

in
.

.
of

frontality evolving aspect

an
of
of In

contrast the Dura denotes the conscious reaction

,

of

life art that bondage constraint

or
,
in

Frontality the outstanding constraint and therefore the magian form

of

, of
mark the
is

as

posture well priest just

as

life art The stands frontal position before the deity

in

in
in

a
.
as

the soldier before the officer and the courtier before the emperor order preserve the

to
In
.
necessary frontality going backwards was the rule religious and court ceremony All
in
,

in

.
the principle frontality and
of

its
application painting
on

oriental architecture was based

to
so

logical consequence
of

was Yet development centuries was needed order attain

in

to
.
a

get beyond the traditional type painting

to

of

conscious frontality i.e. posture

,

in

.
the connecting frontal figures
of

There are two methods magian composition of

:

Riegl was
A.

symmetrical groups explain the origin

or

either ranks the first

to
in

in

.
as

ranking
of

composition the magian

of

late Roman art Considered from

in

form
a

standpoint ranking the simplest formula and symbolisation the magian order
of

of
is

figure gets out deranged the magian

of

substances order the whole rank i.e.

is
If

from
a
.

as

standpoint the harmony things The infinite pattern multiplication

of

disturbed
is

a
.
of

of

ranks another visualised expression the magian world which even men and
is

to
,

beasts were subordinated by such magian people the Persians evident from
as

as
is
,
a

their numerous figured textiles

.

An apparently contradictory the isolated figure representation

on
of

the
is

form
magian vacuum the most frequent example
as
in an

of

otherwise empty surface which

in

,
a

be

mosaics the Virgin the apses Such magian vacuum distinguished

is

in

is
to
.

a
of

mere tension Pompeian paintings

as

from surface
in
a

Alois Riegl Die spätrömische Kunstindustrie Wien 1924

,

389
1

,
°,

,
8

ff
.
-
 -

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE HIERATIC STYLE 29

A specially marked attribute is the halo , as symbol

magian of a particular
,”

his
characteristic of the bearer. The emperor Justinian and wife

S.
substance Vitale

in
“

by
well the Persian kings

of
for instance the

as

as

as
are characterised haloes bearers

, ,
sovereign glory
was but one though the highest one many

of
which substances
,

,
“

”
by
be

that could attained desire sacrifices the Brahmanas the warrior desires

In
-
“

.”
by

priest the glory

of
dominion kşatri the sacrifice and the erudition brahmavaras

).
“

”
(

(
magian figures hovering instead standing
of

of
Another characteristic Thus the

is

of
gods meeting assembly

of
Vedic the Mahâbhârata when the wooers the hall
in

in
Damayanti's hovering without stepping the ground

on
father are described

or
as
,

casting shadows and with staring eyes whereas Nal stood firm

on
the earth and cast
,

his shadow Nal and Damayanti fifth song The contrast ,

the Homeric Greek gods

to
,
(

).
obvious Thus the holy warriors Hosios Lucas are standing whereas the apostles

,
in
is

ground under their bare feet

no

and angels have Even two hundred years later the

.
holy warriors St. Theodore and St. George portal Chartres cathedral
at

of
the southern
are much more realistic than the other saints the same jambs
in

.
of the

the
cursory glance
development
on

of
Byus

Let now cast hieratic style mosaic

an in
a

of
painting the recently uncovered mosaic
the fourth century the apse Arian

in
.

of

of
chapel Old Saloniki new important evidence the turning point
on

on
the hills the

-
Hellenistic towards the Oriental style Christian mosaic painting was brought light
of

to

.
by

sitting upon the rainbow blessing with right hand out

an

Framed aureole Christ

is
,

roll with inscription The symbolic figures

of
stretched while the left hand holds the
,

Evangelists carry At the left side bearded man makes gesture

, of
four the aureole
a

a
.

frightened amazement while the right St. John sitting meditation with legs crossed
is
at

in
,

supported right apparently the apocalyptic text

on

his head his arm and book

in
,

,
a
At

his left hand the left side green trees appear the background The whole conch
in
by .

birds
of

framed row
is

As regards composition
of

the this mosaic shows mixture the Hellenistic

a

narrative the nascent genrelike elements dogmatic

of

and hieratic attitude and

,
of

rigidness The rendering

the colour however still based entirely upon the
is
,

,
.

illusionistic style and thus recalls the early mosaics Santa Maria Maggiore There
in

.
by

outlining and the folds

no

the drapery are indicated yellow and green

colour
of
is

of

stripes the and irregularrough

manner bold impressionistic technique But
in

St. George
of

of

already the mosaics the fourth century and still more those
of

St. Demetrius show the turning the new style

to

Consistent frontality distinct linear style the figures

of

combined with both

is

in
a
of

St. Demetrius are

the garments
; of

these churches The folds the saints and donors

in
.

arranged regular dark and light stripes they ostentatiously ignore the Hellenistic
of in

tradition drapery and follow the Oriental The faces are distinctly iconic The
.

.
ca.

symmetrical arrangement the drapery appears about the same time

of

520 the
in
)
(
La

XXVI XXIX
.pl
Cf.

Muratoff peinture Byzantine Berchem Clouzot Mosaïques Chrétiennes figs 70–84

,

,
;
v
-

-
.

.
'
30 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

Baptistery of the Arians in Ravenna (Muratoff , pl. 32), whereas the apostles of the
Baptistery of Neon of ca. 450 still show the old style . The accessories of ornament and
landscape of Alexandrian origin are given up and the impressionistic interpretation of
the face has given place to a uniform type , a monotony in accord with the hieratic
system . If this style sometimes was termed mannered , it is not mannerism in the sense
of decline , but uniformity by means of linear stylisation . We observe the same
purposed
phenomenon the procession - figures in Sant ' Apollinare Nuovo ; yet in spite of this
in
stylisation the linear schemes vary from figure to figure .
Thus in principle Hellenistic realism was outgrown in mosaic painting in the Justinian
period and the new hieratic style was coming up . The reason why we cannot
follow its continuation and further evolution till three centuries later is either dearth of
material , or , as in S. Maria Antiqua in Rome, another Alexandrian invasion . The apse
in S. Maria in Dominica in Rome with Mary enthroned surrounded by the choirs of angels
(817–824 ) , which is generally regarded by the helleno - centrically inclined archaeologists
as the supreme decay of mosaic painting in Rome, shows on the contrary the progress
which hieratic art had in the meantime made. The two flanking symmetrical choirs
of angels are here merged units of ornamental effect and the rendering of the
into
folds has into melodious rhythm . Frontality , symmetry , subordination
developed and
dematerialisation are the determining factors in the style . The harmonious curving of
the folds expresses the unanimous love and worship which the choirs of the angels
feel for the Saviour of Christ , a fresco in SS . Giovanni e Paolo
of the world . The figure
at Rome, and still more some figures in San Angelo in Formis ( 1056–1086 ) show the spread
of this style in Italy by the Benedictines almost contemporary with H. Lucas.3
In the Near East the dome mosaic in S. Sophia in Saloniki is probably a pre

the
decessor of H. Lucas. Opinion about the dating vacillates between ninth Ainaloff

)
mean Wulff the ninth
as
and eleventh Diehl century Muratoff takes the tenth

,
.

a
(

immediately after the iconoclastic period May we after repeated inspection

of
this mosaic
.

add that the latest century only can come into consideration all
as

term the ninth This

is
?
that has been preserved and we come directly the mature style H. Lucas of
to

then the

In
.
the following
of

meantime besides the Nea Basil churches were built and decorated
I,
by

by

VI
St.

with mosaics Macedonian rulers Demetrius Leo 886–912 the Peribleptos

),
:

III
by

by

IV
IX SS

Romanus 1028–1034 Anargyres Michael 1034-1041 and St. George

),
(

)
.
by
of

Mangana Constantine Monomachos 1042–1054 Thus there was ample

(

).
for

opportunity style except the Nea Moni and

of

evolution but for the mosaics

of in
,
;

re
of

of

the narthex the church the Koimesis Nicaea which we have

in

,
in

productions
of

Hosios Lucas the only church which the hieratic mosaics the
is

in
,

Macedonian period have been preserved The only question how faithfully they
,
is
.

reflect the metropolitan style and whether their artists were trained Constantinople
in
,
or

least brought from there Muratoff doubts and believes that provincial painters
at

it

,
.
by

suggested Myrtilla Avery Art Bulletin

is

This 1928
in

,
*

LXXII
.fig
.pl .pl

Muratoff Berchem Clouzot 308

, ,

,
2

Muratoff LXXI LXXX LXXXII

,

. ,
·

Byzantinische Kunst Hob Kw 546

.p
,

.,
d
*

.
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE HIERATIC STYLE 31

probably monks from the monastery , were employed . This is likely ; yet where
quite
else but in could monks be trained ? What do
the capital those who consider the Lucas
mosaics provincial .. understand by a metropolitan style ? If the Nea Moni mosaics , as
is plainly certified , were done by metropolitan mosaicists , a comparison must show the
difference , i.e. the metropolitan superiority . No impartial beholder , however , will be able
to deny that the Descent into Hell, for instance , in H. Lucas is

far
superior that

to

in
profile Nea Moni with spiritual

its
Nea Moni The figure
of

of
Christ lack tension

in

in
.

much inferior the frontal figure H. Lucas Compared the first parents
to
is

to
in

in
.
Moni give stiff impression
of of

Lucas who are full animation and

those Nea

in

th
,

,
a
John the Baptist deprives the group the compelling poise

of
traditional addition
symmetry make the H. Lucas group the hieratic style

of
and which model

.
of

The arrangement the folds too much more conventional Nea Moni than
is

in

in
H. Lucas the same with the Crucifixion Besides the Virgin and St. John who
It
is

,
.

.
with Christ form hieratic triad we find Nea Moni four other figures which convert
in
,

,
a

the representation into narrative These fundamental differences seem prove that the

to
a

.
by

work was done Nea Moni lay artists from the capital working picture style and

,
in

in

in
by

H. Lucas
of
significance

did
monks who knew the hermetic each personage and not
H. Lucas were not great
no

represent figures importance The fact that the monks

of

in
.

artists the ordinary sense proof that they must have had before them great
is
in

prototypes this hieratic art And the fact that the mosaics

of
which standardised
.

H. Lucas are unique monument this hieratic style of

of

the almost the tenth and eleventh

as

as
century makes them important for the Macedonian period the Daphni pictures
for the Comnenian
.

The most logical result hieratic style

an

art directed toward the icon which

of

is

,
a

represent the spirituality the figure The icon has undoubtedly magical
of

meant
to
is

a
.
of as

fundamental purpose and could only become object worship for

an
its

tendency
of

beings
of
millions conception
of

account latent the soul

on

human the the

in
of

real union between worshipper and saint

of

people The doctrine this connection

a

between the picture and the represented saint was established by Basil the Great and
dogmatically developed by Theodosius and others Christians held common with
it
in
.

of

both the first step was the fixing the icon types
of

Buddhists and the arts The

in
,

.
of

picture narrative representations were bound style period passing

of

the the and were

to
; -

of

interest but the icons can remain alive direct contact with millions believers
in
,

for As these millions were blind purely qualities

as

thousand years artistic and

to
a

,
.

wholesale production was necessary the Byzantine well the

to

as

as

meet the demand

,

Buddhistic icon was perforce mediocrity Yet groups there are

to

condemned both
in
.
of

high quality the best examples among the greatest

of of

series which are reckoned

,
a

Among these the Demiurgos Daphni As

.pl

works
of

the dome
its

art earlier
of is

in

I)
.

counterpart the dome H. Lucas the Daphni medallion with thedestroyed

is

,
in

only picture Greco Byzantine countries

at

preserved
of

later one Arta the that

in
is

-
)

Demiurgos series which had started the Nea and had surely many successors
in

in
-

Constantinople that period from the point

of

of

the most remarkable the icons

is
It
.

for
of

especially determining the iconic capabilities

of

of

view art and thus suitable

32 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

expression .
The great cosmic -creative idea which formed the gnostic notion of the
“ Demiurgos ” was to be represented here in an adequate manner . There is only one
other figure in art the Moses of Michelangelo , which can be compared to this picture
,
in spiritual power , and it is remarkable how similar the tension of the hands in both
appears, and how the hands were used by both artists as the most suitable means of
expressing this . Yet while the hands of Moses are effective only by means of
quality
their ponderous plasticity and express in themselves the force of the law -giver without
any other function , the hands of the Demiurgos are actively employed , the left one
holding the book , the right giving the blessing , yet with a grandeur of gesture which
seems to express cosmic creation . Both gestures are hieratic and iconic , yet of individual

the
greatness . The comparison naturally emphasises the contrast between Magian

“
spiritual and earthly creator and ruler

an
life i.e. between
of
and Faustian view

.
“

product

be
neither could exchanged
time and for the other The
of

Each his
is
a

.
Demiurgos shows what linear construction could produce Above the immensely suggestive

.
symmetrical saddle shaped line over the eyes asymmetrical curves appear

on
the forehead
-

abstract ornamental writing mysterious symbolism The intentionally long

an

is of
like

.
by

of
nose visualises verticalism which continued the vertical axis the saddle
,
a

by
up

curve and by

of
shaped line and carried the vertical beam the halo cross
to

a
-
the root of the nose the vertical and the

at
the parting On the other hand
of

the hair
.

horizontal axes intersect and thus form the supremely symbolic cross The neck lines

-
.
the palmette like formation Thus we

, of
are ornamentally stylised the left hand
as

is

.
-

that first great Demiurgos

of

see here successor the Nea which Photius describes

in
a
as

picture Christ drawn with many coloured glass cubes He

by of

as
the humanlike

, ,
“

-
surveys the earth and rules His thoughts According Theodor Studites Christ

to
.

Monarchy Father Son and Holy Ghost

as

embodies here Pantokrator the uncreated

,

,
“

for
the Supreme Ruler all and according Photius the Demiurgos but the painter
to
of

;
,

,
"

"
“
be by

express His colours the Creator's

to

the matter was how features lines and

in

solicitude for us This interpretation not regarded the rhetorical phrase

it, to

as
is
."
I

be
of

writer one would butthe well considered hermetic

as

as

inclined take
to
,

,
a

description Not solicitude for our bodily well being

of

theologian the Creator's

,
a

-
.

the continual prayer but only the solicitude for our spiritual
of

the masses meant

by is
,

by

redemption And expressed

of
line and colour
this the mudras the hands
is

,
.

”
by

by

the expansion the One into the Trinity

of

of

of
the halo the cross the blue
in

,
of

the garment which the colour the Redeemer

is
,

Demiurgos Daphni closes the iconic development yzantine

of

The the mid

in

-B
all

period and Byzantine art outside Russia An increase this spiritual tension
of

of
.

was hardly thinkable and Palaeologian art shows decrease Already the succeeding
,

pictures this Demiurgos the Cappella Palatina Cefalù and Monreale show
of

lack
,

,
in

magic effect comparison the Daphni Demiurgos with the

of

of

On the other hand

,
a
.

, H.

the right transept

.pl

analogous icon the vaulting

of
on

Lucas
II

which
in

is
,
(

probably repetition the destroyed medallion the dome will measure the distance
on
of
a
0.

Wulff Byzantinische Kunst Hdb Kw 550

.p
,

.,
d
.
.

.
'
 PLATE |

XC

IS
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE HIERATIC STYLE 33

in evolution between the two cycles, i.e. between the beginning and the end of the
eleventh century . And just the same distinction may be observed between the icons in
either place . This difference consists in the diversity in shape of the eyes and the
lineaments of the face . Instead of the large round , centrally placed iris in H. Lucas we
find in Daphni narrow almond - shaped and more natural eyes with the pupils shifted side
ways , a resumption of the

old
the still simple lineaments

of

. of
Hellenistic device and instead

;
the faces H. Lucas Daphni shows more complicated schemes with dynamic effects
in

, H. Lucas

of
The hair too more stylised the later cycle though the figure Gregory
is

in

in
,
proves that the entirely ornamentalised manner had already developed the Macedonian

in
period but patently mosaic painting was not yet dominant
,

in

.
as

of
question the reason
this difference the branch painting

or
The for
to

development
iconic art mainly attributable by looking
of

which answered
to

is

,
is
the contemporary icon panels which were made thousands and thus formed the
at

in
,
-

evolution
of

focus As well known the old Byzantine icon painting only

is
,
.

is
of

continuation encaustic portrait painting Syrian and Egyptian monks had probably
a

. .
spread the oldest icons Byzance The oldest extant portraits martyrs such
of

of
this kind
in

,
Kieff H. Lucas
as

the well known panels

do

not
icons differ much from the
,

.
They have already the large eyes without lights the thin noses and the small mouths ,

.I
essential difference between the two groups which was conditioned
an

There however
is
,

of ,

,
by

of

the change style Instead Hellenistic illusionism the Oriental linear style

,
- .

asserted itself the mid Byzantine period when after the iconoclastic period there was
in

painting Theological
of

revival icon speculation

which after the ninth century

,
.
a

by

was only sharpened and intensified the iconoclastic dispute encouraged the disposition
,
by

The pictures were thus

of

put new emotional symbols into the figure means line

to

filled with new spiritual content Even though the leading rôle this new ideal style
in
.

of

must be assigned the panel icons the function mosaic painting insured the permanent
to

,
. -
of

adoption the new types They became theological creeds put into stone The

.
inscriptions such
of

this function CTHAOI NAVKPATIOC

as

consciousness manifested
is

in

which was put

on

of

TAC DEIAC EIKONAC the altar mosaics the Koimesis church

in
,

the portable panels

us

Nicaea shows that the term icons was not confined

to

,
It
.

"

”
all

but comprised the figures the wall the mid Byzantine

on

of

The whole interior

; -
.

court and monastery churches was nothing but huge extended iconostasis and the
a

icons dominated the church interiors degree and were considered

to

so

such
a

important that they crowded out the gospel scenes into the narthex we can still
as
,

see H. Lucas
in

Thus close stylistic connection between the mosaic and the panel icons priori
is
a

be a

painting
be

only
of

assumed and the treatment the Lucas icons can satis

to

in
by

factorily explained the assumption tempera paintings

of

of

direct imitation
the
.
of

spite different ways painting the grounding with plaster

of

of

Paris and the

In

by

underpainting the shadows proplasma the flesh tone glykasma

of

which are covered

),
(

(
.fig
Cf.

Wulff Alpatoff Denkmäler der Ikonenmalerei

,

2
-

W. Gruyter
40
de

Theodor Schmit Die Koimesiskirche von Nikaia Berlin 1927

.p
,

),
(
*

Diez Demus
3
-

.
34 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

were common to all icon panels. '

with glazes which is clearly
Thus it was a painting
reflected in the Lucas mosaics and partly too
The clumsy shading of the in Daphni.
drapery the light stripes in the garments of some of the medallion -figures (pl. III ) and the
,
pink , greenish and white tones of the glazes in the garments are quite satisfactorily
explained by the imitation of the peculiar technique of the icon prototypes , and afford
us important deductions as to the original appearance of the icons of the eleventh century ,
very few of which have been preserved .
A glance at the few panel icons of the Macedonian period which have been
preserved , shows us that the illusionistic technique as it was derived from the mummy
portraits of the Fayyum still prevailed between the ninth and tenth century . Yet we
find instead of the axial composition of Hellenistic subjectivism , the severe frontality
old

Oriental objectivism the centrally placed pupils

of
of the which manifests itself

in
,

at
eyes eyes enlarged

of
the The are the cost the other features the nose becomes

,
.'

The large eyed face ordinary human being

an
long the mouth small

of
not that

is
,

.
“

H.

all
religious
of

of
but has expression ecstasy Lucas
an

have The mosaic icons

."
this type face with long drawn and over large straight
of

out oval nose small mouth

,
-

-
eyes which express intense seriousness and extraordinary spirituality The high lights
,

if .
eyes lacking they beyond they were looking
of

the are mortal ken

as
that
so
,

,
seem
at the beholder from another world And the linear forms echo the old formulas for
.

garment by light and shade

of

face and means colour But the lines cannot long

,

..
conceal their inherent tendency ornamental stylisation which gives them aspect

an
to

be
.pl

of
reality The further development could only question
IV

remote from short

a
(

).

time there are limits stylising regard the face there was complete
to

with freedom
to
If

,
.

its

rhythmical divisions and iconic heraldic symmetry The

- of

the case the hair with

in

.
-
of

wonderful icon panel St. Gregory Thaumaturgus the National Museum Leningrad

in
in

by
all
121
.fig

represents this stage the development captivates

of

us
above the
It
.
“
(

sad

severe intensely spiritualised expression

at
eyes which look steadily
of

the beholder
its

.
by

by
This expression produced partly their prominence and partly the sharp
is

,
up

drawing the brows and their abrupt downward curve the temples by the
of

at

,
by

tightly
by
lips
on

numerous small wrinkles the forehead the curved shut the em

,

,
of

phasising combined with the lengthening

of
the delicate nostrils feature which
,
a

the straight nose gives expression typical Byzantine

of
to

the inward tension and

is

stylisation Here everything produce spiritualised great

for to

calculated order face

in
is

A
.

.
a

spiritual effect and almost magical attraction the worshipper emanate from by
an

it

practice
of

of

means these devices which were developed through the centuries What
,

.
of
be for

superficial observation could take the power real portrait

of of

expression proved
is
,
a
by

comparison with other works entirely original form art genuine Byzantine
an

of
to

spirit No one looking original escape stirring impression

of

the soul
at

the can this

-
.

of

wonderful picture The usual painter's conception replaced here the treatment
is

in
.
E.

73

zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Maltechnik Folge

80

Berger Beiträge dritte München 1897

.p
,

,
,
ff
'

.
by

op
89

lpatoff
cit

.cit

218 Wulff
,

,
.

.
-A

..
fig

St. Panteleimon the Seminary Kieff Wulff Alpatoff

of of

Museum 10th cent

in
2

,
-

, -

A. Riegl
cf.

On the notion axiality Spätrömische Kunstindustrie second edition Wien 1927 248
3

.p
,

.
---
-

-
-
 PLATE

NOV

ZH
BE
log
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE HIERATIC STYLE 35

different kind ,

all
the eyes and the whole figure by one of a quite in which above the
high lights
daylight are lacking whereas
of later period

of
icons face hands

,
in

a
and garments heightened Thus the Saint seems be withdrawn from

to
are with white

.
earthly influence Yet order prevent his appearing entirely incorporeal his bodily

in

of to

,
.
by light Though the omission

of
marks the

of
presence rendered shade instead
is

.
us
seems strange we must recognise the procedure peculiar Byzantine
to

as
latter
,

a
of

the new conception Another

of
means expression adapted the icons consists

in
to

.
Virgin
of

of
the emphasising

B.
the lines which carried further than Vladimir

is
the
,

in

by
Wulff Alpatoff
fig

brings out simply

its
This emphasis
22

surface effects the

,

,
.
).
-
(

of

equilibrium plastic consequence corporeality figure

of
the mass and the the

in
,

.
independent significance Here they not only mark the
an

Yet the lines have besides

.
of
body well rhythm
of

outlines the but have their own which

as

for instance

an in
,

,
a

the hair produces sometimes ornamental simplification sometimes

an
of

the curls
,

,
an
appearance less monotonous yet unreal With unconscious instinct that each line

in
,
.

by
accordance with esthetic laws can become the interpreter the expression

of
means
,

latent movement the Byzantine artists try put this expression into the fine net
of of
its

to
,

lines covering the body and into the groups

of
folds Thus each new creation

in
,

possibilities for and relationship .

of
almost unlimited the variation the lines are the result

.
the figure St. Gregory the unrhythmical play
of

of

of
the fascination broken lines
In

its
Though the picture plainly
on

of of
the beard
obvious account dimensions
is

be is
in

.
be

meant looked the detailed drawing the hair should closely

at

from distance
to

,
a

regarded Thus the Saint's expression spiritual tension harmony with the effect
of

is
in
.

the proportions
of of

of

these means expression Yet the expressionistic transformation of

.

the face and the emphasising the main features never degenerate into lifeless formal
of

symbolism thanks the combination with the illusionistic technique On the contrary
to
,

,
.

the peculiarity Byzantine icon painting consists linear stylisation

of

of

the fusion
in

with the plastic and material aspect the figures

of

I
.”

of
comparison Gregory Leningrad with the two mosaic icons
of

of

the icon
in
A

St. Gregory Thaumaturgus H. Lucas and Daphni shows that the iconic type
of

this
in

saint with the ornamentalised hair was already completely developed the Macedonian
in

convincing proof
of

of

period and the other hand gives the dependence

on

the mosaic
,

a
of

of

the panel icons St. Gregory Leningrad

on

icons The icon dated the mid Comnenian

,

in

-
.

period by Wulff Alpatoff with the Daphni picture

of or

thus more less contemporary

,
is

A
-

direct connection between them out the question they both represent only most
is

a
of

popular iconic type that period The likeness especially noticeable the arrangement
is

in
.

The mosaic pictures were evidently copied from special kind icon panel
of

of

the folds
.

a
-
of

of

ground
plaster painted layer mosaic
of

Paris and this first set with cubes

on

was then
,

.
a

Besides the panel icons painted tempera portable mosaic icons

of

several
in

which are preserved Museums today may have been let into the wall conspicuous
in
,
in

a
)

the
.op

We quote
cit

Wulff Alpatoff 66f Our reproduction same work extenso this

in

taken from
is
.p
.,
,

.
.
-
*

by

Wulff Alpatoff because

as

first hand impression the Gregory given may serve confirm our entirely
to
of

icon
it

it
is
,

,
-

so

foreign
of

The correct conception

to
as

masterpiece the Demiurgos

of

comparable interpretation icons

is

such
a

occidental beholders that some special explanation urgently required

is
,

3
*
36 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

place, or have specially copied for this purpose . As these , like the panel -icons, were
been
calculated to be viewed close at hand , they could not be made with such drastic contrasts
as the wall mosaics , and so the smallest tesserae and finest shading had to be used . The

Icon of the Christos Eleimon in the tympanum of the Royal Door in the narthex of
H.Lucas (

of
.fig
remarkable fineness and high quality distinguish

Its
this kind

12
mosaic

is
a
)

.
the other pictures done with the smallest tesserae and the finest shading
it

from

is
It
.

.
right gesture blessing done with great elegance and the writing

of
The hand with the

is

,
Everything points

of
the open book enchanting beauty special model and
in

to
is

a
be

on
as
tradition and the picture must estimated level with the metropolitan icons
,

a
be
of of

may copy quality

of

of
that time and the Redeemer the Eleimon Church The

.
by

of
the Lucas picture brought out comparison with the same type portable
is

a
of
mosaic icon which the eleventh century and thus about

of
Berlin dated end
is

is
in

the same period

.

for
fig
.op

Wulff Alpatoff
cit

17. special technique was employed these fine grained mosaic icons Instead
,

.,

A
-

-
.

.
I

the
on
resin was put
of

an
as

under layer

of

of
stucco mortar binder for the tesserae mixture wax and framed wooden
,

a
-

panel This had the advantage greater lightness combined toughness and hardness being damp proof
of

with besides

-
.

.
PLATE IV
 ICONOGRAPHY

The churches of Daphni and Hosios Lucas contain the only medieval mosaic cycles
outside Italy which enable us to reconstruct the original unity of space , colour and
idea . In Italy San Marco alone still gives the impression which undoubtedly was and
is the most important in space - decorating mosaic art . Yet in Venice the details are
its

disturbing . Posterity with renovations has made gaps the coloured decoration

in
which disturb our feeling style more than the whitewash Daphni the rough

or
for

in
repairs H. Lucas
in

of

of
These two best preserved monuments Greek mosaic art stand the centre

in

for
following cycles

be
the discussions The other and fragments will mentioned only
.

of foil

purposes chance had not favoured the preservation

of

as

comparison and Even

if
.
a

on
of

just these two churches one which lies lonely the mountains the other
in
,

a
frequented highway both Daphni and Hosios Lucas would still have preserved their
,

crucial importance for our study There more than chance placing the two names
is

in
a
.

together the and between Daphni and Lucas has strong antithetic force for the historian
a
:
of

Byzantine art development are

be
of

of

both churches the results two currents

to
In
.

observed -two currents origins which are diametrically opposed

of

the and directions

,

.
Whether we regard purely social standpoint court art vs.
as
this antithesis from the
vs.

of or
as

monastic tradition locally provincial work formally Hellenistic

or

as
city
,

of
expression the whole range expression Byzantine
of

renascence vs. Oriental art

,

monumental painting seems always between these two poles

lie
to

The relatively good condition the mosaic cycle H. Lucas

of

has been already

in

the worst damage To be sure the

of

mentioned the loss the chief dome mosaic

,
is
-

.
:

conditions with regard light have changed At present

of

some the windows the

in
to

.
up

the other windows have lost their transparent alabaster

of

dome are walled and most

Formerly more light subdued golden yellow hue must have penetrated into
of

slabs
a
.

At present fewer but brighter beams dispel the gloom and break
up

the interior the

,
.

light
of

unity multiplicity
be

appears
of

the naos which dissolved and dark

to
,

in
a

niches chapels and domed spaces takes long time for the dazzled eye become
It

to
,

a
.

the
the

conscious coloured wealth forms which stand darkness against glittering

of

of

in

gold background
.

great height
of

The colour the marble which covers the walls has also become
to
,

,
a
dim

The bright brown apparent only

on

and dull the surface and green under closer

is
.

of

inspection formal ideas remain clear enough

Yet the fundamental The warm tones
.

of
up

the coloured marble cover the greater part the springing

of

the walls the arches

to
38 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

which support the dome. There the gold background begins , which covers all the arched
parts of the church and is thus divided into many parts . Each unit of the mosaic
decoration , -scene , row of figures or single picture , -has

its
own architectural frame

in
pl
niche dome and arch Indeed the architecture plays the leading part Comparison
,

of .V
.

).
(
of the Phocian church with San Marco Venice shows the classicism the decorative

in
of
system Lucas Venice the zone the gold background starts lower down

In
in

It
.

.
stretches over vertical walls rounds over corners absorbs the architectural organisation

,
and thus transforms the whole upper half the building into glittering receptacle

of

,
a
from the strangely curved gold surface which the dusk figures and scenes emerge

. of
unbounded splendour

of
and seem float This Venetian manner decorative mosaic
to

in

of
arrangement corresponds little with the true medieval mosaic tradition because this

so

no
continuous picture ground derived from fresco painted churches which there was

in
-

-
be
contrast and equilibrium marble and gold
of
considered since the whole walls were

to

,
covered with colour
.

H. Lucas
of

The decoration differs equally markedly from the tapestry like character

-
of

of

the mosaics the Sicilian churches Palermo and Monreale mosaic has lost its

In
. organisation
an

innermost function and become almost textile medium Architectonic

is
.
lacking and architectural cohesion not strong enough make the pictures seem more

to
is
. of

of
than series enlarged miniatures The figures the dome the Martorana disregard

in
a

by
foreshortening the compositions often are confused
And the details and the over
H. Lucas where the spirituality
of

lapping opposite
figures pictures

of
The the case
is

in

,
.

by
distinctly indicated and emphasised VI

of .pl
and ornament their setting
is

).
The handbooks Byzantine art tend prelude their discussion
of

of
the mosaics
to

H. Lucas
of
general remarks the typical scheme Byzantine domed
is on

of
with decoration

a
church And indeed H. Lucas the most suitable document for this purpose

as
it
,

,
.

presents and most developed this period nearly

of

the clearest system fulfills the

It
.
ideal that we know only from the description the Nea Constantinople
of

which
in

,
, of

of
was the original starting point Mount Athos Every detail
of

the Painter's Guide

by.
the Demiurgos
of

the decoration subordinated

the idea the whole embodied
is

to

By

and his celestial court the dome He the Centre the surrounding angels and
in

is
.

prophets He marked the Pantokrator

In

the dome above the altar

as

Pentecost
as is

as is
,
.

of

represented the symbol

of

the foundation the ecclesia militans with the throne

,
by

symbol apocalyptic power the medallion with

of

The same idea indicated

is
•

.
by

Archangels the arch between the two cupolas The apse

on

Emmanuel flanked the

.

shows the Mother with the Child enthroned She her iconic severity may be taken
in
.
as

the symbol
of

The historisized Christ the hero the next zone

of

the Church
is
.

expanded below the dome the naos and narthex His life death and resurrection
in

,
.

are pictured the culminant points which were celebrated each year the great feasts
at
at

part
of

The lower covered with the icons

of

the naos the saints who are set

is

according their function and rank the holy priests side

its

the bema and

to

in
:
up

the holy fathers

of

rooms high the altar room and upon the main piers the
,

in

Cf. Wulff Die Koimesiskirche Nicäa Straßburg 1903 214

in

p
,

ff
?

.
 PLATE V

5474
 -

ICONOGRAPHY 39

domed naos , then the bishops and the deacons ; opposite to them around the entrance
the holy monks headed by the great ascetics . On the western wall are the specially
venerated local saints Lucas Gurnikiotis and Nicon Metanoitis , Mary and Panteleimon .
Upon the main arcades of the central dome are standing the holy warriors : Mercurios ,
Procopios , Georgios , Demetrios and both the Theodores (pl. VII, VIII). The martyrs
are ranged over the walls and vaulting . In the siderooms of the bema the cycle of
the Old Testament is indicated by such pictures as the three youths in the furnace ,
Daniel among the lions , Abraham and Melchisedec , the forerunners of the Eucharist .
The decoration is thus paramount to a representation of the Byzantine Church
,
herself a symbol of the Eastern Christian world . Everything is clearly separated in this
cosmology ; and the believer does not encounter any striving for peace or salvation , but
finds his ready -made place in a catholisized world system . And this system furthermore
comprehends year cycle great and small Feasts like

of
the of the church with the

its
well organised calendar The pictures

on
those saints who are celebrated of
the same
a

. .

day are grouped together And the well are raised

as
gospel hieratic rank

to
scenes
by

their position the gospel and their place the calendar sequence Each icon
in

in

.
worship for one day the year stepping back into
of

thus actualised into centre

is

,
in
a

the file for the rest And was this temporal function and connection with the cult that
it
.

turned pictures into icons by the abstraction

of

every historical association until they

of

simply legible symbols respective

an

became esoteric character affiche for their Feast

,

,
Besides this ranging the pictures into hieratic system and ritual cycle their topo
of

,
a

graphical function must connection with the topographic significance

be

of
considered the
in

building cosmological
as

church Parallel with the hierarchic order there one that

is

,
.
a

separates the representations celestial events from the earthly ones But the topographical
of

.'
of

hermeneutic the church goes even beyond this the church the place the Crucifixion of
is
:
by

of

offering

of
and Resurrection where the the Mass the events Christ
of

the life
,

are constantly Thus every church and chapel Eastern Christianity becomes
of

renewed
.

another Jerusalem with Golgotha and the Tomb According the allegorical speculation
to
.

Saloniki the prothesis the place

of

of

of

of

Simeon the Birth the crib Bethlehem

,

,
is

.
certain magic picture takes
its
And furthermore place
of

observed each
is
a

importance and sanctity the spot where placed The Pantokrator Demiurgos
it

from
is

-
.
the

the

visionary character dominating position The picture

of

of
its

gets from dome

.

Christ above the Royal Door

more sacred than others which the nave are disposed
is

in

the chapellike rooms the transept flanked

of

The medallions
Christ
of

and narthex
in

,
.

of

by angels Jacobus Adelphotheos and Zacharias indicate the relation the human part
,
,
of

the God Man family pictures

of

of

the The hieratic character the Christ the

to

in
-

familiar intimacy The placing the pictures further

of

naos here the chapel turned

to
in
is

.
by

of

more several cases suggested the relation their subject liturgical usage
is
in

to

place upon the first left pier

of

the Annunciation has the dome which

its

Thus from
,

the
, , as

building and
of

its

Thessaloniki explains the representation visible

of

Simeon the church decoration

*

, Le

G. Millet CXL
Cf.

Daphni Migne Patrologia

. 80
de

world The domes symbolise the heaven Monastère

.p .p
;
,

,
.

XIII
de

45

col 425 429 Ebersolt Fresques byzantines Nereditzy Mon. Piot 1905
J.
,

,
;
.
40 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

the festival cycle starts , proceeding to the right. The favoured place

for
the Koimesis

of

as
the western wall Daphni The holy priests

of
the inside the naos the
is

in

in
.
holy part holy

of
bema the monks and the warriors the

at
the western the arch

in
,
H. Lucas

of
examples this hieratic topography the theorising period

of
dome are further

In

,
.
for
bishops

, of
the Ravennatic decoration where instance San Vitale evangelists

in
freedom

,
, (
and prophets the Emperor and Christ history and symbol are piled together the bema

in

)
of
would have seemed out place By theological speculation the Church became microcosmos

a
.
And this microcosmic speculation often leads beyond the liturgic
of

the hieratic world

.
as

the piers the transept the tympana

of
need when the niches the dome narthex
,

,
be
for
diaconicon and prothesis
were reserved certain pictures which were not placed

to
,
elsewhere There we observe the influence theological party with ambitions similar

of

to
a
.

though the universality the Gothic figural program was

of
western Gothic scholasticism
,
by

never reached the mid Byzantine system was only ritualistic liturgic grouping

It

,
a
-

.
and did not comprehend the ethic social and apocalyptic circles Gothic decoration

of
,

, .
spiritual

of
subjects
of
was more the hieratic order the than the content the system
It

which was emphasized pre eminently syntactic system was the work several

of
This
-
.

of by

of for
centuries and was incited the struggle with the national churches their efforts

in
At

separation this speculation probably were the Syro Hebrew schools

the centre

-
.

theology specially The beginning started very early

of
Nisibis and Edessa The

it
in
,

.'

.
attempt organisation
of

concordance the Old and New Testament was the first

at
from
formal point Old
of

of

of
The authoritative plea Nilus Sinai for the use

of
view
a

a
.

and New testamentary representations plants and

of

instead mere decoration with crosses

,
-

significant
of of

of

animals the position the leading clergy about 400 A.D. The contest ended
is

full theological scholarship over the popular symbols

victory Christianity

of
with the

of .
Later during the iconoclastic contest the subject decoration became the great problem
of
,

,
of

longer confined

no
the day and the platform discussion was entirely changed was
It
.

occasional letters between bishops and abbots

on

the purpose and placing

to

monu

of
mental church painting but the question public theological and
of

became the centre

,

political
to

of
discussion contradiction the somewhat islamisized circles the court
In

,
.

up

great monasteries took problem painting with fervor the

of

the the church . Since

of

struggle was carried through the capital the monasteries Constantinople became
in

development And since these had their spiritual background

of

the centres the in

.

Anatolian monasteries the theologians the latter gained the supremacy The iconodules
of
,

after their victory longer cared for decorative schemes

no

bible for illiterates

as

serve
to

,
a
by

of

impressing the people the splendour Theological

on

of

but insisted the mass decoration

.

questions were now the chief interest the clergy the

of

The overeducated intellectuals

in
.

capital seized And

of

these systems
of

the problem characteristic

on

the abstractness
it
is

,
.
no

that one has yet succeeded finding the concrete influence iconographer
of
an

or
in

liturgist
for

Only
on

of

the decoration certain church the mere theoretical framework

,
.
a

the
for

specially theologians
of

of

the selection and redaction festival cycle have actual names

,
art

Strzygowski
I

Origin
of

passim
J.

Christian church
,

210

Pokrovskij Stennyja rospisi etc. Trudy arch Sjezda

in

.p
,

I,

ff
2

.
 PLATE VI

:G
10

Sub:
 --
-

ICONOGRAPHY 41

all
been mentioned . Besides and in spite of theorising the liturgists never overlooked
the fact that the single domed church building which was developed and carried over

in
,
-
Constantinople and Eastern Europe

to
from Western Asia was the proper space for

,
building and that

of

of

of
decoration Both channels development that decoration

,
.

of

of
came their final result the creation the Nea Basil That church became

I.
to

in

a
starting point for future buildings and decoration.2

all
new

of
Every variation the shape the building naturally involved adaptation

an
of

of
pictorial system Compromises had granted and sometimes freedom was result

be
the

to
.

a
of

special difficulties But this freedom too was conditioned one did not mean

It
,

a
.

.
individual arrangement but turned mostly into another rigid system
an

The mosaic
,

.
cycles however take their character from these divergencies H. Lucas the walls

of
In
.
by
the naos are pierced and dissolved galleries large multiplex windows and by the

,
chapellike separation the transepts Only the pendentives dome give
of

is of
. the main
the festival pictures Pentecost
for

compositions placed
of

room the the small

in
.
as

dome instead usually the barrel vaulting above the bema

Thus only five festival
of

in
,

.
pictures were placed the naos Four others were shifted into the narthex among
in

;
.

them the two most important Christological representations the Crucifixion and the

,
Descent into Hell By this shift the narthex gains rank the decorative system

in
.

.
nearly the mosaic cycles
not all
This however unique the XIth

of
case since
in
is

,
a

important part Nicaea any judgment

of

century the narthex obtained

In
an

the decoration

.
of

by

on
now prevented the complete ruin the church.s In
Nea Moni Chios eight
is

six
festival pictures were placed the niches below the dome and others upon the
in

vaultings the spacious narthex Daphni where the transept

of

of

Even the Catolicon

in
.*
for

gave rich space narrative compositions the narthex too was used for three Christo
,
of

logical representations and three out the Virgin

of

the life
.

of
These churches illustrate the way which the decoration took possession the church
in

beyond
of

of
walls any actual need Not only the liturgical function the several parts
.
by

by

the building expressed the decoration but deeper sense added certain
is

to
it
is
,

through H. Lucas the Phocian

of

elements the cult This most consistently carried

is

in

,
.

of

monastery altogether showing the best planned system decoration Here the narthex
.

Nea Moni and Daphni representations for which there was

no
as

does not contain

in
, ,

,
of

the naos but well planned the Passion and Resurrection

of

room selection scenes

in

circle And the two main scenes the Crucifixion and the Descent into Hell
on

the eastern
,
.

wall are the first that the visitor views

,

the narthex suggests the question whether H. Lucas

of

This well planned decoration

of

was the creative archetype group whether earlier forms were merely well
or

this

Millet Recherches
O. 15
ch
.; II
,

.ff
.

M. Dalton Art
Ch

Diehl Manuel 481f Richter Quellen der byz Kunst

P.

East Christian 243

.p

J.
,

,
;
2

K.Wulzinger Konstantinopel Hannover 1925

58
zu

geschichte Wien 1897 357 Byzantinische Baudenkmäler

.p

.p
,

,
;

with Bibliography
.
Th

Schmit investigated the narthex before the final destruction but without result Cf. Die Koimesiskirche
in
,
3

.
de

Nikaia Berlin W. Gruyter 1927 p.48 and the same authors Mozaiki monastyrja prepodnogo Luki Charkov 1914 p.11f
,

.
Die
, O.

Wulff Mosaiken der Nea Moni von Chios Byz Zeitschrift XXV 115 Strzygowski Nea Moni
ff
J.
.;
,

,
*

auf Chios Byz Zeitschrift 141

ff
V
,
.

.
42 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

adapted system . Again we miss

here into
a very much any exact knowledge about
the of the
system original church , the Nea of Basil I. Th . Schmit in a pamphlet treated
the question whether the cycle of H. Lucas was a creative work or a later redaction of
the ideas which appear in the XIth century . " The Russian scholar summarizes the results
of his interesting but somewhat forced interpretation in the assertion that the iconographic
system of H. Lucas belongs in the beginning of the XIIth century . Bold innovations
were to be found besides conservative traits . Schmit takes the whole program into his
in the dome . There is no question

for
purview and lays stress on the representation him

that the later frescoes the dome repeat the original mosaics and he maintains that

in

in
,
XIth century the original

of
the the
remembrance scheme for dome decoration the

,
-
could not yet have H. Lucas

To
Ascension entirely disappeared this objection

as
so

in
,

.
we reply that Nea Moni also the Ascension was shifted the narthex He

to
should
in

.
claims that the original scheme

on
which we still find San Marco was restricted account

in
,

,
of

the Byzantine churches the XIth century and had

of

of
the diminution lost

so
the domes in
its

On

the smaller domes the apostles were pushed

on
of
narrative character account down
.

the spaces between the windows and for the same reason the whole figure

of
Christ was
of

replaced by medallion change

at
Him the signification happened the same time

,
in
.
a

of

stressing the apocalyptic moment the reappearance Christ which was alluded

of

to
,
already the historical representation The progressive diminution

of
the dome caused
in

the reduction from sixteen twelve windows that only twelve figures could have so
to

been set the intervals The Virgin was shifted the apse the angels were

to
and
in

placed Michael and Gabriel Kieff and

the diaconicon and prothesis H. Sophia
as

in

in
(
Nea Moni the dated cycles

of
Chios This was the case
the middle the
at

of
in
).

of

eleventh century but was not the end the evolution The Seraphim the dome

in
,

it

.
by

were replaced the Evangelists Thus only eight Apostles were left for the drum
.

.
up

brought
be

Either this number had twelve the windows had be reduced

or
to

to
to

eight Kieff Since however the number eight did not correspond with the tradi
as
to

in

,
.

of

tional group the Apostles the placing the sixteen Prophets the eight intervals
of

in

of
as

between the windows

was preferred some churches from the end the
is
in
,

it

XIth beginning XIIth Novgorod Daphni

of

and the the century The same type

,

,
).
(
by

H. Lucas
he

Schmit represented and the end

its

continues considers date

so

in
,

;
is
of

XIIth century
as

XIth beginning proved specially

of

the
or

as

the this case

in
,
up

old

dome was wide enough representation At least the

of

take the the Ascension

to

,
.

H. Lucas
of

as

twelve windows were typical the eleventh century and not the eight
in

.
by

Schmit's position The question raised the chief problems

of

Such one
is
is

him
.
of

the history Byzantine the late medieval Pantokrator

of

of

mid art The substitution

-

-
.
for

Demiurgos the earlier Ascension motive most clearly indicates the change thought
in
art

evangelical replaced
as by

and expression Eastern Christian The historical the

is
in

speculative theological version This mid Byzantine type may looked upon
be

the
-
.

product already early period

of

the two tendencies observed the Christian the historic

in

, ,
-

be

and the symbolic objection conclusions however found

to

The main Schmit's

to
is
,
.

Mozaiki monastyrja prepodnogo Luki Separatum

1

).
 PLATE VIL

ILL

THE
 ICONOGRAPHY 43

in the Nea , where the Ascension had already been replaced by the Pantokrator . The
description of this church mentions “ a host surround their Lord and of angels who
serve Him .” ! This seems to have been a type ( a late instance of which is preserved
in the baptistery of San Marco ) such as was formerly to be seen in the dome of the
Nea Moni in Chios, according to the report of the Russian pilgrim Barskij who speaks
of twelve orders of angels . The same system is represented by the later dome frescoes
in H. Lucas with the four Archangels , the Virgin , and John the Forerunner , this is -if
indeed a genuine copy of the original mosaic . Both churches had in common also the
Virgin in the apse , though it was the Orante in the Nea and the enthroned Mother of
God in H. Lucas . But we ignorance about the distribution
remain in complete
of the
Christological cycles of the Nea . It is, however, doubtful whether
in the naos and narthex

fuller knowledge of this church would suffice to elucidate entirely the problems of H. Lucas
and Daphni . We do not know enough of the ceiling - decoration of the Nea to decide
similarity with H. Lucas there were such similarity could the Nea
its

on And only

if
.

be The four pendentives squinches H. Lucas

or
as

considered the immediate forerunner

in
.

and Daphni offered four surfaces well suited for pictures and was natural that these

it
;
subjects by this
for

were used four festival pictures The prominence given certain

.

more careful scrutiny the whole decorative and this

of

selection led scheme turn

to

in
of ;
a

the segregation the Crucifixion and Descent into Hell both

of

led which deserved

to

,
particularly prominent places H. Lucas we these subjects the narthex
at

Thus find

in
.

Royal Door Daphni

of
the wings the transept will
be on

of

at

either side the thus

It
,

in

.
by
seen that the mid Byzantine
churches with form class themselves pendentives

a
of -

the period The three surviving churches this group H. Lucas

of
the decorative art

,
in

us

Nea Moni and Daphni may perhaps give some information about the development
,

The first of the series offers the most consistent solution

of

the decorative scheme

.

.
Only the four squinches the chief dome receive figure compositions and all the
of

,
is -

festival pictures accordingly this self consistency which

to

are shifted the narthex

It

-
.

gives the Phocian monastery Nea Moni followed soon

of

The decoration
its

distinction
.

as

afterwards the niches served for the festival scenes but

There too only these were
, ,

;
.

increased eight they were able account for the most important subjects including
to

to

the Crucifixion and the Descent into Hell The remaining pictures were placed the
in
.

Finally Daphni
of

of

esonarthex the dominance the niches ceased the residue the

in
.

:
of

festival cycle the whole transept

of

distributed over the walls

The strict system
is

H. Lucas was thus relaxed significant that the representational repertoire

furthermore
is
It
.

H. Lucas The careful scrutiny

of

not very extensive their value and importance

at
is

restricted the subjects the more important scenes We might reason back previous
to
to

efforts and maintain that these must have been even more restricted and suppose that
,

which had not yet any pendentives the decoration

of

those churches the naos was

in

significant single figures and that historical scenes all were

to to

at

confined admitted
if
,

,
or

relegated the side rooms the narthex The preserved monuments the descriptions
or

this supposition
of

confirm Thus the church the Koimesis Nicea and the Nea both
in
.
.op
cit
P.

Richter 357
J.

.p
,

.,
*

.
44 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

seem have stressed this severe attitude toward decoration , the origin of which may
to

be due to the conversion of images into dogmatic pronouncements after the Iconoclastic
Controversy . ' It was the triumph of reformed Monachism . The elements of the older
historisizing manner could only gradually return as they were accepted by hieratic art .
This progressive dissolution may be observed during the XIth century . And the XIIth
century , as the Sicilian cycles illustrate

the
period dissolves the system entirely and

,
the pictures chronological sequences historisized scenes Parallel with this

, of
ranges

in

.
subject runs the evolution leading from isolation niches

to
evolution form

in
in
in

a
way

of
the

to
tapestry like covering entire walls this church decoration returned

In
.
-

Controversy

of
earliest manner use before the Iconoclastic And thus the cycle
in

.
evolution was complete
.

The contest between the two manners took place during the XIth
century This was

.
joy
period were striving

of
the critical when monkish strictness and neo Hellenistic scenery

-
its for

pre eminence until new synthesis was found the hierarchically ordered cycle with

in
a
-

decorative hieratic and historic elements among which the narrative element pre
as ,

dominates Painter's Guide bears witness The formal tendency still strong

so
the

is

in
,

.
H. Lucas
all

that narrative pictures are isolated niches and thus acquire the character

in
building
of

its

icons The with clearly defined structure favours such tendency Even

a
.

.
H. Lucas we find niches nearly
of

half round apses

at
the narthex the ends
in

of ,
for

placing the liturgically less emphasized pictures the Washing

of

byof
the the Feet
Doubting prevail
of

and the Thomas the interior arched surfaces and their own
In

,
.

pictures peculiarity
of

of
conformation effect the strictest isolation the Phocian the

A
.
cupola
of

convent church the insertion smaller dome between the main and the
is

a
-

apse the Coming the Holy Ghost and

of
representation
of

this dome there

In

in
is
.

spandrel four representatives the peoples named the Apostles

of
the Acts
of

each
in

.
Pentecost representation does not belong the dome decoration
to

of
The this form
in

-
mid Byzantine mosaic churches represented

an
When shown abbreviated
in
is
is

it
it
-

prototypes
on

manner which will be described have been

later Here other
to
,

seem
.

, be
of

Apostles important
as

regarded
of

influential which the Church the must the most and

,

both churches which just the apostolic

as

this emphasis
on

San Marco descendant

In

in
,
a

cycle with the Pentecost festival central point are undoubtedly connected the western
as

H. ,

this festival picture.2

of

dome the bearer Lucas however and several churches

In
is

in
,

,
of

later date Pentecost was placed the eastern dome Since the preserved documents
in
, ,
a

this change would be risky

on

of

for are rare any conclusion the date seems

It

,
it

of .

however have been started connection with the abbreviated rendering Pentecost
in
to
,

be
of

terms the Hetoimasia This was found Nicea above the altar already
in

in
to
.

.
of

The topographical hermeneutic the church building mentioned above suggested this
,

placing symbol the divine power

as
of

of

of

the throne the bema the radiance

in

H. Lucas the peculiar shape the building with

of

upon the church second dome

In

a
.

cf.

On the dogmatic content

of

O.

the icons Wulff Die Koimesiskirche 202

.p
,

ff
.
be

The same can partly observed Cappadocia

in
2

.op

.pl

.fig
13

Dochiariu and Lawra upon Athos

cit
in

Brockhaus
g
.e

and
,
;

.,
'
.

6
.
 PLATE VIII

ORLOS

P @

[
POSTALMAESARAY
 ICONOGRAPHY 45

above the altar may for the substitution of the more comprehensive
have been decisive
representation for the abbreviated allegory .'
The Old Testament pictures in the bema and surroundings belonged the

its

to
traditional requisites but the more severe attitude the mid

of

of
church decoration

the
H. Lucas

we
Byzantine period shifted them

of
the siderooms bema find

to

of to
In
.
right Daniel the lions and the three youths allegories

as
the among the furnace

in
of

as
the Ascension and the prothesis the scenes Abraham may have been placed
in
;

of
symbols the preparation the offering
of

the mass

in

.
H. Lucas devoted
of

of

of
The largest part the decoration the series the saints The

to
is

. .
monkish spirit Byzance was strong the remote monastery the slope

on
of

of
Helicon The

in

by
homage contemporary holy Monks particularly indicated the portraits and shows

is
of

that surpasses the ordinary feeling the other cycles

an

of
exalted selfconsciousness

.
St.
especial
an

of
was achievement the convent church Luke Stiriotes that his
at
It

image was put among everywhere

of
own the other icons saints which gleam from
gold ground was placed the left wing the transept

of
the which has the character

,
in
It
.

chapel
of

low vaulted and secluded

a

portrait
In

this the North the Stiriote looks down

of
orientated the
to

room from

the western wall upon the memorial sarcophagus the opposite niche below The Virgin
in

.
placed the opposite wall the four compartments the vaulting are the icons
on

of
In
is

.
his

fig

the tympana next the naos

of

James and two archangels

18
Christ brother
In
,

.
).
(

of
and beneath the window there are three saints the southern wing the transept
In
.

too

this program repeated with altered names Here the Virgin with the child placed

is
,
,
is

opposite young who the vaulting Christ

is
saint now called Panteleimon and
;

fig in
is
a
by

attended Zacharias and the two archangels medallions 19 This parallelism

in

.
).
(

suggests young
of

the decoration that the unknown saint was also contemporary and
a

like Stiriotes closely connected with the history the monastery

of

The same parallelism and the same relation the history convent may be
to

of

the
of

are placed
on
of

observed the case the two saints who both sides the entrance
in

to
the naos that Lucas Gurnikiotes and Nikon Metanoites The number saints of
,

is

.
H.

Lucas constitutes the most comprehensive range among the Greek mosaic cycles
In in

.
facing cycle the Nea become especially
as on
of

of

this icons the words Photius

as

significant the Apostles and Martyrs the Prophets

of

of

The chorus well that

.

by

and Patriarchs decorates the temple filling entirely with their pictures More
it

.
H.

hardly mere
no of

than third the hundred odd icons Lucas are monks and
it
in

is
,
a

pictures
of

of

chance that monks are mentioned the above cited description the
in

of

older cycle partly repeated

an
S.

Nea Marco too where the number monks

In

is
,

,
.

limited and even among the contemporary cycles N ea Moni and Daphni H. Lucas remains
is

)
(

supreme Since other cycles are lacking

be

cannot decided whether the placing

it
,
.

H. Lucas
of

.g. original
of

of

the Saints the warriors the arches the dome

to in

is
in

.
)
(e

development particularly
on

But the further Mt. Athos keeps this tradition

,

the

10.
be

on

Wulff Die Koimesiskirche 202 The question will treated more exhaustively further
in
.p
,

ff
.

iconographic discussion
.
46 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

The architectural peculiarity that determined the arrangement of themosaics in Daphni

has already been alluded to . The central dome with the Pantokrator and the Prophets in
the drum between the windows , the Virgin in the apse , the Hetoimasia in the vaulting
above the Bema correspond with the decorative scheme of the mid - Byzantine period ."
The anomalies with the Christological cycle . The main accent is again laid upon
begin
the pendentives dome . The more comprehensive scheme of narrative pictures
of the central
in Daphni caused the selection of four important scenes earlier than the Passion . The
Annunciation , Birth of Christ , Baptism and Transfiguration are joined together , whereas
the Adoration of the Magi and the Presentation were shifted to the wings of the transept .
Such an arbitrary selection suggests that the hierarchic system originally was built up
for a smaller cycle of the most important themes and that the extension of the cycle
to include the narrative scenes detracted from the original clarity of the system .

for
The transept wings by their height give space

of
the enlargement the Christo
logical cycle Crucifixion and Descent into Hell have the most prominent
That the
.

H.
places not surprising after their placing
on

the
walls Lucas But

it
in
is

is
eastern

.
Christological pictures the Virgin

of
remarkable that the and the scenes from the life
are not invariably separated The Birth the Virgin placed above the Crucifixionof

is
.

without any visible connection with the surrounding scenes Here the topographic

.
the program has been stronger

of
order disturbed and seems that the force
is

it
of of

than the organizing power the building conformity with our remarks

on
This
is
in
.

the evolutionary position Daphni when the point

of

of
we consider
it
from view
subject The narrative element dominates over the hieratic liturgic attitude The
.

.
of
. be

explanation may cycle the Virgin

of

of
for that five scenes the life was
it

a
by

of

provided the program Three were placed the narthex beside three
in

them
Christological ones Since the church was
was dedicated the Virgin the Koimesis
to

,
.

of
placed placing Virgin
of

the naos above the main entrance and the the Death the
in

the naos may have suggested including the scene

of

of
her Birth One the lunettes
in

the eastern transept wall fitted this composition symmetrical counterpart

of

and for
;

Christological scene with the Virgin

as

main figure was chosen the Adoration the

of
,
a

Magi the High Middle Ages

of

rather rare theme the Byzantine monumental painting

in
,
a

.
These shiftings and adaptations clearly prove that Daphni not creative monument
is

.
The program second hand one dependent another which we
on

do
of

decoration
is

,
a

of

not know but which probably existed

no

Constantinople There are traces Old

in

Daphni Only open archpriests

, of

Testament scenes Aaron and Zacharias who the row

in

, ,

,
.

are reminiscent thereof Originally placed the prothesis Mr. Novo the restorer transferred
,
in
.

by

the piers
of

of

of

the niches the main dome The host Saints led

to

them John the

.
by

up

Baptist the prothesis and mostly built priests

of

Nicholas the diakonikon

in

in

is

and martyrs the latter was suggested by their order

of

The distribution from October

.

10

at do
Th

Schmit's remark Mosaiki mon prep Luki that we not know which figures surrounded the
on in

,
*

of .

are
all

the partial destruction

so

the Pantokrator not justified The spoiled spots

of

medallion account
is

.
all
no

we
in at

placed that can see that there were other figures

.

place for the Koimesis was kept later

on

well
as

This the Athos churches

» 2

.
fig
S.

70

Cf. the chapel Nicholas Lawra Brockhaus

of

in
,

.
,

7
,
c
l.
.

.
 PLATE IX

@ce
 ICONOGRAPHY 47

to December the calendar out of which they were taken . Martyrs who are celebrated
in

are
on the same day grouped together like Samonas Gurias and Abibos Nov. 15th

)
right the left wing

of
the and Andronicos Tarachos and Probos Oct. 12th the
in

in
,

)
transept
.

THE CHRISTOLOGICAL CYCLE

Hosios Lucas Chios Daphni

Annunciation Annunciation Annunciation
Birth and Magi Birth Birth
Magi
Presentation Presentation Presentation

)
Baptism Baptism Baptism
Transfiguration Transfiguration Transfiguration

of
Raising of Lazarus Raising Lazarus
Entrance into Jerusalem Entrance

of
Washing
of

of
the Feet Washing the Feet Washing the Feet
Last Supper
Gethsemane
)
(?

Crucifixion Crucifixion Crucifixion

Descent from the Cross
Descent into Hell Descent into Hell Descent into Hell

of
Doubting Doubting Thomas
of

Thomas
Pentecost Pentecost
Ascension

of
The following chapter does not pretend give even short history Byzantine
to

yet iconography
of

nor Christian accordance with this limitation the early period

In
.

will hardly
for be

no
considered since the problem when given subject first occurs has
,

significance
of

the monuments later time

a

THE ANNUNCIATION
.pl
IX
)
(

H. Lucas
the representation destroyed and replaced
of

the Annunciation has

In

been
by original
its

fresco that follows the mosaic composition but seems have enriched
in

to
,
a

the architectural frame

.
I

XI
G.

. G.

de

Millet Recherches 67-92 Sommaire Millet Quelques Représentations byzantines Salutation

la
,

, ,

,
.
*

XVIII Wilpert Römische Mosaiken und

de

angélique
. S.

Bull Corr hell 1894 453-483 Wulff Latmos 209.

.p
,

, ,

,
.

K.Künstle
Bd

Ikonographie 332. Cabrol Leclerq Dictionnaire

S.

S.

Malereien 744 der christlichen Kunst

,

. . I,

,
ff
II

-
.

Kondakoff Ikonografija Bogomateri

de

l'archéologie chrétienne 2mepartie 2241 Bibliographie 2255 2255-2267

;
I,

. ,
ff
.

Xy
...

Th

Petersburg passim Schmit Blagovjesčenie Extr Izvjestija Inst Vol

II

1914 Sofia 1911. from russk

,

,
I/

.
.

.
.
48 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

In Daphni ( figs . 81,

) the composition consists of two figures placed in the northeastern
82

niche of the dome, the Virgin to the right, the angel to the left , with a wide space between
them rendered still wider by the glimmer of the golden ground . The Virgin is dressed
in atunic and gold -fringed pallium and stands upright in front of a throne with a cushion . '
Her right hand is raised to her bosom and grasps the fold of her mantle , while her left
hand is hanging down and seems to hold a spindle . The angel , in chiton and himation
with large wings and a staff in his left hand , comes from the left side in great haste
(but and makes with his raised right hand the gesture of one who is speaking .
not running )
Omitting the apocryphal rendering of the scene as the Annunciation at the fountain
(San Marco , Kahrije Djami, Akathistos hymnos , & c .) , which occurs only in narrative
cycles, a circle of evolution can be traced . At the beginning under the strong influence
of the apocrypha the type of the seated spinning Virgin predominates . Already before
the VIth century a new type appears
Syrian examples and probably in Constantinople
in

too . The Virgin has risen and is pondering the sense of the message . Within this
type, which is dominant after the VIth century , various possibilities in expression (and
in the theological interpretation ) are given by gestures of the hands. Millet distinguishes

a Syrian old - Cappadocian form of rendering , where the Virgin raises or points her
arm towards the angel , from a younger one in Byzantine art where the Virgin has raised
off

her hand as though warding something slight variant involves complete change
A

a
.

Virgin symbol
of

of

of
her breast and becomes
on

content the hand the laid

is

a
:

submission the divine decision We meet this variant already more less vaguely

or
to

Coptic and Syro Palestinian examples e.g.

its
the ampullae
on
formed but most
in

),
-

Byzantine painting Daphni Virgin

In
sublime interpretation appears mid the

,
in

grasps her pallium device for avoiding the bare hieratic .

of

embarrassed fold
,

,
a

gesture that imparts the XIth century

of

of
classical colourlessness characteristic the art
a

.
theological spirit

an
The Syrian variant indicates which dramatizes the scene effective

in
a

Daphni the classicistic tendency Constantinople

of

manner whereas sublimated The

in
,

is

.
rejection every dramatic emotion leads monumental simplicity The calmly reflective
to
of of

.
of

attention Mary completely expresses the spirit the mid Byzantine theology
-

.
by
The posture the Angel also shows that Daphni we are confronted
of

in

a
of

classicistic development With raised head and the gesture salutation Gabriel

is
.

the XIIth century

as

approaching with rapid steps but not yet running

he

mostly does
,

in

.
The composition entirely classical mood The moving angel who marks
an

too shows
.

flowing action that can right

be

read from left approaches profile from the left

to

in

,
a

whereas the motionless Virgin rendered almost frontally and reflects her compositional
is
by

relation only slight bending towards the divine messenger The connection between
a

the figures today has rather the impression

of

of

loose that the beholder statuesque

is
so

isolation than pictorial composition

of
a

comparison with early Syro Roman sarcophagi brings out the peculiar attitude
A

mid Byzantine monumental art hardly any relation between the frontal figures
of

There
is

,
-

the

the

the
no

XIth
as

usually crntury representations

to

of

The throne has back contrast earlier

in

in
,
?

VIth century
.

Recherches 69f
.p
2

.
 PLATEX

ou

OR
10
 ICONOGRAPHY 49

who know what the figures represent. It is

so that the action is only intelligible for beholders
aim
mid Byzantine art advance beyond this frontal statuesque and primarily
of
the

to
of -

of
oriental style representation the rendering continuous action For this purpose

to

.
by
aim
all
figures turning slightly

at
of
several means are used First the connection

,
.

.
Hence the mid Byzantine three quarter profile came into being that from the evolutionary

,
-

,
of

point the two original forms

of
be synthesis representation

as

of of
view can considered

a
the profile action and the frontality
of

of
The onesided direction
rest the action which

,
.
by
the Annunciation Daphni of
the subject itself
suggested furthermore stressed
in

is
,
is
by

As stated by Alois Riegl

of

the eyes sideways glance the eyes

of
the direction

,
a
.
was for late antique art the main device for checking the complete separation caused
by

frontality Furthermore the attempt was suggest the transitory

an
of of
character

to
.
by

or
action the forced movement of one several persons The hasty approach the

.
Angel the Annunciation enhanced running posture the twelfth century good
in

in
to

of )is
a

a
(

this natural way

of

example But stressing the transitory figure

of
this character

a
.

was not always satisfactory

of
and several phases movement were combined one

in
,

.
a
Byzantine paintings longer

no
In

the imagination

of
the mid the beholder who

is
,
-

of
position read the action furnished with nearly complete series phases
to

is
in

,
a

a
of

of
almost cinematographic picture continuity we the representation
of an

action Thus find

of in
martyrdom Menology the figures . several phases falling

of
the Vatican the act
in

in

.
a

This was the utmost possible result the tendency react against the more frontal array
of

to

figures the former period Daphni one most intelligible moment

of

But the case

of

in

in
.

was selected and the action intensified The wide space between the two figures
so
,

, .

apparently symbolizes the hierarchic distance which

as
contemporary Annunciations
in

in
Kieff and Torcello by placing figure the triumphal arch
on

effected each either side of

is
,

.'
After the twelfth century this strict and clear simplicity gives place reaction toward to
a
the novelistic apocryphal element The Virgin sitting and spinning the angel running

is
,

,
is
.

and there servant besides other accessories Thus the circle complete and Daphni
is

is
,
a

its
be

proves itself classical wave that had antecedent

of

the manifestation rise

in
to

Syro Palestinian forms but

its

of

perfection appears the work Constantinople

as
in
-

THE NATIVITY
.pl

and figs
,
X
(

4
.

)
of

The representation Daphni damaged

on
of

the Birth Christ the left side and

in

is

But the general composition and some traces

at
on

of

the top the borders the fracture

.

by

permit cave topped pyramidal

of

of

reconstruction the whole front rugged

In
.
a

mountains the Child with the crossed halo lying

more nearly manger which
is

in
a

sarcophagus and the ass are looking front the mange

of
ox

resembles The
In
in
a

and somewhat the left the Virgin lies her upper body slightly raised face and
is
to

;
,

breast are turned almost frontally the left hand lies upon the left knee the right has
,

the early paintings Cappadocia e.g. chapel Jerphanion

of

Theotokos Göreme Les

In

the the
in

in

in
,

,
*

set
.pl

by
35

églises rupestres naively door

or

this distance indicated column between them

is
I,

Diez Demus
4
-

.
50 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

disappeared but may be reconstructed as at her side in accordance with analogies. The
traces of a female head with fluttering hair ribbons to the left suggests the bathing scene ,
that can be reconstructed according
the usual type if the figures were diminished in
to

size ,as was the rule . The woman who holds the child was apparently sitting to the left of the
tub , while to the right was standing the servant who pours in the water from an amphora . The
right half of the picture is occupied by the seated Joseph and the shepherds with their flock .
The young shepherd with the crook receives themessage of the angel with a gesture of surprise .
The old man resting upon his stick with right hand on chin remains in meditative pose . The
grazing and drinking sheep are at his feet. Two of the four angels at the top bend worshipping
down to the child , while the angel to the right turns to the shepherds and brings them the
joyful message .The fourth angel at the left has slightly raised his hand and seems to point
to the beam that falls upon the child from a lost star or from the open heaven .
Far more complex than in Daphni is the representation of the Birth in Hosios Lucas .
The cave is shaped like a spacious room , wherein the manger and the bed of the Virgin
have been placed . The mother is exceptionally rendered in half kneeling , half sitting
posture . She directs her eyes to the child , whose shoulders she holds with both her
hands . Ox and ass look over from the right corner of the cave . To the left of the
cave Joseph is sitting on a stool with hands crossed.2 His figure separates the
approaching Magi from the divine Mother . The two younger Magi are bearing presents
and looking up to the angel who shows the way ; the older one between and above the
others carries a large casket and looks upon the Virgin . Of the three angels who
appear on the left of the picture, the lowest one is attached to the Magi by

his
guiding
gesture the two others bend worshipping the right half the picture

of
the child
In
to
,

.
the bathing

by
the shepherds are surrounded
of

the child and the annunciation the

to

mountainous landscape who are bathing the

of

soft One
of

contours the women

a

, .

child sits rockupon the foreground supporting herself with her left hand upon
in
a

the water with her right hand

of

the edge the tub and trying The other servant .

pours water into the full tub out amphora Of the four shepherds two are
of
an

.
up

talking other the third behind them the angel while the fourth
to

each looks
to
,

playing groups sheep can be distinguished

of

of

the top the rock his flute

on

sits The
,

,
.

one long haired with straight horns above another with spiral ones below The angel
,

.
-

who brings the message shepherds covers half worships the

to

of

the another one who

corresponding the topmost angel the left part the picture
of

of

Child The beam

to
,

,
.
of

descending from the segment heaven separates the two parts

,

the subjects that the whole hardly changed

on
of

of

The Birth Christ one

its
is

composition during the mid Byzantine period though the details varied rather vividly
,

.
-

As these two versions almost all pictures during the XIth and the
of
so
in

it
in
,

by

following centuries the main figures

of

the Child and the Mother are surrounded

,

several side groups and side figures The side groups are subordinated the main
to
.

G. Millet Recherches 107 note

.p
be &
,

.,

1
c
i

.fig
41
on

The same stool grec Millet

. to

of

1.

seen miniature the Paris 550 and elsewhere

cit is

,
2

c
.

.
.op

Cf. Künstle 344 with bibliography Schmidt die Darstellung der Geburt Christi Stuttgart 1890
,

I,

,
ff
*

.
die

Noack Geburt Christi Darmstadt 1894. Schmit Kresčenie Sofia 1911

,

.
 ICONOGRAPHY 51

one and are related to it . The central composition is conditioned by the centripetal
direction of all the side groups . All the figures turn or bend to the child , surround
the central group as satellites , and have their place in a landscape that also emphasizes
the central group by pyramidal composition

its

.
In

Roman art Wickhoff has treated the late phase

on

of
his classical book Roman
possibilities pictorial

of of
Hellenism and the various narration Besides the selective

.
method that selects one pregnant moment action and the continuous one that arrays
continuous range

he
continuous landscape
of
action found still third the

,
in
a

a
complementary one that arranges and succeeding scenes

of of
certain number antecedent
,

a
of

large flowing .g. epical story group

an
of
event hero round the main
a

.
(e

Wickhoff calls the selective method Hellenic the continuous one Roman Hellenistic and

)
Asiatic origin for the complementary rendering The representation

of
assumes action

.
the

the Nativity mid Byzantine period does not strictly correspond any
of

of
these

to
in

three pictorial methods but comes closest the complementary one Here too we find
to
,

.
side scenes grouped round main one The difference between the complementary
a

of
method and the Daphni composition the former the phases

. of
that one action in

,
is

by
temporal continuum worked out the other groups repeating the main figure
is
,

in
a

Thus the several groups are related by the logical

of
tie
cause and consequence

as
is
representations Daphni known

as
the case with the continuous The composition the

in

(
.

aim
collective type Byzantine literature strives for another
in

.
)

temporal continuum pictorial unity

If

of

had been question shaping the

it

to

,
a

a
Joseph and the Flight into Egypt would have had
of

Journey Bethlehem the

to

Dream
,
be

of

included But instead this we find some side scenes partly taken from the
to

gospels partly the apocrypha legend accompany and illustrate the

as or

from from that

,

,
'

and are arranged around the central point importance Though certain
of

main action
it

a
.
for

of

striving unity
be

space noted the relation the several scenes

of

time and can

to
,

the main action by comparatively superficial connections shows certain parallel

to
the
a

the narrative cycle

of

hierarchic contrast both cases the

to

system decoration
In
in

scenes are grouped according their importance and not according any continuity
to

to

by
of

The peculiar shape the landscape

be

explained the genesis

of

the action
to
is
.

of

type subject This rural scenery

of

the and close relation the structure the

to
in

,
is

which had been long before connected with the Nativity was
an

essential condition for

,

the appearance the collective method presentation

of

of

The pyramidal composition unites all the scenes and makes the main group the
for

dominating central one The difference the landscape important the evolution
in

is
.

by
of

of

the theme Daphni formal and historical unity locality was obtained the
In

a
.

diagonal carrying back into the third dimension the shepherds

of

few axes The smaller size

.
by

of

and the cutting the contour the hill may remnant

of

of

off one them show even

a

Hellenistic feeling space treated differently H. Lucas The large

of

of

This detail
is

in
.

contour the boldly hill encloses only the Mother and Child Joseph
of

curved and the

,
for

Cf. the cave Hofmann Das Leben Jesu nach den Apokryphen Leipzig 1851 102. For the bathing
. .p
,

. ,

,
:
*

scene Dobbert Jahrbuch der preuß Kunstsammlungen VI 1885 159-160 Dalton Byz Art and Archaeology
,

,
,

,
.
, :

654 and the Bibliography quoted above

.p

*
4
52 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

bathing scene . The Annunciation to the Shepherds and the Magi are added quite loosely
and framed by landscape motives which are not drawn into the formal unity of the central
part . The Annunciation to the Shepherds is still further divided into several parts which
are framed by the crossing contours of the landscape . The loose connection of the
Annunciation to the Shepherds and the Adoration of the Magi with the Birth leads to
the conclusion that they were alien elements taken from a continuous cycle or that they

for
were originally intended separate picture frequently was the case with the

as
,
a
Annunciations Shepherds Cappadocia
to
the

in

.
H. Lucas probably one the Magi

of

of
the oldest examples where the Adoration
is

of
and the Annunciation the Shepherds are united with the representation the Nativity
to

.'
that becomes clear why the composition has not yet attained the uniform
granted
If

it
,
is

Daphni

of
centralized character observed the formal bounds laid upon

at
spite

it
In
.
of by

peculiarly

of
us
the shaped niche the scene still reminds the friezelike expansion
the Cappadocian cycles The figures ,
the Magi deserve special attention They

of
.

.
their journey
on

are not rendered horseback i.e. Neither the true Adoration

on

it
is

,
.
up
since the two figures front look the star and only the middle one makes

to
in

slight gesture bending and offering Besides this the Magi are separated from the
of

, .
a

by
Virgin who occupied with the child the apathetic seated Joseph Thus the
,

is

all
be

representation identified with any phase spite

of

of
cannot the action these

In
.
divergencies this was decisive for the development
solution The relation between the

re
figures was only rationalized the following age the pictorial centralized

In
in

presentations the XIIth century the intruding Joseph was pushed down and the .
of

Magi given the landscape until

at

certain place last the moment the approach

of
in
a

Magi pictured H. Lucas the figures have one constant horizon

of

the was common

In

in
.

of

that gives the mosaic the character frieze The elements that transformed continuous
a

a
.

frieze into pictorial unit were still active H. Lucas

in
a

Daphni
of

the other hand keeps away from such experiments

on

The artist The

.
the Magi

of
withdrawn and treated separately this way the unity
of

Adoration
In
is

the classical appearance the Attic mosaic was brought about Daphni
of

form and

up is
like classical art whereas H. Lucas .
of

the monument timeless renaissance filled

is
,
a

with mediaeval problems and belongs evolutionary range that leads from the Syro
an
to

Cappadocian traditions the group the XIIth and the following centuries
of

This
to

be
comprehensive judgment based the two representations will
on

of

the structure
by

the analysis the iconographic details

of

confirmed
.

by
of

The grouping the main figures remained comparatively free Though gradual
.

types Byzantine iconography

of

inversion the figures from the former Cappadocian

13
Th

Mozaiki mon prep Luki draws the conclusion that this representation belong
to

Schmit must
.p
,

,
*

the
all

XIIth century since examples where the two scenes are united with the Nativity
of

the date from end the

,

Cf.

XIth the XIIth century Kehrer Die heiligen drei Könige

or

85-89
in

.p
,

II,
.

.
74
on

As for instance
its

that clearly
, of

the miniature the Codex Paris shows derivation from the continuous
?

Millet Recherches
cf.
Or of

redaction Antioch 136

.p

ff
,

he up

of

express correctly was not taken the collective type Only gesture the left
to

more into the

it

it
3

.
as

as

the Magi
he

angel remains problematic points though would serve guide This gesture may
to

to

the star
;

.
by

the Magi too and thus mistake was kept Daphni

at

derive from type that includes

a

.
 ICONOGRAPHY 53

formed mid -Byzantine type , on the whole three phases can be discerned , that admit
a

a classification of the monuments. In the older type, as we meet it in the earlier

Cappadocian frescoes that were not yet influenced by the Byzantine wave , the Virgin
was placed to the right of the manger and the bath to the right side of her , whereas
Joseph sat to the left of the crib . ' After the XIth century an inversion took place .
The Virgin got her place to the left of the crib whereas Joseph and the bathing scene
kept their Lucas belongs this type At Daphni and several paintings
H.
old

one.2

to

in
.
XIIththe compositioncentury
entirely inverted and shaped
of

the accordance

is

in
more formal point The Virgin remained of

of
with view the left the crib and

to
a

.
Joseph and the bathing scene exchanged places Thus H. Lucas somewhat related

is
.
the Cappadocian tradition whereas Daphni the figures are distributed according

at
to

the free judgment posture the Virgin H. Lucas also points

of

of
the artist The

in
to

.
Originally she was represented

as
back the older tradition sitting indicate the
to

to
.

birth without pains The Orient for long time kept this theologically important

to
a
.*

posture and we find Cappadocia still the Xth and XIth century Thus H. Lucas
in

in
it

.“
by
has special place With Cappadocia connected the sitting Virgin whereas
is
it

,
a

the kneeling posture the left leg rare this time but was propagated later
of

is

in

,
according the Painter's Guide
of
For the posture the child too and the way
to

it
by

the Virgin

be
of

taken the hand raise from the crib parallels can found
is

to

it

in
,
early Millet showed the Syrian origin

of
Eastern documents this motive which

is
to
.
at be

found among Armenian Syrian and Anatolian miniatures The Cappadocian frescoes
,

.”

for
least remind Qaranleq and Tchareqle the Virgin stretches her hand
us

at
of
,
it

of

the child.8 Millet explained the sense this gesture The moment just before the arrival
.

the Magi

of
and the Virgin the point raising the child out
of

represented
on

of

the
is

is

manger hold upon her knees when the Magi arrive We have already pointed
to

to
,

it

the Magi
of

the corresponding rendering the posture

of

the same moment

in

The two subjects Nativity and Adoration are entirely balanced the mosaic .

is of
in

H. Lucas Daphni the normal Byzantine type the recumbent Virgin

of

however
In

of ,

,
.'

The posture Joseph too very characteristic Almost always the foster father
10

is

used
.

supported resting his hand H. Lucas he

In

rendered with his cheek

is

arm
in
,

grasps with one hand the wrist the other and turns his head sadly
of

the Mother
to

.
Comparison with Daphni again shows the contrasting tension even spiritually Daphni
.
the

.pl
34

the chapel Jerphanion

of

Göreme
at

1.
In

Theotokos
,

,
. .,
c

.
'

Cf. Millet 106 the three phases are indicated there

.p
,
. c.,

, ,
2

l.

se.g.
.fig
.p 75

77

Paris anc fond Kebrer

,

.,
c
, .

l.

Millet Recherches
.99
,
*

se.g. Qaranleq Tchareqle Kilisse

.pl
.op

Jerphanion 109. Only the hypercritical theology

cit

the capital
of
,

,
;

.
by

the Apostles the Virgin wears

. an

expression suffering
a of

of

was not satisfied Thus the church order

in

in
it
.

may not become

de 47
au as

suspect Heisenberg
la 1.

that the incarnation delusion

.p
, ,

,
c
.

.
.op

du
cit

Didron 157 Une grotte dedans côté droit mère Dieu genoux elle pose dans
.p
,

.,

;
à
•

une crèche Christ petit enfant emmailloté

le

Millet Recherches 115 145

p
,

., ,

, .f,

ff
·

.pl .

.
.op
cit

Jerphanion 109 127 129

,

,
*

can.

be

an

The preponderance Millet op.cit

.p of

of

the Adoration seen Armenian miniature Jerusalem 107

in

.p
,

.,
10 •

.
.op

of
on

Cf. Millet cit 107 note the special gesture the hand
,

.,

.
54 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

shows a fine nuance by putting one hand of Joseph upon the right knee , the elbow
of the left one resting upon the extended
the back of the hand ; the chin rests upon
forefinger . Thisof quiet meditation lends to the figure a genre - like charm .
posture
In contrast to this sublimation the Joseph of H. Lucas shows complete helplessness . "
From the historical point of view Daphni shows a refinement of the average type (or
perhaps a substitution of the fine courtly prototype for the average one) whereas
H. Lucas is an independent creation based on the old tradition .
The close relation of H. Lucas to the old tradition becomes evident in the Annuncia
tion the Shepherds . The scene corresponds with the Cappadocian frescoes where the
to
Annunciation occurs as a separate subject.2 The four figures without much differentiation
have a cumulative effect ; but in spite of all Hellenistic bucolic elements , there is lacking
the genre mood Daphni by the two figures of the youth and the
which is produced at
old man . The flute -playing shepherd especially incorporates the character of Eastern
Hellenism.4 This figure one hardly finds in any Byzantine representation . In the
Cappadocian frescoes , however , and in miniatures which are intermediate between
Anatolia and the capital and derived from old traditions , he is hardly ever wanting .
And we find him in the fourteenth and fifteenth century . The vitality of the theme
and the central position of H. Lucas are thus attested ." The representation at H. Lucas
is characterized by the independent addition of the Annunciation to the Shepherds , and
perfunctory combination with the Birth scene This arrangement lies between the
its

of
H.
complete separation ccording the prototype Sergios
Cappadocia
of

the two

to
in

(a

by
Gaza and the unification Nativity and Annunciation Daphni
at

of

both scenes

in
,

,
)

H.

the landscape Lucas follows the older liturgic way rendering

of

of
means which

in
,
.

by

the vigil before the Nativity symbolized the Annunciation rather than the pictorial
,
To is

save the pictorial unity Daphni

at

on
of

freedom neo Hellenism the other hand

-

the Magi was eliminated but not the angel who points
of

their

to
the Adoration
,
of

guiding star Many miniatures the twelfth century show the same device This

.
.

betrays originality strong tendency toward pure form

of

the one hand but

on

lack
,
a

on the other
.

THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI DAPHNI

(

)
83
fig
(

)
.

The Virgin seated the left upon high throne with footstool and holds the
is

to

blessing child peculiar genre like manner upon her knees with her right hand between
in

,
a

, .op

H.
cit

posture Joseph the description

of

Lucas differs Guide

—

The from the Painter's Didron

in

in

.,
1

les

this figure genoux poitrine The type may

of

of of

157 mains croisées sur the Painter's Guide however

la
.p

,
à
by “

.”
–

have been suggested similar representations the description the Painter's Guide the Nativity
to
of

The relation
.

H. altogether obvious concerning for instance the posture the Virgin and the flute playing shepherd
of

of

Lucas
is

.
op

Millet cit 124 gives examples

.p
,

.,
2

At Daphni the sheep are rendered drinking this motive probably derived
as

from Hellenistic prototype

;

a
•

attested already H. Sergios

at

Gaza
of

the church
in

and
is

.
fife

He plays clarinette whereas mostly used Cappadocia

in
.op is
a

a
*

For instance
cf.

cit

Geraki Millet
at

118
.p

ff
,

,
s

.
.op

Millet cit 132

p

ff
.,
,
•

.
 ICONOGRAPHY 55

the legs of the child . Almost

central axis of the tall narrow arched niche stands
in the
the Angel with the staff and points to mother and child .
His mighty wing overshadows
the three Magi arriving from the right . The dark -bearded King hastily approaches offering

by
;

him
his present and behind the old man bows deep his hands reverently covered

,
his mantle Between the two the erect youth partly hidden regards the Angel His

,
.

.
hand points upward Overhead the inscription runs Tūv udywv regooxúvros

'H
-
.

.
:
the Magi

of
Early Christian art knows two main types the Adoration the

of

In
.'
subject kings
of

frescoes the Catacombs the treated with Hellenic realism The three

is

.
God Intense energy

of

of
step forward one after the other the Mother action rendered

is
to

, .
by

simply putting them By this device which Ravenna increased

is
row
in

to
so in
a

.
running haste the long journey the Magi also suggested of
that more the journey

it
is

is is
,

,
than the Adoration that rendered This very active composition given entirely

in
is

contrasting arrangement ampullae .

of
in on
profile shown the Monza which reflect
is
A
.

the monumental paintings Holy There the centre of the

of

the Places Palestine

.
by

God and the Magi and

of
composition taken the frontal and enthroned Mother
is

,
shepherds are symmetrically the representative manner
on

distributed either side This

is
.
that exists beside the narrative one can still be observed the XIIth century
co

It

in
-

Magi are

on
where for instance Spanish standing the frontal

of
frescoes the either side
in

Virgin who these two typical compositions

the apse

of
enthroned contrast
In
is

in

to
.

the early period Daphni shows The neo Hellenistic composition creates
new one -
a

synthesis profile and frontality

action with geometrical representation and rhythm
of

in
a

.
the Magi
of

of

Though the three figures the right the Virgin are taken over from
to

by
as

the narrative type they appear topped compositional the angel

at

there the centre

,

who also forms the frieze like file into pictorial group content this composition
In

,
a
-

. .

of
arrival with the Adoration itself Only the gesture
of

combines the moment the youth

,
hardly Byzantine
be

of
us
which found elsewhere painting reminds the journey
in
is

to

under the guidance not strong enough

of

the Star however disturb the sense

to
it
,

,
;

is

up
of

of

as
long step we breaking cycle
It

the action from scenessuch into

is
.

rendering Daphni this Daphni

at

the small figured gospels the brevity

of

find
in

to

In

,
.
-

ranks with the most eminent illuminated manuscripts the Gregory Parisinus 510 from the
,

. (

ninth and the Vatican Menology from the end Only the composition
of

the tenth century

,

Daphni The guiding angel who has been present ever since
at

still more concise

is

.
as

as

about 400 here rendered hovering half figure

whole figure and not the
in
as
is

-
a

Gregory Manuscript nor approaching the Menology his goal

as

as

at

but standing
in
,

if

Thus the action achieves character finality The gestures are simple few not agitated
of

,
a

.
or

of

re

frequent They show neither the uniformity nor the intensity the frieze like
-
.

presentations which repeat one and the same motive three times for their gestures are
;

the calmly standing

by

differentiated manner and intensity and are centralized figure

in

Magian who lends the group

of

the young character self centred and self contained

to
,

.
a

H. Kehrer Die heiligen drei Könige Leipzig with bibliography Daphni

at

is

vol 1909 The mosaic

,

,
2

.
'
on

described 69
p
.
.

Pijoan
de

cf.

Santa Maria Tahull Santa Maria d'Esterri Pintures murals Catalanes

I.
&
,

,
2

c
.

.
56 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

This is in the same scene in the Menology where the different phases of
contrast with
prostration are expressed in the postures of the moving kings and thus the one -sided
direction and intensity of the movement is stressed . It is almost a matter of course for
mid - Byzantine painting that the Magi show a difference in age . Finally , it implies an
increase in monumental sense and a departure from the merely narrative Hellenistic
manner , that Joseph is not present and that the child does not grasp for the proffered
treasures but turns towards the Magi to bless them . '

THE PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE (HOSIOS LUCAS )

.fig
(

5
)
the left four figures are standing two
In

to
of

front baldachin shifted somewhat

,
a

while the two flanking ones remain

of

which are turned toward each other almost

in
,
frontal posture The Virgin holds the child upon her hands and offers old Simeon

to

,
it
.

who with veiled hands prepared receive the Messias The Child with vivid move
to
is

.
hands reaches toward the High Priest the right
its

the Virgin Joseph

To
of

of
ments

,
.
of
appears carrying two pigeons the folds his garment while behind Simeon the

,
in

prophetess Anna standing pointing At the

of
and both sides the ciborium runs
is

inscription Yrantavtń
‘H

.
‘

of

The evangelical theological intention the representation the confirmation

is

to
,

the Virgin her Son's peculiar mission by Simeon The evangelical story
of

and Anna

.
contains three moments the ritual offering Mary presentation
of

of
the the Child and
,

,
:

the meeting with Simeon These three moments the offering only
of

which indicated
,

is
.
by

pigeons together by the ciborium

of

the are held the altar which here means more

,

,
the mere setting the scene forms the ideal centre and from the scene derives
of

it
than
It
.

special dignity
of its

only seems strange that the ciborium does not form the centre
It
.

may that the High

be
the composition and that the baldachin shifted the left
is

It
to

.
by

of

But
as

Priest was be surrounded the ciborium sort attribute the renunciation

to

H. Lucas
for
of

the centralizing composition shows that for the artist such reason
in
a

the centralized form was not authoritative was Daphni The single figures which
at
as

,
it

by

the ground like pillars are related only

of
be

the rhythm their

to

anchored
in

seem

contrasting postures typical trait mere bending

of

. of
this hieratic art that
is
It

a
.

for

figures
towards each other compensates turning the figure
of

of

the heads the

a

By this device some movement was brought into the passive action Everywhere else the
.
by

the figures would have been expressed turning them into profile But
of

relation
.
be

hardly single profile the whole cycle H. Lucas.2

, of

there found
is

to

in
a

Almost frontal are the two attendant figures Joseph and Anna whose formal function
,

frame the scene while their thematic function accentuate the main action
is

is
it

to

to
,

and mediate the dogmatic content We are intended be impressed

to

to

the beholder
.
by

the hibratic dignity and shyness witnessing the holy act

of

the attendants and these

;
op

cit
F.

Kehrer 101 gives short summary the marks for dating

the of
.p
,

a
*

.
.

.
the

the

are

Washing
of
an

Only shepherd Birth and apostle Feet exceptions

in

in
a

.
*
PLATE XI

N
 ICONOGRAPHY 57

two figures are so to say the embodiments of the pious beholders . I Thus the picture
became a hieratic icon .
The strong of this representation
iconisation at H. Lucas is further marked by
several details . The composition of the figures witnesses to a redaction of the subject
in accord with the theological point of view . The Virgin in almost all mid -Byzantine
representations stands at the left, Simeon at the right , and the action reads like a writing
legible from left to right . In H. Lucas, however , this arrangement was given up in favour
of the Virgin , the holiest figure , who now appears at the right . There are two traditions

by
for

of

the presentation the Child Either carried Mother lies already

its

or
it
is

it
.
H. Lucas selects the former type which by far the more
of

upon the arms Simeon

is
.

H. Lucas can be elucidated by

of
frequent one Here too the position comparison

a
.

with the Menology the Vatican miniature the Child struggles and grasps Mother

its
In
.

.
Head

aim
severity

at
of

The hieratic calm and Hosios Lucas does not such nuances

.
of

singled out

of
and hands the Child are stretched forward and the essence the action

is
without any distraction By this economy means the sanctity the action becomes of

of
.

much more convincing than the more elaborate rendering The space between the
in

by
which symbolically
of

arms
of

the Child the covered hands Simeon

filled the

is
and
,

of
gospel
by

of
its

crux gemata impresses hieratic tension Thus the narrative the St. Luke
,

into the liturgic subject the festival cycle

of

was transformed

THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST .

XI and
.pl

.fig
6
(

Daphni the Christ almost frontal standing river with rocky banks The
In

is
,

in

.
up

The figure who shrinks back frightened

of

water reaches his breast

at
Jordan
to

,
.

the blessing the right Two angels are waiting

be

the lower edge

of

Christ
at

to

seen
is
to
,

.
for

the Christ upon whom ray light falls from segment

on

the same bank with clothes

of
,

sky ray long haired Baptist

of

of

the The hand God and the Dove appear the The
in
.

of .

, . -

stands the left Christ and touches His head with the tips his fingers The gesture
to

of
of

hand points The upper parts youth

of

the left the Saviour two followers and

to

a
.

by

who are attached the scene their glances and gestures be

an

old man are seen

to

to
,

The inscription
at

behind John Bantious appears the top The mosaic fragmentary

is
‘H
.

on both sides
.

up

Hosios Lucas the river into the niche

stretches
lines back and concentric
In

in

like vault indicated converge above the shoulders

rather summarily
of

The banks
a

,
.

At the lower edge

of

Christ widening below into basin corner the niche column

,

in
a

a
.

the right the figure

To

standing Jordan turns away and Christ seems

of

with cross
;
is
a

pass through the water the right towards the Baptist stretching both hands
in
to

,
to

benediction towards the river spirit Standing upon projecting slab the Baptist bends
.

a
-
of

and touches the head Christ with his right hand while his left hand lifts his garment
,

.
his

study the Dutch Group portrait such not actively participating figures was discussed
of
of
In

the function
'

Riegl Jahrbuch XXII

by

des Allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses Wien 1902

,

,
A

.
58 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

The trunk of a tree is to be seen behind him with an axe laid at the roots. On the left
bank two angels are standing with clothes. God's hand stretches forth from the segment
of heaven and ray hovers the Dove with the olive branch .
in a slanting
In , these two representations of the Baptism belong
spite of obvious resemblances
to two very different traditions. The different posture of Christ points to two cycles
which differ in place and time . At Daphni the posture of the divine Neophyte who but
slightly turns aside corresponds with the Hellenistic scheme which became the basis
for the mid - Byzantine type of the tenth and eleventh century . The gesture of concealment,
which gave popular Oriental examples their individual character , is here lacking . Christ's
benediction , that returns in almost all mid -Byzantine monuments , finds explanation

its

his
patristic literature According pseudo Chrysostom the day

on

of
Christ baptism

to
in

,
-
.

and gave the power

sin
to
blessed the water cleanse from
it

.?
the elegant contraposto Daphni H. Lucas
of

of
Instead Christ turns towards

in
,
the Baptist This stepping turn with crossed legs came from the Orient and points

to
.

Syria and Cappadocia where this motive that occurs already early sarcophagi

on
,

,
as
be
cit
.op

Millet met

as
to

late the eleventh and even the twelfth

. ,

180

in
ff

is
(

)
.

art
. of
century We find Byzantine and west Byzantine monuments Hosios Lucas
it
in

.
-
of

one the monuments that connect remote past with the future this case anti

In
is

quated formulas were raised vitality Syria and Cappadocia seem

to
new have
to
a

Syrian .

of
preserved and transmitted About 1200 the evangelary Melitene shows most

a
.

exact pendant the posture H. Lucas Other details indicate the contrast
to

of

Christ
to in

.
Daphni for there the artist tried foreshorten the rocky contour the Jordan

of
with
;

it of ,
whereas H. Lucas the river bed bell shaped curved upwards that the body

so
by is

, ,
in

almost entirely covered the wavy lines Daphni

of

Christ the water while

is

in
its By

antique slenderness Daphni some

of

of
shines reason the bad state the mosaic

in
in

points that would help iconographic position cannot be

fix

established Thus for

to

.
no

instance we can longer say whether not besides the typical river god the column
or

-
H.

Strzygowski's inter
as

top was rendered here Though

on

with the cross Lucas

in

and though through the remarks

Th
of
pretation cannot be maintained any longer Schmit
,

,
.
StrzygowskiIkonographie der Taufe Christi München 1885. the different types
of

clear classification
,

: . ,

A
'

by

the Baptism
was given type
of

Millet Recherches 170 The Hellenistic Christ beardless full face

p

ff
,

,
1
.
(
)

the arms quiet allegory Syrian type Angels hold the clothes the hand God gesture hiding
of

of
of

Jordan
,

,
(2
: .

up

no

built
as

nakedness Cappadocian type The water dome like landscape the Syrian Christ turned
in
is

,
3

-
.
(
)
the

towards Baptist The Western type Mostly like the Cappadocian Marginal illustrations Landscape
,
(4

5
)

(
)
, :

:
.

113
the

Hellenistic Christ full face Jordan fleeing according Byzantine type

to
of

of
3.

renovation Psalm the

,

(6
)
-

XIth century John slightly bent Christ blessing Jordan sitting turned away rocky contours
of

the water widened

,

,
:

Daphni XIIth century Three angels Christ's legs crossed renewal the Oriental
of

towards the bottom

,

,
(7
.

.
(

: )
)

:
the

Old Oriental type John right Christ profile Hosios Lucas

to

tradition
in
,
(8
.

).
)

(
2

Migne Patr graeca

50

804
,

,
.

Strzygowski Ikonographie der Taufe Christi symbol

22

on
as

of

his claimed the death the cross

by of in

.p

it
,

,
a
•

as

beginning Strzygowski may

its

that marks the marks Baptism

This interpretation
of

end the salvation the

.

inscription like that

an

have been suggested the Hortus Deliciarum H.v. Landsberg Baptisma cruce consecratur
of
in

,
:
to by
cf.

Wilpert Die römische Malerei 783. The right interpretation was found Jacoby Ein bisher unbeachteter
.p
,

,
die

92

on

apokrypher Bericht über Taufe Jesu Straßburg 1902 which refers the cross that was erected
.p
,

by

the place the Baptism

of

the river Jordan and which was referred Antoninus Placentius

to

Theodosius
in

XV
Th
cf.

Arculf and Bede Schmit Izwestija russk Inst Sofia 1911

,

,
.

.
 ICONOGRAPHY 59

yet by

as
its
the cross has lost value for dating century

its
mark the eleventh

in

,
a

of

of
be
connectionwith the local tradition Palestine would seem Oriental origin rather

it

to
than Byzantine and we can therefore assume that was omitted Daphni

it

in

."
At first this was

at

of
Such also the case with the axe laid the root the tree
is

.
as

be
of
connected with Johnthe preaching
the Baptist can seen Cappadocia and

in
(
multifigured Evangelaries and Menologies but later was added the Baptism

to
),
in

.?
examples would prove that this motive mostly be found
, of

record Oriental

to
is

in
A

monuments —at least the early period Thus this motive again seems most suitable
in

by
for Hosios Lucas and not for Daphni Since the action not particularly enriched

is
.
such additions one cannot count among the complementary representations But new
it
,

.
by
theological relations were added the picture such additions and
to
came closer

it

in
the mentality the period
by of

connection with

.
The olive branch held the Dove Hosios Lucas another analogy The

in

is

.
pointing the flood anticipates the idea subjects that original

in as sin
common both
to

to
by

was cleansed the water Heretofore the few known point Anatolia examples

can to
.

be
H. Lucas parallels
of

source For still other details the mosaic found

in
a

Oriental Monastic art According peculiarity Syria that the Baptist

of
Millet
it
is
to

,
.

a
tip

his garment Only simple gesture Daphni and

be
of

holds Chios
is
seen to

in

in
a

a
.

the Baptist points Heaven The two typical angels complete the composition H. Lucas

at
to

which though full thought figures The composition

of

of

scant shows the same

,

,
is

of
as

principles the Presentation The place the figure the right the Temple

or
to
in

the middle axis depends importance The Baptist H. Lucas therefore

on
of

left
its

in

,
.

right
of

Daphni Baptism runs legibly from

of

Christ whilst the action

to

stands the
in
,

right The position the Baptist the right Christ occurs again
of

of

left Oriental

in
to

to
.3 .

Manuscripts
At Daphni figures
an
of

of
the two followers behind John are extension the
representation conformity the cyclic convention The calling
of

with the first two

in

disciples according John According Chrysostom the figures

to
35

39

indicated
to

I,
,

is

Daphni
be
at

interpreted Andrew and John.6

as

are
to

small figure evangelaries and Cappadocia the Preaching

of
In

the John
in

is at is
-

exceptional Moni
be

added the Baptism An position may found the Nea

in
to

.”

the

Chios where accord with examples small figure evangelaries Baptism

in
,

,
in

-
by

group
of

enriched the Jews and the genre like bathing scenes

-

.
H.

the type meagre

of

contrast this fullness Lucas comparatively The

In

is
to

.
as

representation was reduced for the sake hieratic iconization and not Daphni
of

in
of

pictorial unity the Magi Strong

of

for the sake the omission the Birth scene

in
(

).

H. Lucas
of

of

impressiveness was the utmost aim the master

.

According
in 10
Th

III

Mozaiki mon prep Luki

to

Schmit Matthew
,

148
, ,
., · 1

2
p
,
.

.
.

.
.

.pl

Wiegand VIII Jerphanion

on

Cappadocia
of

Frescoes the cave Jediler the Latmos Wulff Latmos

in

,
2
-
.
.op

the 87

fig cf. 74
cit

and cod Paris

.p
I,

.
.

.op

On angels Strzygowski
16
cit

two low
.p
,

.,
*

f.
op .op

., cit

Millet 189 141

.p .p

ff
, ,

.,

,
s

f.

are
cit

Millet three disciples represented corresponding the three angels

to

190. Sometimes
•

.
Old

.op

.pl
65

Toqale Jerphanion
of

cit

church
,

.,
'

.
60 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

Two fundamental currents are opposed in both mosaics , which have been discussed
in the art history of the mid -Byzantine period : — the never - disappearing Hellenistic tradition
on the one hand and the Oriental on the other . This latter , as has already been
indicated , had centre not only the provincial monasteries Anatolia and Syria

of
its

in

,
Constantinople where the connection with Oriental

of
but also those monasteries
monasticism was in
preserved the monastic tradition par excellence and this source

It
us is

;
.

on

its
vague origins There

its
concrete conclusions evolution

to
is is

too for draw

in

.
poles courtly renaissance

of
such wide interval between the the Hellenistic and
a

local and temporal forces was hardly cooperation

of
the monastic tradition that the
hampered All manifestations mid Byzantine painting can be ranged between Daphni

of

-
.

and H. Lucas
.

THE TRANSFIGURATION

fig

91
(

)
.
by

Daphni Framed radiant mandorla Christ standing frontally holding with

is
,

,
a
.

his left hand roll while his right hand lifted his breast benediction Elias

to
of as is

in
,

,
a

.
worship
an
to as

young gesture

of
old man stands the left Moses man with
to
,

,
;

a
the right holding book At the feet the three glorified men the three apostles
,

,
a

.
be

are rocky scenery amid scant trees and herbs Peter kneels the left
to

to
seen
in

his
up

looking John Christ

the middle has fallen down and hides face with his
in
to

his
garment James the right awakening from his swoon raises hand his head

to
to
;
he

hurries away from the radiant apparition symmetrically

as

The composition

is
.
by

arranged and hieratically geometrized the elliptical frame and the eight rays

.
transfiguration specially subject
of

of
The vivid Christian and even more
is
a

All phases from

up
East Christian iconography enigmatic symbolism
an

the most

to
-

.'

by

vivid dramatization are realized this subject during long life From the
its

.
of

symbolical abbreviated manner the sarcophagi the evolution proceeded the cosmic

to
as

composition shown Sant Apollinare Classe completely monumental

it

in

in

in
is

a
'

of

style the traditio legis became the Roman variation the gospel Rabulas
of
and
in
it,
;

the composition range figures

There the apostles are rendered
of

as
dissolved into
is

upright prepared this subject

, . at

standing
of

But the same time there was the modification

,
.

prevailed
on

of

that later the Justinian mosaic the monastery Sinai and the
at
In

in

the Apostles the Byzantine type appears Daphni was

as

gradually
of

Church mid
it

in
-

developed But doubtful whether the mosaic the Apostles

of

the Church
it
is

in
."

was actually accordance with the description

of

Mesarites whether the three phases

or
in

be

he
to

cites are referred the narrative sequence which other cases was applied
to

in
A.
de

Waal Zur Ikonographie der Transfiguration älteren Kunst Römische Quartalschrift 1902
der
in
,

, ,
.; I

Frankfurter zeitgemäße Broschüren XXXI

H.

Die Verklärung auf Tabor Liturgie und

25

, 10

idem Kunst
in
.p

,
ff

K. Künstle Ikonographie Kunst Romanische Monumentalmalerei etc.

P.

1902. der christlichen 403. Clemen

.p
,

,
O.

, op

Millet
cit

299. Wulff Latmos 212 Recherches 216-231

.p

.p

.p
,

,
.
.

f.

A.
.p .op
de

cit

25

Waal
2

., ,

.p
.

.op

St.
32

on
cit

183 and Heisenberg Though the monastery

of

Mount
1.

Clouzot 181. Catherine

in
.p
,

,
c
all *

.
on

Sinai figures are still standing one horizon and the names interchanged
.
 ICONOGRAPHY 61

by Mesarites . In any case the rendering of the Apostles falling to earth would have
had no parallel in the sixth century . Furthermore , the cyclic
of the trans representation
figuration the three phases of Mesarites . In the gospels , among which
differed from
the cycle of the Codex Laurentianus ( VI, 23) was compared with the mosaic in the
Church of the Apostles by Millet , the way of the Apostles up and down from Mt. Tabor

St.

by
the raising Transfiguration

of
and of Peter Christ are rendered alongside the

.'
of
This continuous late Hellenistic rendering the action fundamentally different

is
from
,

-
XIIth century

of
that dissolution into phases which Nikolaos Mesarites the spectator the

,
advocated
.

by
Mesarites became the main type mid Byzantine

of
The last phase described

-
iconography The Apostles are rising kneeling addresses Christ

or
Peter standing

,
.

James rises and supports his head whilst John still lies fainting the ground with

of on
,
of

head veiled This aspect the scene perfectly meets the intentions mid yzantine art
.

; .
-B
Its

mainpart Christ and the Prophets organized with symmetric strictness

hieratic
,

,
is

for
of

figures Apostles gave opportunity

of
and the the the sublime differentiation the

a
different moments fainting and awakening
of

.
And has already differentiations were particularly
as

been mentioned such favored

,

during periods The single motive rising

of
the Macedonian and Comnenian thrice

is
.

the fainting John the awakening Peter's

to
of

of

on
varied from James and further

to
of

gesture speaking And equally characteristic that not only are the various moments
is
it
.

distinguished figure slight difference

an
of

action but each the action itself

in

is
,

in

suggested
.

After the XIIth their height

century new artistic ideals arose the These reached

in
.

the XIVth and XVth centuries Instead representational

of
of

of
vivid scenes differentiation
.

as
content the goal painting was now intensity
of

of

action Parallel movement the

in
,

,
.

prostration the Apostles imparted impression dramatic intensity which dominates

an
of

. of
,

the scene.2 Byzantine art ends baroque phase Yet the uppermost hieratic group
in
a
by

subjects this evolution

of

remained untouched
.

this baroque period pictures occur with two contrasting halves like the Trans
In

figuration with different horizons the Rabulas miniature and the Sinai mosaic
its

In

in
.
all
the

the IXth century the group

of

figures
stand still
the same plane glorified
;
in

in

figures begins rise though Peter usually mediates between the two planes the
to

in
,

XIth century the separation finally accomplished the revelation raised inaccessible
is
is

:
of

above the more and more intensified agitation the human world below
.
by
its

The conspicuous importance Daphni mosaic iconographic

of

the confirmed
is

details
.

at

As the capital Moses and St. John are rendered

of

most the monuments made

,
in

by
as

youths the round halo was replaced the oval mandorla the arrangement
of

the
;

Apostles too like Constantinople placed

of

Peter the left side instead

at

that
in

is

,
is

:
him

the right where we Thus the Daphni type

on

often find Oriental documents

.
.op

.fig
cit

Millet
cf.

passim 198 199

,

,
1

,
;
.

M. Alpatoff Die Früh Moskauer Reliefskulptur Belvedere Sonderheft Russische Kunst Wien 1927 239
.p
,

),
2

.
(
62 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

doubtlessly was due to the capital. This is also indicated by the type rendered in the

its
Church of the Apostles and proved by accordance with the mosaic Nea Moni which

in

,
by
Daphni

of
was certainly made artists Byzantium Thus represents the classical

.'
style Constantinople half century
of

of
the second the eleventh

in

.
THE TRIUMPHAL ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM

92
.fig
(

)
holding roll with his left hand while

on
Daphni Christ mounted she ass

,
is

a
-
.

as
his right hand blesses Peter goes ahead guide and young Apostle follows

a
.

.
by

They are received group bearded Hierosolymites who emerge from the gate

of
a

Three children are bustling ahead

of

of

of
the towered town the group two them

,
.

stepping forward towards the Messias with palm branches while the third spreads his

,
garment beneath the hoofs Another boy cuts branches from the top

of
of

the she ass

.
-
palm tree
a

Daphni the action moves from right that according

In

exception

an
left

to

,
Millet due the orientation towards naos.2 The utmost concentration and
to

to

the
is

economy the rendering figures was urged the shape the available space by
of

of
But
in

.
notwithstanding this mosaic also reflects the mid Byzantine type The young men who
,

.
-
attend the group the Codex Rossanensis and San Marco are lacking here

as
in

in

in
Byzantine

of
of

most the mid documents

documents The genre like device adding still more
..
-

, -

children tumbling about Oriental documents Daphni one boy

In
as

restricted
in

is
,

.
performs the act which by

of
the Rossanensis done several The wealth action
is
in

.
Daphni represents reducing and
of

set contrast the small number actors

is

to
in

a
typifying tendency Byzantine
at
section taken through art this level shows the
A
.

change from abundance and accumulation motives towards the simplification which
of
by

group chorus like multiplication

, of
replaces one single figure But there also
is

-
.
a

by

characteristic figures This last stage represented for instance the Entry San Marco
,

in
.

an
mid Byzantine classic art Each former isolated exponent
of

rooted action now

in
is

.
by

companions mostly only the head curves

or
appears surrounded
of

of

host whom
,
a

. -
by

stress the appropriate action

be

the halos are seen yet who repetition

to

for
of

of

The freedom the older period

instance now replaced the Rossanensis
is
(

by
of

multiplication Byzantine the accepted types

of

the schematized mid classical art

-

.
the

by

XIVth century the insertion landscape new evolution gave the figures
In

of
,

,
a
for

space The specious groups the former period were dissolved

of

action differentiated
,
.

and distributed over the space Thus the pictures were filled with new pictorial life
.

this evolution Daphni distinctly represents the classic stage The combination
In

.
of

economy and differentiation resulted Byzantium

of

the classic art

in

Wulff Nea Moni Byzantinische Zeitschrift

, ,

122
.p ,

.p
1

Daphni
on
cf.

Millet 160 the iconography Millet Recherches 258–284

.p
;
,

,
?

.
 Real

ONIITTI
PLATE XII
 ICONOGRAPHY 63

THE LAST SUPPER

( figs . 95 , 97 )

There is but a remnant of this representation preserved in Daphni. Three figures

from the right end of the picture indicate that the Apostles were sitting round a C - shaped
table . Peter sat upon an ornamented throne at the right wing . Two unbearded Apostles ,
probably Thomas and Philip , sat at his side. We find copious examples of this mid
Byzantine type of the Last Supper in the illuminated Manuscripts of the XIth century .
The type is characterized by the sigma- shaped table with Christ and Peter at the two
ends . That arrangement is in accordance with the Hellenistic tradition of the honorary
seats at the half -round tables . Cappadocia , where the Hellenistic tradition was not
In

known , Peter is followed by Andrew . The iconographically important criteria were

lost at Daphni with the destruction of the figures of Christ , John and Judas . Therefore
it is no longer determinable whether the picture illustrated the prediction of the Betrayal
or the institution of the Sacrament or the combination of both moments , as in Venice .
, ,
Since however the prediction of the Betrayal is the usual subject of the mid - Byzantine
type , and the two unbearded Apostles are in accordance with this type , it is likely that
this moment was chosen . Whether Judas moved his hand towards the dish or only
made the gesture of speaking , cannot be determined .
The few remnants , however , suffice to show that the Last Supper , too , was treated
according to the Hellenistic tradition . The hieratic form of this subject , e.g. the liturgic
Communion of the Apostles , as it was rendered in the apses of the Russian churches
at this time , could never have come into consideration Daphni
for

place

as
such

,2
a
where without exception the subjects were never rendered their liturgic aspect but
in
for

always historical form And this reason real monumental effect was never
in

an a
.

achieved The Last Supper hardly differs from enlarged miniature

.

THE WASHING OF THE FEET

.pl

XII
.fig

and
94
(

Of this subject but fragmenttoo preserved Daphni Only the left part of
is

in
,

right
To

the one can still see the cross nimbus Christ who
of

the lunette was saved

,
-
.

of

bends down dry the left foot Peter the end long bench
to

at

of

The latter sits

, ,
a
.

with right foot drawn back and left one raised His right hand gathers garment
his
.

while the left his forehead the right

to

raised On the same bench the distance

is

to
in
.
of

Apostle
sitting who unties the sandal his left foot which he has put
an

of of

Peter
is
,

upon Three Apostles and the fragment fourth figure are be seen
to

the bench
a
.

by

They
be
of

behind the bench whom only Andrew his long beard can identified
,

make gestures with their hands that project from the folds their garments
of

The
.

inscription runs veinthe

:—
'O

up
be

the bibliography this subject also may

on

Millet Recherches 294 looked there

, p
, ,

;
1

.
at

Hagia Sophia
of

Kieff the monastic church St. Michael and the mosaic Serres Macedonia
in
2

.
64 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

In H. Lucas this the northern apsidal niche of the narthex .

subject is placed in

In the middle of the picture ,

beneath the inscription ( 'O NIDTHP) Peter is sitting on the
edge of a short bench , an imposing figure , his legs posed as in Daphni and the right
hand raised to his forehead . Back to back to him sits a young Apostle like the
,
sandal-tier. To the right five other Apostles are to be seen one of them with a white
beard in profile . The left side of the picture is occupied by the figure of Christ, clad in
dark blue and gold -brown . He bends down to Peter's foot above the water - basin , and
dries it with a white cloth tied to his belt . Behind , there stands a second sandal-binder
his

right foot raised high stool four other Apostles appear

of
with upon The heads

.
a
between him and Christ

art
the type of
the Washing

its of
the Feet

of
The evolution Eastern Christian

in
of
enrichment the motives Millet has shown development from the three figured
at

aims

.'

-
Hellenistic type with the reluctant Peter towards the Cappadocian one with the actual
washing and Byzantine drying This change
on

of
the one with the the feet the
to

in
.
of
main action had theological justification The Hellenistic ideal Christ was incompatible
a

.
the washing feet hence upon the early sarcophagi Peter
as

of
with such banal action

;
a

resisting accomplished The realistic tendency Syro

of
and the action not
is

is

the
painting
on

Cappadocian the contrary rendered the action with eye

an
main

to
by
issue Mid Byzantine neo Hellenism found compromise for both these setting
a
-

-
.

of

Christ the more seemly drying Peter's foot Peter indicates the sacramental sense
to

by pointing his forehead and illustrating the words . Not my feet only but
so
to

,
:-
“
my hands my Despite yzantine
its

also and head lesser realism the mid version

of .”

-B
comes closer the content the Gospel
one The middle story than the Cappadocian
to

.
Daphni

H.
group groups Apostles
by
of

of

Peter and Christ flanked two and Lucas

is

in

.
seems that the left group has already finished while the right one still waiting
It

is

:.
This separation apparently was carried through according the Gospel

of
the words
to

my
So

he cometh Peter He saith unto him Lord dost thou wash feet which
to

:
.

?
“

”
by
of

indicates that Peter was not the first them who was honoured Christ He there
so

,
.
fore was set between the two groups

of
Such fine differentiations are characteristic
,

mid Byzantine iconography though most the representations show the preponderance
of
,
-

by
the ceremonial point view having ranged the Apostles according
of

of

to

their rank
,
as

setting Peter the first one The liturgic note many cases especially stressed
is
in
.

by Christ's gesture speaking These four phases the Hellenistic the Oriental
of

the ,
,
,
.

Byzantine liturgic may

be

mid neo Hellenistic and the hieratic one observed the

in
,
-

-
of

evolutionary history almost all subjects Byzantine painting

in

H. Lucas and Daphni belong the type that renders the action decorously but
to

completely
as

as

The difference between both mosaics not clear this case was
is

it
in
.

no

with the others There concise tradition motivate setting the two seated figures
to
is
.

back H. Lucas whereas they look Daphni Whether

at

back the same direction

in
to

in

Pokrovsky Evangelie pamjatnikach Ikonografii 296-298 Haseloff Cod purp Ross 1898 100-102
. .p
,

.p p,
v

.
I

Kgl XV
E.

Dobbert Zur byzantinischen Frage Jahrbuch der preußischen Kunstsammlungen 1894 151
in
,

Millet Recherches 310

, .p

ff
,
,
2

At Chios San Marco

.fig
74

Cod Parisinus Cf. Millet Recherches 296

&

ff
,

,
c
.

.
 ICONOGRAPHY 65

the fine of the sandal-tier in H. Lucas had his counterpart in Daphni cannot be
figure
ascertained . But the relations of the Apostles to the action and among themselves
differ characteristically in both works . There is noisy movement among them in Daphni ,
indicated by the gestures of their hands, whereas in H. Lucas no hand is to be seen
except those of Peter and the sandal - tier . By their glances and the turning of their
,a , sacred mood is diffused among them ,

far
heads superior the literal conventionality

to
calm
Daphni The dreamy pause the youthful sandal tier enhances the deep sense
at

of

of
-
.

the main action

.

Apart H. Lucas

of

of
from the artistic superiority the narthex mosaics this difference

,
its
due different traditions best works that neo Hellenism attains the
only
is

in
It
to

is

-
.

its
wonderful elegance and freedom that sometimes characterise creations while the

,
more mediocre works show little more than weak conventionality The monastic

.
the religious mentality the people and capacity
on

on

of
tradition the other hand based
is
,

a
for giving monumental hieratic shape sacred actions Thus their most typical works
H. to
-

.
by
of

that tradition the narthex Lucas their dignified severity and their capacity
in

as
,

,
in

of
for rendering the whole scale feelings from the calm mood the Washing
of

of
the
Feet the sorrowful grief the Crucifixion and the triumphal power
of

of
the Descent
to

into Hell became classic works religious art

of
,

THE TREACHERY OF JUDAS

figs
96

98
,
(

)
.

of
The much mutilated and inadequately restored representation this subject

in
Daphni displays figures group captain
of

around the central Christ Judas and

of

crowd
,
a

. as . .
haughty look
his

Judas coming from the left embraces Christ who endures touch with
,

soldier seizes Christ's shoulder the right Malchus

To

On the other side seen

is
a

.
off

youth with Peter cutting the rear appear the heads

of

his ear the Pharisees

In
,
a

.
of

Judas Pharisee points towards Christ He turns back

To

the left the commander

to
a

group
of

of

the band who with his sword and stick heads soldiers and Pharisees
,

."
of

by

The action the crowded scene entirely carried the seven persons
on
is

in

the first rank while the others simply unity would not surprise
fill

of

the scene This lack

,

but Daphni indicates the inferiority

of

the mosaics the narthex

us

elsewhere
in

in

,
;

it

be

figures represent analysis proves itself

that only
an

on

an

The main action closer

to

arranging and assimilation The richly pictured cycles

different phases
of

of

the small
.

figure gospels show most of the

as

that here three moments are

in

combined
,

mid Byzantine renderings this subject the betrayal the capture and the incident
of

,
,
-
:
-

manner typical
of

Peter with Malchus

of

These three moments are here unified

in

a
.

the Late Middle Ages which did not favor continuous representation
of

the attitude
.
by
of

The simultaneousness the three scenes explained their common relation

to
is

of
as

the main figure and appears the most effective expression

of

the dramatic stress

,

group abnormally
of

of

the events The diminution the Peter with Malchus confined

,

,
is
.

The description the picture

of

accordance with the state before restoration

in
is

.
I

Diez Demus
5
-

.
66 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

to Malchus only , who is rendered as a boy , to make it intelligible . It seems that this
resistance to a custom was due to the Hellenistic influence. The iconographic details prove
the pertinacity of the Hellenistic tradition , which was traced by Millet from Sant'Apollinare
Nuovo till the XIIth century . The rough action of the captain in grasping the wrist
of Christ is an Oriental trait rather strange in a neo -Hellenistic tradition . Perhaps it is
due to the restorer . If we compare the Hellenistic version of this mosaic in Sant'Apollinare
Nuovo we find some innovations. Already in the Church of the Apostles , as here , the
Apostles were replaced by warriors and Pharisees . Besides, there are special peculiarities
that we find only in Daphni . Christ does not spread out his arms to embrace Judas , but
maintains a frontal pose of rejection and throws a scornful glance on him . Christ's gesture
of benediction towards the Malchus group , in contrast to early Italian and to certain
mid - Byzantine renderings , is not distinct.2 The Lochagos at the left end of the group
maintains his Hellenistic pose . Another trait peculiar to Daphni is the Pharisee's order
for the capture , the gesture of which connects the main group with the irrelevant figures .
The advance of Judas from the right agrees with the Hellenistic type in contrast
to the Oriental one. On the whole , the composition is to be considered as an enlarged
edition of the Hellenistic scheme.

THE DOUBTING OF THOMAS

( figs . 103, 104 and 10 , 11 )

In Daphni , Christ stands in

the centre upon the steps , which lead down from the
door in the background . He is flanked by two equal groups of Apostles who are gazing
in surprise and pointing at Him . The wound is left free by the long and richly draped
garment, and the right hand points to it , whilst the left grasps

the
girdle The glance

.
of

the slightly bent head directed upon the incredulous Apostle who hesitating
is

,
lay his finger
of

the wound Christ

to

advances
in

Hosios Lucas Christ with raised right arm stands front closed door that
of
In

in
,

frames his upright figure from the surrounding golden He looks somewhere
ground
.

far off while his left hand displays the wound which the hastily approaching Thomas
to
,

,
On

puts his finger each side five Apostles two rhythmically stereotyped groups
in
.

behold the mystery

'.

Nicolaos Mesarites we owe the more detailed the two descriptions

to

of

of
whom
,

Apostles doubting
of

of

the mosaics the Church the describes the Thomas very

in

in
of ,

moving way which Millet's analysis the scene into two parts the Apparition and
on
,

comprehension
of

disciple The the Humanist

of

Conviction the based human

is
,

by

of

thought that the posture the pain caused the touching

of

Christ was due the

to

may have seen truly this time Concerning Thomas Mesarites mentions
he

wound And
,
.

his hesitating pose and his timidity touching the wound

in

.
be

Cf.

figures London psalter

I

The diminution San Marco Millet

to
fig of

1.

both seen 325

in

.p
is

&
,

,
.,

ff
c

c
.

.
op

Millet
, .cit

349
,

ff
.

R. Morey
Ch

Michigan XII
.54

paintings
of

East Christian Univ Studies

p
cit &

,
/1
., c
.

p .

. .

.
73
.op

.op
cit

Heisenberg Millet 576

p

;
,

,
*

.
.

.
 PLATE XIII

THEOS
ΑΓΩΓΗ

RO
ΗΜΗΛΟ

71
ογ

Ο
ACTA

ΓΟΥ
Σ

Hon
Horn
 ICONOGRAPHY 67

Daphni to this old Hellenistic version as recorded for the Church of

comes near
the Apostles . Christ casts a reproachful glance on the hesitating and shyly approaching
Thomas ; the posture is vivid , the hand is raised to the thorax only to show the stigma.
In H. Lucas another attitude prevailed . The world was to be convinced , not only the
disciple . Christ does not look upon Thomas , nor does his right hand indulgently show
the wound , but it is raised and gives testimony to

all
the infidels The disciple

is
him

.
hardly represented specifically human point His own feelings

of
from view are not

.
he

expressed only testimony Hence his straight approach towards

of
and medium
is
,

.
a

by
Christ The attitude imparts intensity
new the action which expressed the

is
to

,
.

energetic hasty step The two traditions the two cycles are clearly distinguishable

of
.

these two representations courteous vivacity and monastic severity human narrative
in

,
a
:

hieratic testification of the Salvation

of
and

It
the contrast neo Hellenism and

is
a

-
monastic art
.

Further details will confirm this contrast H. Lucas the left hand uncovers the

In
.
wound and points Daphni the hand has no relation the wound Without
to

at it .it

to
In

.
were grasps the girdle Though this decent and conventional gesture
as

intention
it
,

H. Lucas one would almost take mistake The hand

as
derived from that
is

it

.
the same spot uncover the wound but this important entirely
to

raised action
is

is
to
,

by
conventionalized Daphni The Apostles H. Lucas their rolls and their gestures
in
in

Daphni their human

of

are marked hieratic witnesses divine manifestation

as

whereas

in
,
a

surprise expressed by their movements and gestures

is

.
its

The hieratic type clear and perfected

of
was creation the eleventh
in

form
a

simplicity and grandeur

be

century though

of
and was destined successful the
to
;

,
it

H. Lucas was hardly ever again attained The architecture background

of

the becomes
.

more complicated Upon the eleventh century the succeeding

of

the hieratic tradition

.

centuries built Baroque art

up
a

THE CRUCIFIXION
XIII
Pl

and figs
99

101
,
(
.

Daphni the mighty cross raised upon the tiny mound Golgotha characterised
of
In

,
is
by

Three wooden pegs place upon the mound

of

fix

the skull Adam the cross

.:

in

which bordered left and right with fronded plants The crucified Christ loincloth
is

in
,
.

only hangs with head bowed over his right shoulder The feet seem stand upon
to
on
,

the strut which they are nailed and the body does not hang limply but
or

as

bar
to

though standing the hips From the wound below the right breast there
at

curved
is
,

spurts curving jet

of

blood and water and blood and water flow from the wounded
;
a

hands and feet

.

The Virgin stands the left one hand holding cloth and touching her throat with two
at

extended fingers she gazes pitifully

on

the other hand raised toward her Son Whom On the

,

.
by
the

its

The gesture used already Coptic merely way

of

raised arm the Oriental version art conventional

in
is

,
*

.
17
cf.

Mirosh Pskow Bethlehem Monreale Schmit Mozaiki

in

.p
&
,

, &,

,
2

p c

c
. .

G. Millet Ephemeris archaiologike 1894 111

,

,
•

*
5
68 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

other side of the crucifix John stands frontally with mourning countenance turned toward
the spectator, his left hand pendant , his right raised in a gesture of attestation toward his
Master . Above the cross the damaged mosaic still shows traces of two angels in the air .
In Hosios Lucas the standing pose is accentuated with more pronounced curves in
the body , though the head with dying eyes is bowed and sunken yet more upon the
shoulder . The anatomical details , especially the muscles , are prominently indicated . The
arms are bent as though broken at the elbows . The blood and water issues in a straight
jet

from the breast and trickling flow from hands and feet The Virgin holds her

in

.
mantle closely wrapped with her left hand and with her right points

to
the Christ John

.
his

clasps right hand

his
of
his cheek pain and with his left clutches the folds

in
Above the arms to
the cross runs the inscription

of
himation CTAYPWCIC and beneath

,
'H
. :
.

them written QOY ÝCCOY and IAOY MFP COY The cross itself bears the
is

'H
:
'

'
letters ICXC the top
at

the mid
of
These two representations

of
the Crucifixion show the two traditions
Byzantine monumental style their finest With only three figures employed the central
at

,
.
of

mystery and dogma Christianity case interpreted entirely different

an
of is
in

in
each

the isolation impressive event from historical surrounding

an

its
at

manner Both aimed

.

.
true that the three figure type was already current Early Christian art But the
It
is

in
-

.
examples from this period with their laconic abbreviation more nearly resembled symbols
,

,
pictures filled with human the paucity

of
than emotion like our mosaics Between this

.
early treatment and the impressive self sufficiency
of
our mosaics there intervened the
-

development the many figured narrative style.2 During the mid Byzantine period these
of

-
two types were still fighting for pre eminence The influence the many figured Crucifixion
of
-

-
.
of

the Apostles many important representations The mosaic

of

the Church traceable

in
is

.
Chios Cappadocia many enamels Pala d'oro and miniatures followed
several frescoes
in

,
in

)
Beside the old three figured version went and was gradually endowed
on

this tradition
it

-
.

with human life very intense sensitiveness exalted them devotional pictures With
to
A
.

.
holy Christianity beyond mere hieratic dignity
of

these most icons the imagery passed

.
of

The pictures became receptacles deep human piety Their intensity springs not only from
.

feeling but from their reserve

. of

of

well
as

their depth expression contrast northern

to
in
,

expansiveness Daphni particularly

an
of

betokens the refinement culture

In

old the
It

.
No

Greek tradition takes precedence trivial gesture disturbs the mourning

of

the two
.

attendants The Crucified Himself have died composure H. Lucas

In

seems
of in
to

calm
.

by

the intensity has another aspect The actual passion Christ more stressed the
is
.

curving
of

the body the arms the bent head and the dead eyes with
of

the broken lines

,

the painfully distorted eyebrows The strength the body suggests greater capacity
of
.

elegant
of

as

for suffering The stream blood does not gush the side curve
an
in

from
.

as

Daphni but flows down diagonally Daphni

as

John not rendered witness

is
in

in
,

;
a
.

nor does he look towards the beholder The eyes are turned towards Christ but their
,
.

R. Forrer und
.p A.
, G.

Schönermark Der Crucifixus Müller Kreuz und Kreuzigung 1894 Reil

,

1908
1

., ,
.

Die

Kreuzigung Leipzig 1904 Michael Engels Kreuzigung

97

Die frühchristlichen Darstellungen

ff

der
&
,

,
c
.

Bela Lazar Die beiden Wurzeln der Kreuzigungsdarstellung

,

The Rabulas codex 586 was the earliest example

of

of
2

it
.
 PLATE XIV

UL
QXD
 ICONOGRAPHY 69

gaze has no goal . Aimless helplessness is apparent in his pose , in contrast to the admirably
well-balanced contraposto of John in Daphni. The same contrast , though not so clear ,
can be discerned in look and gesture of the two figures of the extended Virgin , and is even
to the accessories . There are prettily bending flowers in Daphni, whereas H. Lucas
shows a bare Golgotha : here cosmic symbols , there angels . This contrast might mislead
us into thinking that in H. Lucas a dramatized type is shown and that it, therefore ,
ought to be the later and younger one . But this is a misunderstanding of the essential
difference of both traditions ; the neo -Hellenistic in Daphni and the hieratic -expressive
in H. Lucas . And we may assert that the latter was adopted by the Eastern
here again

H.
of art

be
the Middle Ages proved iconographically
of

as

can Lucas the stressing

In
,

.
body

as
appears does the dead look upon
of

the curve Christ's for the first time

,
of
the face This almost realistic rendering dead countenance surprising that

so

,
is
a
.

certain modern critics cannot believe that the mosaic dates from the XIth century.2
Such doubts are easily dissipated by comparing the three figures with the same subject
shown grieving Daphni this distinction
fig
Chios There too John whereas
at

,
,

),

,
114

in
is

(
.

.
which henceforth prevailed had not yet been drawn John still raises his hand testimony

in
,

,
while the Virgin makes the same gesture with her right hand even though her left .

is
,
H.

lifted with the cloth her face Chios and Lucas were thus more progressive than
to

Hellenistic Daphni
."

H. Lucas

old
The medallions the sun and the moon testify
of

an
tradition

to
in

derived Oriental archetypes We meet for instance

of
on
from them the frescoes the
.

are closely H. Lucas

of

cave Christ near Heraclea which related

to
,

.*
The pose the earlier examples
of

St. John's hand

furnishes similar evidence In
.

no
of

the disciple holds book But this attribute the evangelist would longer suit the
a

grieving follower and the book was accordingly omitted

of

Christ since the function

,
;

be

for
changed change already Cappadocia
of

St. John had This can observed The hand

,
in
.

.
of

of

while keeps the posture holding book and this we still can observe traces
,

in
;
a

H. Lucas At
by

even though the gesture the grasping the garment Daphni

of

motivated
is
,

.
by
no

longer and adopted free contraposto

of

the artist felt bound this tradition the arms

a

THE DESCENT INTO HELL .

.pl

XIV
.fig

and 100
,

102
(

Daphni the high round arched composition renders this subject elongated
In

form.5
in
-

the right across

for

Christ clad brown and gold with his cross staff strides
,

from
in

gates Hell and over the prostrate figure Satan chained He approaches
of

of

the broken
.
Th

Schmit Mosaiki 26f Th Schmit 1.c.

2
.p
&

,
,

, ,
.,
1

.
c
.

According this type appears the Codex Egberti

of

Millet the first time

to

Recherches 405 end

in
.p
,

,
H.

Xth century Lucas example with the new variation the dead Christ
of
is

the earliest where combined

it
is
. .

.
by
.pl

Wiegand Latmos Wulff VII

Th

paintings which the way

In

Western more often derive from the

,

,
;
*

Orient than from Byzance the cosmic symbols are more frequent than the angels whom we met Daphni Chios
in
,

the mid Byzantine monuments

of

and most
in

.
cit de

be
G.
5

Millet Mosaïques Daphni The Bibliography this subject

on

Mon. Piot 204.

to

1895
.p

is
,

II,

,
.
.op

K.
up

looked Künstle
in

494
.p
,

.,
I,

.
70 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

his
Adam he seizes by the outstretched right arm
whom and raises from sarcophagus

. .
Behind Adam with suppliant gesture rises Eve The Prophet ings complete the group

-K
Two other figures are indicated by diadems and haloes behind David and Solomon

.
by

by
of
right half the picture group

. of
The smaller filled the Just headed the

is

,
a
Baptist who makes the gesture speaking and holds roll

of
In ,

up
few
figures
iconic grandeur only

of
Hosios Lucas out built the scene

in
,

is
a

.
the central axis the figure Christ stands turned toward the spectator The Redeemer

of
In

.
him
steps over the abyss Hell drawing Adam with The suppliant Eve rises behind

of

To
Adam standing rather deep sarcophagus

of
Both are the left cavernous

of in
.

.
its

its
Hades the ruins
filled with gates with locks and bars Solomon and David
,

,
bide their sarcophagus with that uncertain gesture which the Byzantine picture
in

in
,
language means reverence prayer and worship
as

as

on
well The scene labelled the

is
,

.
top with the inscription ANACTACIC
'H

.
of :-

by
The iconography
the Descent into Hell has recently been treated Morey who

,
his

investigations very instructive index

of

has formulated the results exhaustive

in
a

."
by
mentality Byzantine period
on

Some observations
of
the the mid suggested the represen

-
this subject may here be added
of

tations .

of
the apocryphal gospel

Its
The theme based upon the tale Nicodemus evolution
is

in

.?
shows the tendency the mid Byzantine theology support the theological content
of

to
-
by

Christ we
of

as

many references
In
discussing the Birth

of
the scene possible
as

.
of

stated that the illustrations the Apocrypha tended more and more detail This all

is
to

.
this scene where the divinity attested by the
be

expected

of
the more Christ
to

in

is

by
redemption mankind The apocryphal tradition was be confirmed

to
of

reference
to
.

of

of
prophecies the psalms The preaching epistle
an

on
Peter and John the
to

so
to
,

.
Baptist the Apocrypha

on
Hell stressed Isaiah and Simeon and later David
is

,
in

in

Prophets part apocryphal

: of
Habakkuk and the other take the action Each detail the
in

text the more extensive representations such Daphni the preaching

as

rendered
in
is

John the Baptist the host Prophets the witnessing Prophet Kings David and Solomon
of
,

,
-
of

the shattered gates Hell the chained Satan the erection

of

the victorious cross and

,

,
the redemption and Eve Gradually the scene became enlarged Starting from
of

Adam
.

the ciborium columns San Marco the line evolution passing through the more
of
in

,
-

comprehensive popular version the Chludoff Psalter leads the still richer compositions
of

to
,
-

Santa Maria Antiqua John the Baptist seems

of

have appeared for the first time

on
to
.

Kieff we meet the Prophet Kings

on

the frescoes the Chemokmedi enamel the Just

in

,
';

Men after the tenth century The latter are newcomers important for the symmetry
of
,
.

the composition
.

H.

figure the Baptist

of

Lucas and the divergence

of

The absence the the

in
in

rendering gates might suggest belonged undeveloped

an
, of

the shattered that

it

to

type Since however all the missing details already occur earlier pictures this
in
,

,
.

R.

45

Charles Morey East Christian paintings the Freer Collection New York 1918
in
,

.p
),

ff
(

Tischendorf Evang apocrypha Leipzig 1853

. .p .;
P.

389 Hofmann Das Leben Jesu nach den Apokryphen

.p
, , ,

,
I, ff
ff 2

K.
.op
cf.

Künstle Ikonographie
cit

419 Kunst
.p

der christlichen 494 and Clemen 209

.p
,
ff

,
.

ff
.

Ainalov jedin Kievskij Sofijskij sobor Petersburg 1889

•

,
-R
 ICONOGRAPHY 71

its
conclusion would not correctly the mosaic or artist Besides the posture
characterise

,
.
type types Christ may distinguished
of

of
Christ does not belong

be
the archaic Two

to

:
according one Christ turns who has sunk down upon one knee

to
Adam the

in
to

;
second type Christ turned frontally and strides towards the opposite side drawing

,
is
the keeling Adam does not seem have been observed hitherto that these

It
after him

to
.

of
two types illustrate two different phases the apocryphal tale

.
the gospel
of
Nicodemus the tale runs that Christ stretched out his hand and
In

come Immediately all the Saints gathered around the hand

to

summoned them

to
him

, .
the Lord The Lord however grasped Adam's hand and said Peace be with
of

thee
,

:
"
.

at
all thy sons the Just Men And Adam fell down

of
and the knees the Lord This
,

.'
Daphni Once more .”

of
moment was rendered the human aspect the narrative
in

is
it
which stressed The Apocrypha proceeds .
He then took Adam's right hand and
is

:
“
ascended Hell and all the Saints followed Him And the Prophet David cried
---
from

H.
of

of
out loudly This actout leading
Hades was represented Lucas
Adam

in

.
"

of
greater predilection Byzantine
of of

addition the vividness

the moment and the mid
In

to

-
its

art for rendering action power imagery was make this type the prevailing one

to
of ,

The turning Christ suggested his representation hieratic frontality

on

later and

in

;
.

by

of
the movement made more powerful and impressive the flying end drapery Wulff
is

.
Daphni and Chios earlier prototypes
an

of
as

marks the version and thinks

of

archaism
of

miniature painting The host accessory figures indeed points rather miniatures

to
in

of .
Daphni

as
And certain misunderstandings mark the mosaic Instead
of

retardataire

.
the two Prophet Kings who Chios are still uncrowned Daphni four crowned Kings
in
,

,
in
-

appear which thoughtless extension without any traditional basis glance

at
is
,

.
A
a

Morey's arrangement was exceptional

of of
index shows that this The orientation the
.
by
the entrance into probably
was caused the position the
as

action Jerusalem
in

of
mosaic the naos both cases Christ moves towards the middle axis the church
In
in

.2
.

summary we may say that H. Lucas shows the new creative type whereas Daphni
In

in
type was enlarged through prototypes
of

the old the influence miniatures

in

Since the Christological cycle ends with this mosaic

on

some remarks the iconic

,

H. Lucas may
be

style all cases we have found

In

added contrast between the

in

a
.

hieratic style H. Lucas Daphni

of

of

of
and the Hellenistic
the mosaics the freedom
In
.

former church the ground line was always the starting place for the composition The
-

Hellenistic pictorial unity which starts from the median axis thereby lost
is
,

By this new principle composition however the wings the picture gained
of

of

in
,

importance right liturgic point

of

Left and obtained new distinction from the view

a
.

The single figure the groupthere was any possibility

of

became isolated and the

if

,
;

by
be

main figure was turned full face the gold ground The theologic
as

surrounded
to
so
-

dogmatic content was now the main point the action according
of

The trend the

to
.

all

but the intimate surroundings and

as

tale remained finer nuances we enjoy them

in
. ,
;

Daphni are lacking from this more monastic than aristocratic art Symmetry becomes
,

P.
by

Hofmann quoted Clemen Rheinische Monumentalmalerei There

1.

454 another version 209

p

p
,

,
;

ff
c
.
.

I, .

.
'

Rome
cf.

B.

at
as

kneeling down and raising her hands Rushforth Papers

of

Eve
to

referred the Sch 114-119

.p
is

,
.

have been operative H. Lucas

to

The same reason seems

in
2

.
72 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

the decisive factor for form . In the Menology of the Vatican we find again most of
the qualities of H. Lucas . Both represent Macedonian art maturity

its
monuments in

.
PENTECOST
Pl XV

fig
,

7
.
(

.
)
Hosios Lucas the twelve Apostles are ceremonially

of
the dome above the bema
In

the Hetoimasia the symbol the Trinity and the divine power

of
the

of

of
seated around

,
Church From the Throne with the Book and the hovering Dove the rays cloven

,
.
of

of
tongues fire arranged like the spokes wheel shine down upon the heads

of
the

,
a
Apostles who with books rolls their hands are turned each other pairs

or
,

to
in

in

, .
by
The junction the line and Paul
of

of
Peter the head the foot
as

as
marked caesura

is

a
representatives Phylai
of

Four the and Glossai clad exotic garments amazed gaze

,
in
up heavenly
at

this assembly
.

of
The mid yzantine type the representation Pentecost was shaped

fit
to
of of

dome

.
-B

by

proved examples where the row appears specially

on

This an surface
is

even

,
it
of

The respective miniatures

of

of
curved reminiscence the curvature the dome the
in

of .
Gregory distinctly Jacobus Kokkino

of
Codex Parisinus 510 still more
or

the homelies
baphus the close relationship the representations

of

of
Vaticanus Graecus 1162 show
(

of
spite Heisenberg and
of

of
Pentecost the church
the architecture the efforts
is In
to

the origin type yet finally

, of

Baumstark this monumental not established.2

,

The few examples however that are still preserved St. Sophia

as
domes

in
,

in
Constantinople the western dome San Marco and Hosios Lucas and the literary
at

of

in
in
,

,
the Apostles point Constantinople origin
of

as
the place
of

of
tradition the Church
to
,

.
of
But the assumption that the first representation Pentecost
of

Baumstark due

to
is
of

often occurs

as
the church Zion Jerusalem also deserves certain consideration
in

it
,
a

the decorative cycles though mostly the Byzantine and not

of

Cappadocia the
in
in

in
,

The attempt however

as

Queledjar Toquale
of

archaic ones and the new church

to
in
,

,
.

successful Originally
be

indicate two separate sources for this representation can hardly

.
the symbol
as
may have made difference whether the figure Kosmos was pictured
of
of it

the nations whether the phylai glossai were represented

or

and with this intent

.
There are however several intermediate states that make clear separation difficult
,

or as .
later part the paintings Toquali Klisse two Kings with priests
of

Thus the
in

in

always represented most the cases however we meet twelve

of

attendants are
In

,
.

representatives cannot be determined which number

of

sixteen the nations the

is
It
.
or

the Apostles Heisenberg assumed

of

earlier one twelve

For the Church sixteen
,

,
.

that there were shown representatives the twelve nations among whom the Apostles
of

had taught and baptized The number sixteen however correct for H. Lucas and for
,

,
is
.

X.
A. A.

.pl

Heisenberg Grabeskirche und Apostelkirche and

, ,

I
A.

degli Apostoli nella chiesa abbaziale

di
.ff ff.;

Heisenberg
1.

199 Baumstark musaico Grottaferrata

p p
, .,

,
Il
c
?

.pl . .

Oriens Christianus
IV

1904 121
,
.op

Jerphanion
82
an cit
,
»

,
.

.pl
52
as

Queledjar exception
In

onę counte thirteen ibid

;
*

.
 PLATE XV

OUHO

ARTUCI CA
 ICONOGRAPHY 73

San Marco , where the nations or countries are named according to the text of the Acts
of the Apostles . And even if the intervals between the sixteen windows of the drum

in San Marco might have suggested a corresponding number of representatives , this

was certainly not the case in the smaller dome of Hosios Lucas , where they were placed
in the pendentives . The upward gaze of these representatives as they regard the Apostles
is to be taken not as literal truth but as mere hieratic form . The Apostles themselves
are interconnected by the old device of dialogue .'
In San Marco a the dialogue -scheme and formal speculation
compromise between
was effected and each ; in dialogue couple
is followed by a frontally seated figure .
These latter are the four Evangelists .
This comparison of Hosios Lucas with San Marco proves that even the iconising
severity of H. Lucas did not come up to the geometrical rigidity of the Italo -Byzantine
scheme.
The centre of the composition is the Hetoimasia up in the zenith of the dome .
Though Wulff's explanation of this subject as the symbol of the three divine persons
e.g. of the Throne as God -Father , the Book as God - Son , and the Dove as the Holy
Spirit ,
does not seem to cover the whole hermetic sense of this Eastern Christian crea
tion , we may adopt it for our case.2 Since the Hetoimasia is the essential core of the

whole representation of Pentecost , it alone could have covered this subject , as a pars
pro totoThis seems to be the case in Daphni , where it appears on the vault of the
.
bema as in Hosios Lucas . It is characteristic of Daphni that there , beside the extremely
discursive Hellenistic narratives , the other extreme of partial symbolism appears. In Hosios
Lucas both are assimilated to a unity .
On and the change in the signification of this subject through connection
the Ascension
with the apocalyptic return , that led to the actionless glory of the Pantokrator , some
observations were made at the beginning of this chapter . Since the former mosaic
decoration of the main dome in Hosios Lucas has been replaced by later frescoes , comparison
between the two domes is hardly possible . But by analogy with Kieff and Chios we
may assume that in Hosios Lucas , too , the Archangels were represented . In Daphni,
however , they are lacking . Here the system is abbreviated to the utmost , leaving only
the Almighty to whom the Prophets gave testimony and praise . Notwithstanding this ,
the Pantokrator of Daphni is perhaps the greatest conception of the Byzantine Middle
Age. In the countenance of this apocalyptic God -Man , the whole of mid -Byzantine
theology is made visible .

THE MINOR CYCLES

Preparatory work beyond the scope of this book is still needed before any icono
the

graphical discussion of the Virgin can

of

cycle attempted The representation

be

.
the

the
On

art
of

für cf.

subject dialogue late antique and early Christian Fritz Saxl Frühes Christentum
in

,
i

Kunstgeschichte 1923
64

spätes Heidentum Ausdrucksformen Wiener Jahrbuch

in

und ihren künstlerischen

,

,
.p
ff
.

Ainalov Rjedin Kievskij Sofijskij

,

sobor
1

.
74 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

of the complete comparatively rare ? and , as a result , the organisation

cycle is of the
subject is rather difficult and the fixing of types almost impossible .
There is , however , a traditional type behind

, all
these representations Sometimes

,
.
of
special tradition was lacking particular case the treatment similar subject

in
if
a

a
as
prototype Anna follows the apocryphal annun

to
served Thus the annunciation

.
may

be
the well The reverse when for example
at

as
ciation sometimes the case the

,
.
bathing scene the Nativity appears have been adopted from Hellenistic represen

to
in
the Birth of the Virgin
of

tations

of
Until now Iconography
has occupied itself almost exclusively with the Cycle
,

the Virgin the Late Middle Ages lands only The questions

of
western the
in

in

.
the devotional picture and the relations between representative art and mystic
of

genesis

by
church lays have been dealt with several authors These questions however tended

,
.
-p

iconographical research
of

make mere investigation subject matter

of
to

.
cycle Daphni fairly large Anna's prayer missing even
of

The the Virgin at

is

is
(
of

Kiev The composition be the oldest

fig
the Annunciation Anna seems

to
109

to
in

)
).

.
of
one preserved fairly interpretation apocrypha text and

as
accurate the was
is
It

,
a
.

“
be

pointed out above seems the apocryphal representations the annun

of
to

related
to
,

well
at

ciation the
.

the Virgin agreement with the XIth century type

fig

The Birth shown

of

105

;
in
is
.
(

but there are already traces which announce the XIIth century
as

Millet has shown

,

of .
fan

The and the serviette are already there but very frequent detail the manger
;

,
(

the child still missing

is
,

.)

typical

of
The composition Hellenistic vivacity expression example
- of
itself
is
a

closely related corresponding panel Magi

of

and the Adoration the which fills

to
is

a
centralised arrangement originally frieze like conception
its
of

of

of
the wall
an

the
in
-

-
representation The handmaidens who elsewhere always stood monotonous row
in
,

,
a
.

now surround the mother's bed picturesque fashion The scene looks Hellenistic
in
a

the
be

examples the Menologion

at of
Basil Homilies
to

of

The main are found the Vatican both

in in

in

in
II

;
'

St.
Jakobos Kokkinobaphos the Vatican and the Bibliothèque Nationale Paris furthermore Sophie
in in

in

in
;
few

Kiev Daphni Sta Maria Trastevere Kahrieh Djami Mistra eribleptos and the Martorana and Capella
in
,

a
.

)
(P

Palatina Palermo
at

G.
by

Daphni was finely

en

Millet
at

the Virgin Psephidota Daphnio

of

The Birth discussed tou Naou

in

,
2

de

Millet hellénistique
de cf.

Eph 149. For the prayer Correspondance

of

Arch 1894 Joachim and Anne Bulletin

in
p
,
, .

D. .

Le

Daphni
cf.

1894 453 For the other scenes Millet monastère 155-162

.p

p
,

des ,
ff
.

, .
der

am

Schmitz Krefeld Der Kultus heiligen Anna Ausgang Mittelalters Der Katholik 1893/2 251
.;
p
,

, ,

,
-

F. .
f

idem Die Annabilder ihrer Beziehung zur unbefleckten Empfängnis Mariä Katholik 1893/1
Der 145. Josef
in

p
, ,

.
den
der

Liell Die Darstellung allerseligsten Jungfrau und Gottesgebärerin Maria auf Kunstdenkmälern der Katakomben
;
. La say

Freiburg
im

dogmen- und kunstgeschichtlich bearbeitet Breisgau 1887 does not anything about mid Byzantine
,

-
A.
art

der Marienverehrung
im

P.

Stephan Beissel Geschichte Mittelalter Venturi Les

V.

Madonna Charland
,

,
.

.
La
de

trois légendes Madame Saincte Anne tome légende iconographique Quebec Cabrol Leclerq Dictionnaire
la

,
3

Anne pointed out that about the year was already dedicated St. Anne
to

2166 here 550 church

in
It
is
,
ff

a
v
s
.
.
.

by

for

Constantinople and that this church was reconstructed Basil Makedo The Prototypes the Daphni cycle may
-
.

have existed there

.
. Ch

Apokryphe
cf.

Michel Evangelia apocrypha 1911 cites the sources also Thilo und Tischendorf
,

,
;
*

Evangelien
Daphni
1.
,

155
.p
,
·

c
.

.
 ICONOGRAPHY 75

to such a degree that attempts have been made to connect it with the descriptions of
the Birth of Achilles . '
The representation of the Blessing of the Virgin ( has not parallels enough

fig
107

to
)
.
be discussed iconographically
to
enable
it

.
the most popular subjects

of
fig
The Presentation Temple became one

in
the 110

in

, .
(

)
especially art complete
of

the art the Mediterranean countries Italian The most

in

.
of

rendering Jakobos Kokkinobaphos

be
this legend

of
found the Homilies

in
to

in
is
Paris and Rome picture given here the procession the temple

of
detailed

to

,
is
A
.

with the young girls the way with

the family leading sixty strong
of

torches and the

the young girls occurs
of

men Solomon's vision forming the trainThe procession

of
.
Daphni already goal and the chief weight

its
also but has reached the temple
it
in

;
,

,
youthful figure Mary Millet has pointed
on

of
laid the out the difference between
is

the asymmetrical composition

.
with the Virgin between the High priest and her train but
,

picture and the Menologion

of
symmetrical composition
of

not the middle the the

in

,
of

He

of
Basil Rome furthermore pointed out the reversal
the new the sides
II
in

,
.

liturgical stronger
of

being

of
idea orientation towards the middle the church than the
all

this cycle the Koimesis

.fig
of

older scheme However alone underwent real

,

108

a
(

)
.

As
far
as

the missing portions the

be

iconisation spite

of
can now ascertained
in

,
.

Daphni gives the classical type the XIth century symmetry

of

mosaic animated
in

in

.
The additions the XIIth century are missing
of

'.
.op
, cit

.99

Venturi
, ,

.p .p
.,
I

Millet Daphni 155

2

ff
.

at

Such additions are the two bishops angels

of

of
the Pala d'oro some women the mosaic the Martorana
,

;
•

the
on

the Martorana Iviron and Vatopädi

of

both sides Christ Pala d'oro

in

in
,

.
 ANALYSIS OF THE FIGURE COMPOSITION

BOTH mosaic cycles under consideration are based on traditional combinations of formulae ,
postures and grouping , which will be discussed in this chapter . Though the analysis
of the Daphni figures has already been made by G. Millet in his book on Daphni , it
seems expedient to of his results here , in order to make the
give a short summary
contrast of the two traditions clear . Though Daphni is more than half a century later than
H. Lucas , we will begin with it, as it has been so highly appreciated from the Helleno
centric point of view which M. Millet supports , while the Oriental style of the Lucas
mosaics has been nearly always misunderstood . Though it is our main object here to
evaluate the latter , taking into consideration

its
entirely different tradition and intention

,
Daphni
of

the neo Hellenistic style Daphni affords the best starting point But even

in
-

.
this style confined the historical scenes while the Demiurgos the dome and the
is

in
to

belong tradition historical scenes Greek

to

saints the icon the naturalism found

In
.
its

of its
favourable soil for continuation the pre iconoclastic period and for renascence
in
a

the post iconoclastic time Thus we Daphni

the mosaic style

:
find dualism
in
in

a
-

of .

the neo Hellenistic style the evangelical scenes and the monastic oriental icon style
-

-
elsewhere
.

The standing figure appears either seen from three quarter pose
or

or
front
in

in

-
by

profile popularity
its
But the three quarter pose predominates
of
reason later
in

in
-
.

Greek and Roman render the figures movement

to

art due the desire free This

to

in
,

.
by
three quarter the face and body was frequently shifting the pupil
of

view enhanced
-

“
of

the eye direction angular

which the face was turned
that toward giving the
in

to

,
a

of
appearance oblique gaze which marks the survival
glance this
of

sidewise
is
It
a

Hellenistic tradition Christian art wherever found -in the primitive phase
is
it

,
in

before the frontality brought the curious stare that

of

the East marked feature

so
is
in

the post iconoclastic Byzantine

of

of

the mosaics the sixth and seventh centuries and

,

,
in

the part
on
of

of

revival
of

when fresh infusion Hellenism followed interest the

a

patrimony exactly
of
East Christian craftsmen their Greek This the degree
in

is
I
it ."

development style that we find Daphni And curious enough realise that
in

is

to
in

the postures are fairly well done far they imitate their Greek prototypes but
as
so
in

quite unsatisfactory point view where the Oriental tradition

of

from the Hellenocentric

leg

stepped the weight

of

The artists seem have known the function and the

to
in

-
.

free leg real contact with the ground far profile and
as

as

and how set the feet

in
to

,
-

the frontal figures

of

three quarter pose figures are concerned But the feet Oriental
of
.
-

R.
Ch

Manuscript
of

77

Morey The Painted the Washington the Gospels

of

Covers
.p
,

,
I
.

.
 ANALYSIS OF THE FIGURE COMPOSITION 77

origin mostly dangle off the ground . With surprise we look upon the Christ in the
Descent into Hell , how he steps over the wreckage of the gates of Hell and over the
shoulders of Satan like an alpinist and how firmly he plants the strangling stem of the
cross upon Satan's neck , at the same time raising Adam by taking his arm , though

its
the kneeling posture of the latter in wrongly rendered functionally attempt rise

is
to
of
the better intelligibility Even Gabriel the figure
of

for the sake the Annunciation

in

,
.

be
though placed plain gold background imaginary
on

an
seems touch with

to
,

in
a

of
ground and legs

as
step firmly posture

on
earth But the his also not
to

if

in
is
.
functional accord with his annunciatory gesture and actually ought

he

on
stand his

to
,
;
right leg the weighted one Thus this posture again was arranged with regard
as

to
.
the clearest possible intelligibility the figure and the rhythm And
of

of
the curves

to

.
of
his left hand too holding the staff rendered regardless any natural condition

is
,

,
exactly point As whole

of
the place where needed from the formal view
is
at

it

a
the figure composed profile and three quarters The left leg
of
combination

is
is

in

.
rightly rendered profile and accordance with this scheme the left shoulder not
in

of in

is
as
whereas the right half the body turned front possible

as
visible the much

to
,

is

.
We the two soldiers who are capturing Christ and
of

find similar schemes

the case
in

the
other instances But any endeavour show figure free spatial movement
in

in in
to
.

forced the artists beyond this scheme The figure Adam the Descent into Hell of
.

profile and three quarter pose the lower part the body
of

of
shows combination
,
in
a

upper part body presented

of

seen from front and the the from behind Thus

in
,
in

.
the figure seems spiral And John the Precursor can
be

its

turned round axis like

to

The left part

as

example the device for frontal figures the figure

an

of

of
serve

is
.
leg

of

completely frontal whereas the arm and the right part are shifted into the three
,

of

quarter pose regardless the disproportionate enlargement the figure

of

Such con

.
be

ventional devices may figure figure throughout gospel

of
traced from the scenes
to
at

the mosaics Daphni

.

As well known make figures appear

these devices employed completely
as
is

to

the round possible are Hellenistic Not only the figures but every object must
as
be in

.
set

into the picture obliquely and the predilection for divergent axes objects and
of
,

figures within one area could hardly have been more pronounced the Pompeian wall
in
of

paintings sarcophagi and all sorts triumphal monuments

of

Hundreds furnished
.

complete grammar whenever the Byzantine artists chose

of

antique formulae take

to
,
a

such With such models not surprising complicated postures

as

find even
it

to

them
is
.

of

as

e.g. the old shepherd the Birth Christ correct one can expect period
as
in

in
,

living models was unknown Everybody knows the classic model

of

which the study

in

by
for

this figure the eternal popularity

of

its

which indicated recurrence But when

is
,

model was wanting was obviously the case with the sheep the same scene
as

ever
in
,

,
a

of

the result was poor And this despite the host sheep pasturing everywhere upon
.

prove the exclusively second hand origin

examples
of

of

the soil Greece Such this

-
.
its

happened
an

hieratic art and alienation from nature alienation that never India
,

in

where the native animals such bulls elephants were always rendered the most
as

in
,

,
.,
&
c

skilful and animated manner due the lasting effect

to

animal style
of

the old Asiatic

-
“

.”
78 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

The sitting , crouching and lying figures show the skill derived from Greek models .
Is not Joseph in the Nativity the exact figure of a tired man , who has sat down resolutely
for a good rest ? And is it surprising to find the Apostles in the Washing of the Feet

up
leg
sitting and standing with one raised the seat put upon chair quite

or
to

,
a
of
skilfully the neighborhood the Parthenon frieze and country where hundreds
,
in

in

a
vases displayed every possible posture The models were always there The question
of

.
?

by
or
was only whether they were taken not They were not regarded the art that

as
such

.
H. Lucas but
at
the other hand they were highly appreciated

at
manifests itself Daphni

on
,

. .
at as or
gestures less spontaneous

of
There are two sorts the hieratic and the more

,
The and the latter too
former were fixed for centuries they are typical

so
far

by
expressions for typical emotions Daphni

of
The special classification them Millet

.' .
be

up

may He traced many the gestures back sarcophagi

of
looked his book
in

to
and other Greek prototypes .
Regarding the nude figures the contrast between the body

of
Christ the Baptism

in
and the Crucifixion and the Satan Limbo The former appears slender
of

obvious

is
in

.
and spiritualised the latter athletic and naturalistic difference that again due

to
,

is
a
the two traditions work
at

Millet pointed out the

predominance the classic proportions Daphni and the
of

in
by
of

the mid Byzantine style was characterised Kondakoff tall

as

absence
it

,
e
-

i.
.
slender badly proportioned figures with arms and legs too long and massive

of
,

a
large bony frame with

on
thinness which indicates small head long thin neck.2
a

a
antique prototype gave special individuality

its
strong figure
of

The influence the each

.
Cette action bienfaisante produit des morceaux d'une réelle beauté geste puissant

le
a

:
“

transfiguré l'archange
du

de
élégance
du

Pantocrator noble d'Elisée surtout Christ

la
,

,
Michel entre ses larges vigueur
du

ailes solide Prodrome aux Limbes l'abandon

,

,
la
de

de de

gracieux Croix montrent l'heureux parti qu'un

la au

lamentant pied
se

Jean
la

véritable artiste pouvait tirer pose Facing these examples picked out
de

face
.”
by

of
Millet we realise that they certainly are not the offspring Hellenic art and that
we shall hardly any prototypes upon sarcophagi any other
or
find for them Greek

in
by

classic origin improving the taste

of
But the Greek tradition
of

monuments art
in

,
.
an

of
the artists doubtless had indirect influence the successful combination Greek
, It
is
,

and Oriental traditions both formal and spiritual that brought about the peculiar beauty
,
of

figures This mixture resulted the somewhat paradoxical appearance

of
these
in
, .

whose oriental frontality

at

certain charm manifest John the Crucifixion relaxed

in

is
,
a

and filled with emotion the Hellenised Transfiguration -e.g the mystic spiritual
in
or
,

the three chosen apostles

an
as of

Christ revealed which

as

transformation initiation
to

,
–

displays Christ well draped handsome man whose spiritual transformation only
is
a

-
by

of

the mandorla and the rays the overpowering aspect Gabriel caused
or

indicated
, ,

by the dynamic curvature his wings which does not quite suit his Greek garment's
of

conventional elegance But the Pantokrator Demiurgos the medallion the summit
in

in
-
.
107
.Op
1

cit

Millet found the gestures Daphni specially again

of

and notes San Marco

in
p

, ;
.,
, .

.
by
cit

Kondakoff L'art Byzantin Millet

.p

117
.p
?

9,

,
.

.
 ANALYSIS OF THE FIGURE COMPOSITION 79

its too
of the dome cannot evenbe as a result of such a mixture . He is
explained great
be

hybrid type power

or
originated

of
Wherever this face Edessa elsewhere

in
to

,
a

.
and strength could only be the result vision engendered

of
trained meditation and

of
a
of

of
great skill linear design thus being the product
in
special Oriental traits And

.
this Oriental creation which the most impressive the whole cycle proves that

of
is
,

,
by
Christian spirituality never could have been adequately expressed Greek art alone

.
figures M. Millet points
In

dealing with the costumes

to
of
the the Greek chiton

,
art
of
adopted

for
as
himation and sandals the traditional style dress Hellenistic use

,
in
by

Christian art the Catacomb paintings The prophet kings however the arch

,
in

-
angels and the martyrs wear the chlamys the right shoulder

or
on
fixed the breast

,
To these clothes must be added the barbaric Oriental costumes

of
with costly fibulae
.

the magi the short chitons

of

the shepherds the penula like coat

of
and the Hebrews
,

by -

, .
as

Ecclesiastical costumes such the tunica talaris are worn the deacons and bishops
,

,
penula and pallium The Virgin and St. Anne well

as
of

the latter with the addition

,
.
as

Eve are wrapped the Syrian maphorion while the attendant girls wear the simple
in
,

or
antique mantle Sandals are worn with the Greek costumes and red black boots
.

with the ecclesiastical These costumes like the postures and gestures are among the
,

,
.

art

as
for
requisites mid Byzantine painting well

as
and they were taken over for staging
of

.
For the drapery too typical formulae were hand M. Millet has made comparison
at
,

a
.
of

and himation Ravenna and Daphni and has indicated

they were worn
as

chiton
in

the arrangement in

of
the essential differences between them himation over chiton
In
.

At Daphni the himation

be

much richer scale found Daphni than Ravenna

is
to

at

in
a

often clings the drapery , of

its

the chiton and adapts folds the latter crossing

to

to

of it
,
only with Descent into Hell Peter

at
sloping border below Precursor the side
in
a

Thomas The figures Ravenna are swathed garments which completely

in

in
,
&

)..
c

of

conceal the shape the body after the oriental manner dressing The himatia wrap
of

.
of

the bodies long even conventional folds without any sign life Daphni the folds
In
in

are frequently broken sharp angles their long sweeping curves are used
or

to
indicate
in

the rounding game

of

of

the limbs but besides they are intend

on

their own device

;

of a,
a
by

figures
of of

of

rhythm and echo established oriental drapery The Moses Gabriel

,

,
.

the Apostles
of

the Koimesis show draperies such mixed style and the

in

we ;
,

.,
&

a
c

even bilateral symmetry

of

icons the saints display their drapery

Thus recognize
in

style drapery blending

of

of

the the the same eclectic functional Hellenistic and

in

rhythmical linear elements that we have already noted

-

Looking for the style Daphni the Illuminated Manuscripts this period
of

of
in

, ,

M. Millet
its

drapery already appearing the eighth century and

of

sees the Cosmas

in

,
of

Menology angel who appears

its

full ripeness the Basil II.2 The Zacharias

in

in

to
,

by

.op

Cf. Wilpert Un capitolo Millet

cit

cit

storia del vestiario L'Arte

di

112f 119 and since then

,

I,

.,

,
1

Wilpert's Pitture delle Catacombe Romane 60-94 and the same author's Römische Mosaiken und Malereien p.73–95
.p
,

, .

... jambe qui porte

de

de
on

rencontre double ajustement l'himation chute droite tunique sur

le

la

la

la
y

,
2
“

de

de

avec une legère indication l'aine les ondulations cuisse saillie les plis obliques sur cette cuisse genou
le
la
,

,
des
sur
de

jambe moins saillante marqué profil

de

par plis divergeants les sinuosités l'himation sur

et

modelé
le
la

l'épaule ...
Millet
&

,
,

c
”
c

.
l.
.
80 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

is treated just like the Gabriel in Daphni . He recognizes the same character of style
in the mosaics of Hagia Sophia of the ninth century , availing himself of the reproductions

of Salzenberg . Yet he does not find it in mosaics of the time of the Menology , as for
instance in H. Lucas, which he dislikes on account of the monotony , ugliness , leanness
and dryness of the figures .
At
this point a more objective method of criticism must be employed . If we judge
by the sculptural pose of the figures in H. Lucas , a comparison with Daphni may indeed
give a bad impression from the Hellenocentric point of view . As

far
as
the classic formula
of

free leg and weight leg Peter Paul and other apostles

of
still used

as
the case

is

in
,

,
-

-
be
hardly more can observed than misunderstood posture But this misunderstanding

is
a

.
caused by the lack interest such devices which are replaced by more abstract
of

,
in
ones . standing sym

on

of
Thus Peter and Paul are either side Christ the Teacher

as
metrically posted attendants the right the other the left weight leg

on

on
one , The

-
.
simply dangle gold background Holy Warriors alone are not
on

feet the abstract The

.
spiritualised this degree but were furnished with ground upon which

of
real basis
to

a
they quite firmly the anatomical point

of
stand From the Christ the Descent

in
view
be .

it all

be
Hell hardly The right leg seems missing

at
into called human figure

to

,
can
a

.
and he standing the left alone though the Doubting

In
on

even the free one

is

is

.
are wholly

no
disregarded longer even agree with the
of

Thomas such matters the feet , and

As
of

of
number the figures the almost frontal figures Gabriel and Michael Constantine

or
.

of
the artists are striving establish the old oriental system statics
re

and Helen show

to
,

.
glance the apostles the dome yields the same negative result for the sitting
at

in
A

figures this pose empty formula The part the body which
an

of
since toohas become
,

lacking .
sit

upon figures showing the

of

One the most characteristic

to

needed
is

,
is

complete absence any responsibility toward anatomical realism the Washing

of

Peter

is
,

in
of

But just this figure clearly displays the

on

the Feet the other hand new effects

,
.

do

for which these artists were striving Most the figures real
of

not seem have

to

a
.

by

body got calling

be

all
rid

Yet this fact cannot only

at

of

decadence
is it

is
it
. :
of .

life
change The body
of

of
expression dead but the drapery full Instead
is

;
.
a

by
the functional language spiritual language was originated
of

the body new the

,
a

Daphni
of

drapery What we are facing here the dawn the Gothic age whereas
is

of ;
,
.
its

reaction against this oriental monastic style represents the dawn the Renaissance
in

.
be

Another characteristic contrast Daphni may observed the gestures of the

to

in

Lucas figures gestures Daphni

to

variety based upon

of

contrast the the

In

rich
in

,
.

art
of

inexhaustible storehouse Greek the Lucas figures display such poverty and
,

a
as

have been possible they were not intentional

of

lack imagination would hardly

if
,

, .

The gestures the apostles

of

of

are confined Greek mode

or

the Latin benediction

to

mere pointing
of or

or
to

attributes the bookstheir rolls The complete helplessness

to

,
a

particularly obvious the Doubting

of

painter group
of

the becomes the Thomas

in

But just this rigid dignity the apostles who are present this scene ought
of

convert
in

to

the Hellenists and convince them that question picture with stage
of

not narrative
is
it

a
of

representatation proof divinity Dramatic gestures would therefore

of

of

effects but
,

.
be

place One gesture predominates the gesture

of

of

out the chosen witnesses Christ's

in

-
.
 ANALYSIS OF THE FIGURE COMPOSITION 81

right arm . This gesture is as great as the similar one of Peter in the Washing of the
Feet.

for
In both scenes we can observe the same power confining the whole group

of
the action expressed single gesture

of
the essential moment Instead the
to

in

.
Daphni we see H. Lucas the moving

of
Hellenistic talkativeness recurrent drama

in

in
an

esoteric doctrine

be
There are but two nude figures considered H. Lucas the Christ the

in
to

,
in
Baptism and the Crucifixion The difference between them corresponds the different

to
in

.
The much less able painter
of

capacities the two painters

of
who drew them the

.
festival cycle Baptism figure woefully resembling

of
the naos drew the Christ
in

in

a
quite different

of
jack the box The figure
the crucified Christ however shows
in

,
a

a
-
-

of -

by
conception the nude human body being rhythmised conventional division into

a
by

symmetrical parts outlined

of
broad contours This monastic scheme the Crucified

,
.
through Gothic art was adopted by Daphni too
all

which lasted such obvious

In
,

.
mystic symbolical subject these neo Atticists dared not risk
of

cases muscular
,
a

a
-

-
Greek model ...
Daphni but they H. Lucas
of

as
The costumes are course the same
we have seen

in
in

;
show more monotony wearing the himation
of
There are three manners one frees the
.

:
right shoulder and the right arm Christ the Descent into Hell and the Washing

, of
the
in

in
(

of

of
Feet the apostles the dome the left group the apostles the Doubting Thomas and
in

in
,

several single apostles the archivolts the second one covers the right shoulder and
in

)
;

the Doubting
of
completely Christ the Teacher St. Peter Thomas St. John the
in

in
arm
,

,
(

Crucifixion and the third one covers only the right shoulder and leaves the arm free thus
;

,
)

as

making shoulder cape which mere conventional feature was kept until the
of

the sort
a
, -

early Gothic period Peter Paul Matthew single standing figures the archivolts
as
,

in
(

).
This variation proves that different prototypes were used Besides these the costumes
,
.
of

be

the warrior saints must mentioned Both wear short coat with sleeves Tiron

,
a
-

special chlamys
of

shirt underneath coat mail with shoulder flaps shield and lance
,

,
a

.
on
the Roman general the same that Justinian wears
of

This was the uniform the

,

Barberini ivory the Louvre Demetrios has blue trousers with white shoes and gaiters
in

,
.

Tiron bare legs with ankle rotectors and shoes The archangels Gabriel and Michael
.
-p

of

the archivolt between the domes wear instead the Greek himation the Byzantine
in

by

loros which was usually worn the emperors

of

the time
,

The difference between the mosaics Daphni and H. Lucas

at

at

culminates the
in
of

rendering the drapery the Greek drapery Daphni which expresses

of

Instead
in

,
.

the function limbs H. Lucas mainly conventions folds can be

of

of

the three
in
,

distinguished the more less vertical ones parallel more less converging
or

or

or

either
,
(
), :
or

on

diverging angular All

be

pointed zigzag
of

the and the them can seen the

,

.
of

figures These folds are geometricised directly

of

the Crucifixion abstractions

a
.

such simplification does not exclude the possibility

of

ornamental effect Yet rich

.

the folds that uniformity which we observed

no

variations fact we longer find

In

in
.

be

the postures and gestures Though would hazardous interpret any

to

in

them
in

it
.

of

single case they certainly are expressive symbols Though both manners
as

emotions
, ,

are typical the vertical flowing folds Mary suggest

of

the Crucifixion different

in

Diez Demus
6
-

.
82 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

St.

of
disarray The waving

by its
emotional distress from the himation of John end the

in

.
the Descent into Hell emphasises schematic force the importance

of
Christ

its
himation

in

for
the event True this waving flap was very conventional this and other hurrying
of

,
.
figures but this conventional phrase extraordinary dynamic

an
here outlined with

is
expressiveness Not the unavoidable human figure but this abstract wedge- and bird like

-
.
the garment seems like tempest carry forth the new gospel
of

of
feature salvation

to
a

.
No realism only this symbolic expressiveness outlining could indicate such trans

of
,
figures without making them banal By

its
by

of
cendental acts reaction favor Greek

in
.
Daphni has lost As each of these

its
at
realism the same scene innermost effect
,

.
its
spiritually significant representations has particular meaning and mood each

of
,
them

of
provided with rhythm drapery The Washing

of
different the Feet has another
is

.
mood from the Doubting Thomas the standing apostles from the sitting ones

of
The

.
by

of
Doubting unanimous body the drapery
of

the scheme

to
Thomas unified
is

.
vertical and oblique strokes with rhythmical change light and
of

of of
its
This scheme

,
force looks more like hand writing than modelling
dynamic drapery
its

shade and
,

.
-
The necessarily rigid technique the mosaicist followed without any scruple the vivid
of
of

brush the painter who traced these figures upon the wall The apostles are bound

of
up
frontality but the oblique running
to

their lines and down the bottom their

at
;

garments seem express their emotion the dome the apostles are not sitting
to

at
In
.

equal distances from each other but are syncopated six antithetic couples and the

in

;
,

of
draperies have establish the symmetrical scheme each pair not with abstract rigidity
to

,
by

but general correspondences

.

by
the drapery Daphni H. Lucas the
at

at
The entire difference and caused
in

is
.pl
the technique Our plate with can best explain

IV
difference coloured St. Peter
in

)
.

the technique employed H. Lucas Here are be seen parallel stripes alternating
to
in

by
green and greenish white The shadows are thus schematically indicated coloured
in

four rows light

or

stripes where the three green

of

tesserae are shaded from dark

to

.
The shading continued from greenish white white On the other hand we notice
is

to

dark gray stripes consisting

on

only two rows

, of

the himation thin tesserae while of

,

;
-

the spaces between have partly gradual transitions partly contrasting white and grey
Daphni except
no

green stripes Now there are such broad coloured stripes

in

in
,
.

restored places There the folds are drawn with single rowed dark lines and the
in

,
-
.

by

plastic individually rounded transitions from light

. of

contours were rendered means

by

contrasting with light spots Every line has

is to

dark and plastic function There

,

schemata are antiplastic

no

all

schema for And this the antithesis between the

,

is
.

painting the figures Daphni are plastic H. Lucas however they

of

two schools
in

in
,

,
:

are pictorial their drapery What different methods were known

as

as

far concerned
is
,

of

for such pictorial treatment may be seen from the coloured reproduction the Washing
.pl

by

XII
of

which the pink and green garments are shaded

of

the Feet means

in
),
of (

dark lines colour and get their high lights from narrow white lines Daphni the
In
.
by

light and dark stripes may

as

be

shading
of

was done means the same colour

of

Demiurgos H. Lucas white stripes light

of

the blue himation

of

seen the but

in

in
;

permeate the garments with light

to

were used order reflected Yet this permeation

in

.
 ANALYSIS OF THE FIGURE COMPOSITION 83

was not effected in accordance with realistic standards as in Daphni, but according to
purely schematic ones , for the sake of the effect of the drapery as an independent

led
coloured ornamental factor . The exaggerated degeneracy of this method obviously
be found St. Simon above the Washing

of

of
the

to
as
such effects are the icon
to

in
XII
46

.pl
fig

Feet and
.
(

"
).
While the drapery style Daphni has plainly Greek origin Asia the home

in

is
a
H. Lucas We find

for

of
that this drapery the figures wall

on
of

of

the first time the

.

paintings the first century A.D. the Euphrates.2 Furthermore we can trace

on
of

Dura

in
this style the stucco figures

of
the Buddhistic art Central Asia

as
for instance
in

in
,
,

,
of

Stûpâ Rawak and further early plastic

of

of
the the Buddhistic art China and

in
Japan patent that this style drapery was spread

as of
Thus the first millennium
of is

in
it
.

as

as

Japan

of
over the whole Asia far consequence the Buddhism that carried

a
along But we ought keep
to

of
mind that Gandhara was the Hinterland Dura
it

in

,
.

Palmyra and Eastern Turkestan which means that Asiatic Hellenism was the true
-

this style
of

ultimate source
.

fig

46
The comparison between the coloured reproduction after the Lumière photoplate and the normal one

.
(

)
by

shows the way how the latter exaggerates the effect because the dark places are reality pink and the contrast

in
,

between light and dark the half tone plate after the ordinary photograph
on

much less pronounced reality than

is

in

.
can

by
be

The same exaggeration comparing the apostles standing behind Christ the Washing

of
detected the

in
XII
fig
on

reproductions the half tone reproduction

pl

Feet both and simulates non existent chiaroscuro Such

;
.9

a
-

-
.

.
(

comparisons show the inadequacy the ordinary half tone reproductions photographs
of

Most of the current contain

-

analogous errors
.
H.

Byzantine Painting The University Chicago

of

of
James Breasted Oriental Forerunners Press
,
2

).
(

6
*
 THE COLOUR

A of the colouring of the stone and glass tesserae in use , beginning from
COMPARISON

the narthex in Nicaea and continuing down to Daphni , shows that the development
during the XIth and XIIth centuries took the form of an increase in the colour range .
Instead of the usual two , rarely three ,
shades of blue , gray , red , pink and brown in
Moni , we find Hosios Lucas mostly three, in Daphni five

six
Nicaea and Nea in to shades
as

hues ranging
of

well ochre yellow brown

to
as
these colours new from Taken
,

.
roughly twelve colours were sufficient Nea Moni whereas Daphni about thirty

in
,

,
in
are used
.

of
The colouristic impression correspondingly different The mosaics the naos
is

in
.
Nea Moni with their vigorous saturated only slightly shaded colours have solemn
,

a
and sublime effect whereas the colouring H. Lucas gives more

of
the narthex
in
,

a
sophisticated impression which develops full splendour Daphni

of
the dome mosaics
to

in
,

.
The evangelists the Virgin
of

of

of
the narthex mosaics the church the Koimesis
in
-

ruined dated by Schmit ca. 1025–28 are described by

Th

Nicaea now entirely

at

,
.

by
O. Wulff
as

having dark gray ground tones the garments which were shaded
in

a
-

glass delicately toned while the lights were done

of

restrained use coloured tesserae

in
,
white and light gray This indicates marked asceticism colour which characteristic
in

is
a
.

also for the Apostles Kieff Nea Moni and Torcello and even H. Lucas The
in

in
,

.
116
fig
Apostles garments Moni
of

the Ascension the narthex Nea have likewise

in

in
'

.
(

of
most cases gray ground tone with white and light gray lights and tints pink
in

,
a

H. by

light green and ochre As may be comparing the reproductions the tone

,
seen
.

gradation degree simpler Nea Moni

of

than that Lucas two rows tesserae

is

in

in
a

, :

are multiplied H. Lucas four with corresponding

to

three three increase

in

in
to
,

tonal gradation
.

The figures the Virgin Adam and Eve and the kings were always richer
of

Christ
,

colouring accordance with colour symbolism Blue and gold were the colours
in

in
,

.'

point
be

no

hardly only
of
need stated that hieratic art used colours from the colouristic and aesthetic
It
1

of as

was due traditions that Christ and the Virgin rule were clad garments
Blue was
to

view old blue

It

in
a
.

.
old

solar colour among the Egyptians and other peoples

as

of

ranked culture was the colour the Sol inferus

It
a

Hence Dionysos was considered

as
in or

haemisphaerio the Sol superus the white blue

to

inferiore contrast sun

in

in

the

Apollo
as

the white Christ was considered another representative Aion

to

of

contrast Since Sotêrs Osiris

,

,
.

Dionysos He was transfigured the colour His garments

of

blue was the colour due for Him When however

,

,
, .

On

changed the initiated who proceed the heavenly spheres

of

into white
to

the colour the other hand blue was the

,

- .
too
for

the Virgin who gave birth the period

of

the Saviour the winter sun the blue Sol inferus which
to

colour
in
,

, ,
by

for

all

the way Red was primarily life becoming

of

of

was the term birth the Saviours the colour however

,

,
.

by
as

which was redemption red garment may

of

of

the colour death contrasted with white the colour death Eve's
,

.
Cf.
be

explained die Gräbersymbolik

J.
so

Bachofen Versuch über der Alten 292

J.

.p
,

ff
.

.
 THE COLOUR 85

used for the garments of Christ and the Virgin

from the Justinian period on . In the

narthex of the church in Nicaea these bright colours were used only in the medallions of
Christ , the Virgin and John Prodromos . The well -preserved and cleaned Descent into
Hell in the naos of Nea Moni is a good example of the colouring of the first half of
the century , and surely a faithful reflection of the metropolitan mosaics of this period
Here Christ appears blue and gold himation dark green
.fig

( 115 Adam wears

in

,
a

a
).

dress with lights set white spots and by

red clavus over the shoulder and along the

a
leg

right pink dress with dark red shading and gold stripes
Eve has The men
a
.

.
behind have garments which have grown darker with time but were perhaps originally
purple The king
to

the extreme left wears red chiton and blue cloak the other

,
a

a
.

as
white chiton with greenish shadows and purple cloak which figures
The disk
a

.
right
on

on
halo red for the one the left and green for the one the Five other
is
a

.
heads appear behind the kings Both groups figures are framed mountain outlines

of

in

,
.

which lend symmetry and monumentality the representation The faces are full

to

of
cheeked and give
an

of

impression Hellenistic beauty and dignity The outlines the

.
the sarcophagus
of
arms and hands are red The striped pattern from which Adam

,
.

the right
of

rises consists white pink lacker red and carmine lines The medallion

to
,

.
gray background
on

gates Hell above which Christ steps

of
white dark while the
is

,
a

are ornamented with gold crosses

.

Byzantium Even the figures

of

Such was the nature the Macedonian court art

in

.
of

the gospels appear shining their full coloured costly garments with representative
in

at

attendants like the ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries the church ceremonies the

in
,

palaces this the Descent into Hell H. Lucas appears hardly more

as
contrast
In

in
to

,
.

than heraldic formula This abstracting formulisation without single superfluous

a

a
.
by

as
figure however no means be considered stiffening degeneration
as

but
to
is
,

a
conscious turning away from the narrative the hieratic dogmatic style The scheme
to

.
of

colouring emphasises this transformation Without sufficient contrast the back

to
.

.
symbol
as

ground golden
of

Christ now wears chiton the alchemistic transformation

,

spiritual personality which has been accomplished through the

of

His Crucifixion
,

,
“

”
by

of
as

as

which the Initiate was regarded purely symbolical i.e. the union man
,

with God real God man His white over garment already acquired the Trans
as

in
,
a

-
."
“

of

figuration confirms His hieratic rank The gate hell too has been transformed into
,

gate heaven and appears gold garment shaded

of

new Adam has now white

in
,

a
a

green and brown Moni Eve has still her pinkish

the green one
of

instead Nea
in

in

for
of

garment high lights

no

red with white under dress has white rows tesserae

as it

, ,
( ;
a

, be

proof that all other clothes

as

interpreted
of

which those Adam are white

is

to
a

yellowish brown shadows The kings

of or

as

spite the greenish

of

secular witnesses
in

this mystical process redemption retain their Byzantine court garments with their
of

red blue and purple longer coloured

no
of

traditional colours Their halos however are

,

,
.

The garments the figures Moni have mostly darkened Without scaffolding
of

to of

the niches the dome Nea

in

in

.
"

As however the pinkish

or

was not possible decay red garment

of

was due dirt

to

see whether this Eve

it

,
.

and the red and green haloes the kings have hardly changed original colours
of

of

formed stone tesserae their the

,

,
-

by

darkening question decay

to

seems have been caused

in

.
86 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

disks , but

by

by
are
only indicated green border easy prove just

to
red and

is
It
a

.
spiritually significant the Descent into Hell that the colouring

as
such representations

,
hieratic Byzantine painting now was not capricious but hieratic
of

its
at
culmination

,
exactly prescribed and symbolically The artists could bring

an
expressive individual

.
by

for
colouristic note into the pictures only variously shading the

of
means coloured
drapery
.
As has been already said H. Lucas the only existing monument the monastically

of
is
,
narrative pictorial elements whereas Daphni

on
all
severe hieratic style free from the

,
chronicling Byzantine style

of
other hand signifies
new the phase court Yet the

.
a

-
Daphni
of

Christ

as

as
the Anastasis well the Pantokrator the dome and other

in

in
,

by
prove that the colour symbolism the monastic style which was formed

of
details
,

,
-

by
theological speculation the monasteries was partially adopted the narrative pictorial
in

of
art Here too Christ wears golden garment with red and black rows out

to
stone
,

a
.

line the drapery Eve has still her pink dress with carmine red shading Adam has
;

,
.
the other hand dark blue undergarment and the white gray shaded overdress
on

,
a

-
of
alone symbolically correct The himation John green the kings wear the usual
is

;
is
.

court dresses Satan has pink flesh tones with white lights As the picture has been
;

its
restored the colour effect lacking the gold background has lost brightness
is

and
,

through decomposition
of .

.pl
the Washing H.Lucas XII Christ wears ochre coloured chiton

an
In

the Feet
in

and dark blue himation with red clavus over white shirt the attire of )

Is
it
a

a
.
distinguished host who performs this symbolical ceremony

of
honour his guests

in

In
?
any case gold distinguished from the
no

remarkable that Christ wears Peter

it
is

is
.
by

other apostles his differently coloured garment white with shading ochre green

to
—

,
while all the others wear white clothes shaded green and red The apostles the
in

in
.

fig
representation damaged Nea Moni
of

the Ascension which the centre

is

in

in
116
(

)
.
are mostly gray with white and light gray lights while pink greenish and drab coloured
,

,
-

shading exceptionally used Thus H. Lucas shows tendency towards increasing the
is

the Doubting course wears the gold chiton

of

of

colouristic effect
In

Thomas Christ
,
.

H.

which He has permanently acquired through His resurrection Lucas the chiton
In
.

Daphni rows
of
reddish gold covered with dark blue himation while blue stones
is

in
,

,
a

drapery The apostles round Him have the usual pink and green
as

are inserted shaded

.

clothes Daphni there are occasionally blue chitons which indicate mainly the rise
In

,
.

tendency toward more colours combined with hieratic ymbolic strictness

of

of

decline
,
a

.
-s

by

always gold too when He

of

The garment the Christ child carried the

is
,
is

Light
of

Virgin Mary i.e. the purely iconlike setting which symbolises the the
in
,

spiritual previous
of

World the Pantokrator Thus we see that the Christ the task
to
,

.
”

the Redemption principle distinguished

on

the God Man after the Crucifixion from

is

-
by

Washing He appears
the Feet the only preserved
of of

of

the colour His clothes the

,
in
.

representation prior distinguished host

to

of

Him the Crucifixion the clothes

in
,

, ,
a

by

but after He has become divine always gold The Transfiguration case itself
in

is
,

a
.

which He reveals Himself epiphany His three favourite apostles

to

as

the future
in

in

Redeemer
.
 THE COLOUR 87

If
we next consider the colours of the shadows in body and drapery , we find a
remarkable change in the series of Nea Moni, H. Lucas and Daphni . Let us start with
the Crucifixion in Nea Moni. Here Christ's body is pale pink with deep gray shadows.
The loin - cloth is white with the folds shaded in gray . The principal shading of the
body is exceptionally broad , inlaid with eight rows

six

to

of
tesserae and the flesh

,
gray shading stripes many rows without any finer

of
tones between have broad
in

in
Thus light and shade are massed and contrasted instead being fused by

of
transitions
.

means gradual transitions place plastic modelling we find ornamentalising

of

of

an
In

,
.
purely superficial arrangement light and dark spaces -a stylising which

as
of
matter

by
of

very much the modern spectator and fascinates

of
fact the taste the
to
,

him
is

the
its

abstract effect monumentality

John's dark blue chiton same style

, It
is
of

in
.

.
by

only lightened some geometrically shaped compact white spaces and ornamented
is

,
like Christ's loin cloth with white outlines which resemble the linear curved ornamentation
,
-

Arabic writing The Virgin purple

of

dressed blue the two other Maries

is

,
in

in
.

.
irreparable We can however find the
of

of

The destruction the head Christ

is

,
.
typical colouring and shading other heads especially Arch
of

of
the faces that the
in

in
,
of

angel Michael the prothesis niche left the main apse description

fig
The detailed
in

117
-

(
, .
).
by

by
the colouring Michael's face already given Wulff was examined

us
on
of

of

the
,

spot that Wulff's description may

be

be
and found correct repeated here
so

1929
in

to

with some additions black outline that surrounds the face separate the

to

it
from
A
.
by

replaced
on
of

hair front
red outline
the ear and the chin where flesh
is

in

is
,

,
a

set off against contour also outlines the ridge

on
of
flesh red the nose the left
.
A
as

well the left nostril and marks the opening the mouth
as
of

of
side the face the
,

,
underlip and the fold upper eyelid couple
of

of

the darker cubes are inserted

in
A
.

well dark trapezoidal space below

as

as

the corners the mouth and below the nose

of

the underlip that cross shadow was formed here On the left side of the nose
of
so
,

lighter adjoins right gray one leads

on

gray shadow the contour the side dark

;
,
a

light
on
of

of

directly the ridge

to

the white border the nose and surrounds this nostril

.
marking the under eyelid and the shadow
on of

The same tone serves also for the shadow

-

the larynx and cheeks are deep

on

the chin and two darker shadows there and

;

for the ridge

of

of
pink The same colour used for the centre spots the cheeks the
is

,
.

be
for

the inner part lighter pink found next the gray

of

nose and the ear

is
to
A
.

The remaining light spaces especially

on

shadows the forehead and hands are filled

,

,
.

with light green while white kept for the highest lights The procedure simplified
is

is
,

the narrative pictures For instance comparing the heads

on

the smaller heads

of
in

,
.

the Descent into Hell the Baptism appears

of

the Ascension the narthex

it
,

,
.,
in

&
c
of

that the nose and the lower eyelid

of

the contour and shadow Christ's head the

in

Descent into Hell are composed gray black lines

in

The same style colouring for the face and the same characteristic shading
as
of

the contemporary part

of

Nea Moni predominated the Koimesis church Nicaea

in

in

,
in

him

by
1

set

Byzantinische Zeitschrift 1925 139f Wulff calls mistake Gabriel but Gabriel the
in
;
,

.;
p

is
.
his

diaconicon and face mostly destroyed

is

.
88 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

as we can see from Th . Schmit's description of the medallion of Christ in the narthex
(ca. 1025-28 ). Schmit observes olive - gray
shadows on the the eyes , temples , under
between the eyebrows, on each side of the nose and under the beard ; these shadows
are sharply separated from the light parts . The red on forehead , cheeks and neck was
just as sharply separated . The face was formed of light pink and orange tesserae in
the lighted parts . cubes are employed only exceptionally over the eyebrows ,
White
under the sockets of the eyes and on the ridge of the nose . The difference in the flesh
colour between Nea Moni and H. Lucas may be observed in the Crucified at the latter
place ( pl. XIII ) . Instead of the apparently white and light - pink flesh colours with light

.fig
and dark gray shadows of the Body of Christ in Nea Moni ( black white figure

to
so
114

,
(a

-
)
say the whole impression H. more polychrome

of
the Crucified Lucas The flesh

in

is
),

, .
by
slightly different hues

of
tints are here formed white gray tesserae very while the

-
modelling rows
of

shadows consist greenish yellow The outer contours

of
cubes are

.
as

not black Nea Moni but brown The strong contrast between light and shade
in
,

no
has disappeared The faces too are coloured white gray and green yellow There

is
. of -

-
.

.
pink and the lack this colour causes the pallor mourning and suffering
of

The sharp
,

.
contrasts between light and shade are lacking here The colouring

of

of
the other faces
the narthex figures not without pink tones but also different from that Nea
is

is

in
,

it
IV

Moni Thus plate shows Peter's face modelled with sharp angles and with
as

is
,

a
.

with white gray and pink coloured tesserae but with ochre instead

of
certain hardness
,

,
-

the habitual gray shadows and some white stones between the eyebrows and the eyes
,
byas

lustrous lights The illuminating power

of

of
the carmine contour the nose increased

is
.

by
accompanying pink reflexion line The lips are also formed

of
rows carmine and
an

pink cubes whereas eyebrows lids and face are outlined brown The shadow lines in
,

-
.
by

of
are also brown
Hair and beard are formed alternate rows
on

the neck whitish

.

and olive gray The green hues

cubes our reproduction are not precisely correct
in

,
-

(
.

of

more gray
be

they should two differently toned rows

, of
The halo consists blue
as

.)
"

tesserae we add the fine transitions from white olive green the chiton and on
to
If

-
.

on

astonishingly fine scheme

an

of
from white brown the himation we obtain colour
to

by

its
this figure which directly appeals the modern spectator the good taste
to

of
in

well toned rendering

-

the Daphni cycle

of

Let the which comes next

us

at

now look flesh colour in date

,

,
of

and begin with the Crucifixion Even though the renovation the mosaic work forbids
.

any decisive conclusion here either still comparison with the Crucified Nea Moni
in
,

and H. Daphni
as

Lucas proves
that continues the same manner Lucas and that the
,
in
of

up

strong gray white contrast Nea Moni has been entirely given The body modelled
is
-

.
by

gradual transitions from olive gray through pink white Pink and white are the
to
-

dominating the body the Descent into Hell We get

on

of

colours too the Antichrist

in

more information by
as

analysis
of

the faces which the angels

an

certain cases such

in

the Birth and the Baptism perhaps also the archangels being
of

the Annunciation
,

,
in

on

The discrepancy problem complementary phenomena

of

due
to

technical colour contrast reduced

is is

a
·

Ed

scale The general effect very accurate

.

.
.
 THE COLOUR 89

high up in the apse , The modelling varies between pink and carmine ,
seem almost intact .
and the faces have olive -gray contours instead of black and red ones . Yet the angel
of the Annunciation ( pl. IX ) has red lines on the upper eyelids, black brows and olive
gray shadows. The latter are not so broad under the eyes as in Nea Moni, but they
are broad above the eyes , -apparently on account of the shadow cast by the niche .
This indicates a of the illumination of the figures from outside, a point
consideration
which will be discussed later on . The angel of the Annunciation has further the contour
of the left nostril in olive - green and that of the right one in carmine -red , olive - green
shadows at the corners of the mouth and in the hollow of the chin . White lights are
inserted here and there .
We must next consider the great innovation which first appears in Daphni and is
specially characteristic of the Comnenian style , i.e. the raylike linear inner drawing on
Gabriel's neck and on the enormous medallion of the Demiurgos in the dome . This
very subtle linear design , which reveals the rise of abstract linear style and may serve
as a distinctive mark of a certain master , involving the finest feeling for line, dynamics
and ornament , evidently could not be imitated by the restorers . These necklines there
fore occur only on the figures of Gabriel, of the angels in the Nativity , on the two
archangels and the Demiurgos . On the restored figures where they were imitated , as
on the Christ of the Descent into Hell and of the Doubting of Thomas, they are drawn

ill
-

.
of

the Demiurgos
as

to

we take them criterion attribution certain master the

If

,
a

four niche mosaics and the two archangels the top the bema must be
at

to
of

ascribed
-

great this linear style

of of

saving the restorations The significance evident the

in
is
him
,

.pl .

the Demiurgos the formal analysis which has already been given
of

head
,
(

I)

of .
on be
few

the colouring may added here Undoubtedly the strong effect

on

remarks
A

face depends great extent the intense shading the eye sockets
of

the which
to

,
a

-
by

of
resembles the shading Nea Moni These shadows are attained means brown
in

green right powerful

of

of

of of
stones The contour the side the nose and the curve the
.

the same colour while the contour left side and the
of

forehead are the end the

in

nose are carmine red Carmine curves with lighter reflexion curves form the outline
in

-
.

the upper lids modelled with gray olive green pink carmine and white
of

The face
is

, ,

,
-
.

very fine toning

of

tesserae with linear manner that cubes has both

so

each row
in
a
an

colouristic and abstract linear value

a

.
To

of

of

summarise we may characterise the flesh tones the mid yzantine face the
,

-B
as

XIth century finely modelled coloured pink and carmine with olive green shadows
in
,

,
-

with carmine inner contours and white lights feature which unites colouring with
,
in a

linear dynamic effects The evolution from gray Nea Moni dark ochre H. Lucas
to

in
-

-
.

and brown green Daphni consummated the shading The black contours which
is
in

,
in
-

were still used Moni are replaced H. Lucas well Daphni

as

as

Nea and Nicaea

in

in

in
,
by

ochre and brown ones Finally Daphni consummated that transition the
in

is

to
,
.

typical
of

Byzantine linear style face which for the Italian Byzantine mosaics especially
is
,

,
-

for the Demiurgos already mannered

of

Cefalú and Monreale though there the style

is
,

The most interesting colouristic phenomenon H. Lucas

of

the mosaics the

in

is
be

.pl

numerous medallion portraits

to

chiaroscuro treatment which

on

found Such
is

II
).
-

(
90 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

faces give , so to say , a negative picture with dark flesh colour and light shadows. They
are only to be found on such parts of the walls and arches as have little light from outside
or get light only partially at certain hours . They were, therefore , made entirely with
a view to catching and fixing in permanent form the effect produced by the partial illumin

ation from outside. A specially interesting picture of this kind is the half -length figure of
John the Precursor in the lunette of the right window of the apse . The head is lighted
directly from below from the double window , and in accord with this situation , as if this

source of light would cause a difference in the shadows of the picture , the neck and
lower part of the face are done in whitish tesserae , while the upper part is thrown
into
shadow by means of grayish ochre cubes . This is a continuation of the classical tradition
of cast -shadow painting . These changes in lighting , however , are not confined to single
half - length figures or medallions , but are found in whole groups . Thus , in order to
express the night and the starlight , the left half of the Nativity in the niche of the dome
is brightened with strong white lights (which seem , it is true, to be emphasized by a
recent overpainting of the white cubes ). The Baptism in the left western niche has
shining lights on the garments , and “ Jordan ” glistens through the water with
illuminated hair . The faces in the Presentation in the Temple in the right niche on the
west side of the dome —a dark position - have bright
. The four medallions stripes for lights
which are set in the northern cross arch of the left transept , and thus are badly lighted ,
II
with Christ ( pl. ), the archangels, Gabriel , Michael and James Minor, are rendered in
reversed lights (
.fig

The same the case with regard the four medallions with
18

is

to
).

the Virgin two archangels and St. John

of
the cross vault the narthex with the
in
,

,
Virgin and Panteleimon part the transept -
of

of
lit

lunette
ill

the the southern with

,
in

Gregory Thaumaturgos and Johannes Prodromos the pillars the dome and Basil

of
on

byin
Finally Apostles direct light are brightened
no
six

niche the the dome that have

,

in
a

.pl
white shining lights while the other
six

are without them and therefore seem darker

,

V
(

).
by

Thus we are confronted H. Lucas painting that inevitably

of
chiaroscuro form
in

origin -a question which the only possible reply

of

involves the problem was

its

to

that

it
is
,

developed during the Hellenistic period Alexandria looking back upon earlier Christian
In
in

monuments the mosaic cycle St. George Saloniki shows rather striking parallel The
of

in
,

.
a
of

Saints who are standing the posture architectural stage backgrounds

of

Orantes front
in

in

-
by

as

are designated inscriptions calendar saints And according the season which they
to
-

represent they were rendered light with dark light spotted light
or

or
either with faces
-

entirely dark faces As they are not placed according

to

bordered with the order

or
,

.
of

light figures neighbours the same compart

as

the months faced and dark faced meer

in
,

Thus their shading independent the lighting from outside and they simply
of

ments
is
.

symbolise the lighter and darker seasons the year their light
by

or

dark appearance
of

though restored cycle

of

fortunately preserved the fifth century the

In

addition this
to

parallel group
of

Church the Koimesis Nicaea shows the sixth century the four
of
in

in
a

by
of

personifications imaginary
an
, of

the Celestial Powers Three these are illuminated

.

light right and only Dynamis

of

source from the the left hand one above

,

from
."

XIII
.pl
op

26

40
Th

XIV
cit

Schmit and
.p
,

.,

,
|
.

.
 THE COLOUR 91

the
In comparison these examples of chiaroscuro painting of
with fifth and sixth

by
H. Lucas shows more advanced state making the illumination

of
centuries evolution
,

a
groups correspond with and depend the lighting either from

of
the figures

to

on
of

or
light

of
the Nativity could

be
of
outside from some other source
or
that like the moon

,
imagined by the beholder full external light was realised and either

of
The lack

.
by
high lights with the Apostles

as
on

. of
counteracted darker faces the darker side

in
,
by

of
simply acknowledged light and dark

on
the dome the faces
or

the inversion
,

All these examples

of
attest certain subjectivism and the after effect Hellenistic

-
peculiar contrast

of
the otherwise iconising objectivism

to
illusionism this hieratic art
in
,

.
Daphni this chiaroscuro shading was not known But we find

or
not intended
In

.
again Byzantine mosaics Sicily the Entrance into Jerusalem

as
the for instance
in

in

in
,
in
it

the Cappella Palatina where again light from imaginary source cast upon the riding

an
,

is
a

Jesus and his surroundings thus indicating the Light the World entering Jerusalem

of
,

”
We must
of

for the Salvation mankind confine ourselves these brief remarks since no

to
.

investigations have yet been made more comprehensive treatment

on

which

to
base

a
important question painting during the Middle Ages
of

of
this most the evolution
in

.
 THE WORKS OF DIFFERENT MASTERS
IN THE MOSAIC -CYCLES OF HOSIOS LUCAS AND DAPHNI

HOSIOS LUCAS

THE mosaics of the Phocian church are the work of at least two different schools of
mosaic -workers . One of them is thought to have worked in the Narthex , the other
having carried out the icons and pictures of the Naos . Whether one is older than the
other cannot from the artistic point of view , the artists who decorated
be stated . But
the Narthex superior
are evidently
of capacity to those who worked in the Naos .

by
led
The mosaics of the Narthex are due to a group of craftsmen surpassingly

a
be

capable painter His masterly hands are recognised the icon above the main
to

in
.

XIII
.pl
fig

Pantokrator the Crucifixion

12

entrance both and the Descent into

in
),
.
(

)
XIV XII
.pl

.pl
Hell the picture the Washing The cycle
, of

of

of
and the feet
in
( ),

).
(

of (
48

the Apostles
.pl

and figs 38–46 figures

IV

on
and several saints the western
)
.

by
him
.fig

Constantine and Helena e.g. —were probably set His manner

St

47

wall—
,
.

by .
(

)
of

modelling soft and vigorous his disciples

at

the same time has not been equalled

,

or successors
.

Still
very close his seems the style the Doubting Thomas figs

10

11
byof

of
to

;
(

)
.
but not probable that the mosaic was set the master himself since the modelling
it

,
is

more rough and abrupt the drawing less refined the colouring less bright and well
is

of

graded expression grouping figures

of

The the faces schematized the the and

is

,
.

To

incidentally the whole composition more simple the same artist belong the
is

the central part the vaulting

fig
of

of

of

medallions two medallions the northern

50
),
(
.
52
fig

on
of

of

one with the heads John and Kosmas and several heads saints the
(

)
.

western wall
.

the

Kyros
by

fig

Another group Anempodistos

of

Mokios
51

48
fig

formed icons
.fig is

),

),
.

.
(

Elpidiphoros
49

and with others whose features are rendered reduced and

),

in

a
(

)
(

see

schematized manner using proportions Mokios e.g.

of

different canon
,

).
by a

vigour and
its

The impulse given

of

the Master the Passion has here lost

“

sterile reproduction insignificant prototypes not wish say that these

do
of

ends
to
in

I
.

long process
of

of

last mentioned mosaics were the last ones set and were the result
a

degeneration More probably they are but the work We have

of

less able workman

.

.
a
of

of

no way estimating the time needed for setting the mosaics the Narthex perhaps
:
 THE WORKS OF DIFFERENT MASTERS , ETC. 93

the work was done in a few years . At least , the great formal affinity between all parts
of the decoration seems to make this probable . The whole ensemble is the work of
the same studio .
The Christological cycle of the Naos ( figs . 3–6 ) shows the hand of a master quite
different in temper the common stylistic qualities of the XIth century ,
. Except for
are

not many links connecting this group which belong the holy warriors

to
there

-
VII VIII and VI and
.pl

.pl

.fig
figs angels

. 36

35
the central arches

( 34
and the

in
,

, ,
(

of (

)
. XXXV

.pl
the Apse

13
fig
the Madonna the mosaics the eastern dome Pentecost
in

,
)

(
perhaps Christological
fig

and the scenes taken from the Old Testament —with the

,
7
)
.

of
The great qualities the icon style the squinches
of

of
scenes the Narthex the mosaics

in
-
.

the
of
have been pointed But the Master
out preceding
Passion chapters
would
in

.fig
of
not have committed the fault observable the mosaic Christ's Baptism

in

8
(

)
where the rendering the second angel has been completely misunderstood
of
of

the feet

, .
be
misunderstandings this group

of
Such are also found the other mosaics to

in
heavy fall moving
of

together with the draperies clumsy way the figures

of

in
,

,
a

a
By far

of

of
and pigeon eyed faces the best products this style are the Apostles the
-

.
fig

eastern dome
7
(
.
).

of

of
The other mosaics the Naos show more connection with those the Narthex

.
The angels the transept figs reproductions
of

the vaults fig 18

50 19
are coarsened
in

. ,
(

)
.
of

the angels
of

the central vault the Narthex But does not seem that

of it
by in

they were set ). the transept chapels

of

the same master The medallions the vaults

, -
.

of

group with the icons below the two figures the Madonna figs

20

21
form and
a

)
.
:

22

the portraits Luke The figures

fig

fig
of

the Stiriote and St. Panteleimon

23
St.
(

(
.

.
).
.fig
of

25
fig

St. Lucas Gurnikiotes and St. Nikon Metanoites are due the same
24

to
.
(

)
artist who for delicate colouring magnificent technique and stylistic qualities may

be
,

capable mosaicist Naos

of

the most
as

considered the
.
or

the Naos depend more

on
of

; of

The other icons less the work this same master

,
by

who may have been the school

the Narthex mosaics
of

educated and here

it
is
-

possible distinguish more groups

to

or

less distinct
.

The portraits the pillars the central dome figs 15-17

on
of of

of

the Church Fathers

(

)
.
.pl

and the niches the Bema agree style with the mosaics the transept
of
in

in
V
(

of

chapels The other icons move through the whole scale from creations full dignity
.

reproductions rigid prototypes

of

life schematic happens that two figures

to

and
( It
.

fig

Gregory
of

27

may e.g. Nyssa and Dionysios the

be

completely identical
as
,

.
)
fig

Areopagite
26
(
.
of ).

by

The saints the right choir chapel figs

26

27

were set
30

31

the same
,
,
,
-

)
of

the medallions the spandrels

as

figs
33

hand the arcades

32
in

,
(

).

The figures the left chapel figs agree style with the medallions
of

28

29
,

in

in
(

)
.

the right III

of

the vaulting
.pl
of

the room the Bema

to

).
all

all

But
at

The anonymity
of

differences are not

these essential the Middle
.

Ages unites all these works and forms them into

of

vast ensemble decoration Even

a

strong personal unity

of

of

the character the Master the Passion does not break this
“

of form and colour

.
94 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

DAPHNI
In Daphni of style and technique which might serve as a basis for
the differences
discerning the hands of different masters are not so great as in Hosios Lucas . Besides ,
the restorations at the end of last century have effaced the unmistakable signs of person
ality to such a degree that a veil of beautiful mediocrity overlies all the splendid surface
of the mosaics ; and finally , the differences of style to be found in this cycle might be
due to variations of scale , as scale and curvature of the surface to be decorated have
a great influence on the technique of setting the cubes .

All these considerations make it difficult to separate clearly and distinctly the
contributions of different hands at work .
The medallion of the Pantokrator in the zenith of the main cupola (pl. I) cannot
works , and

its
be connected with any other remains lonely in greatness and sacred
austerity
.

The figures the Prophets below figs 54-63 the angels

of

show close relation

to
(

)
.
the Bema figs Christological
66

67

and the four the niches squinches

of in

to

scenes
pl ,

in
.
(

IX )

be )
the great dome XI 81 the same group might

82

To
and figs 84-91 ,
,
-
(
.

, .

).
of

the walls e.g. the Crucifixion figs

99
on

counted some the scenes 101 the Descent

),
(

.
into Hell figs 100 102 and the Koimesis
. .fig
,

108
.
(

.
(

The remaining Christological scenes figs 92–98 , )

of 83
series for themselves

, ,
form

a
(

)
illustrating the Life figs 107
as

the representations the Virgin

do

the Narthex

in

.
of
109 110 The latter are stylistically very far removed from the mosaics the squinches
,

).

of

the Naos they the style XIIth century nearly

as

and the developed they

in

show
;

,
might
as

the latest part

be

of

considered the whole decoration

stylistic
.
No drawn among the portraits figs 69–80
of
be

distinctions can saints

.
(

).
by

They homogeneous group varied only the above mentioned differences due
,

form
a

the variety
of
to

scale and curvature

.
 DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF THE MIDDLE
BYZANTINE MOSAIC STYLE

In chapters the extreme opposition between the cycles of Hosios Lucas

the preceding
and Daphni
in iconography and composition has been sufficiently emphasised . But there
remain the special stylistic differences , those formal qualities which combine the personal
handwriting of the artist with the general stylistic qualities of the period . And with
this investigation may be combined a study of the dependance of these mosaics on the
general artistic evolution of the period , which took the form of two distinct artistic
currents , whose origins and final outcome , especially after they spread to the Slavic
North and to Italy , must be further elucidated . The phenomena here involved will be
most readily understood if our study is made to centre about a discussion of the methods
by which the bodily forms of the figures in these mosaics were modelled .
The origin of the Daphni style can be best determined from the larger single
figures . Archangel Michael

66
fig
Thus the in the northern niche of the bema ( shows

.
)
of
the same splintered and broken linear forms especially the lower parts the garments
in
,

,
112

.fig
of

the Koimesis
fig

that characterise the mosaics Nicaea and Chios

at

115
.

).
(

(
The body whose volume not particularly brought out differentiated
and enlivened
is
,

,
is

by light forms set dark ground The precise shape these modelling forms hardly
of
on
a

the hidden body beneath

of

derives from the outlines but rather shows conscious

,

striving for quaint unexpected and bizarrely decorative effects Triangles zigzags and
,

,
.

set
sudden crossing the flowing lines are the chief sources Bright lines are

on
of
a

.
by

of

darker ground sometimes accompanied rows dark tesserae for contrast and foil
,

.
.fig

the Christological scenes Daphni

In

at

91

the lines run close other and

to

each
(

cover the body with network which duplicates the underlying bodily shape The
a

Daphni style link earliest known term shows

It

thus that chain whose Nicaea

, is

in

is

.
a

complication the Nicaean formulae even though

of

continuance and refinement

,

,
a

All the linear forms have become

, of

with distinct loss concentration and intensity

a

thinner more graceful more fragile the vigorous strokes are reduced with the broad
,

,
;

stripes shrunken Bizarre and energetic schemata have yielded

to

mere lines calm

to
.

of

part
or

and refined decorative devices But the classic rather classicistic temper
is
it
.

)
of

of

the Daphni mosaics that this simplification the individual motives goes hand hand with
in
by

the total effect multiplying the body

an

of

enrichment This enrichment attained

is
.

run
all

But these lines just because parallel

or

lines into network they concentric

,
a

of

with one another require individually less space than the capricious motives the
,

be

much greater number Precisely

of

Chios mosaics that could included

so

them
,

.
96 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

this covering of the body with a close network of lines reduces and practically eliminates
the possibility of modelling with high - lights on the dark ground , and thus inverts the
function of the tones, the lines necessarily tending to create their effect by dark - on - light
instead of light -on -dark . The positive elements in the modelling have thus shifted to
dark linear motives instead of patches of high -light.
Daphni but culminates

at
This evolution does not reach

its
climax the Sicilian

in
,
agitated Baroque will

be
qualities

on
of
mosaics sort whose discussed later
in

,
a

.
of
difficult trace with certainty the origin this development but since the
is
It

to

;
Chios and Nicaea belong

of
mosaics the middle the eleventh century and therefore
at

to
the last years the Macedonian Dynasty
of seems most probable that the precursors
to

it
,
be

Th
of

the style are sought the capital city

of
the lost mosaic work Schmit
to

in

.
the mid

of

of
Nicaea classified the style
on

the mosaics the Koimesis

at
his book
in

century find place for

late illusionistic
as

eleventh phase and tried system

it
in
to
a

a
whose evident simplicity not harmony with the complicated historical facts He
in
is

.
as
Byzantine art
by of

conceives the evolution oscillation with definite phases

an
between
two poles represented dissolution into pictorial illusionism and

re
concentration
,

-
into architectonic plasticism hypothesis tempting largely because the two
an
Such

is

,
.

opposite poles are universal and essentially human character Wölfflin's famous

in
so

so

(
and might undoubtedly find
of

antithesis renaissance vs. baroque has similar basis

a

)
application various limited periods But they constitute too narrow
to

formula for

a
.

complex years style

is of

of

of
evolution thousand The fact that the the end the
is
,
a

Macedonian period dual and discordant peculiar way vigorous

with the

, It
in

,
at is
a

.
architectonic lastic
of

weight simplicity clarity phase the same time that

an

and
,

”
-p

many pictorial dissolution The surfaces torn

of
its

elements give the appearance

of

.”
“
by

bright stripes answer

of
into patches and splinters the optic needs

to
crossed
,

a
its

phase nearing end pictorial illusionism And just these elements which hark back
in

,
.
art

of

point

its
the late Hellenistic the Constantinopolitan court with
to

the secular
to

,
-

neo Hellenistic renaissancenot possible Unfortunately

prove this connection
it

to
is
-

conclusively because the crucial monuments have been destroyed But the further
of ,

.
as

style reappears the Palaeologues

at
of

evolution the clear for the feudal art

is

it
;

the XIIIth century and the XIVth century employing

of

the end the same illusionistic

in

forms combined with modelling forms that aim pictorial effect

at

distance
at
a

.
.fig

all are hardly connected

at
40
of

With the mosaics

this Hosios Lucas
trend
(

of
all

They show none

of

the illusionistic dissolution characteristic the mosaics

in
.

Nicaea At Hosios Lucas rigorous and powerful lines

of

the naos the Nea Moni and

at

is ,
.

with few but abrupt turns are used instead nervous zigzags Every lineament
of
,

.
by

The parts the body are more clearly

of

determined strict and severe contours

by
.

the divisions indicated

and simpler means The modelling stripes
at

delineated
—
.

Daphni reduced single rows appreciable breadth The figures

an
of

cubes have here

to

- .
-

on

are massive and solidly unified owing the fact that since neither light dark nor
to
,

light
be

used for the modelling be primary

on

of

dark neither the two tones can felt

is

to
,
-
-

paramount Rather they are interlaced produced reciprocal patterns and

so

the forms
or

,
in
,
.

of

light and shade

of

interpreted pictorial illusionistic values

be

are hardly terms

in
to

.
 DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE MOSAIC STYLE 97

Their accentuated heaviness generates an impression of intense materiality . And yet

this can hardly be called an effect of ordinary plastic volume , because the modelling
elements are too abstract and elusive . This material presentation of the figures separates
them totally from the gold ground , whose immaterial brightness in turn isolates the
figures from one another . There is no mingling of colour and gold , as in the “ impres
sionistic ” mosaics .
For style , also , there are parallels to be found at Chios . The Christological
this
scenes in the narthex , especially the host of the apostles belonging to a half - destroyed
representation of the Assumption (

fig
show the closest relation the narthex

to
of ),
116

.
these fragments with the wholly different
at

mosaics Hosios Lucas comparison

A
.

of
mosaics the naos proves that two traditions with distinct methods expression
in

coexisted this monastic church which received its decoration under the last monarchs
in

,
of

the Macedonian Dynasty These narthex mosaics Chios represent

of at
somewhat

a
.

style vigour turning

of

later phase the Hosios Lucas with the articulation toward

,

a
more delicate linear manner But the underlying spirit has remained the same
.

.
just

as

as
The Hosios Lucas tradition must have had predecessors

its
much did

,
whose highest expression Daphni
at

its

of
that other tradition was with marks court

a
art But the essential monuments have been quite
as
scantily preserved that

so

it
is
;
.

necessary very find the pertinent parallels We believe

go

far back order

to
to

,,
in

.
however that we have found such parallel —and probably more than mere parallel
,

,
a

a
Hagia Sophia
of

the mosaics
of

the main dome Salonica

in

in

.
O. Wulff has pointed out the heavy
the representation and the intensity
realism
to in
“

of
expression the Byzantine people the spirit
of

the faces and related these

in

”
,

manifest the miniatures of the Chludoff Psalter Wulff believes that the mosaic dates
in

from the time soon after the Iconoclastic struggle and stylistic analysis bears out his
;

The figures might well the apostles

be

of

supposition regarded
as

ancestors the

in
.

for
summary gradations light plastic
of

of

narthex Hosios Lucas The and shade the

.

thoroughly illusionistic character but

an

forms have still abbreviated illusionism

is

,
;

it
a

heralding the birth more abstract style

of

of

full passion and expression which

in
,

a
of

nothing this illusionism save the expression and the abbreviated forms will finally
remain These Salonican mosaics were made for distant view and being closely examined
,

,
.

bright colours interspersed among those deeper hue

of

of

shimmer with cubes This

.

almost impressionistic manner unites the figures with the gold background and saves
up
of

from that statuesque isolation which the fate almost all later mosaic figures
is

them

XIIIth century intensity expression strength never degenerates

of

the The whose

to

-
.

XIIIth
at
of

into the moroseness discoverable second rate work century Arta

as

the
in

,
-

Epirus -is even Hosios Lucas and the suggestive force

greater than the look
in

in

in
,

;
of

of

of

the eyes and the turn the head even stronger The mosaics this Salonican
is
in

dome are thus the most imposing testimony early Macedonian monumental painting
to

.
of

They connect the work the XIth century with the much earlier masterpieces
If of

the
post Justinian period they are likewise preserved Salonican churches this
as

in

.
-

be

historical position sufficiently appreciated will that these mosaics offer

it

seen
,
is

better prospect for resolving the problems mid Byzantine ecclesiastical

of

of

the evolution
-

Diez Demus
7
-

.
98 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

art than the mosaics in the naos of the Koimesis Church at Nicaea , on which Th . Schmit
built up his theory .
We have no intention of attempting a new theory to cover
ourselves the whole

for
evolution of mid - Byzantine art. Our remarks are merely intended as starting -points
tracing the stylistic evolution the two cycles

of
which our whole study

If
on
centres

.
be
for

as
the extreme antithesis which we have claimed these two cycles allowed

a
simplification introduced

be
into complicated historical data and accepted useful

as
a
be
can
working principle some interesting further conclusions drawn regarding the two
,
-

which Daphni and Hosios Lucas are the chief surviving exponents
of

. of
lines development
for the XIth century this way the two series

of
of
monuments the one which

is
In

,
dependant the popular element Byzantine Monachism while the other starts from
on

of
by the monuments
of

of
the courtly Renaissance neo Hellenism can be supplemented

,
-
the two following centuries
of .

stylistic analysis Kieff and

at
the Sophia Cathedral

of

of
the mosaics the
A

St. Michael Monastery city shows their close relation the monastic cycle

to
the same
in

the heads are very much alike and not only

on of

Hosios Lucas Some details such

as
,

,
.

ground iconographical the Evangelist Luke

of

of
the resemblance The face the

at in in
.
Monastery

of
the same apostle
fig

Russian 120 almost identical with that the

is
.
(

Washing XII
or
.pl
the Feet Hosios Lucas with that the lone figure
at
of

of
the
(

)
43
.fig

picture century has but given

of

of

left this The distance more than half

to
a
(

).

little the stylistic traits modelling

of
the whole little more softness and has altered
,

.
a

But the hieratic and iconic rigidity drapery

of

of
the which one the chief characteristics

is
,

totally unaltered
of

of

of
the style Hosios Lucas the picture the Pantokrator
is

in

in
,

of
.fig

St. Sophia Kieff this almost contemporary icon the severity

at

the Phocian
In

118
(

).

mosaics has even increased Be noted that the linear elegance and soft modelling
it
(
.

be
of

the Daphni pictures are never found Russian mosaics particularly

is
to

of It
in

important that Ajnaloff has succeeded discovering the origin the mosaicists .)
in
for

responsible
of as

to
this movement known the second invitation Russia whose
,

,
“

products are most probably the mosaics the Koimesis Petsherskij Church the Church
,
-

the Blacherniotissa the Monastery Kiryllos and particularly these mosaics

of
the
of

of
,

Monastery The artists came from Constantinople from the Blachernae

of

St. Michael
,
.

monastery There are valid reasons for thinking that the mosaic masters the Sophia
of
.

Kieff also originated monastery which ever since the beginning

of at

from this selfsame

,

for

the Iconoclastic struggle had been most important centre popular religious
a

movements and monastic icon painting

-

that certain stylistic elements

of

The mosaics Kieff give colour the hypothesis

to

throughout cycle Slavonic temper

of

recurrent the Hosios Lucas the influence

to

are due
,

and taste and that they were later transmitted and disseminated by this same influence
,

Among such characteristic elements may

be

almost material heaviness

an

named first
,
:

the figures which never give the impression body fully modelled
of

the round
in

in
,

Iff

Ajnaloff quotes
D.

Die Mosaiken des Michaelsklosters Kiew Belvedere 51-52 1926 The author
in

p
,

., ,
;
1

.p .
.
his
as

the Petsherskij Monastery Edition the Arch

of

of

chief source the Paterik Comm 120–4

(

).
 DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE MOSAIC STYLE 99

and yet create a suggestion of solid cubic form ; secondly , the rhythmical composition ,
which does not depend on centralised arrangement ; and finally , the deep severity of
expression , unsoftened by Hellenistic elegance . The supposition that it was the Slav
spirit which influenced or indeed created these qualities should not cause surprise even
in the case of the Greek mosaics of Hosios Lucas , as the Greek population had long
been mixed with Slavonic elements .

There is yet another observation to confirm this hypothesis : the style expanded
almost exclusively toward the north and northwest , reaching

, at
its
final limits Torcello
will . be
as

dissipated itself and disappeared probably

on
and Venice where shown later
of ,

it
(

)
for

want congenial soil

a

of

of
The supposition that some the creative elements the Hosios Lucas style are
by

Slavonic not contradicted the fact that Oriental traditions were part responsible
is

in
for

its
genesis iconography
, of

style

do
the the and Slav and Oriental elements not

.
by

for
be

an no
exclude each other but are often found side side There example

is
to

of ,
(
.
of

doubt that the long life the monasteries Mount Athos was due
of the fusion

to
of
unbroken Oriental tradition with supply
steady Slav blood from Russia and the
a

the old Orient may have furnished the material substance

of

Balkans The traditions

,
.)

the Slavs may have constituted the impelling force and

its of

while the young energy

insured the continuity And both factors the Oriental and the Slav
of

existence
,

,
.

may already have been the decisive forces the metropolitan monastery

of
the Blachernae
in

.
This art which found congenial soil distant Russia was exported the West

to
,

, ,
in

, ) of
milieu that was entirely foreign the spontaneous vigour
its to

consequence
In
to
a

it
.

evolution was lost The apostles the apse

.fig
of

of
the Cathedral Torcello 124
in

. (
.

of

great
of

still preserve deal the energy the Phocian and Russian mosaics Here
a

massive materiality
of

too the impression obtained without the help

of
rounded
is
,

few

modelling The gradated interior lines are drawn hard and rigid manner Faint
in

a
-
.

.
of

reminiscences plastic modelling have been altered into motives which are not intended
by
be

of

drawing The scarcely

to

illusionistic and are determined merely abstract laws

.

straight garments agreeing

on

of

broken lines the lower borders the with Hosios Lucas

(

and differing from Daphni show that the figures are neither thought nor rendered
in
)

plastic
On the contrary they seem possess
of

volume front surface

is to

terms their
,

a
.

of

only Various motives suggest that the evolution the style passing into mannerised
.

torpidity Such are the geometricised triangles beneath the knees the hook shaped
,

-
.

legs the lower parts the garments -shaped

of

schemata between the and the

in

V
“

”
of
for

round modelling
the plastic parts the body The drapery
of

lines used lieu

in

logical Hanging
its

has lost and natural fall lappets appear without structural connection
,
.

with the folds and gores the garments The faces are rendered more frontally and
of

with almost geometrical construction Their linear design more purely ornamental
;
is
.

and the shadows are distributed these ornaments rather the simple and
fit
to

than
in
,

logical manner the gold ground

of

Hosios Lucas The figures stand isolated against

.

of

and have no mutual connection other than that their linear rhythm
.

evolution runs parallel the first phase

of

This stage stylistic the called

so
to
in

Italo Byzantine Style parts

of

and the same school that worked the lower the

to

in
;
-

*
7
100 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

apse at Torcello , some figures at St. Mark's in Venice seem to belong . We believe them

to be the earliest ones in the cathedral and to date from the end of the XIth , century
the time of Domenico Selvo or his immediate successors . The figures of the apostles
in the niches around the porch that leads from the narthex into the nave show nearly
the same colour - effects as the apostles at Torcello . Yellow and pink (otherwise very
rare at St. Mark's ) predominate here . The tendency toward the stereotyped and toward
linear complication has gained headway in the mosaics of the western dome, which
represent the Pentecost , and in the other mosaics of this cycle ' which may have been
set around the middle of the XIIth century or a little later . The great figures of the
apostles in the dome have been badly damaged by unskilful restoration ; and the
characteristics of the style are better discernible in the angels in the squinches beneath

by
comparatively disfiguring restorations The
fig

( 129 which have been untouched

)
.

.
covering them with modelling forms

by
solidity figures
of

the has not been sacrificed

.
colouring still allied
to
Kieff Hosios Lucas where light

at
The that and and dark

,
is

tones are put together

equivalent factors modelling but the single forms have
as

;
in
grown harder and more abstract and come very close

of
the ornamental lineaments the

to
golden stripes draperies figures Byzantine panels drapery
of

the the Italo The

in

in

.
material aspect still very abstract

or at
of

the chitons has become over refined and

its
,
no -

(
of

of
gave suggestion the garments

of
Hosios Lucas where the kind material
it
,

at

implied any material

all St. Mark's where the garments

at
even now more concrete

,
is
)

suggest rather metallic sheathes

of
tin

embossed into complicated shapes

.
cycle the left transept with scenes
of

this same belong the mosaics the dome

To

in
of

Baptist the figures

of

from the life John the Christ and several saints the main

in
,
the

the
Christological scenes the southern support great dome and several
on

of
apse
,

,
badly restored figures prophets
of

The picture 128 shows the style that had

of

fig

the Entrance into Jerusalem

in
,
.
(

figures full hieratic power here adapted

its

angels developed simple

of

the the

to
,

narrative The same schemata are used but they are simplified several degrees The
;
.

.
light coloured modelling forms stressing the plasticity the thighs have still preserved
of
-

be

their shape and draperies with diagonal zigzags are

fan shaped found Yet the
to
;

of -

material actuality the figures has become more vague and when we contemplate .
;
by

the relaxed composition hardly held together even linear rhythm and the summary
, ,

by
rendering apparent style no longer
of

the groups that this stimulated fresh

it

,
is

falling Every attempt representing the groups

is at

national forces decay proper

to
,

in
is

as

spatial extension arrangement still evident Hosios Lucas has

at

rational
or

such
,
,

by

the twelve apostles represented

of

now been abandoned The host three flat

is
.

by

figures possessing only four feet among

an

them and with their heads surmounted

,

,
of

accumulation nimbi whose total intended indicate the number the group
to
is

in
,

The gait and movement figures are summarilywithout regard

of

the the
indicated
to
,

spite keep
of

of

structure the scene But such abbreviations these mosaics still that
,
in
.

gravity which
of

of

deep one the essential characteristics the whole series Indeed

,
is

See Appendix 113

.p
,

f.
 DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE MOSAIC STYLE IOI

in this one respect they are superior to the most classic and most pretentious monuments
of the other cycle .
A comparison of the two versions same subject at Daphni and at St. Mark's
of this
will illustrate the essential divergence of the two movements . In the Entrance into
at Daphni ( the picture enclosed by frame whose shape strongly

fig

92
Jerusalem

is

,
a
.
)
influences the composition The figures sometimes partly covering each other are

,
.
by

by
held together the pattern
whose flatness accentuated crossing lines which fill

is
its
the frame without disturbing unifying force The summary landscape sets distinct

a
but might naturalistic spatial form without

of be
scene for the action interpreted

in
,

At

can
.fig
disturbing the general impression planilinear unity St. Mark's 128 there

)
.
be

either pictorial unity planilinear surfaces

no

or
question any
of

of
The absence

.
frame releases the picture into the unlimited background

its
of
the wall with four distinct

,
top

of
representations separation Everything
on

shown one the other without frame

or

.
beyond the firm contours part the picture and

on no
of

the represented objects has

in
or

becomes background golden wall space the compositions

an
undefined which
,

float like silhouettes without possibility spatial development

of
Since there
to

seem

.
complete pictures and pictorial unity the only unifying
no

no

are framed factor the

is
,
arranging the figures moving

all
rectilinear rhythm which results from ranks the

in

in
same direction
.

will be Hosios Lucas there occurred compositions with

no
at

recalled that
It

by
constructive but only
central unity
the haphazard connection produced setting the
,

figures the same groundline But whereas

on

Hosios Lucas the most intense iconic

at
.
by

dissolving the pictorial composition St. Mark's this

at
concentration was attained
by ,
of

intensity replaced the mere laxness episodic illustrative manner

an
is

.
on
has gone still further
of

the vaults

of
The process the mosaics both sides
in

of

the choir and which were set during the first half
the transepts the XIIIth century
in

and represent stories from 131 and St. Mark and the miracles
fig
of

the lives St. Peter

,
(

)
.

Christ All compositional

of

factors are here reduced their lowest terms and even

to

;
.

the linear rhythm which pervaded the Entrance into Jerusalem and gave vigour and
it
up

of

intensity has been given

favour merely exterior arrangement only accentuated
in
,

,
a
by

the architectural background The artistic essentials reveal the same deterioration
of .

.
Linear drawing almost devoid plastic power and only serving divide the surfaces
to
,

decorative way has replaced modelling forms the expressive austerity the poses
in

of
,

;
a

has become merely dull and unmeaning the sometimes passionate gestures have changed
;

rigid stiffness Only the solemnity

of

colour has remained the same

to

.
of

Thus the line starts from Salonica and Hosios Lucas ends
at

evolution which
,

only too apparent that there was

no

on

Venice decline which makes soil which

it
in
a

the

prosper Venice
at
art

that could that time was turning other ideals And trend
to
.

that was strongest there towards the end the XIIth century
of

of

was the tradition

,

the other school the neo Hellenistic style that we have seen Daphni
at
,

. it .

bit
of

The pictorial elegance Daphni made

as

court style every

of

the
“

exportable the religious vigour and grave simplicity Hosios Lucas But naturally
as

of

the expansion was effected through other mediums and where had been the convents
it
;
IO2 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

and the common people who had spread the iconicstyle , it was now the higher classes
of society , influencedby the splendid court -life of the capital , which encouraged and
the Daphni style . Above Sicily among the Norman kings that

all
propagated was

it

in
the rich glory Byzantine decoration was most imitated that the historical importance

of

so
;
of
precisely this that they exhibit the evolution

of
the Sicilian mosaics the court

is

“
style during the XIIth century

.
”

of
Palermo goes back Islamising secular

di

at
The decoration the Stanza Ruggiero

to
the only monument

of
creations from Iconoclastic times the kind that left

is
It

is
.

.
Daphni

of
the most legitimate They
of
The mosaics the Martorana are successors form

.
the connecting link between Greece and the new art centre the West between the

in

,
-
style the XIth and that the XIIth century The other religious mosaics Sicily
of

of

of
.
continue this evolution
.

features marking the Cappella Palatina mid XIIth century

of
The new the mosaics

-
(

)
of
XIIth century are due partly
of

and still more those Monreale end the the new

to
(

)
partly

to
of

, of
function mosaic decoration the Norman system the natural evolution

,
in

already
the style Daphni The regal taste the Norman sovereigns
of

of
influences latent
in

.
formed mainly mosaic the tapestry
all of
on

Islamic traditions decoration demanded from

of
coloured hanging over their rooms Architecturally
of

like effect the wall surfaces

,

,
a

.
these rooms particularly Cefalù and Monreale presented large uniform wall surfaces
in

-
(

)
extensively subdivided carry the whole program
be

of
which had they were
to

to
if

pictures like lay bible For this reason the various subjects could not

be
given separate
,

as

architectural frames such lunettes niches but had be arranged one after the
or

to
,

purely formal scheme

on

other one common surface Such already

of
decoration

is
a
.

Daphni and
be

of

the transept mosaics several churches Constantinople

to

found
in

in

in

;
but was much more extensively and fully employed Sicily presumably imitation
it

in

in
,

On
tapestry like covering the iconographic
its
of

of

Islamic decoration with the walls

-

merely illustrative interest .

side the new manner involved the pictures with
,

,
in
a

a
it of

consequent sacrifice their previous iconic power Such was already somewhat the
.

Daphni and

be
interesting note that the one exception which had
at

case
is

to

to
;

be

the representation the Pantokrator made the Sicilian

of

made there has also in

to
,
in
,

churches where the same theme preserves great deal

of

the iconic energy best

of
the
,

Byzantine creations
.

an

on

The new manner had obvious and immediate effect the composition of the
all

complete picture
, of

Sicilian mosaics the relaxation the forces that form

in

in
,

picture loses
its

frame With the frame removed internal tension

its

relation the
to

.
by

internal geometrical structure

be

And this lack cannot any

as

remedied the
in
,
fig

Transfiguration Cappella representations

do

the Palatina 126 Often the various

in

(
.
).

not lose their picture like character but shrink

to

miniatures This diminutive form

is
,
-

, .

particularly noticeable Cappella Palatina where however the vivacity the single
of

the
,
in

figures and forms and the charm gay tapestry

of

of

the colours saves the formal

impression the whole and enhances the general effect
of

The changes specific forms and motives and especially the modelling are
in

in

largely working out the evolutionary forces already Daphni Significant

at
of

immanent
.
a

-
 DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE MOSAIC STYLE 103

contour has taken the place of the impressionistic modelling spots of the Daphni style ,
whose quiet classicistic beauty has yielded to an agitated Baroque , particularly noticeable
inMonreale . The change seems chiefly due to Sicilian dependance upon the linear style
of the neo -Hellenistic tradition exemplified at Daphni , which may well have ruled the
whole pictorial art of the Comnenian Era insofar as it eschewed the monastic tradition . "

by
Baroque sometimes springs easily out of an

art
dominated mere linear forms

It
.
be

that the people who took over the new mode expression

of
must also remembered
development just
of

came northern stock from race whose own artistic had reached

a
the agitated mannerisms the Romanesque of

.
of
perhaps part
this same evolution that the movement the individual figures
It

of
is

was greatly increased but mechanical and superficial way distinctive

of
the mannered
,

in
a
as

style opposed the comparatively organic and natural movement which

of

Monreale
to

still characterises the Daphni figures At Monreale human figures resemble dolls with

,
.
their limbs particularly accentuated and clearly differentiated the figure

of
from the rest

:
elbow knee and wrist are marked by disks which stand out like islands amid the
,

surrounding floods whirling drapery folds

of

.
Through the mosaics the Cappella Palatina this peculiar mannerism may

be
of

traced
origin As Byzance
its

back the neo Hellenic linear tradition after Macedonian

in
to

by in
-

.
by

the hip the curves imposed the organic course

of
times still rendered the
is
, ,

all

the comparable examples

fig

folds whereas Monreale 127 and above Venetian

in

,
in
(

)
.

longer caused by

no
ball shaped
articulations take their place Their outline now is
-

.
as

be
of

the drapery fact they can also

of

the natural fall naked

on
matter found
,

a
-

inorganic

of
bodies -and they which now determine the folds This revolt the
it
is
,

.
of

individual elements also appears the drawing the faces The noses are more
in

.
no

prominent and more hooked than Daphni the hair longer given the summary
in

in
;

is

pictorial manner Daphni which gave Bertaux the impression impressionistic

of

of

modern
colouring divided into single groups Even the rounding
of

of
but curls the cheek
is

is
, 2

plastically exaggerated the slightly modelled surface project half spherical forms
of

Out
-
.

of
which repeat and emphasise the superficial contours Generally speaking this one the
an is
,
.
of

most peculiar and striking characteristics Italo Byzantine art and plays important
,
-

part ducento panel painting

in

Venice the Romanising and Italo Byzantine features the style are even more
of
In

striking Sicily
of

The manner active the middle the XIIth century seems

to
in

in
,

,
.

,,

have reached Venice before the century was out but whether brought from Sicily
or

imported direct from Constantinople

be
no

longer
of

can ascertained because the lack

pertinent monuments The Last Judgment Torcello which belongs
of

the west wall

on

in

,
.
, , of

of

be

the middle XIIth

as

the second half century regarded connecting

to

the could
,

link with were Sicily

not for the fact that shows developed phase than the
it

less
it

Sicilian mosaics particularly those Grottaferata can only

of

of

Monreale The mosaic

.

its

from the preceding Style Palaeologue

In

this the Comnenian differs Macedonian The Renaissance with

,
*

.
the

art

of

picturesque Baroque must have illusionistic XIth century

of

revived the forms Macedonian the The

.
an
as

style therefore appears episode

of

linear the Comnenian Period however fertile

,

The lighter colour raised with gold and shaded with violet
is
2

.
104 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

be regarded as provincial work .

true that single elements of the style may be
It is

found in the Pentecost dome of St. Mark's ; but for the most part these (as shown above )
belong to an entirely different tradition and circle .
The progress of the linear style is more apparent in the dome above the altar ;
style , entirely

for
but this not fully developed until the mosaics

of of
new Venice

is
,
the vaulting

on
of
the central dome and the western arch front The mosaics

it
in

.
the right aisle with representations

of
the history the apostles are already late

. of
,

,
illustrative stragglers the movement The year may therefore be regarded

as
1200

in
marking the period

of
the middle

of
The apostles the central dome together with the Ascension and the figures
on
the

130
.fig
Virtues and Blessings of
the Lord between the windows display their outer

in
),
(
movement and inner action the utmost possibilities the linear baroque manner

of
The

.
of
general composition the dome with the corresponding pairs figures and the
of

,
revolving rhythm the highest monumental form
of

of
the whole shows combination ,

a
with the most powerful action
far
removed from every Byzantine schematism that
so

it
,

classify them under any Byzantine style All the peculiarities Monreale
to

of
idle
is

.
appear still further accentuated the types exaggerated

of
here
re

The Semiticism

,
is
-

.
of

the unnatural length the figures still further increased But fundamental difference

a
.
of of
from Sicilian work lies the absence stereotyped
the Venetian mosaics pattern

in

at ,
in

Romanesque expressionism

be
all

which contain the fire and energy found

to
Formally independent
all
Moissac Souillac figures creations using tradition
or

the are
,

,
.

other Byzantine mosaics

no

of
only superficially organic conception

an
such the
is
In
. .
be

body photo
to

of
found Positions are shown which are almost those instantaneous
,
of

graphs rapid motion definite personality

of
The artist this case not afraid
in

is
a
-

-
.

of
rear views and masters the representation which even the most giftedprofile
the
in
,

of

Hosios Lucas artists could not manage the figures the Virtues the dome and
In

in
.
of

the supplicating figures the Resurrection the spiritual atmosphere given with
in

is
,

its
.fig

convincing power the Descent into Hell 129 the whole composition with
In

,
(

of )
.

downward sweep the lines especially the pacing figures

of

the row hands and

in
in
(

forming the raised centre throughout alive with the spiritual meaning the picture of
is
,

:
supplication and the granting prayer
of

All these most important features seem connect this cycle with western
of

to

Romanesque rather than with Byzantine art which never employs such intense means
,
of

expression And yet the stylistic material unthinkable without some predecessor
as on

the
is
.

by

level represented the Sicilian mosaics and consequently without Daphni the
,

starting point might actually

be

possible determine the direct

to

certain cases
In

it
.

connection with prototypes the Daphni style Thus the figure Hades crouching
of
in

.
of

the Descent into Hell

of
at

the feet Christ Venice has spite cramped

its
in

in

in
,

position far removed from Hellenistic elegance the same prototype corresponding
so

the
as
,

be
fig

figure Daphni The Greek representation only needs

to

100 turned lengthwise

at

(
.

).

be
; of

acquire the shape St. Mark's discover many

to

the figure would possible

to
It
in

more such connections but important see that they would always accentuate
to
it
is

the immense difference between St. Mark's and Daphni the connecting links were
If
.
 DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE MOSAIC STYLE 105

not present in Sicily , it would probably be impossible to bring the two monuments
together .
A connection with the neo -Hellenistic style is much more apparent in those mosaics
of St. Mark's which Tikkanen " has traced back to a miniature cycle after the style of
The mosaics may

be
fig
the Cotton Bible ( 132 assumed have been commenced soon

to
a
.
).
after the capture of Constantinople the beginning the XIIIth century and

of
have

at

to
century

of
been finished toward the end the The fact that the Venetians after the

as
conquest once more early Christian Hellenism may serve proof

to
had recourse

a
-
that these things lived the eastern capital and that the possibility

of
on

in renaissance

a
was almost always seriously
at

hand This renaissance was taken very Venice The

in
.

.
baroque touch only just perceptible e.g. the spiral drawing hips

of

of
some the

),
in
is

(
and the mosaics are even more allied Daphni than their immediate prototypes

to

to

in
St. Mark's itself This new outcropping the Hellenistic ideal caused the sacrifice

of
neo

-
.

the preceding period

to
of

much that had been considered essential which the

in

,
mosaics belongs
of

Ascension cycle consequence the composition scarcely rises

In

,
.
of

above juxtaposition unrelated illustrative groups with hardly enough room for action

,
a

be
isolated and each echoing the original miniature prototype which can
of

each

,
them

The compelling power

of
dated about the end the fifth century the action
of

reduced

is
.

repertoire gesticulations The courage set figures profile

of

still there but

is
to

to

in

;
a

the ability draw lacking compensation there acquisition

is
In

new from
to

,
them
is

a
.

of

Hellenistic models the simple

and long clarity
rear views modelling

so

as
shown
,

,
in

of
are not involved the beautiful and evident arrangement the drapery The desire for
,

.
precise rendering the single figures highest development its
of

also new and reaches

is
.fig

the figures the prophets the masking

on
of

of of

, of
134 the walls the side aisles
in

in
(

of of )

splendour material charm line and richness colour

of
the inner room their
In

,
.

these represent marvellous synthesis Byzantine neo Hellenism and the late Romanesque
a

-
art predominant the hieratical figure
of

of
the West The formative line Christ
is

in
.
.fig

133 The most decorative figure however and the much misused term decorative
,
(

(
).

”
the lightly gliding line
of

here really place the coat whose sensitive

of

the seam
is

,
in
is

by

zigzag can only -style predominant

be

appreciated reference the called Zacken

so
to

”
“

the West particularly about 1215-1240Germany

With these creations
,

from
in

in

but participant place

as

as

outpost again
an

Venice not active once

its
an

took
is in
,
-

the development western art Here again Byzance only gave the first impulse
of

it
.

characteristic that this impulse centered neo Hellenism This supple and gifted style
in

, ,
for -

fundamentally
of

which had been responsible the mannerism the Sicilian mosaics

for

popular strength Italo Byzantine panel painting Romanesque

of

for the robust

,
-

expressionism had still strength enough left the XIIIth century support the grace
in

to
,

splendour Romanesque fully

of

ful decorative late art Even when the developed ducento

.
-

still capable supplying that impulse toward

of

art reached Venice neo Hellenism was

,

purifying panel painting necessary adapt for mosaics The two

to

the forms
of

them
.
-

XIIIth century representations the southern nave

fig
of

the Shrine Miracle

in

late 135
(

)
.
- 1

Die Genesismosaiken San Marco und die Cottonbibel Helsingfors 1889 See Appendix
in

114
2

.p
,
,
.

.
 106 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

of St. Mark's , with the interesting plan of the five -domed church , are the finest representatives
5 of this new phase , which can also be studied in the scenes from the life of Joseph in

the narthex . The perfect surety in modelling the naked flesh shows that the creators
of these pictures were contemporaries of the young Pisano .
A new wave of Byzantine influence reached Venice about 1300. The last dome of

.fig
the Life of Moses the half -dome ( have once again recourse

to
narthex and the in 136

)
Constantinople But this time they belong

of
the court Hellenism the phase reached

to
-

.
example the Kahrie Djami whose mosaics are the purest and latest

of
the classic
in

,
products Baroque harking back
of
an

of
the illusionistic manner Chios

to

It
eastern

is
.
of
not possible brief survey say more the character and origin this style

of
this

to
in

picturesque
represents the XIth century

of

of
than that enrichment manner Chios
, it

a
and Nicaea but with important changes the fundamental conception the picture

the of
in
pictorial and compositional unity

of
as

such Thence arises sense represented

in
.

toward the problem

on

an

scenes founded almost modern attitude The actors with

,

by
their environment are given continuous representation and placed side side like
in

larger unities the scenes from the Life Moses the dome
to

of
friezes form Thus

in
,

,
.
up

of

are made which

three main cast triangular form
units each of
The landscape

is

in
,

.
up
large amount and are arranged

of
and the architectural elements take room a

obliquely and diagonally conception pictorial space does not mean merely

of
This new
.

of
figures for action the real basis

of
that the have more room new sense the

it
is
a
:

plastic volume figures perhaps sculpture

of

the themselves derived from ducento Even

,

.
by
the drapery acquires volume not only where occasioned the plastic body which
it
is
,

air
of
as

well which seem voluminous and full

its

covers but empty parts

it

,
in
,

.
Byzance itself the development during the XIIIth century can be studied with
of In

help only the deceptive employment the XIth

.fig

of
the mosaics Seres
of re
122/3
in

is
It

-
(

).
of

century forms expression even though the new manner the Renaissance which
in
(

)
this period The nervous
of

can excuse the wide spread mistakes dating the mosaics

in
-

.
of

activity form even greater Byzance than Venice where the corresponding
is

in

in

by
phase Byzantine art strong contemporary
of

fused with classicism characterised

is

,
a
of

the names Cavallini Cimabue Duccio and Giotto

,

the Byzantine monumental tradition belongs

on

From this time one specialised centre

to
,

only –Venice The future had long been

of

the hands the western trecento whose

,

,
in
.

of

developments Rome and Tuscany

of

creative forces met the local

its

spite enormous
at In
in

importation Byzantine mosaic art before the XIth and again the beginning
of

of

the

XIIIth centuries fuori mura Rome never played

San Paolo decisive part
le

),
in

in
.g
of (e

a
.

the assimilation the late medieval Byzantine tradition the XIIth century was
it
In
.

a
-

artists preferring
its

foyer fermé with revert the obsolete early Christian tradition

to
to
,

-
fig

create new forms under foreign inspiration Out

of
to

rather than 125 this resistance

(
.
).

the Byzantine whichoriginally seemed imply mere incapability and sterility the
to

to
,

,
of

evolutionary forces which wrought trecento art out Italo yzantine formalism could
at
-B

Italy Byzantine painting which have been followed

of

last take hold The two streams

of

,
.

this book were the chief inspiration and incentive this great development But
. it
in

to
,

misunderstanding the evidence and our intention

be

would that they were more

to

claim
,
 APPENDIX

1. HISTORICAL REMARKS ON H. LUCAS , DAPHNI AND NEA MONI

HOSIOS LUCAS
THE church of H. Lucas
as a cemeterial church and a katholikon of the monastery is
dedicated to the titulary saint and founder and to the Virgin . St. Luke of Sotiriou
or Stiris who is also called Thaumaturgos and Neos , lived from
, the end of the ninth
century until 946. His Vita attests the existence of a cemeterial church soon after his death . "
According to the monastery's own tradition , the foundation of the katholikon is due to
the Emperor Romanos II (died 963 ), who is said to have prepared his and his wife's
tomb near the tomb of the Saint. Two formerly sumptuous sarcophagi in the crypt of
the main church seem to confirm the tradition of these imperial tombs . They probably
had been opened as early as the French occupation . The metallic plates that adorned
the covers of the sarcophagi were perhaps not removed until the Turks in 1823 entirely
ransacked the church .“ Whether these tombs really were the imperial ones or not , can
hardly now be proved . G. Sotiriu , who has discovered other tombs in the western part
of the crypt, is inclined to take them rather as tombs of hegumenoi of the most prosperous
period of the monastery . " The cufic frieze of palmettes also points to a somewhat later
its

date . The history of the foundation and exact date thus remains doubtful

It
is
.
of

not likely that the two churches dates from the period
of

one the foundation and

represents original building but one may upon the place
of

of
thus the them stand the
;

up

The main Crypt and church were doubtless built together

on

old church somewhat

a
.

different orientation from the smaller church which had probably been reconstructed
,

upon the foundations original

of

one hough façade adapted

of
the with the line
to
a
(t
of

the wall the katholikon and therefore shifted obliquely As the date not
.8

new
is
,

)
.pp
de

Luc Analecta Bollandiana 1894

St

Vie 112 blind man prays only could see thy icon
If
~
,

ff

A
*

"
:

and view thy tomb and thy monastery

.”

vol
τη
εν

Κρέμος Προσκυνητάριον της Φωκίδι μονής του Οσίου Λουκά του πίκλης Στειριώτου
,

,
, Π
of 2
Γ
.
.

Ι.

.
III

vol History the Monastery šyypaya åvéxdota

of

Life Saint vol Athens 1874-80

II

in v
¿
.
.

.
.

.
35

Barnsley The Monastery

of

Schultz and St. Luke Phocis

.p
,

,
3

f.

Κρέμος Προσκυνητάριον 107

Π

.p
,
,
Γ
*
.
.

Ι.

According Prof. Georgios Sotiriu inscription upon these tombs was published
to

of

letter from The one

a
s

. .
by

Sotiriu Aozaioloyixòv dentlov

in

1920/21 182
.p
),
6
'

H. Lucas
fig
Cf.

Strzygowski Amida 325. Prof. Sotiriu compares the palmettes the palmette
of

374 with
.p
,

,
•

.
of

of

decoration the church Nicodemus Athens from 1049

in

.
op

Schultz and Barnsley

cit
,
•8 ?

.p
.,

.3
.

by
by

fig
.op

plan given
cit

Cf. the Schultz and Barnsley and Wulff 392

,

.,
.

.
108 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

fixed , we can only assume the end of the tenth century as the earliest term . For the
dating of the mosaics the year 982 is given as a terminus post quem as the year when
St. Nikon Metanoites of Sparta probably visited Thebes and H. Lucas . His icon was
placed in the church . If the death of the Saint is an essential condition for such

iconisation , the year 998 would result as the terminus a quo. On this date there follows
a rather long period of time which cannot be more narrowly controlled by historical
facts. Strictly , the fourth crusade and the final capture by

the
French 1204 marks

in
another possible method
of
the termination this period without dated events but there

is
;
for defining the limits more closely Meletios who was prominent

an
ascetic reformer

as
,
.

,
Greece during the second half the eleventh century

no
of
has icon the church

in
,
in

which ought be evidence that the mosaics were set before the middle
to

of
the eleventh
And purely
or

century very shortly thereafter this way the historical deductions

in
.
happen agree exactly with the analytic inductions from artistic style The late dating
to

.
by

by
no
around championed Schmit Th
under circumstances justified either
,

,
1100

is
.
by

by
the iconographic evidence stylistic criteria
or

or
the historic data

."
The following the subsequent events that befell H. Lucas
of

list

:
is
a

1204 taken by the French

,
,

1311 pillaged by Catalan hordes ,

,

1460 the Turks penetrate the country and the monastery left decay

is

to
,

,
1523 new settlers arrive
,
,

1523–66 the buildings are repaired

,

added but again abandoned

an

1582 renovations the church esonarthex 1988

in

in
;
,

,
1593 the dome rebuilt
,
,

the walls
re

1595 enforced
,
,

1617–22 renovations attested by inscriptions

,

ca. 1800 pillaged by the Turks

,
,

After 1820 renovated

,

1845 and 1852 renovations the dome

in
,

1873-1889 further renovations the spoiled mosaics replaced by wallpaintings

;
,

.
of
The frescoes
the dome seem have been painted after the renovation the
in

to

dome the XVIth century 1593–95 All the fatalities that afflicted the katholikon did
in

).
(

not lead any change the mosaics though they diminished their superficial area
to

in

of ,

.
Luckily they entirely escaped the fate the Daphni mosaics and never had undergo
to

general restoration
.
a

by

Bibliography archaeological description H. Lucas L'église

of

The first exhaustive was made Charles Diehl

,
.

des
les

du

de

en

mosaïques Saint Luc Phocide Paris Bibliothèque d'Athènes

de et

et

Couvent 1889 Écoles Françaises

,
-

de
55

Rome This work was reprinted Gens Byzance Paris 1926 Collection d'études
et

fasc Diehl's Choses

in
,

,
.
).

M.
III

d'Histoire d'Archéologie Diehl treated the mosaics once more

et

Monuments Piot 1897 Gazette

few in

in
,

,
).

t.
his
the

the
for of on

des Beaux Arts 1897 latter reprinted Études Byzantines years later comprehensive work
in

a
(

).
by

St.

monastery church was published Robert Weir Schultz and Sidney Howard Barnsley The Monastery Luke
of

Stiris
,
-

St.

Phocis and the dependent monastery the Fields near Skripou published
of

Nicholas Bocotia the

in

in

in
,

by
Th

Schmit Mosaiki monastyrja prepodobnago Luki Charkov 1914 This dating was rejected Wulff
,

,
1

Altchristliche und byzantinische Kunst 600

.p
,

.
 APPENDIX 109

the

by
of
Committee of British School Athens Macmillan Co. London 1901. Beyond the description however

&

,
Finally

on

an
any analytic

of

of
the authors did not enter discussion the mosaics extensive critical discussion both

.
by

, G. der
and the mosaics was printed Die byzantinische Kunst Handbuch

O.
the architecture Wulff Kunstwissen

in
,

(
.pp

H.

by
on
schaft Berlin Neubabelsberg 1914 554-58 and 600. Several notes Lucas are given Sotiriu the

, in
,

),
-

140
be
Archaiologikon Deltion Byzantinische

6.
Zeitschrift

to
1920/21 and others are found 76-85 592

in
, ,

,
I,

,
V
93f 466 640 VII 254 VIII 588 XI XII
VI

721f 564f 432

,
.,

,
,

.,

.,

,
X

.
DAPHNI

the
Daphni the Virgin
of

of
The church dedicated Koimesis Concerning the

to
is

.
no seems however that the name Daphni
of

age the name there certainty due

it
is

is
;

,
Apollo who had
of

temple spot

of of
on
the former cult this The foundation the
to

.
monastery probably happened

Its
portion

of
the time Justinian remains are the
in

a
.
monks cells and some fragments sculpture with braiding of
'

.
Among documents for the history Daphni should be cited
of

:
, by

Cappadocian
of

The Vita Meletios Theodoros Prodromos Meletios monk

,
(1

a
)

him
of

of
settled the hills Kithairon where many monks visited
One them came
in

.
he

from Daphni ca. 1100 but returned not feeling himself strong enough for
soon
),

,
(

the severe ascetic life the mountains Thus Daphni must have had well furnished
in

-
.

monastery by about 1100 A.D.

This by the Numismatic Athens

at
confirmed seal Museum whereon
is

in

,
2

a
(
)

Daphni
of

roluns which was reserved for Bishops

of

Paulus Abbot carries the title

,

only and proves

that Daphni was rich and important The seal though undated

,
.

probably also belongs the period

of

Meletios
to

the narthex were found remnants frescoes representing

or
of

the founders
In
3
(
)

Daphni There were two emperors with illegible names

of

refounders
.

.
Such that Daphni was rebuilt towards the end
at to

of
the evidence show the
is

eleventh century and was that time rich and distinguished monastery the

In
a

.
by as

thirteenth century the name occurs Daphano Dalphano Delphino Dalphino

,

of ,
&
c
.
the monastery was occupied
the Franks who annexed the property the
In

1205
,

church Frankish lance heads were found the dome mosaic when was restored
it
in
-
.

.
Cistercian monks settled Daphni 1207 and obtained regular order 1211
in

in

in
a

After the Palaeologues Constantinople Daphni remained the only

to
of

the return
,
of

abbey the Cistercians Greece until was abandoned 1458. But probably soon
it

in
,
in

by

afterwards was given back the Orthodox Church the Turks because the former
to
it

en

had helped expel the western intruders Spon Wheler

In
to

them 1678/79 and

.

only couple the hermit cells During the occupying some

of

of

countered inhabitants
a

War Independence Daphni garrison powder magazine Bavarian

on
of

was later
,

,
a

." as

soldiers made their home there 1838/39 From 1883–85 the buildings were used
in

of

present Ephor Antiquities

of

lunatic asylum At the Greek charged with the care

is

it
a

G.
by

Bibliography Daphni
de
Le

Millet Monastère Paris 1899. Since

to
is

The former listed then

is

,
1

pp
de
E.

be noticed Bertaux Les Mosaïques Daphni Gaz Beaux Arts 1901 359-375 Byz Zeitschr 311 345
,

,
;

II
.
, d.

.
226

156

378. Revue critique

on IV

.;

study
IX

395 140 152 241 374 592 294 604 223 1892.
,

,
,

,
V

A
f.

f.

f.

f.
f

by

recently found icon preparation Georgios Sotiriu

in
is
a

.
IIO BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

These notices , though very scant, furnish evidence ( 1) that an extensive renovation
of anbuilding was carried
older out in the Late Middle Ages , as is indicated by the
two different sorts of materials ,
( 2 ) that this renovation already had been accomplished by about 1100. Thus we
have a terminus ante quem for Daphni, which we lack for H. Lucas . But this hardly
H. Lucas Daphni the stylistic

for
helps us more than the terminus post quem since

in
,
H.
somewhat later dating possible

an
evidence favors earlier date whereas Lucas

in
,

is
a
by
and was postulated Methodologically
both cycles

Th

fix
Schmit
was mistake

to
it

a
.

.
of at by

set H. Lucas the beginning the eleventh and Daphni

at

of
these two termini and

to
The stylistic evidence shifts the date
as

about 1100 these limits are one directioned

,

.
Daphni century of
to

the end the eleventh i.e. about 1080 A.D.

,
NEA MONI AT CHIOS

by
Attention was first drawn this church Strzygowski who visited
to
1889

in
it
and published the Byzantinische Zeitschrift Wulff went there
it

1896 1898 and

in
in

in
.
his investigation
of

of
published the results the B.Z. 1925 after transpired that work

be it
in

a
by Schmit who had surveyed exhaustively published
Th

could not Meanwhile

, ,

,
it
.

.
Schmit's work which was lost Constantinople was found again and comprehensive

,
in

a
be

publication said now preparation We have therefore confined ourselves

in
is

to

to
.
E.
on

few remarks the mosaics which Diez surveyed 1929

a

in

.
, by
. of

The Proskynitarion the monastery the Hierodidaskalos Nikiphoros was first

by
published 1804 Venice The second edition enlarged the Kathegumenos Gregorios
in

in

The first edition gives evidence

on

of
Photinos was issued 1864 the state
Chios
,

in

in

.'
by

the church before the plundering the Turks during the wars

of
deliverance which

,
in
Chios participated The second edition gives evidence the building
on

of
the state
.
the

earthquake the time between Strzygowski's and Wulff's visit the

of

before 1881.
In
of

deterioration the mosaics had greatly increased B.Z. Wulff gave detailed
In

1925

a
.

report
on

it.2
The legend reported the Proskynitarion At about 1000 A.D.
of

the foundation
is

, ,
in

."
of
during the rule Zoe and Theodora three hermits lived the hills Chios Niketas
of

in
,

Joseph they uninjured myrtlebush ,

an
of

John and the midst burnt forest found

In

a
.

picture the Virgin hanging upon one branches and this they carried
of

of
its

and

to
;
a

They sought
at

their cave out Constantinos Monomachos who was exile Lesbos

in
,

,
.

and obtained his promise

of

build church the mountains Chios whenever he

to

in
a

became emperor When this event occurred

of

the monks reminded his

,

1042 him
in
.

promise and building through twelve years stopped

on

was carried 1042-54 was

It
;

).
till

for while after the emperor's death Theodora 1054-56 gave sufficient money
,
a

sarcophagus was
to

finish The three hermits were buried the church

In

1822
in
it

a
.

. του
μεν
Τα

τω
ών

δε
το

το

Νεαμονήσια Δύο βιβλια εκδοθέν 1804 υπό ιεροδιδασκάλου Νικηφόρου

,

,
α

β
1

. .'
.

'.

συνταχθέν υπό του καθηγουμένου Γρηγορίου Φωτεινού συνεξεδόθη μετά του διορθωτέντος υπό του αυτού
α
'.
Εκ
Εν

Χίω του τυπογραφικού Προκλίδου 1864

, Μ
Κ
.

.
.

.
'

'

A.
by

de
C.

The work Orlandos Monuments byzantins Chios Athènes Imprimerie Hestia 1930/31 which
,

,
?

did

be
us

just appearing not reach time

to

utilised
in
is

sp
21
ff
.
.
 APPENDIX III
still preserved in the protonarthex , the others having been plundered previously by the
Moslim . The date of the mosaics in the middle of the XIth century is confirmed by
the iconographic analysis .

2. MOSAICS OF THE XITH AND XIITH CENTURY OUTSIDE OF GREECE

RUSSIA
Kieff,
St.

by
Sophie
was founded
The church
1037 Jaroslaff the Wise Macarius

in
.

.
gave description
of

of
Antioch There were consecrations 1049 and 1054 and the

it

in

;
a

.
by
church was partly destroyed fire 1180. Under Pjetr Mogila and Mazepiga the frescoes

in
a

were covered with whitewash and the oicumenical councils were painted this ground

on

.
the pictures again were laid bare and restored by Solnzeff The Christ the

in
1843–54

.
dome was freed furthermore two angels with the trisagia and the twelve Apostles
in

1886
,

,
of
Paul preserved the figure
of

which Peter and still are Besides Aaron still

is
them
.
be

pillar the gallery

on

Th
of

of

of of
the Czar Schmit tried shift the date
to

or to
seen

'
.
.
a

H. Lucas beginning
of

of
St. Sophie the XIth
of

the mosaics and end the the

to

XIIth but this attempt was

century once rejected by Wulff.2
at

the
;

by

A.
Kieff The Cyrillian Monastery The pictures were laid free Prachoff 1880
, , ,

in
.

.
5.

Prachoff
1.
.,
p
(

.
)

Kief Monastery Michael Wladimir was baptised and

of

The 988 A.D. 991

in

in
.

of
Byzantine masters were called Kieff build the Dessjatinnaja the Church St. Sophie
to

to

,
of
the Golden Door with the Church the Annunciation the Church St. Irene and
of

,
the Monastery St. Gregory
of

These churches were also adorned with mosaics remnants

,
.

second group Byzantine craftsmen from the Church

of

of

of
which were found the
A
.

Blachernae came Kieff 1073. The following buildings are due the Koimesis
in
to

to

them
:
of

of
the monastery
of

Petscherski 1073-89 Michael 1108 the Church the Mother

),

),
(

(
of

God the Blachernae 1108 and the Ciryllian Monastery The chronicles Lavrent
(

jevskaja and Jpatjevskaja give evidence for the foundation the Monastery
of

of
Michael
by

July the Grandduke Svjatopolk Kieff An extensive report

on

on
of

11th 1108

is
it
.
by

do

given the chronicle Patriarch Nicon chronicles not mention

of

the 1108. These

,
of

any further summoning Greek craftsmen Nor was there any further need since
,

,
.

according Kieff
of

of

the Paterik the Greek craftsmen the second school did not
to

leave Kieff after finishing their work but became monks and were buried the cata
in
,
of

of

the Monastery Petsherskij under the name

of

combs the Twelve Brothers.3

NICAEA
not belong
do
of

The mosaics the naos the former Church the Koimesis

in

of

the restricted circle which we are interested this book Furthermore these
in
to

in

.
O. Th

Schmit The Cathedral St. Sophia Kiev

of

in

Moscow 1914
,
1

II, ,
.

.
A.

Wulff Byzantinische Kunst Hdbch Kw 560 W. Prachoff Kievskije Pamjatniki

.p
;
,

,
2

6
d
.
.

.
D.

A.W. Prachoff 1.c. Ainaloff Die Mosaiken des Michaelklosters Kiew Belvedere Wien No. 51/52
in
.p
,
,

,
;
6
•

the Archaeological Commission

.;

the Petsherskij monastery Kieff

of

of

1926 201 Paterik edition 120–24

in
.p

.p
,

,
ff

.
II2 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

mosaics have been treated by O. Wulff with such excellent scholarly skill that hardly
anything is to be added , so that Th . Schmit in his final work on this church could make
but few corrections. For example , he established the fact that originally in the apse
a great mosaic cross was set instead of the Theotokos . The monogram of Hyacinthus
as founder may be considered as relating to this oldest decoration , which probably was
set during the iconoclastic controversy . The angels also may belong to this period if
Schmit's assertion is right that the inscription « Στηλοί Ναυκράτιος τας θείας εικόνας ” was
inserted later . To the second period
of decoration in the IXth century we attribute
with Wulff the Virgin The two icons Eleusa and Christos Antiphonetes
in the apse .
are again later and probably not before the XIth century . Finally , according to the
contention of J. v . Hammer , J. M. Kinneir and A. Murawieff and the investigations of
Ch . Diehl and O. Wulff , the mosaics in the narthex belong to the century . This is XI
proved by inscriptions and a former mosaic and later fresco of the founder of this part ,
the Patricius Nicephorus , who was rendered as worshipping the Theotokos and who
seems to be identical with a Nicephorus who was nominated as Protovestiarius by
Constantine VIII ( 1025-28 ).
Bibliography . J. Macdonald Kinneir , Journey through Asia Minor, Armenia and Kurdistan in the years
1813/14 , London , 1818. J. V. Hammer , Umblick auf einer Reise von Constantinopel nach Brussa , Pesth 1818. Ch . Diehl ,
Mosaïques byzantines de Nicée , Byz. Zeitschr. I , 1892. A. Murawieff , Pissjma s’Wostoka (Letters from the East ),
Petersburg 1881 . C. v. d. Goltz , Anatolische Ausflüge , Berlin 1896. O. Wulff , Die Koimesiskirche in Nicaea und

des
ihre Mosaiken nebst den verwandten kirchlichen Baudenkmälern (Zur Kunstgeschichte Auslandes XIII Straßburg

,
Die

die
Th

E.
Schmit Koimesiskirche von Nikaia Mosaiken Berlin Leipzig 1927. Weigand
,

,
1903 Das Bauwerk und

-
).

Deutsche Literatur Zeitung N.F. H.

53
IV

2601
in

.p
,

ff
-

RAVENNA
by

The Cathedral The mosaics are dated 1112 dedicatory inscription Only the mosaic
a
.

.
as

Apostles
of

of

the Virgin Orante two heads and some fragments are preserved
,

.
Bibliography Ravenskija mozaiki
, Th

1112 goda

7.
Schmit Svetilnik Moskwa 1914 vol Gerola

107in
.pl J.
,

,
, .

.p .

, .

106
La

Reproductions
P.

Felix Ravenna 1912 177ff Muratoff peinture byzantine Paris 1928

in

,
V

.
TORCELLO
be

three groups distinguished The

of

of

the Cathedral Torcello mosaics are

In

to

.
of

the right
of

side apse shows traces

of

mosaic southern late follower the Ravennate

a
-
(

Beyond any doubt exponent

an

of

tradition the Adriatic mosaic school which

it
is

, ,
-
, .

however not our subject here Besides the mosaics seem have been restored later
is

to
,
.

perhaps XIIIth The Apostles

be
of

century the main apse could

of

the the date

in

.
by

of by

1008 given the inscription They were restored Orso Orseolo The close stylistic
.

.
H.

Lucas dating them XIth century

of

relation with the mosaics favor the

is
in

in

the Hodegitria probably

of

of

The mosaic the western wall and the apse however

,

belong the XIIth century

to

A.
0.

Bibliography Mothes Geschichte der Baukunst Venedigs Leipzig 1859 Costadoni Osservazioni
,
,

. ,
.

Opusculi
43

intorno alla chiesa Cattedrale Catalogeria Bibl Bruno

di

di

di

Torcello vol Venezia 1751 San Marco

,

monograph
on

Schultz Die Kirchenbauten auf der Insel Torcello Berlin 1927. Shapley preparing this church
J.

is
,

.
 APPENDIX 113

VENICE , SAN MARCO

This vast cycle has not been P. Saccardo published
treated comprehensively since
the mosaics in Ongania's monumental work on San Marco .' The variety and extent of
the cycle, as well as the wide- spread opinion that the majority of the mosaics have lost
their original value through repeated restoration , may be to blame for this omission .
The whole mosaic -decoration , embracing more than 4000 sq . m ., was created during the
period from the end of the XIth to the middle of the XVth century , after which time
no new mosaics were added , but damaged sections were steadily replaced by new ones .?
these injuries the original program the cycle was hardly changed
all

In spite of

of
,
all

the extraordinary feeling piety which the Venetians have always felt
at

owing

of
to
,

for their national monument This piety had partially

its
foundation later historical

in
a
.

for Venetian history

of

error one those false traditions which are

so
characteristic
,

.
The fact that the main decoration the church the XIIth and XIIIth centuries
of

in
represents plan seems never have been forgotten This plan was believed
to

uniform

. .
a

by

Floris Dr. Demus will explain

on de
have abbot Joachim
to

been invented the heretic

of

the origin this legend his special monograph this cycle suffices here

It

to
in

.
point out the obvious chronological error involved the abbot Gioacchino lived

at
the
:

the XIIth and the beginning the XIIIth century period which the most

at
of

of

end

,
a
of

essential parts the mosaics were already set order to synchronise these two dates
In
.
life

the original program and the

of

of

Gioacchino Venetian tradition placed the latter

,

years before true time There local tradition which even more
its

another

is
100
is
.
for

misleading simply of be

as
unbiassed historical criticism because cannot rejected
it
,

a
legend without historical foundation The overwhelming majority Venetian chroniclers
.
by

the way are the year 1071

of
all

who proposed
as
of

later date the date the

,

,
(

)
of

its

completion the whole church and mosaics

.

Another tradition states that the Doge Domenico Selvo the year 1084 devoted
in

his fortune the church finish the mosaics closer investigation shows however
to

to

,
.
all

the vaulting are confused with the inscription

of

that these accounts the mosaics

in

now half destroyed the southern chapel the choir which the chroniclers always
of
in
(

be
of

proof may perhaps

as

regarded the origin

of

their statements and which the

a

whole tradition This inscription states that about 1100 Peter began set the tabulae
to
.

on .”

seems evident that these refer not the mosaics but

to

tabulae the slabs

It

to
,

,
"

the walls This proves that was not until the year years after the
15

1100 that
,

is
it
.

of

first consecration 1085 that the church was lined with marble and that this date
,

marks the beginning hardly likely apart from the stylistic reasons
of

the work
It
is
.

against time
at

the vaulting was already finished

of

that the mosaic decoration

—
it

a
-

VI

La
dei
P.

Musaici vol Ongania Basilica ducale San Marco

of

Saccardo Storia Venezia 1878–93

in

di
P. ,

,
·

.
St
de

on

French edition Saccardo Les mosaïques Marc Venise 1896. new comprehensive monograph this
,

A
:

-
O.
by

cycle being prepared Demus

is

.
by

by

all

There were damages the earthquake

of

fire 1106 1230 1419 and also 1511. Worse than these
in

,
2

by

were the damages made artists and restorers from the XVth century until Tintoretto and later
.

Diez Demus
8
-

.
114 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

when the rude brick walls below were still unmasked . The inscription is valuable ,
however , as the earliest testimony

for
splendid decoration the inside

of
the

.
spite these divergencies some mosaics may

to be
of
connected with Selvo above

In

of ,

,
all the apostles present

12
the niche the main entrance the church the

in
from

narthex They differ from the Venetian style and point Torcello and

to

to
seem
Hosios Lucas
.

.
part XIIth century long

of
The main the decoration was carried out the

in

A
.
the apostles

of
time seems to have elapsed between the narthex and the mosaics

of
the

of
Pentecost probably the oldest part the inner decoration and the Christological scenes
,

,
of

of
the southern transverse arch the main dome This was probably due the

to
.
of

fire 1106
.

of
The statement Greek mosaicist Marcus grecus Indriomeni about 1153 may

,
a
be

of
proof the activity

as
accepted

of
with some caution the mosaicists the

in
a
-

-
of

middle the XIIth century .

by
of
the dome above the sanctuary the representation
In

Immanuel surrounded

,
prophets seems stylistic point

of
the Pentecost mosaic come next

to
view

to
from
a

.
the central dome with the Ascension and the surrounding
of

The animation the figures

of

)
Hell

as

as
arches with the Passion and Harrowing
of
well the later acta apostolorum
(

by
point the century supposition which supported
of

the end various accounts

is
to

,
a
of

of

of
endowments favor the opus Sancti Marci the second half the century
in

in

.
The period around 1200 comparatively well known

of of
The date the Genesis
is is

,
.
the earliest work about 1218 from the similarity the ornament
at

the narthex fixed

in

,
of

of

with that the mosaic the apse San Paolo fuori mura Rome which was set
in

in
le

,
by

this year
of

Venetian Mosaicists Also coin Enrico Dandolo was found the

in

in
a
.

mortar under the mosaics

of

the patriarca

of
volta del The work the narthex
“

.”
far
as

as

and including the first dome

of

the history Joseph was carried

of
mosaics

on
,
until 1240,2 and was continued 1260 The whole series was completed about 1300
.:
in

.
decisive for the dating
of

of

The coin Enrico Dandolo the mosaics the two

is

in
of

the choir with the legends and the cycle

of
chapels St. Mark and St. Peter
of

,
the

the transept Here too

of
until the middle
on

miracles work was carried the

in

.
of

of

century The row saints filling the arches the arcades are contemporary and
.

of

correspond with the narthex and have their most monumental exponents
the saints
of

transept dome They are the last stragglers this style

of

the saints the south

,
in

.
by
be

and their date can fixed hagiographic termini

.

With this chronological scheme basis all the other mosaics

of
as

the church can

,
a

lie

of

approximately dated
be

Further details however outside the scope the

.

present book
,
To

the main apse and the legend transept

of

St. John
of

which the restored mosaics the dome the left

in

in
?
to

are be added
.

by

given which can only have been

to

Evidence for this date the mosaic over the entrance the tesoro
is

,
2

of

set after the fire 1230

.
An

1258 forbidding the

of

order was issued appointment mosaicists otherwhere than San Marco

in

in
•

.
 APPENDIX 115

TRIESTE
San Giusto . The style of the mosaics , which are much restored , points to the
XIIIth century .
K. v . Haas,

der
Bibliography . Die Mosaiken im Dom von Triest . Mitteilungen Centralkommission etc.

,
k
k
.
176

Wien 1859
p
,

ff
.

SICILY

by
Palermo Cappella Palatina The date 1143 for the foundation fixed the inscription

is
,

.
at the bottom of the dome .

N.
A.
Di . A.

. A.
in po
Bibliography Pavlovskij Živopis Palatinskoj Kappelly Palermo Snimkam Pomeranzevo
,

v
.

XXV
F.

Cagina Imp Akad Chud St. Petersburg 1890

J.

Izdanie the same author Revue arch 1894 and

,
;
.

, .

.
i

XIV

A.
Byzant Zeitschr Marzo Delle belle arti
1893. Sicilia dai Normanni sino alla fine del secolo Springer

in
II,

,
.

.
Die mittelalterliche Kunst Palermo Bilder aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte 1886 Buscemi Notizie della basilica
in

,
).
, (
di

La
Cappella Regia Cappella San Pietro nella Reggia Palermo

di

di
San Pietro detta Palermo 1840. Terzi
la
,

,
Palermo 1873-85
.

comprehensive Study this mosaic

di

Ruggero

of
Palermo Palazzo Reale Stanza
,

A
.
by

G.
A.

decoration being prepared Dr. Künstler

is

. of ). .

of
Palermo StaMaria dell'Ammiraglio Martorana The building the church was
,

la
(
.

by George Antioch the Admiral King Roger made evident

as
of

started 1143

is
in

II,
by

of

the two dedication mosaics George and Roger

-

Bibliography Shtshukarjeff Vizantizkija mozaiki dvuch Sizilianskich zerkvjej XII vjeka Zapizki Imper
,
.

.
IV

Russk arch obsč 50–67

p
,

,
.

by

Monreale The cathedral was built 1174-84 William II died 1189 whose

),
.

dedication mosaic the nave (

is
in
-

D.
Bibliography
di

di

Pietrasanta Duca Serradifalco Duomo Monreale Palermo 1838. Gravina Duomo

,

,
Il

Il
.
di

Monreale Palermo 1859–1871

,

no by

CefalúThe church was built Roger 1131–1148 The mosaics are probably
II
(
.

).

the same time though there According

on
of

certain evidence their date

to
is
,

a
.

Ms. with the portraits Roger

of

Palermo from the façade

1339 was adorned
in

William and Costanza and Frederic These have been destroyed The inscription II,
II
I,

II,

.
of

six Latin the apse gives

as

verses 1148 the date

in

.
Cf.

Bibliography the comprehensive works cited above

.
.

MESSINA
the apse Gregorio
of

of

of

The mosaic the Madonna work the

is

San
in

XIIth century ..
GROTTAFERRATA
A. the Pentecost mosaic belongs
of

According Baumstark the end the

in
to

XIIth century
.

degli Apostoli Oriens

di

Bibliography
A.

Musaico nella Chiesa abbaziale Grottaferrata

,

Baumstark
,
I
, .

bibliography
IV

christianus 1904 121ff with

.p
,

.,

8
*
116 BYZANTINE MOSAICS IN GREECE

BETHLEHEM
On the date of the mosaics of the councils ,
The Basilica of the Nativity .

cf.
Vincent
The medallions with the portraits

of
Abel the predecessors
et

of
Béthléem 160f

,
p
.

by
Christ beyond any doubt belong the XIIth century the inscription

as
confirmed

is
to

,
The Basilius pictor who
of

the mosaicist Ephraim the choir

on
from 1169 named

is
in

, ,
.
probably belongs

. of
the southern wall the nave between the ninth and tenth window
same period Christological cycle transept and

of
the The the choir also

in

is
to

this time
.

Bibliography de aujourd'hui

de de
M. Voguë Les églises Paris 1890 hier

et
Terre Sainte the same Jérusalem

la
,

, ,
;
.

, .
-
de

de
Basilique W. Harvey

de
Germer Durand Décoration Béthléem Echos Notre Dame France 1891.
la
, ,

,
-

W. R. Lethaby

by

the
H. A. Cruso R. W. Schultz
A.

A.
Nativity
O.

M. Dalton

C.

of
and Headlam edit The Church
,

,
.
A. Baumstark
at

London 1910. Ed Weigand Die Geburtskirche von Bethlehem only

on
Bethlehem 1911 architecture
, ,

et ,

,
.

.
Palestinensia Römische Quartalschrift 1906 143-49 157-88 Vincent Abel Béthléem Paris 1914

.p
,

,
.

.
ARTA

set
the Paragoritissa church may have been
of

The mosaic the dome the

in
in

-
by
XIIIth century Epiros the beginning

of

of
The church was built the despots

in
.

of

of
the XIIIth century and the mosaic the Pantokrator due the liberality the

to
is
same dynasty
.

SERES
of

, of
The mosaics the apse the metropolitan church Seres Macedonia represent
in

in

by
the Divine Liturgy figs Apostles badly damaged
of

122 123 The row the fire

,
(

).

by

which had taken place the XIth century

of
most critics
to

1849 dated the end

in

,
is

.
We not agree with this judgment because the modelling very different from
do

the
is
,

schemata employed Chios Daphni

at

Nicaea and The surfaces which are surrounded

,

,
.

by simply drawn contour lines are filled with curious forms broken glass and closely
of
,

,
jami the vivacity and
of

of

resemble those the mosaics the Kahrieh And further

,
.
-D

individual character We therefore

figures would early dating
of

the not suit this

.

the XIIIth century

as
of

of
believe this mosaic be work the first half
to

and the
,

,
a

century was not favorable for setting mosaics we think that this work
of
one the
is
,

first manifestations the Palaeologue Renaissance and was made soon after the
of

,
of

restoration this dynasty

.

La

de

Bibliography Métropole Mémoirs

de

la
et

Perdrizet Chesnay Monuments Fondation

et

Serres
.p ,
. .

XVI
op

Piot Art
.p cit

1909 126 Wulff 570. Diehl Manuel 475 490. Dalton East Christian 288
p

.p

.p
ff
,

.,

. ,

N. ,

,
.

, .

Byzantine Art Archaeology Papageorgiu Seppar

Ai

Idem and 398. Kondakoff Macedonia 151–153

p
,

,
.

ROME
be

The Roman mosaics the Late Middle Ages are provincial

of

as

considered
to

a
of

phenomenon The capital the world was then especially the XIIth century
in
(

)
.

by
of

foyer art which had few relations with the great evolution led Byzantium
a

.
 APPENDIX 117

It may often be remarked that a rigid archaism connects the artists of this time
with the artistic life of Early Roman -Christian art . In the following century the
archaism became a renaissance . But the description of this event is beyond the aims
of this book .
Bibliography . Ch . R. Morey , Lost mosaics and frescoes of Rome of the mediaeval period , 1915. R. van Marle ,
The development of the Italian schools of painting , I , The Hague 1923 , p. 179-181. Vitzthum - Volbach , Malerei
und Plastik des Mittelalters in Italien , Wildpark -Potsdam , p. 197 f. J. Wilpert , Mosaiken und Malereien etc.
A. Muñoz , Frammento di musaico a San Bartolomeo all'Isola in Roma , L'Arte , 1904, p. 516 .

San Clemente . The mosaic decoration of the apse of San Clemente has been
thought to be a work of the time of Constantine (Wilpert ). It is certain that an early

Christian prototype has been used ; but van Marle and Volbach agree that the work
was executed during the time of Pope Pascal II ( 1099-1118 ) . Whether this was
a restoration or a new creation is immaterial. At least the figures are evidently of
the XIIth century (but not of the XIIIth , as Zimmermann has tried to prove ) .

Sta . Maria in Trastevere .

The basilica having been restored under the pontificate
of Innocent II and Eugenios III , it is more than probable that the mosaics of the apse
were set at this time. The close resemblance of the mosaic to Early Christian works
of the fifth century , or thereabouts , is highly curious . The frieze under the façade
might have beenset at the same time and have undergone a restoration at the very
beginning of the XIIIth century ( Pope Innocent III, 1198–1216 ).

Sta . Francesca Romana . The mosaics in the conch of this church are dated by
their close affinity to the above mentioned mosaic in the apse of Sta . Maria in

Trastevere and by the date of the consecration of the church , which took place in

1161 ( Pope Alexander III) .

San Bartolommeo all Isola . Of the mosaic decoration of this church nothing is
preserved but the half -figure of Christ . This may also be dated by the resemblance
to the mosaic of Sta . Maria in Trastevere . Van Marle assumes that both mosaics
were executed by the same artist .

San Paolo fuori le mura . The mosaic in the apse was set by Venetian mosaicists ,
III

who were called to Rome by Pope Honorius 1218. With this mosaic new
in

a
of

wave Byzantine influence reaches Rome

.

or

Italy
of

Other mosaics are either too late date are too much restored
in

Rome Florence Milan be

to

discussed here
,

,
&
(

.)

.
c

**
8
 HOSIOS LUCAS ,
LIST OF SAINTS 73 Sabbas

8281 8079 7877 7675 74

Abramios
IC

XC
21201918 171615 14131211109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Mary Joannes Kalibytes

Poimen
John the Forerunner MADONNA
Gregorios Theologos Joannes Klobos
WITH CHILD Martinidos
Athanasios
7 8 Stephanos Neos

GLOSSA
Theodoros Tiron
Silvester Nikon Metanoites
9 10 Joannes Klimakos
Cyprianos PHYLAN
Spyridon Makarios Aigypt

.
Acheilios
DESCENT 83 Antonios

OLLOW

999897 9695 949392 91908988 87868584

OF THE HOLY 11 Ephraim
Anthemios

DANIEL
SPIRIT Arsenios

13
Eleutherios

12
ONOG
Polykarpos Hilarios
Neilon

14
Antipas
Gregorios Nyssa Dorotheos
GLOSSAI PHYLAI
of

19 20 15 16 Theoktistos
Philotheos
Maximios
Hierotheos

)23
MICHAEL GABRIEL Sisoes
Dionysios Areopagites

17
21 22 18
Ignatios Theoph ANNUNCIATION Joannikios
31 24
.

Theodoros Studites
Gregorios BIRTH
of

Armenia

?
65 Daniel
Kiryllos
of

Alexandria
22 .mes Lukas Gurnikiotes
MICHAEL

Agathangelos
282726 252423
IC

XC
Auxentios Neophilos
Bikentios Niketas
GABRIEL
Viktor 30/ 25 Akakios
51 57140 32 149 41 100 Bitas
55 53 101 Basiliskos

47
102
29 OLD MOSAICS 103 Simon
30

56

DESTROYED NOW FRES

33
60 54 57139 46 44 104
.

31 COES
a

105
60 595857575655 5453525150494847 464544434241 403938 37 363534 3332

Theodoros Tiron PANTOGRATOR

Nestor 106 Mary
61 55 45 48 107 Gabriel
Demetrios 58138
52 50 42 108 John the Forerunner
Prokopios 29
109 Michael

110
BAPTISM

PRESENTATION

Merkurios Panteleimon
OF

Georgios 111 Thalalaios

URIEL 112 Tryphon
CHRIST

Nikolaos Neos 69
RAFAEL 113Mokios
Theodoros Stratilates OF 66
164 63 114 Kosmas
Mary
)

68 CHRIST 28 27 115 Kyros

Panteleimon
?
)
IC (

XC 116 Damianos
71

83 84 36 UR 70
37 117 Joannes
Uriel
Zacharias 18. Thomas
85 86 72 73 119 Bartholomaios
Rafael
102 120 Philippos
93 96
78

Jason 91 99181 121 Paulos

74
87

Sosipatros
Kleopas 122 Jakobos
88

75
77

Ananias
901 97 105 103 10g 123 Joannes Theologos
124 Petros
Mary
89 125 Markos
76

Lukas Stiriotes 92 104

79

94 98 101182
126 Andreas
IC

XC 95 80
127 Matthaios
Michael
128 Simon
Jakobos Adelphotheos 129 Lukas
130

Gabriel
Thekla
118

Nikanor
127 CRUCIFIXION 124 PANTOKRATOR 121 RESURRECTION 131 Anastasia
Timotheos
a

Silas 114 106 110 132 Konstantinos

133 Helene
Prochoros
Stephanos 134 Petronia
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