Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Influence of frozen storage on bread enriched with different ingredients

I. Mandala *, A. Polaki, S. Yanniotis
Department of Food Science and Technology, Laboratory of Engineering, Processing and Preservation of Foods, Agricultural University of Athens, 75, Iera Odos, 11855
Votanikos, Athens, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Developing products having both a high nutritional value and good storage stability during freezing is a
Received 18 March 2008 challenge. Breads with hydrocolloids (HPMC or locust bean gum), commercial soluble fibers or whole oat
Received in revised form 17 June 2008 flour were prepared. Bread containing a commercial shortening with plant stanols was also used. The
Accepted 20 June 2008
physical characteristics of frozen dough and semi-baked frozen samples were determined after baking
Available online 27 June 2008
and comparisons to fresh samples were performed. Fresh samples containing hydrocolloids, polydextrose
or commercial shortening presented similarities. Semi-baked breads had an elastic crumb (e.g. inulin
Keywords:
containing breads presented an increase in crumb elasticity by 18% in comparison to the respective fresh
Frozen storage
Semi-baked bread
ones). Control and inulin semi-baked breads showed the more pronounced differences (e.g. 60–80% lower
Fibers crust firmness values than those of fresh samples). Samples containing whole oats presented an increased
Hydrocolloids water adsorption capacity at high aw, as observed by sorption isotherms and a water binding capacity
Sorption change after storage.
Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction Partial baking (par-baking) is a term used for bread baked in

two stages, which are interrupted by an intermediate freezing
Demand for products that can combine both a high nutritional stage. The benefit of this process is that bread is partially baked,
value and a good shelf life is steadily increasing. Although bread stored, and with a further bake-off stage ‘‘fresh” product is sup-
could be considered as a typical product, in which specific ingredi- plied. The objective of partial baking is to bring about the gelatini-
ents are involved (flour, water, salt, sugars, fat and leavening zation and the coagulation of gluten, before the onset of crust
agents), new perspectives in the bakery industry appeared with colouring (Roussel and Chiron, 2002). As two stages of baking are
the use of alternative flour mixes or the use of ingredients that involved, the baking parameters in both stages are very important
could influence the following: baking performance, sensory attri- (e.g. the temperature and time influence) (Park and Baik, 2002), as
butes and storage stability. However, it is well known, that bread is the influence of the intermediate frozen storage stage (Fik and
has a short shelf life. This means that numerous undesirable phys- Surówka, 2002; Carr et al., 2006; Le Bail et al., 2005; Lucas et al.,
icochemical changes, normally expressed by the term ‘‘staling”, oc- 2005a,b; Ribotta and Le Bail, 2007; Vulicevic et al., 2004).
cur in a relatively short time. Extending the shelf life of bread is a For frozen storage stability, composition could be an important
challenge as the demand for ready or part-baked products is high. factor. Among different ingredients used, the influence of hydro-
Considering this need, freezing was used, which increases the en- colloids on dough or partially baked breads has been researched
ergy consumption, nevertheless it is widely applied due to its con- (Collar et al., 1999; Bárcenas et al., 2003; Mandala et al., 2008; Ro-
venience. Research has focused on the frozen dough technology sell et al., 2004). Hydrocolloids, although added in small amounts,
and recently in the partial baking process. A lot of work has been significantly influence the characteristics of the final products. Fur-
done on factors that influence dough stability in a refrigerator. thermore, the use of alternative ingredients, which could lead to an
These factors could be (a) the formula ingredients and specifically optimization of frozen storage stability, is a new demand. The
the effect of: emulsifiers, shortenings, enzymes or yeast (Wolt and enhancement of nutritional value along with frozen storage stabil-
d’Appolonia, 1984; Matuda et al., 2005; Dubois and Blockcolsky, ity is an added benefit of the use of such ingredients. Awareness of
1986; Ribotta et al., 2003), (b) the process parameters such as mix- the benefits associated with fiber is increasing and, therefore, fi-
ing conditions (Rouillé et al., 2000) and (c) storage parameters such bers could be used for manufacturing new bread formulations.
as freezing rate, temperature and time (Havet et al., 2000; Le Bail Nevertheless, fiber intake is commonly lower than recommended,
et al., 1999; Le Bail et al., 2001). while simultaneously ‘white bread’ has proved to be the most con-
sumed type of bread. Therefore, the development of bread enriched
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 5295692; fax: +30 210 5294697. with higher dietary fiber content could be the best way to increase
E-mail address: [email protected] (I. Mandala). the fiber intake, fortifying the daily diet (Wang et al., 2002). Mix-

0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2008.06.020
138 I. Mandala et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145

Nomenclature

a constant Eq. (1) N number of observations

a0 constant Eq. (5) r capillary radius
aw water activity R gas constant (8.314 J K1 mol1)
b constant Tq. (1) T temperature (K or °C)
b0 constant Tq. (5) t time (s)
c constant Eq. (1) vm molar volume (cm3 mol1)
C constant Eqs. (2)–(4) and (6) w water content, kg water/kg dry material
c0 constant Eq. (5) wm moisture content at the monolayer
C0 constant Eqs. (7)–(9) x1 constant
d0 constant (Eq. (5))
F(t) the momentary force at time (t) in a stress relaxation Greek symbol
test (N) c surface tension
F0 the initial (maximum) force applied in a stress relaxa-
tion test (N) Subscripts
K constant Eqs. (2), (4), (6), (7), (8), (9) EXP experimental
k1 constant related to stress decay rate (s) MODEL predicted
k2 constant related to the residual stress at the end of the
relaxation experiment

ture of fibers from different sources can be used for developing Breads containing inulin (3 g/100 g of flour, ‘‘BeneoTM GR inulin”,
low-calorie wheat bread formulations (Collar et al., 2007), or solu- ORAFTI group, Belgium) were coded as IBs, while those containing
bilised fibres could be used to substitute at least 12% wheat flour polydextrose (8 g/100 g flour, ‘‘Litesse II”, Danisco Sweeteners,
resulting in a baked product with good final quality (Kaack et al., Denmark) were coded as PBs. Finally, breads containing hydrocol-
2006). loids (HPMC or LBG) (0.4 g/100 g flour, Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA)
This paper aims at comparing the effect of dietary fiber and and coded as HPB or LBB, respectively. Abbreviations of the sam-
hydrocolloids from different sources on frozen storage stability of ples used are presented in Table 1.
(a) dough and (b) semi-baked (par-baked) bread, when these com- All ingredients were put in a Hobart mixer (Hobart N50, Hobart
pounds were added. Furthermore, fresh samples of the same com- Co., Troy, OH, Canada) and were mixed at a speed of 475 rpm for
position were used. The fiber enrichment was achieved either by 12 min. After mixing, the dough was hand-molded, divided into
substituting part of the wheat flour with whole oat flour or by 60 g pieces and put into rectangular aluminum pans
using commercial soluble fibers. The hydrocolloid selection was (60 mm  100 mm). Different procedures were followed before
made according to previous studies. This is the first part of this re- storage. Thus, for each composition, breads were divided into fresh
search. In the second one, microstructural characteristics and sen- breads, dough breads and semi-baked breads. Dough breads (DB)
sory attributes of the above samples were determined. were stored as dough for one week at 18 °C in a home refrigera-
tor. Thereafter, they were left at ambient conditions until their
temperature, checked by a thermocouple at the crumb center
2. Materials and methods
(TestostorÒ 171, Testo GmbH and Co., Lenzkirch, Germany)
reached 20 ± 1 °C. The breads were then fermented for 30 min at
Hard wheat flour suitable for bread making (Flour Mills C.
25 °C, rested for proofing for 30 min more at 35 °C and baked in
Sarantopoulos SA, Piraeus, Greece) was used for producing the final
an air oven for 20 min at 198 °C (average air velocity 1.1 m/s).
bread samples. The rheological characteristics of the dough are de-
The temperature inside the bread loaves during baking was re-
scribed elsewhere (Mandala and Sotirakoglou, 2005).
corded by using thermocouples. After baking, the breads were re-
The basic bread formula per 100 g flour was: 2.0 g vegetable
shortening (Elais SA, Athens, Greece), 2.0 g sugar (Hellenic Sugar
Industry SA, Greece), 1.6 g salt and 2.0 g yeast (‘‘Mac magic”, Ali-
mentaria SA, Athens, Greece).
Table 1
The amount of water used ranged from 52 to 54.5 g/100 g flour. Abbreviations of samples used
This amount was determined for all samples/recipes so that a
Abbreviation Bread type Storage indication
dough consistency of 500 BU was obtained as measured by a
farinograph. BB Bread containing a commercial
shortening (benecol)
In breads containing whole oat flour (Karamolegos, Bakery
CB Control (without any
Industry SA, Athens, Greece), 40% of wheat flour was substituted enrichment)
and breads were coded as OBs. The water added was much more HPB Bread with hydroxypropyl
than that in other breads (more than 80 g/100 g flour) for the same methylcellulose (HPMC)
dough consistency (500 BU). In these breads, an enzyme prepara- IB Bread containing 3 g/100 g
inulin
tion (a-amylase with additional transglutaminase and hemicullo- LBB Bread with locust bean gum
lase activity, VERONÒ CLX, AB Enzymes, Darmstadt, Germany) (LB)
was also added (0.1 g/100 g flour) to provide a better loaf volume. OB Bread with 40:60 whole oats/ F: fresh DB: Bread that has been
A special shortening (Benecol, Minerva, SA, Greece) containing wheat flour frozen stored as dough
PB Bread containing 8 g/100 g SB: semi-baked bread
olive oil and plant stanols was added (2 g/100 g flour) to breads
flour polydextrose
coded as BBs.
 I. Mandala et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145 139

moved from the pans, and left to cool at ambient conditions for 30– with
40 min. Then, measurements were carried out. 1
Semi-baked (SB) breads were fermented and rested for proofing a0 ¼ ð6Þ
Kwm C
as described above. Thereafter, they were baked in the same condi-  
0 1 x1 2
tions as above for the half of the total baking time (10 min). After b ¼  þ1 ð7Þ
wm KC 0 C 0
cooling, the breads were sealed in polyethylene bags, and stored  
for one week at 18 °C in a domestic chest-type freezer. Samples 0 1 K 2x1
c ¼  K ð8Þ
were put at the center of the freezer, occupying the same volume wm C 0 C 0
each time. After that, they were left at ambient conditions until 0 Kx1
d ¼ : ð9Þ
they reached 20–21 °C, baked for another 10 min at 198 °C and wm C 0
cooled at ambient conditions. Then, measurements were carried The goodness of fit was evaluated using the mean relative deviation
out. Fresh breads were also fermented, tested for proofing, as de- modulus (P) defined as:
scribed above, and then baked at 198 °C for 20 min. For all breads,
their yield in baked product, specific volume, porosity, moisture 100 X
N
jX MODEL  X EXP j
P¼ : ð10Þ
content, textural characteristics of both crumb and crust, and crust N i¼1 X EXP
colour were determined.

2.1. Yield and moisture content 2.5. Puncture tests

The yield in baked product was calculated as the ratio of the The peak force of the crust was calculated by punching the sam-
sample weight after and before baking. For each measurement 15 ple at three different points: in the middle of the crust area and at
samples were used. The moisture content of the crumb was calcu- the left and right sides (1 cm distance from the middle point). The
lated according to the 44-15A method (AACC, 2000). The procedure average value was determined for each specimen. Experiments
followed for both crumb and crust moisture content determination were performed using a Universal Testing Machine (Instron 1011,
was the same as described in Mandala et al. (2007). Massachusetts, USA). A cylindrical probe was used with a die of
4 mm diameter. The cross speed was 50mm/min and the failure
2.2. Sorption isotherms (puncture) force was calculated. Three to four replicates were con-
ducted for each measurement.
Adsorption isotherms of control breads (CB) and oatmeal breads
(OB) were determined using a gravimetric static method at 25 °C, 2.6. Relaxation tests
similar to that recommended in the COST 90 project (Spiess and
Wolf, 1983). Nine reference salt solutions (LiCl, CH3COOK, MgCl2, Samples from the geometric centre of the crumb were cut into
Mg(NO3)2, NaBr, SrCl2, NaCl, KCl and BaCl2) were used to cover cubes (2  2  2 cm) and compressed. For their compression a
the aw range of interest (0.11–0.9). Samples were kept over phos- cylindrical upper die of 40 mm diameter was used at a cross speed
phorus pentoxide 7 days before measurement. Thereafter, three 50 mm/min. The strain used was 16% and the whole relaxation
different samples, taken from the geometric centre of the loaf, experiment lasted 10 min. The stress relaxation curves obtained
were weighed (0.5 g each) and placed into sorption containers, were normalized and linearized according to the Peleg (1979)
which were placed in a water bath adjusted at a constant temper- and Peleg and Pollak (1982) model. For each relaxation measure-
ature of 25 ± 0.2 °C. After 10–15 days, equilibrium was reached as ment 3–4 samples were used.
determined by constant weight in two consecutive measurements. F0  t
The equilibrium moisture content at each water activity was then ¼ k1 þ k2  t: ð11Þ
F0  FðtÞ
determined after drying at 110 °C for 2 h. Sorption plots were then
obtained, based on the mean value of the three replicas (0.5 g), and
two different models were used for predicting the experimental 2.7. Crust colour
data: GAB model (three parameters), and generalized GAB model
(four parameters). For colour measurements, scanned bread slices were used and
the procedure described in Mandala et al. (2007) was followed.
2.3. GAB model
2.8. Statistical analysis

aw Statistical analysis was performed using the Statgraphics Statis-

¼ a þ baw þ ca2w ð1Þ
w tical Graphics System, Version 2.1 (Statgraphics, Rockville, MD,
with USA). Fisher’s LSD was used to determine significant differences
between samples. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered
1
a¼ ð2Þ significant.
Kwm C
C2
b¼ ð3Þ 3. Results and discussion
aw C
Kð1  CÞ
c¼ : ð4Þ 3.1. Baked product yield
wm C
The lowest values were noticed in CBs/DB, suggesting a struc-
2.4. Generalized GAB model ture change of the bread grains network (Fig. 1). Generally, in a
bread of a frozen dough, grain walls are thick and there are few
pores unevenly distributed (Ishida et al., 2001). Gas escape, espe-
aw 0 0
¼ a0 þ b aw þ c0 a2w þ d a3w ð5Þ cially from pores near the crust, can increase, affecting both yield
w and loaf volume.
140 I. Mandala et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145

Fresh Dough Semi-baked

100

bc' c' c' abc'

90 ab' cd* a' ab'
bc* d cd* cd bc* d*
Yield in baked product ( % )
bc ab b* b
a* a abc

80

70

60

50
CB BB OB IB PB HPB LBB
Bread type
Fig. 1. Yield in baked product (%) of fresh or frozen stored samples as: (a) dough and (b) semi-baked ones. Abbreviations as in Table 1. Samples with different letters in the
same colour column differ significantly (p < 0.05).

Differences in yield values were observed in respect to the bak- diluting effect. According to Pomeranz et al. (1977) fibers impaired
ing stage before storage. Semi-baked breads showed higher yield gas retention, while do not increase gas production. As a result
comparing to that of fresh ones. Fresh and breads of frozen doughs structure is disrupted and this phenomenon is known as dilution
(DB) presented similar yield values, with the exception of control effect. A lower specific volume of bread containing dietary fibers
bread. was also reported by Wang et al. (2002) and O’Brien et al. (2003),
Composition effect was not always evident for samples treated when inulin was added as a powder at 5%. Decrease in specific vol-
in the same way. For example, one could expect that water reten- ume has also been observed in extruded corn starch containing fi-
tion and consequently yield in baked product, would be related to bers (Yanniotis et al., 2007).
the amount of added polysaccharides. However, this was not ob- Differences in specific volume values among samples were
served. IBs presented the highest values irrespective of their treat- more pronounced in breads of frozen dough (DBs). In this case, fi-
ment, but significant differences to control samples were only ber containing samples had lower specific volume, hydrocolloid
noticed in fresh samples as presented in Fig. 1. PBs and LBBs pre- containing samples had medium values and BBs or control samples
sented similar yield values and yield changed in relation to the had higher values (Fig. 2).
treatment before storage. Although OBs had the greatest moisture Nhe addition of hydrocolloids did not have the expected bene-
content, they did not have the greatest yield in the baked product. fits on bread specific volume as reported by Ribotta et al. (2004)
Statistically significant increase in bread yield in comparison to and Sharadanant and Khan (2003), who noticed that frozen doughs
control samples was only noticed in breads of frozen dough. In this containing hydrocolloids resulted in breads of increased specific
case, control samples presented the lowest yield value, as men- volume compared with that of the frozen control sample. In
tioned above, and seem to be structurally damaged by frozen semi-baked breads, samples containing hydrocolloids had high
storage. specific volumes, but not significantly different to those of BBs or
CBs (p < 0.05). Semi-baked PBs had also a high specific volume, sig-
3.2. Specific volume nificantly higher than that of CBs, BBs and IBs.
It should be noted, that the overall effects of hydrocolloids on
As expected, OBs presented the lowest values of specific volume the functional performance of frozen dough and the subsequent
in all bread types, because of the type and the high amount of fiber bread quality depend on the nature, origin and dosage of the
they contain. The suppression of loaf volume by soluble oat dietary hydrocolloids incorporated into the dough, as well as the formula-
fibre is probably related to the inhibition of gluten strength. tion, processing condition and other ingredients (Selomulyo and
Increasing its content, without a concomitant increase in vital glu- Zhou, 2006).
ten content, results in a reduction of volume, and even in unsatis-
factory loaves (Rudel, 1990). As an optimized recipe was not used, 3.3. Moisture content
the specific volume obtained, was not the best possible. All fresh
breads showed increased specific volumes compared to those of The moisture content of a loaf in different positions (P) and of
all semi-baked ones. This is in agreement with Park and Baik different composition (C) is shown in Table 2. Moisture reduction
(2007) and Ribotta and Le Bail (2007), who mention that par-bak- (%) towards the outer part of the loaf (crust) compared to that in
ing decreased the resulting loaf volume of breads. This is also in the middle slice is also shown in the Table. OBs, as it was expected,
agreement with the low yield values of fresh samples. Low specific presented the highest moisture content in all cases. All other sam-
volume values were noticed in samples containing soluble fibers. ples present similar moisture content at the center of the loaf irre-
Specifically, IBs had significantly lower specific volume than all spective of the treatment before storage. However, greater
other breads (p < 0.05) regardless of the treatment before storage. differences were observed in the loaf moisture distribution of sam-
Fiber addition decreased final bread volume due to their gluten- ples with different compositions, i.e. the moisture content of CBs/
 I. Mandala et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145 141

5
Fresh Dough Semi-baked

cd e*
4 bc d bcd bcd

Specific volume ( cm3 / g )

b d*
d' cd'
c' c' cd' c*
b' c*
3 b*
b*

a
2 a* a'

0
CB OB IB PB BB HPB LBB
Bread type
Fig. 2. Specific volume of fresh or frozen stored samples as: (a) dough and (b) semi-baked ones. Abbreviations as in Table 1. Samples with different letters in the same colour
column differ significantly (p < 0.05).

Table 2
Effect of bread location, composition and storage on moisture content change

P C
CB OB IB PB BB HPB LBB
Fresh
Middle* 30.63a(2.76) 40.09b (1.09) 30.08a (2.93) 29.86a(3.27) 29.06a(1.34) 29.68a(1.77) 28.77a(1.72)
Location1** 22.26 13.19 23.97 29.97 11.18 20.48 30.05
Outer layer** 47.85 43.25 39.92 50.13 57.69 39.35 38.84
Dough frozen
Middle 29.48a(0.56) 39.74c (1.46) 31.80ab (4.11) 31.67ab(2.72) 34.76b(0.65) 31.03ab(1.45) 34.29b(0.70)
Location 1 36.74 9.54 9.53 29.64 40.64 27.02 15.64
Outer layer 60.50 22.09 44.03 54.62 53.59 51.57 45.96
Semi-baked and frozen
Middle 33.80ab(2.76) 45.52d (1.57) 35.16c (2.00) 33.5 1abc (2.32) 34.00bc(1.08) 32.22abc(0.94) 30.60a(0.21)
Location 1 11.81 16.99 16.55 21.44 10.07 11.80 12.88
Outer layer 37.10 36.29 42.75 50.11 37.39 34.06 35.62

Samples in the same row with different letters differ significantly at p < 0.05. In parentheses standard deviation values are given.
*
gH20/100 g product (wet basis).
**
Moisture content reduction is expressed as the percentage difference between the values at location one or at the outer layer and those in the middle of the loaf.

DB was 60% lower at the crust (outer slice) of the bread than that in moisture content was influenced by the treatment before storage,
the middle slice, while in OB/DB it was 22% lower. Additionally, a because the dough stored samples, had higher moisture content
different moisture content distribution was observed depending than that of control samples (p < 0.05).
on the before storage process. The highest changes in moisture dis- Crust flaking (detachment of the crust from crumb caused by a
tribution were noticed in samples of frozen dough (DB), while the considerable difference in crumb/crust moisture content, which re-
lowest in semi-baked ones. This indicated changes in the structure sults in different rate of expansion and contraction during their
of the sample due to freezing, which resulted in different mass freezing and thawing cycle (Cauvian, 1998)) was not noticed in
transfer rates during baking. any of the breads.
Semi-baked breads presented a relatively moist crumb with low
spatial variation, especially in the inner part of the loaf. This was 3.4. Sorption isotherms
probably due to (a) an already formed crust in the interrupted bak-
ing process, resulting in an internal mass transfer resistance at the The sorption isotherms of fresh and semi-baked bread with or
beginning of the second stage baking and (b) the time–tempera- without oat flour are shown in Fig. 3. The sorption isotherm of
ture profile inside the loaf is different than that of an uninterrupted oat containing semi-baked bread was below the sorption isotherm
baking process. of the control semi-baked bread (Fig. 3A), which was probably due
Samples of the same composition presented different behaviour to the lower carbohydrate and greater lipid content of whole oat
depending on the storage process. PBs presented almost the same flour compared to wheat flour. It is known that carbohydrates have
changes in moisture distribution regardless of the initial values a high water retaining capacity and that fat inhibits water adsorp-
and the treatment used. They also presented the highest moisture tion. Thereby, both contribute to a lower water adsorption of the
difference between the middle and the crust except the CB/DB sample. Fig. 3B shows the sorption isotherms of fresh bread with
sample. On the contrary, LBBs/SB presented a dry crumb without or without oat flour. At high water activities, the sorption isotherm
statistical differences from control values (p < 0.05). However, their of oat containing bread has a steeper slope resulting in crossing of
142 I. Mandala et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145

the isotherms at a water activity value around 0.75. One reason for two breads. It is known that, at water activities higher than 0.8,
the sharp increase of water content in oat containing bread at high water is physically entrapped in the solid matrix, i.e. there is con-
water activities could be differences in the microstructure of the densation of water in capillaries and pores. The lower specific vol-
ume that was observed in the oat containing bread indicated a
more compact structure with smaller macrocapillaries, which can
A 70 contribute to the amount of water adsorbed. The capacity of retain-
OB/SB
ing free water increases further by the fibers presence of oat flour.
60
OB/SB It is evident from the Kelvin equation that when the capillary ra-
CB/SB dius increases, the minimum water activity required for condensa-
50
CB/SB tion to occur increases Eq. (12)
2cv m
ln aw ¼ : ð12Þ
Moisture, % db

40
rRT
Comparing the fresh with the semi-baked control breads, it is ob-
30
served that their sorption isotherms coincide for water activities
up to about 0.7 (Fig. 3C). Above these values, the SB breads showed
20 higher water holding capacity. The specific volume of SB breads was
lower than that of the fresh ones, therefore, this structure favored
10 capillary condensation and increased water content at high water
activities.
0 Both samples followed a sigmoid-shaped curve, representative
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 of a type II isotherm (Brunauer’s classification). This type is charac-
Water activity teristic of amorphous materials, and was more evident in the sam-
ple containing oat flour. The GAB model Eq. (1), when applied, gave
a mean relative deviation value defined by Eq. (10) higher than 5%.
B 70
According to Lomauro et al. (1985) if P < 5% the fit is considered
OB/F
60
successful. In the present case, all P-values were higher than
OB/F
5.5%. The monolayer moisture content as calculated by the GAB
CB/F
equation was lower in the oat containing breads. The C constant
50 CB/F values in the GAB model were greater than 2, which are typical
in foods with type II isotherm curves (Blahovec, 2004). The k-val-
Moisture, % db

40
ues in the OB/F, CB/SB and OB/SB were higher than 1 although k
in the GAB model must be less than 1, according to Blahovec
30 (2004). The generalized GAB model (Blahovec and Yanniotis,
2009) gave better results (Table 3). This model could be applied
20 successfully in many foods and has a high predictability of exper-
imental values in the whole range of water activity (0–1).
10
3.5. Textural attributes
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 3.5.1. Relaxation
Water activity Relative elasticity of crumb depends on the treatment before
storage and the composition of breads (Fig. 4). Samples of frozen
dough had a more elastic crumb than fresh or semi-baked breads,
C 70
CB/F but this depended also on their composition (e.g. PBs/D and PBs/SB
60
had the same crumb elasticity). CBs/DB had lower crumb elasticity
CB/F
than that of samples containing fibers (except from PBs) or hydro-
CB/SB colloids (p < 0.05). According to Ribotta et al. (2004) dough frozen
50
CB/SB
Moisture, % db

40
Table 3
Model parameters values used for data prediction of isotherm curves
30
Model parameters Fresh Semi-baked
CB/F OB/F CB/SB OB/SB
20
GAB
K 0.892 1.002 1.016 1.001
10 C 17.568 7.498 16.939 9.431
wm 5.070 3.529 4.676 3.777
P 6.9 5.5 12.2 10.4
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Generalized GAB
K 0.979 0.946 1.065 1.043
Water activity C0 11.290 7.534 9.375 7.538
wm 3.120 5.895 3.072 2.701
Fig. 3. Adsorption isotherms and fitting plots using the generalized GAB model. (A) x1 8.328 8.845 8.302 5.077
Control and oat containing breads (semi-baked samples), (B) control and oat breads P 2.9 3.4 12.1 6.6
(fresh samples) and (C) fresh and semi-baked control breads. Symbols correspond
to experimental data and lines to predicted values by Eq. (5). Samples used: Fresh or semi-baked, with or without oat flour.
 I. Mandala et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145 143

Fresh Dough Semi-baked

1.0

d*
cd* cd*
cd* cd' bc*
0.8 b c'
ab* b' b a* bc'
a ab b' a
Rel. elasticity (%)

a b'
a
0.6
a'

0.4

0.2

0.0
CB BB OB IB PB HP B LBB
Bread type
Fig. 4. Crumb viscoelastic properties of fresh or frozen stored samples as: (a) dough and (b) semi-baked ones. Abbreviations as in Table 1. Samples with different letters in the
same colour column differ significantly (p < 0.05).

storage decreases the firmness and the elasticity of the dough and 3.5.2. Puncture test
dough additives such as emulsifiers or hydrocolloids (e.g. guar Fresh samples had a firmer crust in comparison to that of semi-
gum) improve its final viscoelastic properties. Control and PBs baked ones (Fig. 5). Among them, greater values were noticed in
had almost similar crumb elasticity regardless of the treatment be- IBs (p < 0.05). Control breads of fresh and semi-baked samples
fore baking. The values obtained were quite low. On the contrary, had also a relatively firm crust. Samples of frozen dough presented,
high values of relative elasticity were noticed in IBs regardless of after baking, differences in comparison to fresh ones. Inulin-con-
the treatment before baking. taining breads had a soft crust. Moisture redistribution during stor-
BBs and OBs had also an elastic crumb, more pronounced in the age could be a factor strongly influencing crust firmness and
dough frozen stored samples. BBs/SB had also increased crumb consequently bread staling (crust softening is an indication of
elasticity and OBs presented different relative elasticity in the var- staling). In the case of semi-baked breads, greater similarities in
ious storage conditions. values obtained were noticed, indicating a smaller influence of

Fresh Dough Semi-baked

25

20
c*
c
15 b*
F max (N)

ab*
ab*
b ab
10 ab
ab' a*
ab ab'
a* a* a ab'
a' ab'
ab' a
a'
5

0
CB BB OB IB PB HPB LBB
Bread type
Fig. 5. Crust textural characteristics (firmness) of fresh or frozen stored samples as: (a) dough and (b) semi-baked ones. Abbreviations as in Table 1. Samples with different
letters in the same colour column differ significantly (p < 0.05).
144 I. Mandala et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 137–145

Fresh Dough Semi-baked

c*
200 bc*
c' c* abc' c*
bc' abc'
b
ab
abc* ab abc'
150 ab ab ab'
Crust colour (C)

ab
a* a'
a ab*
100

50

0
CB OB IB PB BB HPB LBB
Bread type
Fig. 6. Crust colour of fresh or frozen stored samples as: (a) dough and (b) semi-baked ones. Abbreviations as in Table 1. Samples with different letters in the same colour
column differ significantly (p < 0.05).

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