1

PRIME UNIVERSITY

Simulating Starter and PID controller for control system using PLC

A project has been submitted to the department of Electrical and Electronic

Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of Prime University in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Engineering of Prime
University in partial Electrical and Electronic Engineering.

Submitted By:

Md. Saiful Islam Md.Abdur Razzak Md.Mahabub Hossain

ID:172030301052 ID:172030301059 ID:163030301012
Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:43rd;Group-B

Supervised By:

Sunirmal Kumar Biswas

Lecturer
Department of EEE
Prime University
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

27 December ,2020
To,
Sunirmal Kumar Biswas
Lecturer
Department of EEE
Prime University
Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Subject: Submission of Project Report.

Sir,
We do here by submit the project report on Simulating Starter and PID controller for
control system using PLC. It has been a great pleaser to work on such an important
topic. According to the Prime University requirement and complying with your
suggestion and comments. We have completed the report for your kind action.

Sincerely, we believe that you will find this report very useful and informative. We shall
be happy to provide any further information that you may feel necessary in this regard.

Sincerely Yours

Md. Saiful Islam Md.Abdur Razzak Md.Mahabub Hossain

ID:172030301052 ID:172030301059 ID:163030301012
Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:43rd;Group-B
 3

DECLARATION

We do hereby solemnly declare that the thesis report entitled Simulating Starter and
PID controller for control system using PLC submitted to Prime University is a
record of an original work done by us under the guidance of our respected
supervisor Sunirmal Kumar Biswas Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering (EEE), Faculty of Engineering, Prime
University.

We, hereby guarantee that the work that have been presented here do not
breach any existing copyright. We further undertake to indemnify the
University against any loss or damage arising from breach of the foregoing
obligations.

Md. Saiful Islam Md.Abdur Razzak Md.Mahabub Hossain

ID:172030301052 ID:172030301059 ID:163030301012
Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:43rd;Group-B
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Prime University
114/116, Mazar Road
Mirpur-1, Dhaka-1216
w ww.primeuniversity.edu.bd

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this Thesis Report titled Simulating Starter and PID
controller for control system using PLC is the confide record of the thesis
work done by Md. Saiful Islam, Md.Abdur Razzak, Md.Mahabub Hossain for
partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of BSc in Electrical
and Electronic Engineering (EEE) from Prime University.

Supervisor

(Sunirmal Kumar Biswas)

Lecturer, Dept. of EEE
Prime University
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114/116, Mazar Road, Mirpur-1, Dhaka

Acknowledgement

All the praises and thanks to the Almighty God, that He gives us the strength and wisdom
to finish this work.

We feel great pleasure in expressing our gratitude to our Supervisor Mr. Sunirmal
Kumar Biswas, Lecturer, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Prime
University. We would also like to extend our special thankfulness to Associate Professor
Md. Mostak Ahmed, Head, Department of EEE for giving us the chance to conduct this
thesis. Guidance, encouragement and support of all the faculty members were invaluable
in completing this internship successfully.

In concluding, it is a satisfaction to acknowledge our parents and friends, because of their

encouragement and advice propelled us to complete this work.
Authors-

Md. Saiful Islam Md.Abdur Razzak Md.Mahabub Hossain

ID:172030301052 ID:172030301059 ID:163030301012
Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:45th ;Group-B Batch:43rd;Group-B
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CONTENT
Letter of Transmittal 2
Declaration 3
Acknowledgement 4
Certification 5
Executive Summery 6
Content 7-9

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction of PLC

10
1.2 History
10
1.3 Applications
11
1.4 Problem Statement
11
1.5 Objective 12
1.6 Scope of Work
12

CHAPTER TWO
DESCRIPTION OF SIMULATION SOFTWARE

2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 MUL_I Multiply Integer 13-14
2.3 BCD Integer to BCD 14-15
2.4 S_CUD Up-Down Counter 15-17
2.5 CMP? R Compare Real1 7-18
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2.6 I_DINT Integer to Double Integer 19

2.7 DI_REAL Double Integer to Floating-Point 20
2.8 MOVE Assign a Value 21
2.9 MCR (Master Control Relay) dependency 21-22
2.10 Scaling Values: FC105 23-24
2.11 S_ODT On-Delay S5 Timer 25-26
2.12 Overview of Bit Logic Instructions
27
2.13 ALL_FC Call FC from Box 28-
29

CHAPTER THREE
STARTER

3.1 Introduction
30
3.2 Principal of Starter
30
3.3 DOL Starter 30-
31
3.3.1 DOL Starter Wiring Diagram
32
3.3.2 DOL Starter Working Principle 32-
33
3.3.3 Advantage and disadvantage of DOL starter 33-
34
3.3.4 DOL S tarter Applications 34
3.4 Star Delta starter 34-35
3.4.1 Advantage and disadvantage of star delta starter 35-
36
3.4.2 Applications of star delta starter
36
3.5 Reverse and Forward starter 36-
37
3.5.1 Reverse and Forward Starter Control diagram 37-38
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3.5.2 Forward reverse starter power diagram 38-39

3.5.3 Working of Forward and reverse starter diagram 40
3.5.4 Benefit of Reverse and Forward starter 40
3.6 Auto transformer Starter 41
3.6.1 Theory of Auto transformer Starter 41-45
3.6.2 Advantage and disadvantage of Auto transformer 45

CHAPTER 4
PID CONTROLLER

4.1 Introduction of PID controller 46

4.2 PID Controller 46-47
4.3 History of PID Controller 47
4.4 PID Controller Block Diagram 47-48
4.5 Working of PID Controller 48-52
4.6 Types of PID Controller 52-54
4.7 PID Control Structure 54-55
4.8 Temperature Control of Furnace 55
4.9 The Converter of Power Electronics 56
4.10 PID Function of FC network 56-66
4.11 Continuous Control with SFB 41/FB 41 "CONT_C" 67-70
4.12 Application 70

CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
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6.1 Limitations of the Work 71

6.2 Scopes of the Work 71
6.3 Discussion 72
6.4 Result 72
6.5 Reference 73-74

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction of PLC

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial digital

computer that has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes, such
as assembly lines, robotic devices, or any activity that requires high reliability, ease of
programming, and process fault diagnosis. PLCs can range from small modular devices with tens
of inputs and outputs (I/O), in a housing integral with the processor, to large rack-mounted
modular devices with thousands of I/O, and which are often networked to other PLC systems.
They can be designed for many arrangements of digital and analog I/O, extended temperature
ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control
machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. PLCs were
first developed in the automobile manufacturing industry to provide flexible, rugged and easily
programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relay logic systems. Since then, they have been
widely adopted as high-reliability automation controllers suitable for harsh environments. A PLC
is an example of a "hard" real-time system since output results must be produced in response to
input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result.

1.2 History of PLC

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Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) have become an essential device for automating
manufacturing processes. Developed in the 1960s, PLCs started out the size of suitcases and
required logic programs to be drawn out on a drafting board before being loaded onto the device
with a numeric keypad. Since then, PLCs have evolved to be smaller, faster, and more powerful
to keep up with the increasing demands and sophistication of modern manufacturing.

1.3 Application

A PLC performs only a single set or sequence of tasks, with greater reliability and performance,
except when it is under real-time constraints. This is in contrast to regular PCs and smartphones
that are designed to execute any number of roles simultaneously within the Windows framework.
The PLC has a number of features that you don’t find in normal computers, such as protection
from the open area conditions like heat, dust and cold. It is low cost compared with other
microcontroller systems. When you’re using a PLC in various applications, you only need to
change the software component for each application. With other microcontroller systems
however, you would have to change the hardware components too with different applications.
This microprocessor- based controller includes a programmable memory that stores instructions
and implements functions that include sequencing, timing, logic, arithmetic, and counting.

1.4 Problem Statement

There is difficulty when using the traditional or conventional method because those methods
cannot deal with any application that using complex mathematical model. However, a working
knowledge of PID does not require the operator to be familiar with advanced mathematical
developments. This is because the three terms are reasonable intuitive, allowing non-specialist of
the controller action. PID also is found in essentially all undergraduate control courses. The PID
framework solves many control problems and is sufficiently flexible to incorporate additional
capabilities. Machines are easily damage without implementation of control methodology in it
system. Frequently, the desired performance characteristics of control systems are specified in
terms of the transient response. The transient response of a practical control system usually
exhibits damped oscillation before reaching steady state. As for machines, having a high
overshoot is an undesired condition since the starting current is very high. Thus, control
methodology such as PID controller is used to limit the maximum overshoot as well as to reduce
the starting current of the machine

1.5 Objectives

The main objective of our project is to explain the concept of industrial automation through a
simple design of Starter and PID controller by a PLC system. The objectives of the project is
Simulating Starter and PID controller for control system using PLC. The main function of Starter
and PID controller.

1.6 Scope of Work

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In industrial practice, the classic PID algorithm is still the primary solution used to control
analogue processes, and objects. It is available as a function in most programmable controllers,
Siemens, GE, Allan Bradley, Benchoff, B & R It is available as a function in most programmable
controllers, Siemens, GE, Allan Bradley, Benchoff, B & R. The essence of the success of the PID
algorithm is connected with the simplicity of implementation, tuning, and low effort of
computing power necessary to perform it even with limited resources of the operating system. In,
Parkinson and Smith claim that the PID algorithm will continue to be the fundamental solution
used in industrial practice. In Parkinson and Smith claim that the PID algorithm will continue to
be the fundamental solution used in industrial practice. The PID algorithm in the feedback
control system provides resistance to non-stationarity, non-linearity, and randomness of
interference. Larger changes in the dynamics of the object (as a result of a change in the working
point, a change in static amplification or the values of time constants, especially those that will
be non-linear) can cause a significant deterioration of the control quality.

Chapter 2
Description of Simulation Software

2.1 Introduction:
SFB/FB "CONT_C" (continuous controller) is used on SIMATIC S7 programmable logic
controllers to control technical processes with continuous input and output variables. During
parameter assignment, you can activate or deactivate sub functions of the PID controller to adapt
the controller to the process. You can assign this easily by using the parameter assignment tool
(Menu path, e.g. in Windows XP: Start >SIMATIC> Step7 > Assign PID Control parameters).
The online electronic manual is found e.g. in Windows XP under Start > SIMATIC > Step7 >
Assign PID Control English.

2.1 MUL_I Multiply Integer:

Symbol:
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Parameter Data Type Memory Area Description

EN BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable input

ENO BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable output
IN1 INT I, Q, M, L, D or constant First value for multiplication
IN2 INT I, Q, M, L, D or constant Second value for multiplication
OUT INT I, Q, M, L, D Result of multiplication

Description

MUL_I (Multiply Integer) is activated by a logic "1" at the Enable (EN) Input. IN1 and IN2 are
multiplied and the result can be scanned at OUT. If the result is outside the permissible range for
an integer (16-bit), the OV bit and OS bit will be "1" and ENO is logic "0", so that other
functions after this math box which are connected by the ENO (cascade arrangement) are not
executed.
See also evaluating the Bits of the Status Word with Integer Math Instructions.
Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO / FC
writes: x x xxx 0 xx 1

Example

The MUL_I box is activated if I0.0 = "1". The result of the multiplication MW0 x MW2 is output
to MD10. If the result was outside the permissible range for an integer, the output Q4.0 is set.

2.3 I_BCD Integer to BCD:

Symbol
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Parameter Data Type Memory Area Description

EN BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable input

ENO BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable output
IN INT I, Q, M, L, D Integer number
OUT WORD I, Q, M, L, D BCD value of integer number

Description

I_BCD (Convert Integer to BCD) reads the content of the IN parameter as an integer value (16-
bit) and converts it to a three-digit BCD coded number (+/- 999). The result is output by the
parameter OUT. If an overflow occurred, ENO will be "0".

Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

writes: x - - xx 0 xx1

Example

If I0.0 is "1", then the content of MW10 is read as an integer and converted to a three-digit BCD
coded number. The result is stored in MW12. The output Q4.0 is "1" if there was an overflow, or
the instruction was not executed (I0.0 = 0).

2.4 S_CUD Up-Down Counter:

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Symbol

Parameter English Parameter German Data Type Memory Area Description

C no. Z no. COUNTER C Counter identification number; range depends on CPU

CU ZV BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Count up input
CD ZR BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Count down input
S S BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Set input for presetting counter
PV ZW WORD I, Q, M, L, D or constant Enter counter value as C#<value> in the range from 0
to 999
PV ZW WORD I, Q, M, L, D Value for presetting counter
R R BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Reset input
CV DUAL WORD I, Q, M, L, D Current counter value, hexadecimal number
CV_BCD DEZ WORD I, Q, M, L, D Current counter value, BCD coded
Q Q BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Status of the counter

Description

S_CUD (Up-Down Counter) is preset with the value at input PV if there is a positive edge at
input S. If there is a 1 at input R, the counter is reset and the count is set to zero. The counter is
incremented by one if the signal state at input CU changes from "0" to "1" and the value of the
counter is less than "999". The counter is decremented by one if there is a positive edge at input
CD and the value of the counter is greater than "0".
If there is a positive edge at both count inputs, both instructions are executed and the count value
remains unchanged.
If the counter is set and if RLO = 1 at the inputs CU/CD, the counter will count once in the next
scan cycle, even if there was no change from a positive to a negative edge or vice versa.
The signal state at output Q is "1" if the count is greater than zero and "0" if the count is equal to
zero.

Status word
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BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

Writes: - - - - - x x x 1
Note: Avoid to use a counter at several program points (risk of counting errors).
Example

If I0.2 changes from "0" to "1", the counter is preset with the value of MW10. If the signal state
of I0.0 changes from "0" to "1", the value of counter C10 will be incremented by one - except
when the value of C10 is equal than "999". If I0.1 changes from "0" to "1", C10 is decremented
by one - except when the value of C10 is equal to "0". Q4.0 is "1" if C10 is not equal to zero.

2.5 CMP ? R Compare Real:

Symbols

Parameter Data Type Memory Area Description

box input BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Result of the previous logic operation

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box output BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Result of the comparison, is only processed further if the RLO at
the box input = 1
IN1 REAL I, Q, M, L, D or constant First value to compare
IN2 REAL I, Q, M, L, D or constant Second value to compare

Description

CMPR (Compare Real) can be used like a normal contact. It can be located at any position
where a normal contact could be placed. IN1 and IN2 are compared according to the type of
comparison you choose.
If the comparison is true, the RLO of the function is "1". It is linked to the RLO of the whole
rung by AND if the box is used in series, or by OR if the box is used in parallel.

Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

writes: x x x x x 0 x x 1

Example

Output Q4.0 is set if the following conditions exist:

· There is a signal state of "1" at inputs I0.0 and at I0.1
· And MD0 >= MD4
· And there is a signal state of"1" at input I0.2

2.6 I_DINT Integer to Double Integer:

Symbol
 17

Parameter Data Type Memory Area Description

EN BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable input

ENO BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable output
IN INT I, Q, M, L, D Integer value to convert
OUT DINT I, Q, M, L, D Double integer result Description

I_DINT (Convert Integer to Double Integer) reads the content of the IN parameter as an integer
(16-bit) and converts it to a double integer (32-bit). The result is output by the parameter OUT.
ENO always has the same signal state as EN.

Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

writes: 1 - - - - 0 1 1 1
Example

If I0.0 is "1", then the content of MW10 is read as an integer and converted to a double integer.
The result is stored in MD12. The output Q4.0 is "1" if the conversion is not executed (ENO =
EN = 0).

2.7 DI_REAL Double Integer to Floating-Point:

Symbol
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Parameter Data Type Memory Area Description

EN BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable input
ENO BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable output
IN DINT I, Q, M, L, D Double integer value to convert
OUT REAL I, Q, M, L, D Floating-point number result

Description

DI_REAL (Convert Double Integer to Floating-Point) reads the content of the IN parameter as a
double integer and converts it to a floating-point number. The result is output by the parameter
OUT. ENO always has the same signal state as EN.

Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

Writes: 1 - - - - 0 1 1 1

Example

If I0.0 is "1", then the content of MD8 is read as an double integer and converted to a floating-
point number. The result is stored in MD12. The output Q4.0 is "1" if the conversion is not
executed (ENO = EN = 0).

2.8 MOVE Assign a Value:

Symbol

Parameter Data Type Memory Area Description

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EN BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable input

ENO BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable output
IN All elementary data types with a length of 8, 16, or 32 bits I, Q, M, L, D or constant Source
value
OUT All elementary data types with a length of 8, 16, or 32 bits I, Q, M, L, D Destination
address

Description

MOVE (Assign a Value) is activated by the Enable EN Input. The value specified at the IN input
is copied to the address specified at the OUT output. ENO has the same logic state as EN.
MOVE can copy only BYTE, WORD, or DWORD data objects. User defined data types like
arrays or structures have to be copied with the system function "BLKMOVE" (SFC 20).

Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

Writes: 1 - - - - 0 1 1 1

2.9 MCR (Master Control Relay) dependency

MCR dependency is activated only if a Move box is placed inside an active MCR zone. Within
an activated MCR zone, if the MCR is on and there is power flow to the enable input; the
addressed data is copied as described above. If the MCR is off, and a MOVE is executed, a logic
"0" is written to the specified OUT address regardless of current IN states.
Note
When moving a value to a data type of a different length, higher-value bytes are truncated as
necessary or filled up with zeros:

Example: Double Word 1111 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 0101 0101

Move Result
To a double word: 1111 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 0101 0101 to a byte:
0101 0101
To a word: 1111 0000 0101 0101

Example: Byte 1111 0000

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Move Result to a byte: 1111 0000 to a

word: 0000 0000 1111 0000
To a double word: 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111 0000

Example

The instruction is executed if I0.0 is "1". The content of MW10 is copied to data word 12 of the
currently open DB. Q4.0 is "1" if the instruction is executed.

If the example rungs are within an activated MCR zone:

· When MCR is on, MW10 data is copied to DBW12 as described above.
· When MCR is off, "0" is written to DBW12.

2.10 Scaling Values: FC105

Description
The SCALE function takes an integer value (IN) and converts it to a real value in engineering
units scaled between a low and a high limit (LO_LIM and HI_LIM). The result is written in
OUT. The SCALE function uses the equation: OUT = [ ((FLOAT (IN) – K1)/(K2–K1)) *
(HI_LIM–LO_LIM)] + LO_LIM
The constants K1 and K2 are set based upon whether the input value is BIPOLAR or
UNIPOLAR.
· BIPOLAR: The input integer value is assumed to be between –27648 and 27648, therefore, K1
= –27648.0 and K2 = +27648.0
· UNIPOLAR: The input integer value is assumed to be between 0 and 27648, therefore, K1 =
0.0 and K2 = +27648.0
If the input integer value is greater than K2, the output (OUT) is clamped to HI_LIM, and an
error is returned. If the input integer value is less than K1, the output is clamped to LO_LIM, and
an error is returned.
Reverse scaling can be obtained by programming LO_LIM > HI_LIM. With reverse scaling, the
value of the output decreases as the value of the input increases.

FC105 Parameters
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Parameter Declaration Data type Memory area Description

EN Input BOOL I, Q, M, D, L Enable input with signal state of 1 activates the box. ENO Output
BOOL I, Q, M, D, L Enable output has a signal state of 1 if the function is executed without
error.
IN Input INT I, Q, M, D, L, P, Constant the input value to be scaled to a real value in engineering
units.
HI_LIM Input REAL I, Q, M, D, L, P, constant Upper limit in engineering units.
LO_LIM Input REAL I, Q, M, D, L, P, constant Lower limit in engineering units. BIPOLAR
Input BOOL I, Q M, D, L A signal state of 1 indicates that the input value is bipolar. A signal
state of 0 indicates that the input value is unipolar.
OUT Output REAL I, Q, M, D, L, P Result of the scale conversion.
RET_VAL Output WORD I, Q, M, D, L, P Returns a value of W#16#0000 if the instruction
executes without error. See Error Information for values other than W#16#0000.

Error Information

If the input integer value is greater than K2, the output (OUT) is clamped to HI_LIM, and an
error is returned. If the input integer value is less than K1, the output is clamped to LO_LIM, and
an error is returned. The signal state of ENO is set to 0 and RET_VAL is equal to W#16#0008.

Example

If the signal state of input I0.0 is 1 (activated), the SCALE function is executed. In this example,
the integer value 22 will be converted to a real value scaled between 0.0 and 100.0 and written to
OUT. The input value is BIPOLAR, as indicated by the signal state of I2.0.
If the function is executed without error, the signal states of ENO and Q0.0 are set to 1 and
RET_VAL is set equal to W#16#0000.
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2.11 S_ODT On-Delay S5 Timer:

Symbol

Parameter English Parameter German Data Type Memory Area Description

T no. T N TIMER T Timer identification number; range depends on CPU S SBOOL I,

Q, M, L, D Start input
TV TW S5TIME I, Q, M, L, D Preset time value
RR BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Reset input
BI DUAL WORD I, Q, M, L, D Remaining time value, integer format
BCD DEZ WORD I, Q, M, L, D Remaining time value, BCD format
QQ BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Status of the timer

Description
 23

S_ODT (On-Delay S5 Timer) starts the specified timer if there is a positive edge at the start (S)
input. A signal change is always necessary in order to enable a timer. The timer runs for the time
interval specified at input TV as long as the signal state at input S is positive. The signal state at
output Q is "1" when the timer has elapsed without error and the signal state at the S input is still
"1". When the signal state at input S changes from "1" to "0" while the timer is running, the timer
is stopped. In this case the signal state of output Q is "0".
The timer is reset if the reset (R) input changes from "0" to "1" while the timer is running. The
current time and the time base are set to zero. The signal state at output Q is then "0". The timer
is also reset if there is a logic "1" at the R input while the timer is not running and the RLO at
input S is "1".
The current time value can be scanned at the outputs BI and BCD. The time value at BI is binary
coded, at BCD is BCD coded. The current time value is the initial TV value minus the time
elapsed since the timer was started.
See also "Location of a Timer in Memory and Components of a Timer".

Timing Diagram:

On-Delay timer characteristics:

Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

writes: - - - - - xxx1

Example
 24

If the signal state of I0.0 changes from "0" to "1" (positive edge in RLO), the timer T5 will be
started. If the time of two seconds elapses and the signal state at input I0.0 is still "1", the output
Q4.0 will be "1".
If the signal state of I0.0 changes from "1" to "0", the timer is stopped and Q4.0 will be "0" (if
the signal state of I0.1 changes from "0" to "1", the time is reset regardless of whether the timer
is running or not).
2.12 Overview of Bit Logic Instructions:

Description

Bit logic instructions work with two digits, 1 and 0. These two digits form the base of a number
system called the binary system. The two digits 1 and 0 are called binary digits or bits. In the
world of contacts and coils, a 1 indicates activated or energized, and a 0 indicates not activated or
not energized.
The bit logic instructions interpret signal states of 1 and 0 and combine them according to
Boolean logic. These combinations produce a result of 1 or 0 that is called the "result of logic
operation" (RLO).
The logic operations that are triggered by the bit logic instructions perform a variety of functions.
There are bit logic instructions to perform the following functions:
· ---| |--- Normally Open Contact (Address)
· ---| / |--- Normally Closed Contact (Address)
· (SAVE) Save RLO into BR Memory
· XOR Bit Exclusive OR
· ( ) Output Coil
(#)--- Midline Output
· ---|NOT|--- Invert Power Flow
The following instructions react to an RLO of 1:
· ---(S) Set Coil
· ---(R) Reset Coil
· SR Set-Reset Flip Flop
· RS Reset-Set Flip Flop
 25

Other instructions react to a positive or negative edge transition to perform the following
functions:
(N)--- Negative RLO Edge Detection
(P)--- Positive RLO Edge Detection
· NEG Address Negative Edge Detection
· POS Address Positive Edge Detection
· Immediate Read
· Immediate Write

2.13 CALL_FC Call FC from Box:

Symbol

The symbol depends on the FC (whether it has parameters and how many of them). It must have
EN, ENO, and the name or number of the FC.

Parameter Data Type Memory Area Description

EN BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable input

ENO BOOL I, Q, M, L, D Enable output
FC no. BLOCK_FC - Number of FC; range depends on CPU

Description

CALL_FC (Call a Function from a Box) is used to call a function (FC). The call is executed if
EN is "1". If CALL_FC is executed, the return address of the calling block is stored,
· The previous local data area is replaced by the current local data area,
· The MA bit (active MCR bit) is shifted to the B stack,
· A new local data area for the called function is created.
After this, program processing continues in the called function.
The BR bit is scanned in order to find out the ENO. The user has to assign the required state
(error evaluation) to the BR bit in the called block using (SAVE). If you call a function and the
variable declaration table of the called block has IN, OUT, and IN_OUT declarations, these
variables are added in the program for the calling block as a list of formal parameters.
 26

When calling the function, you must assign actual parameters to the formal parameters at the call
location. Any initial values in the function declaration have no significance.

Status word

BR CC 1 CC 0 OV OS OR STA RLO /FC

Unconditional: writes: x - - - 0 0 xxx
Conditional: writes: - - - - 0 0 xxx

Example

CHAPTER 3
STARTER

3.1 Introduction

The DOL starter consists of two switches namely Green and Red where the green switch is used
to start and red switch is used to stop the motor. The DOL starter comprises a circuit breaker (or)
MCCB, overload relay & contactor for protecting the motor. The two switches of the motor
control the contacts.

3.2 Principal of Starter

The starter works on the fact that the torque is proportional to the square of the starting current,
which in turn is proportional to the applied voltage. Thus the torque and the current can be
adjusted by reducing the voltage at the time of starting the motor. This is also known as Time
Voltage Ramp System.
 27

3.3 DOL Starter

A DOL starter (or Direct ON Line starter or across the line starter) is a method of starting of a 3
phase induction motor. In DOL Starter an induction motor is connected directly across its 3-
phase supply, and the DOL starter applies the full line voltage to the motor terminals. Despite
this direct connection, no harm is done to the motor. A DOL motor starter contains protection
devices, and in some cases, condition monitoring. A wiring diagram of a DOL starter is shown
below. Since the DOL starter connects the motor directly to the main supply line, the motor
draws a very high inrush current compared to the full load current of the motor (up to 5-8 times
higher). The value of this large current decreases as the motor reaches its rated speed.

A direct on line starter can only be used if the high inrush current of the motor does not cause an
excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. If a high voltage drop needs to be avoided, a star
delta starter should be used instead. Direct on line starters are commonly used to start small
motors, especially 3 phase squirrel cage induction motors.

As we know, the equation for armature current in the motor.

As we know, the equation for armature current in the m. The value of back EMF (E) depends
upon speed (N), i.e. E is directly proportional to N. At starting, the value of E is zero. So starting
current is very high. In a small rating motor, the rotor has more considerable axial length and
small diameter. So it gets accelerated fast. Hence, speed increases and thus the value of armature
current decreases rapidly. Therefore, small rating motors smoothly run when it is connected
directly to a 3-phase supply. If we connect a large motor directly across 3-phase line, it would
not run smoothly and will be damaged, because it does not get accelerated as fast as a smaller
 28

motor since it has short axial length and larger diameter more massive rotor. However, for large
rated motors, we can use an oil immersed DOL starter.

3.3.1 DOL Starter Wiring Diagram

The wiring diagram for a DOL starter is shown below. A direct online starter consists of two
buttons, a GREEN button for starting and a RED for stopping purpose of the motor

The comprises of an MCCB or circuit breaker, contactor and an overload relay for protection.
These two buttons, i.e. Green and Red or start and stop buttons control the contacts. To start the
motor, we close the contact by pushing Green Button, and the full line voltage appears to the
motor. A contactor can be of 3 poles or 4-poles. Below given contactor is of 4-pole type. It
contains three NO (normally open) contacts that connect the motor to supply lines, and the fourth
contact is “hold on contact” (auxiliary contact) which energizes the contactor coil after the start
button is released. If any fault occurs, the auxiliary coil gets de-energized, and hence the starter
disconnects the motor from supply mains.

3.3.2 DOL Starter Working Principle

The working principle of a DOL starter begins with the connection to the 3-phase main with the
motor. The control circuit is connected to any two phases and energized from them only. When
we press the start button, the current flows through contactor coil (magnetizing coil) and control
circuit also. The current energizes the contactor coil and leads to close the contacts, and hence 3-
phase supply becomes available to the motor. The control circuit for a DOL Starter is shown
below.
 29

Fig: Direct Online Starter Control Diagram

If we press the stop button, the current through the contact becomes discontinued, hence supply
to the motor will not be available, and the similar thing will happen when the overload relay
operates. Since the supply of motor breaks, the machine will come to rest. The contactor coil
(Magnetizing Coil) gets supply even though we release start button because when we release
start button, it will get supply from the primary contacts as illustrated in the diagram of the
Direct Online Starter.

3.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantage DOL Starter

The advantages of a DOL starter include:

 More comfortable to design, operate and control.

 Provides nearly full starting torque at starting.
 Easy to understand and troubleshoot.
 DOL starter connects the supply to the delta winding of the motor.

The disadvantages of a DOL starter include:

 High starting current (5-8 times of full load current).

 DOL Starter causes a significant dip in voltage, hence suitable only for small motors.
 DOL Starter reduces the lifespan of the machine.
 Mechanically tough.
 Unnecessary high starting torque

3.3.4 DOL Starter Applications

 30

The applications of DOL starters are primarily motors where a high inrush current does not cause
excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit (or where this high voltage drop is acceptable).

Direct on line starters are commonly used to start small water pumps, conveyor belts, fans, and
compressors. In the case of an asynchronous motor (such as the 3-phase squirrel-cage motor) the
motor will draw a high starting current until it has run up to full speed.

3.4 Star delta starter

A star delta starter is the most commonly used method for the starting of a 3 phase induction
motor. ... When motor reaches about 80% of its full load speed, it will begin to run in a delta
connected stator winding. A star delta starter is a type of reduced voltage starter.

Fig: Star Delta Starter control diagram

 31

Wye-Delta starting requires, as the name implies, a switching of the motor windings from one
connection (wye) to another (delta). Switching the motor from wye to delta by the open
transition method allows it to be completely disconnected from the power source for a brief time
period before being reconnected delta.

Starters are used to protect DC motors from damage that can be caused by very high current and
torque during startup. They do this by providing external resistance to the motor, which is
connected in series to the motor's armature winding and restricts the current to an acceptable
level.
A star Delta Starter reduces the starting current by connecting the motor winding in Star at the
time of starting. This reduces the voltage across the winding. The voltage across the winding will
be (1/squire (3))*Line Voltage. After the starting time set in the timer the winding will be
connected in Delta.

3.4.1 Advantage of Star-Delta starters:

 Star-Delta starters are widely used due to their relatively low price.
 There are no limits to the number of times they can be operated.
 The components require very little space.
 The starting current is reduced to approximately one-third.

Disadvantage of Star-Delta starter:

 The starter can only be applied to motors where the six leads or terminals can be
accessed.
 The supply voltage must be the same as the rated motor voltage for Delta connection.
 Because the starting current is reduced to approximately one-third of the rated current,
the starting torque is also reduced to one-third.
 If the motor does not reach at least 90% of its rated speed at the time of switching from
Star to Delta the current peak will be as high as in a D.O.L. start, thus causing harmful
effects to the contacts of the contactors and the connection system brings no advantage to
the electrical system.

3.4.2 Application of Star Delta Starter

As discussed in the above advantages and disadvantages, a star delta starter is most suited to
applications where the required starting current is low and where the line current draw must be at
a minimum value. The star delta starter is not suitable for applications where high starting torque
delivery is required. For these applications, a DOL starter should be used instead. If the motor is
too heavily loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the motor up to speed before
switching over to the delta position. Example application for a star delta starter is a Centrifugal
compressor.
 32

3.5 Reverse and Forward starter

A forward/reverse magnetic is constructed from two regular contactors installed with a  prevent
both coils from pulling in simultaneously. They are connected so that under normal conditions,
one coil will connect L1 with T1, L2 with T2, and L3 with T3. When the alternate coil is
energized, Lines 1 and 3 are interchanged with Terminals 1 and 3, allowing for a phase shift in
the 3-phase circuit, driving the motor and causing it to rotate in the opposite direction. Both coils
power contacts feed through a single set of OLR to provide running protection in both directions.

To prevent unintentional energization of both the forward and reverse coil at the same time, the
coils are equipped with normally closed contacts, which are then wired in series with the
opposite direction’s coil to act as an electrical interlock. This means that if the coil that drives the
motor in the forward direction is energized, a normally closed set of contacts wired in series with
the reverse coils will prevent that coil from being energized as long as the forward coil remains
energized.

3.5.1 Reverse and Forward starter power diagram:

 33

Fig: Reverse and Forward starter power diagram

In this article we are going to learn about the forward reverse starter. As the name defines
forward reverse starter is used to run the motor in both sides forward and reverse. The figure
given below shows the control and power diagram of forward and reverse starter diagram. These
forward and reverse starters are DOL type and not used above the 05 HP motors. To run the
motor of above 05 HP rating circuit has to make in star delta. These type of starters are used in
various applications mixing of materials, dying machines etc.

3.5.2 Forward reverse starter control diagram

Fig: Forward reverse starter control diagram

Materials used in this diagram are:-

MCB – Two pole MCB used for Control wiring and 3 pole MCB used for the power wiring.

Over Load Relay – Over Load Relay are used for the protection of the motor against various
types of faults like overloading, over voltage, under voltage and single phasing etc.
 34

Contactors – Two contactors are used one for the forward direction and other for the reverse
direction.

Push Buttons – Two push buttons are used here one of them are for forward direction and other
push button for reverse direction.

As shown in the diagram first of all we need to connect the power supply in the MCB
(Miniature Circuit Breaker). Output of the MCB have to connect with overload relay NC point
for reset. After that wire has to connect with NC points of the contactor of opposite directions as
shown in the diagram for forward contactor connect to the NC point of reverse contactor and for
reverse contactor connect to the NC point of the forward contactor. Then the output of these NC
points connect to the Start push buttons. Then connect two wires from input and output of the
push buttons to the NO point of the contactor for holding of the contactor. After holding connect
the wire from the output of the start push button to the A1 of the both contactor. Connect the
neutral wire to the A2 of the contactor.

Note: Here are four push buttons are shown in the diagram. You can also take two start push
buttons and a stop push buttons. Stop button is used to stop the process. Two push button is fed
with two elements each push button one is NO and other is NC.

3.5.3 Working of Forward and reverse starter diagram

When we switch on the supply reaches through overload relay NC point and contactor NC point
to start push button. When any start button is pressed supply reaches on the A1 point of the
contactor and also on the NO point of the contactor which takes continue the contactor in the
holding position. Now when we pressed forward start button forward contactor holds and motor
starts running in forward direction. This same action implies on the reverse starting of the motor.

3.5.4 Benefit:
 1. Forward Reverse starters are widely used due to their relatively low price.
 2. There are no limits to the number of times they can be operated.
 3. The components require very little space.
 4. The starting current is reduced to approximately one-third.

3.6 Auto transformer Starter

 35

An Auto transformer Starter is suitable for both star and delta connected motors. In this method,
the starting current is limited by using a three-phase auto transformer to reduce the initial stator
applied voltage. The figure below shows the motor with the Auto transformer starter.

It is provided with a number of tapping. The starter is connected to one particular tapping to
obtain the most suitable starting voltage. A double throw switch S is used to connect the auto
transformer in the circuit for starting. When the handle H of the switch S in the START
position. The primary of the auto transformer is connected to the supply line, and the motor is
connected to the secondary of the auto transformer.

When the motor picks up the speed of about 80 percent of its rated value, the handle H is quickly
moved to the RUN position. Thus, the auto transformer is disconnected from the circuit, and the
motor is directly connected to the line and achieve its full rated voltage. The handle is held in the
RUN position by the under voltage relay. If the supply voltage fails or falls below a certain
value, the handle is released and returns to the OFF position. Thermal overload relays provide
the overload protection

3.6.1 Theory of Auto transformer Starter

 36

The figure (a) shown below shows the condition when the motor is directly switched on to lines
and the figure (b) shows when the motor is started with the help of auto transformer.

Let,
• Ze10 is the equivalent standstill impedance per phase of the motor referred to the stator
side
• V1 is the supply voltage per phase.

When the full voltage V1 per phase is applied to the direct switching, the starting current drawn
from the supply is given by the equation shown below.

With auto transformer starting, if a tapping of the transformer ratio x is used, then the voltage per
phase across the motor is xV1. Therefore, at the starting, the motor current is given by the
equation.
 37

In a transformer, the ratio of currents is inversely proportional to the voltage ratio provided that
the no load current is neglected. i.e.,

If I’stl is the current taken from the supply by the auto transformer. Then,

Substituting the value of I from the equation (2) in the equation (3) we get.

Therefore,

Since the torque developed is proportional to the square of the applied voltage, the starting torque
with the direct switching is given as
 38

Similarly, starting torque with auto transformer starter

Therefore,

With the auto transformer, at the starting, the motor current is given by the equation shown
below.

From the equation (3) and (9) we can conclude that

From the above equation (5) we get

 39

The above equation (5) and the equation (8) shows that with an auto transformer, the starting
current I from the main supply and the starting torque are reduced to the x 2 times to the
corresponding values with the direct online starting. Now, comparing equation (4) and the
equation (11) we get

Thus, the star delta starter is equivalent to an auto transformer starter of the ratio x = 0.58. A Star
Delta starter is much cheaper than an auto transformer starter and is commonly used for both
small and the medium size motors.

Fig Auto Transformer Starter control diagram

3.6.2 Advantage of auto transformer starter:

 40

 On the 65% tapping the line current is approximately equal to that of a Star-Delta starter,
however, at the time of switching from reduced voltage to the full supply voltage, the
motor is not disconnected so that the second peak is very much reduced since the
transformer is converted into reactance for a short time.
 It is possible to vary the tapping from 65% to 80% or even up to 90% of the supply
voltage in order to ensure that the motor starts satisfactorily.

Disadvantage of auto transformer starter:

 One of its great disadvantages is the limitation of its operation frequency. It is always
necessary to know the operation frequency in order to determine a suitably rated auto-
transformer.

 The compensating switch is much more expensive than a Star-Delta starter due to the
auto-transformer.

 Due to the size of the auto-transformer starter, much larger control panels are required
which increases the price.
 41

CHAPTER 4
PID CONTROLLER
4.1 Introduction

As the name suggests, this article is going to give a precise idea about the structure and working
of the PID controller. However going into details, let us get an introduction about PID
controllers. PID controllers are found in a wide range of applications for industrial process
control. Approximately 95% of the closed-loop operations of the industrial automation sector use
PID controllers. PID stands for Proportional-Integral-Derivative. These three controllers are
combined in such a way that it produces a control signal. As a feedback controller, it delivers the
control output at desired levels. Before microprocessors were invented, PID control was
implemented by the analog electronic components. But today all PID controllers are processed by
the microprocessors. Programmable logic controllers also have the inbuilt PID controller
instructions. Due to the flexibility and reliability of the PID controllers, these are traditionally
used in process control applications.

4.2 PID Controller

The term PID stands for proportional integral derivative and it is one kind of device used to
control different process variables like pressure, flow, temperature, and speed in industrial
applications. In this controller, a control loop feedback device is used to regulate all the process
variables.

This type of control is used to drive a system in the direction of an objective location otherwise
level. It is almost everywhere for temperature control and used in scientific processes,
automation & myriad chemical. In this controller, closed-loop feedback is used to maintain the
real output from a method like close to the objective otherwise output at the fixe point if
 42

possible. In this article, the PID controller design with control modes used in them like P, I & D
are discussed.

4.3 History
The history of the PID controller is, In the year 1911, the first PID controller was developed by
Elmer Sperry. After that, TIC (Taylor Instrumental Company) was implemented a former
pneumatic controller with completely tunable in the year1933. After a few years, control
engineers removed the error of steady-state that is found within proportional controllers through
retuning the end to some false value until the error wasn’t zero.

This retuning included the error which is known as the proportional-Integral controller. After
that, in the year 1940, the first pneumatic PID controller was developed through a derivative
action to reduce overshooting problems.

In 1942, Ziegler & Nichols have introduced tuning rules to discover and set the suitable
parameters of PID controllers by the engineers. At last, automatic PID controllers were
extensively used in industries in the mid of 1950.

4.4 PID Controller Block Diagram

A closed-loop system like a PID controller includes a feedback control system. This system
evaluates the feedback variable using a fixed point to generate an error signal. Based on that, it
alters the system output. This procedure will continue till the error reaches Zero otherwise the
value of the feedback variable becomes equivalent to a fixed point.

This controller provides good results as compared with the ON/OFF type controller. In the
ON/OFF type controller, simply two conditions are obtainable to manage the system. Once the
process value is lower than the fixed point, then it will turn ON. Similarly, it will turn OFF once
the value is higher than a fixed value. The output is not stable in this kind of controller and it will
swing frequently in the region of the fixed point. However, this controller is more steady &
accurate as compared to the ON/OFF type controller.

Fig: PID Controller block diagram

 43

4.5 Working of PID Controller

With the use of a low cost simple ON-OFF controller, only two control states are possible, like
fully ON or fully OFF. It is used for a limited control application where these two control states
are enough for the control objective. However oscillating nature of this control limits its usage
and hence it is being replaced by PID controllers.

PID controller maintains the output such that there is zero error between the process variable and
set point/ desired output by closed-loop operations. PID uses three basic control behaviors that
are explained below.

P- Controller

Proportional or P- controller gives an output that is proportional to current error e (t). It compares
the desired or set point with the actual value or feedback process value. The resulting error is
multiplied with a proportional constant to get the output. If the error value is zero, then this
controller output is zero.

Fig: P Controller response

This controller requires biasing or manual reset when used alone. This is because it never reaches
the steady-state condition. It provides stable operation but always maintains the steady-state
error. The speed of the response is increased when the proportional constant Kc increases.
 44

Fig: P controller response

It was implemented by the analog electronic components. But today all PID controllers are
processed by the microprocessors. Programmable logic controllers also have the inbuilt PID
controller instructions. Due to the flexibility and reliability of the PID controllers, these are
traditionally used in process control applications.
The main advantage of P+I is that it can eliminate the offset in proportional control. The
disadvantages of P+I are that it gives rise to a higher maximum deviation, a longer response time
and a longer period of oscillation than with proportional action alone.

I-Controller

Due to the limitation of p-controller where there always exists an offset between the process
variable and set point, I-controller is needed, which provides necessary action to eliminate the
steady-state error. It integrates the error over a period of time until the error value reaches zero.
It holds the value to the final control device at which error becomes zero.

Fig: PI Control

Integral control decreases its output when a negative error takes place. It limits the speed of
response and affects the stability of the system. The speed of the response is increased by
decreasing integral gain, Ki.
 45

Fig: PI Controller response

In the above figure, as the gain of the I-controller decreases, the steady-state error also goes on
decreasing. For most of the cases, the PI controller is used particularly where the high-speed
response is not required. While using the PI controller, I-controller output is limited to
somewhat range to overcome the integral wind up conditions where the integral output goes on
increasing even at zero error state, due to nonlinearities in the plant.

D-Controller

I-controller doesn’t have the capability to predict the future behavior of error. So it reacts
normally once the set point is changed. D-controller overcomes this problem by anticipating the
future behavior of the error. Its output depends on the rate of change of error with respect to
time, multiplied by derivative constant. It gives the kick start for the output thereby increasing
system response.

Fig: D Controller response

In the above figure response of D, the controller is more, compared to the PI controller, and also
settling time of output is decreased. It improves the stability of the system by compensating for
phase lag caused by I-controller. Increasing the derivative gain increases the speed of response
 46

Fig: PID Controller response

So finally we observed that by combining these three controllers, we can get the desired response
for the system. Different manufacturers design different PID algorithms.

4.6 Types of PID Controller

PID controllers are classified into three types like ON/OFF, proportional, and standard type
controllers. These controllers are used based on the control system, the user can be used the
controller to regulate the method.

ON/OFF Control

An on-off control method is the simplest type of device used for temperature control. The device
output may be ON/OFF through no center state. This controller will turn ON the output simply
once the temperature crosses the fixed point. A limit controller is one particular kind of ON/OFF
controller that uses a latching relay. This relay is reset manually and used to turn off a method
once a certain temperature is attained.

Proportional Control

This kind of controller is designed to remove the cycling which is connected through ON/OFF
control. This PID controller will reduce the normal power which is supplied toward the heater
once the temperature reaches the fixed point.

This controller has one feature to control the heater so that it will not exceed the fixed point
however it will reach the fixed point to maintain a steady temperature. This proportioning act can
be achieved through switching ON & OFF the output for small time periods. This time
proportioning will change the ratio from ON time to OFF time for controlling the temperature.

Standard Type PID Controller

This kind of PID controller will merge proportional control through integral & derivative control
to automatically assist the unit to compensate modifications within the system. These
modifications, integral & derivative are expressed in time-based units.
 47

These controllers are also referred through their reciprocals, RATE & RESET correspondingly.
The terms of PID must be adjusted separately otherwise tuned to a specific system with the trial
as well as error. These controllers will offer the most precise and steady control of the 3 types of
controller.

Real-Time PID Controllers

At present, there are various kinds of PID controllers are available in the market. These
controllers are used for industrial control requirements like pressure, temperature, level, and
flow. Once these parameters are controlled through PID, choices comprise utilize a separate PID
controller or either PLC. These separate controllers are employed wherever one otherwise two
loops are required to be checked as well as controlled otherwise in the conditions wherever it is
complex to the right of entry through larger systems.

These control devices provide different choices for solo & twin loop control. The standalone type
PID controllers provide several fixed-point configurations to produce the autonomous several
alarms.
These standalone controllers mainly comprise PID controllers from Honeywell, temperature
controllers from Yokogawa, auto tune controllers from OMEGA, Siemens, and ABB controllers.

PLCs are used like PID controllers in most of the industrial control applications The arrangement
of PID blocks can be done within PACs or PLCs to give superior choices for an exact PLC
control. These controllers are smarter as well as powerful as compared with separate controllers.
Each PLC includes the PID block within the software programming.

Trial and Error Method

It is a simple method of PID controller tuning. While the system or controller is working, we can
tune the controller. In this method, first, we have to set Ki and Kd values to zero and increase the
proportional term (KP) until the system reaches oscillating behavior. Once it is oscillating, adjust
Ki (Integral term) so that oscillations stop and finally adjust D to get a fast response.

Process Reaction Curve Technique

It is an open-loop tuning technique. It produces a response when a step input is applied to the
system. Initially, we have to apply some control output to the system manually and have to
record the response curve.

After that, we need to calculate slope, dead time, the rise time of the curve, and finally substitute
these values in P, I, and D equations to get the gain values of PID terms.
 48

Fig: Process reaction curve

4.7 PID Control Structure

PID controller consists of three terms, namely proportional, integral, and derivative control. The
combined operation of these three controllers gives a control strategy for process control. PID
controller manipulates the process variables like pressure, speed, temperature, flow, etc. Some of
the applications use PID controllers in cascade networks where two or more PID’s are used to
achieve control.

Fig: Structure of PID Control

The above figure shows the structure of the PID controller. It consists of a PID block which gives
its output to the process block. Process/plant consists of final control devices like actuators,
control valves, and other control devices to control various processes of industry/plant.

A feedback signal from the process plant is compared with a set point or reference signal u(t) and
the corresponding error signal e(t) is fed to the PID algorithm. According to the proportional,
integral, and derivative control calculations in the algorithm, the controller produces a combined
response or controlled output which is applied to plant control devices.

All control applications don’t need all three control elements. Combinations like PI and PD
controls are very often used in practical applications.
 49

4.8 Temperature Control of Furnace

Generally, furnaces are used to include heating as well as holds a huge amount of raw material at
huge temperatures. It is usual for the material occupied to include a huge mass. Consequently, it
takes a high quantity of inertia & the temperature of the material doesn’t modify rapidly even
when huge heat is applied. This feature results in a moderately stable PV signal & permits the
Derivative period to efficiently correct for fault without extreme changes to either the FCE or the
CO. 4.9 MPPT

Charge Controller

The V-I characteristic of a photovoltaic cell mainly depends on the range of temperature as well
as irradiance. Based on the weather conditions, the current and operating voltage will change
constantly. So, it is extremely significant to track the highest PowerPoint of an efficient
photovoltaic system. PID controller is used to finding MPPT by giving fixed voltage and current
points to the PID controller. Once the weather condition is changed then the tracker maintains
current and voltage stable

4.9 The Converter of Power Electronics

We know that converter is an application of power electronics, so a PID controller is mostly used
in converters. Whenever a converter is allied through a system based on the change within the
load, then the converter’s output will be changed. For instance, an inverter is allied with load; the
huge current is supplied once loads are increased. Thus, the parameter of voltage as well as the
current is not stable, but it will alter based on the requirement.

In this state, this controller will generate PWM signals to activate the IGBTs of the inverter.
Based on the change within the load, the response signal is provided to the PID controller so that
it will produce n error. These signals are generated based on the fault signal. In this state, we can
obtain changeable input & output through a similar inverter.

Application of PID Controller: Closed Loop Control for a Brushless DC motor

4.10 PID Function of FC network

PID controllers are used in most automatic process control applications in industry. They can
regulate flow, temperature, pressure, level, and many other industrial process variables. This
Application Note reviews the design of PID controllers and explains the P, I, and D control
modes used in them.

NETWORK:1
 50

SCALLING FOR SET POINT VALUE FOR COUNTER INPUT

NETWORK 2
COUNTER INPUT CONVERTER I TO BCD

NETWORK 3
INC DEC SIGNAL GENERATOR FOR MV VAR
 51

NETWORK 4
PID UPPERR TRTAKING OUTPUT

NETWORK 5
PID LOWER TRAKING OUTPUT
 52

NETWORK 6
CONVERTER BCD TO I

NETWORK 7
MULTIPLY OUTPUT MANIPULATED VAR SIGNAL GENERATOR
 53

NETWORK 8
CONVERTER I TO DI

NETWORK 9
CONVERTER DI TO REAL
 54

NETWORK 10
MULTIPLIER FOR MANIPULATED VALUE INPUT IN PID

NETWORK 11
SCALLING FOR SET POINT VALUE FOR COUNTER INPUT
 55

NETWORK 12
COUNTER INPUT CONVERTER I TO BCD

NETWORK 13
INC DEC SIGNAL GENERATOR FOR SET VAR
 56

NETWORK 14
CONVERTER BCD TO I

NETWORK 15
MULTIPLY OUTPUT OF SET VAR SIGNAL GENERATOR
 57

NETWORK 16
MAX LIMIT FOR SET VAR SIGNAL GENERATOR

NETWORK 17
CONVERTER I TO DI
 58

NETWORK 18
CONVERTER DI TO REAL

NETWORK 19
MULTIPLIER FOR SET VALUE INPUT IN PID
 59

NETWORK 20
PROCESS VALUE FORMAT

NETWORK 21
PROCESS VALUE SCALLING
 60

4.11Continuous Control with SFB 41/FB 41 "CONT_C":

Application
You can use the controller as a PID fixed set point controller or in multi-loop controls as a
cascade, blending or ratio controller. The functions of the controller are based on the PID control
algorithm of the sampling controller with an analog signal, if necessary extended by including a
pulse generator stage to generate pulse duration modulated output signals for two or three step
controllers with proportional actuators. Note
The calculation of the values in the control blocks is only correct if the block is called at regular
intervals. For this reason, you should call the control blocks in a cyclic interrupt OB (OB30 to
OB38). Enter the sampling time in the CYCLE parameter.

Description
Apart from the functions in the set point and process value branches, the SFB/FB implements a
complete PID controller with continuous manipulated variable output and the option of
influencing the manipulated value manually. In the following, you will find a detailed
description of the sub-functions:

Set point Branch

The set point is entered in floating-point format at the SP_INT input.
 61

Process Variable Branch

The process variable can be input in the peripheral (I/O) or floating-point format. The CRP_IN
function converts the PV_PER peripheral value to a floating-point format of -100 to +100 %
according to the following formula:
The PV_NORM function normalizes the output of CRP_IN according to the following formula:
Output of PV_NORM = (output of CPR_IN) * PV_FAC + PV_OFF PV_FAC has a
default of 1 and PV_OFF a default of 0.

Error Signal

The difference between the set point and process variable is the error signal. To suppress a small
constant oscillation due to the manipulated variable quantization (for example, in pulse duration
modulation with PULSEGEN), a dead band is applied to the error signal (DEADBAND). If
DEADB_W = 0, the dead band is switched off.

PID Algorithm
The PID algorithm operates as a position algorithm. The proportional, integral (INT), and
derivative (DIF) actions are connected in parallel and can be activated or deactivated
individually. This allows P, PI, PD, and PID controllers to be configured. Pure I and D
controllers are also possible.

Manual Value
It is possible to switch over between a manual and an automatic mode. In the manual mode, the
manipulated variable is corrected to a manually selected value. The integrator (INT) is set
internally to LMN - LMN_P - DISV and the derivative unit (DIF) to 0 and matched internally.
This means that a switchover to the automatic mode does not cause any sudden change in the
manipulated value.

Manipulated Value
The manipulated value can be limited to a selected value using the LMNLIMIT function.
Signaling bits indicate when a limit is exceeded by the input variable. The LMN_NORM
function normalizes the output of LMNLIMIT according to the following formula:
LMN = (output of LMNLIMIT) * LMN_FAC + LMN_OFF
LMN_FAC has the default 1 and LMN_OFF the default 0.
The manipulated value is also available in the peripheral format. The CPR_OUT function
converts the floating-point value LMN to a peripheral value according to the following formula:

Feed Forward Control

A disturbance variable can be fed forward at the DISV input Initialization
SFB 41 "CONT_C" has an initialization routine that is run through when the input parameter
COM_RST = TRUE is set.
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During initialization, the integrator is set internally to the initialization value I_ITVAL. When it
is called in a cyclic interrupt priority class, it then continues to work starting at this value. All
other outputs are set to their default values.

Error Information
The error output parameter RET_VAL is not used. CONT_C Block Diagram Even though the D
part of the PID controller is approximately realizable, the ideal PID controller should not use if
the sampling time is small because the output of the PID controller severely fluctuates, resulting
in shortening the life of actuators such as valves because the sensitivity of the numerical
derivative ...

4.12 Application
You can use the controller as a PID fixed set point controller or in multi-loop controls as a
cascade, blending or ratio controller. The functions of the controller are based on the PID control
algorithm of the sampling controller with an analog signal, if necessary extended by including a
pulse generator stage to generate pulse duration modulated output signals for two or three step
controllers with proportional actuators.
The calculation of the values in the control blocks is only correct if the block is called at regular
intervals. For this reason, you should call the control blocks in a cyclic interrupt OB (OB30 to
OB38). Enter the sampling time in the CYCLE parameter.
 63

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.3 Results

The Simulating Starter and PID controller is the workhorse of modern process control systems.
The proportional, integral, and derivative control modes each fulfill a unique function.
Proportional and integral control modes are essential for most control loops, while derivative is
useful only in some cases. PID control algorithms come in different designs, and the MAQ®20
supports the most common no interactive algorithm, as well as the parallel algorithm.

5.3 Discussions
With the use of a low cost simple ON-OFF controller, only two control states are possible, like
fully ON or fully OFF. It is used for a limited control application where these two control states
are enough for the control objective. However oscillating nature of this control limits its usage
and hence it is being replaced by PID controllers. PID controller maintains the output such that
there is zero error between the process variable and set point/ desired output by closed-loop
operations.
 64

5.2 Future Scopes of the Work

In industrial practice, the classic PID algorithm is still the primary solution used to control
analogue processes, and objects. It is available as a function in most programmable controllers,
Siemens, GE, Allan Bradley, Benchoff, B & R It is available as a function in most programmable
controllers, Siemens, GE, Allan Bradley, Benchoff, B & R. The essence of the success of the
PID algorithm is connected with the simplicity of implementation, tuning, and low effort of
computing power necessary to perform it even with limited resources of the operating system. In,
Parkinson and Smith claim that the PID algorithm will continue to be the fundamental solution
used in industrial practice. In Parkinson and Smith claim that the PID algorithm will continue to
be the fundamental solution used in industrial practice. The PID algorithm in the feedback
control system provides resistance to non-stationarity, non-linearity, and randomness of
interference. Larger changes in the dynamics of the object (as a result of a change in the working
point, a change in static amplification or the values of time constants, especially those that will
be non-linear) can cause a significant deterioration of the control quality.
 65

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