SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Advances in Technological Interventions

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Advances in Technological Interventions

Edited by
Ajoy Kumar Singh
Vishwa Bandhu Patel
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Title: Sustainable agriculture : advances in technological interventions / edited by Ajoy Kumar Singh,
Vishwa Bandhu Patel.
Other titles: Sustainable agriculture (Burlington, Ont.)
Names: Singh, Ajoy Kumar (Agronomist), editor. | Patel, Vishwa Bandhu, editor.
Description: Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20200177184 | Canadiana (ebook) 20200177214 | ISBN 9781771888530 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780429325830 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable agriculture.
Classification: LCC S494.5.S86 S87 2020 | 630.2/086—dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Singh, Ajoy Kumar (Agronomist), editor. | Patel, Vishwa Bandhu, editor.
Title: Sustainable agriculture : advances in technological interventions / edited by Ajoy Kumar Singh,
Vishwa Bandhu Patel.
Description: Palm Bay, Florida, USA : Apple Academic Press, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Summary: “This new volume looks at the evolution and challenges of sustainable agriculture, a field that is growing
in use and popularity. Sustainable Agriculture: Advances in Technological Interventions discusses some of the
important ideas, practices, and policies that are essential to an effective sustainable agriculture strategy. The book
features 25 chapters written by experts in related fields, including crop improvement, natural resource management,
crop protection, social sciences, and product development. The volume aims to provide a good understanding of the
use of sustainable agriculture and the sustainable management of agri-horticultural crops, focusing on eco-friendly
approaches, such as the utilization of waste materials. Topics include ecofriendly plant protection measures, climate
change and natural resource management, tools to mitigate the effect of extreme weather events, agrochemical
research and regulation, soil carbon sequestration, water and nutrient management in agricultural systems, and more.
Key features: Discusses sustainable agriculture within the framework of recent challenges in agriculture Looks at the
development and diversification of crops and cultural practices to enhance biological and economic stability Features
the application of innovative nanotechnologies to agricultural research and production technologies Highlights the
development of new varieties in agri-horticultural crops in relation to biotic and abiotic management Discusses the
application of recent technologies for soil-plant-microbe-environment interactions”-- Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020003856 (print) | LCCN 2020003857 (ebook) | ISBN 9781771888530 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780429325830 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable agriculture.
Classification: LCC S494.5.S86 S835 2020 (print) | LCC S494.5.S86 (ebook) | DDC 338.1--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020003856
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020003857
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About the Editors

Ajoy Kumar Singh, PhD

Vice-Chancellor, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, India
Ajoy Kumar Singh, PhD, is presently a Vice-Chancellor of Bihar Agricultural
University, Sabour, India. Dr. Singh earned his master’s and PhD degrees
in Agronomy from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi,
India. He also served as Principal Scientist and Director at the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research institutions. Dr. Singh worked extensively on diara
land development and cropping systems, farming systems, and On-Farm
Research under varied agro-climatic zones. As Zonal Co-ordinator (Zone
II), Zonal Project Director, and Director, ATARI, Kolkata, Dr. Singh has
monitored, evaluated, and guided 83 Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Farm Science
Centres) spread across A&N Island and Eastern India. He is a Fellow of
the Indian Society of Agronomy, Indian Society of Extension Education,
and Bioved Research Society, and a recipient of several national awards,
including lifetime achievement awards from five different organizations.

Vishwa Bandhu Patel, PhD

Principal Scientist, Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology,
Indian Council of Agricultural Research–Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, India
Vishwa Bandhu Patel, PhD, is presently working as an Associate Professor
at the Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi, India. He has worked on developing leaf
nutrient guides, nutrient management strategies, and the use of arbuscular
mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) for biohardening and stress tolerance, and
surveyed indigenous germplasm of fruit crops. He developed leaf sampling
techniques and standards as well as made fertilizer recommendations for
several fruits. He has worked out nutrient management through organic
means for high-density planted mango. He has guided several MSc and PhD
students. Dr. Patel organized several national and international seminars
and workshops as a convener, associate convener, and core team member to
identify the constraints and researchable areas for prioritizing and planning
the agenda for the improvement of horticultural crops. These seminars
vi About the Editors

include four Indian Horticulture Congresses (held during 2004, 2006, 2008,
and 2010), the International Seminar on Precision Farming and Plasticulture
(2005), the National Seminar on Organic Farming (2004), the Seminar on
Hi-Tech Horticulture (2012), and the National Seminar on Climate Change
and Indian Horticulture (2013). Dr Patel has received recognition and a
number of national awards for his work in the field of horticulture research
and development, such as Fellow, The Horticultural Society of India, New
Delhi; Associate, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS), New
Delhi, India; Agricultural Leadership Award (2012) by Agricultural Today,
Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development, New Delhi; Hari Om
Ashram Trust Award (2007); Lal Bahadur Shastri Young Scientist Award,
ICAR, New Delhi (2009); Young Scientist Award, NAAS (2005-06); Yuva
Vigyanic Samman from Council of Science and Technology, Govt. Uttar
Pradesh (2005); AAAS Junior Award (2005) from the Indian Society for
Plant Physiology, New Delhi; and five best research paper/poster paper
presentation awards by different organizations.
Contents

Contributors ....................................................................................................xi

Abbreviations.................................................................................................. xv

Preface........................................................................................................... xix

Part I: Crop Improvement .........................................................................1

1. Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals in Prospect to Bihar State ..........3
P. K. Singh, Anand Kumar, and Ravi Ranjan Kumar

2. Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research

and Development ..........................................................................................39
Sangeeta Shree and Paramveer Singh

3. Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar with Special Reference

to Coconut and Palmyra ..............................................................................63
Ruby Rani, Vishwa Bandhu Patel, and H. P. Maheshwarappa

4. Overview of the Floriculture Sector: Performance,

Problems, and Prospects ..............................................................................89
Paramveer Singh, Sangeeta Shree, and Ajay Bhardwaj

Part II: Natural Resource Management ...............................................119

5. Climate Change and Natural Resource Management.............................121
Suborna Roy Choudhury and Syed Sheraz Mahdi

6. Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a Particular Reference to Bihar........135

Rajeev Padbhushan, Anupam Das, and Swaraj Kumar Dutta

7. Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate the Effect of

Extreme Weather Events ...........................................................................149
Sunil Kumar

8. Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar......................173

M. K. Dwivedi, S. Kumar, A. Kohli, Y. K. Singh, Shweta Shambhavi, and R. Kumar

9. Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science ..................................................189

Nintu Mandal, Kasturikasen Beura, and Abhijeet Ghatak
viii Contents

10. Endomycorrhizal Fungi: Phosphorous Nutrition in Crops ....................203

Mahendra Singh, Rajiv Rakshit, and Kasturikasen Beura

11. Water Management in Horticultural Crops............................................. 211

K. Karuna and Abhay Mankar
12. Orchard Floor Management......................................................................227
Manoj Kundu

13. High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops for Enhancing

Fruit Productivity .......................................................................................253
V. K. Tripathi, Sanjeev Kumar, Vishal Dubey, and Md. Abu Nayyer

14. Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing and N-Fixing

Biofertilizers and Eco-Friendly Low-Cost Minerals ...............................269
Arun Kumar Jha

15. Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview ........................................295

Paramveer Singh, Ajay Bhardwaj, and Randhir Kumar

16. Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture.....................................................................319

Sankar Ch. Paul

17. Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning........................335

C. D. Choudhary, B. K. Vimal, Shweta Shambhavi, and Rajkishore Kumar

Part III: Crop Protection .......................................................................365

18. Plant Disease Management Through Application of Nanoscience.........367
Abhijeet Ghatak
19. Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India and Their Management ........379
Anil, Tarak Nath Goswami, and Sanjay Kumar Sharma

20. Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar and

Their Management .....................................................................................395
Tamoghna Saha, Nithya Chandran, and B. C. Anu

21. Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops: An Outline and

Sustainable Management...........................................................................431
Mohammad Ansar, A. Srinivasaraghavan, and Aniruddha Kumar Agnihotri

22. Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation ......................457

Pritam Ganguly
Contents ix

Part IV: Product Development and Extension Education...................479

23. Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches........................481
Aditya Sinha and R. K. Sohane

24. An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production ............................................501

Ramanuj Vishwakarma and Ranjeet Kumar

25. Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship.............................517

Ram Datt

Index.....................................................................................................................539
Contributors

Aditya Sinha
Department of Extension Education, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour , Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Aniruddha Kumar Agnihotri

Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Anil
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Mohammad Ansar
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

B. C. Anu
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Kasturikasen Beura
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Ajay Bhardwaj
Department of Horticulture (Olericulture, Vegetable and Floriculture), Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Nithya Chandran
Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

C. D. Choudhary
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Suborna Roy Choudhury

Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Anupam Das
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Ram Datt
Department of Extension Education, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Vishal Dubey
Department of Applied Plant Sciences (Horticulture), B.B.A. University, Lucknow,
Uttar Preadesh, India

Swaraj Kumar Dutta

Department of Agronomy, Bihar Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

M. K. Dwivedi
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
xii Contributors

Pritam Ganguly
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Abhijeet Ghatak
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Tarak Nath Goswami
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Arun Kumar Jha

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Monika Karn
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour–813210, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

K. Karuna
Department of Horticulture, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

A. Kohli
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
Anand Kumar
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur,
Bihar, India

R. Kumar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Rajkishore Kumar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Randhir Kumar
Department of Horticulture (Olericulture and Floriculture), Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Ranjeet Kumar
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Ravi Ranjan Kumar

Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

S. Kumar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Sanjeev Kumar
U.P. Council of Agricultural Research, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Sunil Kumar
Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Manoj Kundu
Department of Horticulture (Fruit and Fruit Technology), Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Contributors xiii

Syed Sheraz Mahdi

Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

H. P. Maheshwarappa
Project coordinator, AICRP, Palms, CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala, India

Nintu Mandal
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Abhay Mankar
Department of Horticulture, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Md. Abu Nayyer

Department of Agriculture, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Rajeev Padbhushan
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Paramveer Singh
Department of Horticulture (Vegetable and Floriculture), Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Vishwa Bandhu Patel
Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, Indian Council of Agricultural
Research–Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

Sankar Ch. Paul

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Rajiv Rakshit
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Ruby Rani
Department of Horticulture, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Tamoghna Saha
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Shweta Shambhavi
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Sanjay Kumar Sharma

Department of Entomology, Bihar Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Sangeeta Shree
Department of Horticulture (Vegetable and Floriculture), Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Mahendra Singh
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

P. K. Singh
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
xiv Contributors

Paramveer Singh
Department of Horticulture (Olericulture, Vegetable and Floriculture), Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Y. K. Singh
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
R. K. Sohane
Department of Extension Education, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

A. Srinivasaraghavan
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

V. K. Tripathi
Department of Horticulture, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur,
Uttar Pradesh, India
B. K. Vimal
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Ramanuj Vishwakarma
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Abbreviations

AA atomic absorption
AAS agromet advisory services
AFLPs amplified fragment length polymorphisms
AFM atomic force microscopy
AGT Assam green tall
AICRP All India Co-ordinated Research Project
ALR 1 Aliyar Nagar 1
ALR 2 Aliyar Nagar 2
AM Arbuscular mycorrhiza
AMFUs agro meteorological field units
BAU Bihar Agricultural University
BEC base exchange capacity
BIPM bio-intensive pest management
BLB bacterial leaf blight
BOD biochemical oxygen demand
BPH brown planthopper
Bt Bacillus thuringiensis
CaCV capsicum chlorosis virus
CaO calcium hydroxide
CCC chlormequat/cycocel
CGD Chowghat green dwarf
CH4 methane
CIB central insecticides board
CIPET Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and Technology
CMV cucumber mosaic virus
CO2 carbon dioxide
COD Chowghat orange dwarf
CP coat protein
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CPCT Center for Protected Cultivation Technology
CSI chitin synthesis inhibitors
CSISA cereal system initiatives for South Asia
DBM diamond back moths
DCD dicyandiamide
xvi Abbreviations

DH double haploid
DIP digital image processing
DSR direct seeded rice
EAS extension advisory services
ECM ectomycorrhizae
ECT east coast tall
EDP Entrepreneurship Development Program
EMT Entrepreneurial Motivation Training
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ESE entrepreneurial self-efficacy
EU Europe Union
EXAFS extended x-ray absorption fine structure
FCO fertilizer control order
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FQPA Food Quality Protection Act
FSSAI Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
GA gibberellic acid
GAP good agriculture practice
GBNV groundnut bud necrosis virus
GDP gross domestic product
GHGs greenhouse gases
GKMS Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa
GWP global warming potential
HACCP hazard analysis critical control point
HDP high-density planting
HTMA heat-tolerant maize for Asia
ICP inductively coupled plasma
ICTs Information and Communication Technologies
IFS integrated farming system
IGP Indo-Gangetic plains
IGR insect growth regulators
IISR Indian Institute of Spices Research
IMD meteorological department
IPM integrated pest management
ISO International Standard Organization
ISSRs inter SSRs
IYSV iris yellow spot virus
JH juvenile hormones
KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendras
LCT Lakshadweep ordinary
Abbreviations xvii

LS-IR late sown irrigated

LUP land use planning
MAI moisture adequacy index
MAS marker-assisted selection
MIDH mission for integrated development of horticulture
MNCPC multinutreint nanoclay polymer composite formulation
MPL maximum permissible limit
MSW municipal solid waste
MYD Malayan yellow dwarf
NAA naphthalene acetic acid
NBMW need-based manual weeding
NCMRWF National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecast
NCPCs nanoclay polymer composites
NH3 ammonia
NHM National Horticulture Mission
NHRDF National Horticultural Research and Development
Foundation
NNI National Nanotechnology Initiative
NSKE neem seed kernel seed extract
NSs non-structural protein
NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OPs organophosphates
ORFs open reading frames
PAM/clay polyacrylamide/clay
PBNV peanut bud necrosis virus
PCPA para-chlorophenoxy acetic acid
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PE pendimethalin
PE pre-emergence
PGRs plant growth regulators
PHI pre-harvest interval
PoE post-emergence
PP pre-planting
PPP public-private partnership
PRD partial root drying
PVA polyvinyl alcohol
PVMV pepper veinal mottle virus
QPM quality protein maize
RAPDs random amplified polymorphic DNAs
xviii Abbreviations

RC registration committee
RD recommended dose
RdRp RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
RKVY Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
RMSE root mean square error
RNPs ribonucleoproteins
RWC relative water content
SAPSRPF slow-release phosphate fertilizer
SAU state agricultural university
SD secure digital
SEM scanning electron microscopy
SHM-1 Sabour hybrid maize-1
SHM-2 Sabour hybrid maize-2
SNPs single nucleotide polymorphism
SOC soil organic carbon
SPAC soil-plant-atmosphere continuum
SPI standardized precipitation index
SSRs simple sequence repeats
STRASA Stress Tolerant Rice for Asia & South Africa
TEM transmission electron microscopy
TGA total geographical area
TiO2 titanium dioxide
TLCV tomato leaf curl virus
TOT transfer of technology
TPT Tiptur tall
TQM total quality management
TSWV tomato spotted wilt virus
UV ultraviolet
VAM vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae
WA water absorbency
WBNV watermelon bud necrosis virus
WCE weed control efficiency
WCT west coast tall
WI weed index
WTCER Water Technology Center for Eastern Region
WUE water use efficiency
XANES x-ray absorption near edge structure
YVM yellow vein mosaic
ZNCPC zincated nanoclay polymer composites
ZYMV zucchini yellow mosaic virus
Preface

Agriculture has changed spectacularly over the years, especially in the last five
decades. Agricultural productivity has increased due to innovative technolo-
gies, mechanization, increased application of fertilizers and pesticides, and
modified government policies that resulted in maximized production. This
increasing trend allowed farmers to reduce their need for labor.
A rising association has appeared during the past few decades to ques-
tion the function of the agricultural establishment in promoting practices
that contribute to different social problems. Now sustainable agriculture is
gathering increasing support and acceptance within mainstream agriculture.
Sustainable agriculture not only addresses many environmental and social
apprehensions, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities
for growers, laborers, consumers, policymakers, and many others in the entire
food system. Sustainable agriculture includes three major goals, namely envi-
ronmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity.
Because the concept of sustainable agriculture is still evolving, this book
is an attempt to discover and discuss the ideas, practices, and policies that
are essential to a sustainable agriculture strategy. The book is comprised of
29 chapters written by experts of related fields, including crop improvement,
natural resource management, crop protection, social sciences, and product
development.

Highlights of the Book

 Discusses sustainable agriculture within the framework of recent
challenges in agriculture.
 Looks at the development and diversification of crops and cultural
practices to enhance the biological and economic stability.
 Features the application of innovative nanotechnologies to agricul-
tural research and production technologies.
 Highlights the development of new varieties in agri-horticultural
crops in relation to several biotic and abiotic management.
 Discusses the application of recent technologies to soil-plant-microbe-
environment interactions.
 Describes the efficient and gentle use of inputs as well as consider-
ation of farmers’ goals and lifestyle choices.
 PART I
Crop Improvement
CHAPTER 1

Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals in

Prospect to Bihar State
P. K. SINGH,1 ANAND KUMAR,1 and RAVI RANJAN KUMAR2
1
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
2
Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is major sector in Bihar state since it contributes about 16% to

State Gross Domestic Product and provides employment to about 70% of
working force in rural area. More than 90% of farm households belong to
marginal farm category (less than 1 hectare land) but own about 44% of culti-
vated land in Bihar. Genetic improvement of major cereals in Bihar through
plant breeding has accounted for more than 50 percent of increases in yield of
major cereal crops and has the ability to solutions of several challenges such
as food security, hunger alleviation, increasing nutritional values, and higher
input costs. Genetic improvement of crops consists of analytical frame-
works that allow researchers to create and select plants that are consistently
outstanding in desired traits. Centuries of selection for preferred traits, accel-
erated dramatically with the development of scientific plant breeding, have
had tremendous positive impacts on food security and an improved quality
of life. Today’s scientific advances in genomics and genetics are exploring
new frontiers in crop breeding, including rapid and targeted advances in
specific traits. But there is still more work to do and many goals to achieve.
Constantly evolving plant pests and pathogens, global climate change, and
changing social needs make plant breeding, genetics, and genomics ever
more vital. We hope genetic improvement in crops can contribute to sustain-
able agriculture and to the improvement of food in quantity and quality as
well as security and safety.
4 Sustainable Agriculture

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Before the 20th century, farmers used the selection of seeds from superior
plants for the genetic improvement of crops. As human populations expanded
into new regions, farmer selection produced increased genetic diversity in
the form of distinct ‘landraces,’ or traditional varieties, with different genetic
characteristics within the cultivated crop species. In the first half of the 20th
century, specialized crop breeding programs were developed to exploit
this farmer-created diversity to produce ‘modern’ crop varieties through
systematic crossing and selection. These crop breeding programs had by
mid-century produced several generations of modern crop varieties in most
cultivated species, suitable primarily for richer and more developed—and
incidentally or not, temperate zone-countries (Mba et al., 2012).
With the advent second half of the 20th-century, economic development
policies and investments came into prominence. This period saw the creation
of international (multilateral) institutions for meeting the objectives of
economic development (e.g., The World Bank, Regional Banks, and other
agencies of UN). Individual countries also established bilateral aid agencies
(e.g., USAID, IDRC, and GTZ). As a result of the end of colonial regimes,
the expectations were high. Many observers expected the subsequent decades
to be characterized by per capita income ‘convergence,’ in which the highest
growth rates in per capita income would be achieved by countries with
the lowest initial levels of per capita income. By the 1960s, the prevailing
conditions clearly depicted that the maintenance of food production per
capita was a challenging task. It was impressive to see the improvements in
health in the 1950s and 1960s. There was a decline in infant mortality rate
and an increase in life expectancy. Even though in most of the countries, birth
rates experienced a decline shortly after the decline in death rates, still there
was an unprecedented increase in population in all developing countries.
Agricultural policymakers in developing countries had experimented in the
1950s and 1960s with extension-led programs predicated on the concept of
the ‘inefficient farmer.’ The central idea was that technology was available to
farmers, but that farmers’ ‘ignorance’-combined with the lack of community
education and information programs, as well as credit constraints and a high
degree of risk refusal were preventing the effective and full use of modern
technology. The agricultural aid programs of the 1950s and 1960s also
recognized the need for capacity building in universities, both for purposes of
training extension and education specialists and for developing agricultural
experimental station capabilities in national agricultural research systems
(Miflin, 2000).
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 5

The popularized view of the green revolution was based on the patchy
data which showed rapid adoption of HYV rice and wheat in Asia and Latin
America from 1968 to the early 1980s. Till the day today, only a few data
have been available publicly on other crops or regions, or on more recent
time periods. For example, until recent years, little has been known about the
development or diffusion of new rice and wheat varieties in the 1980s and
1990s. In the same manner, few data have been available on varietal adoption
of rice and wheat in sub-Saharan Africa or in West Asia and North Africa.
Finally, the data on the improved varieties in other crops have been very few.
As a result, there has been little systematic work attempting to evaluate crop
improvement in developing countries until this volume (Miflin, 2000).
In a developing country like India, the agriculture sector continues to be
the backbone of the Indian economy contributing approximately 27.4% to
the gross domestic product (GDP), and accounts for about 18% share, of the
total value of the country’s export. The agricultural production growth rate
is 21% per annum. Today we are the largest exporter of spices and cashew
as well as the second-largest producer of wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables,
and freshwater aquaculture. Per capita availability of food grains went up
to 528.77 g per day in 1996–1997 when compared to 395 g in the early
fifties. Fertilizer consumption has also increased and India has become
fourth in the world after the USA, USSR, and China (Mahadevan, 2003).
In the world, the Indian pulse area harbors the largest area for its produc-
tion. India is the first to develop a cotton hybrid. The domestic demands and
requirements of export have lead to a change in cropping pattern with an
increase in the importance of commercial and nontraditional crops (moong,
summer groundnut, soybean, sunflower) production. The introduction of
short-duration varieties allows the use of residual moisture available from
post-Kharif and post-rabi cultivation.
Bihar state, endowed with appropriate climatic conditions, with its boun-
tiful natural resources of fertile soil, abundant water, varied climate, and
rich cultural and historical heritage is one of the most fascinating states of
India. Agriculture is the vital source of employment in the state with about
79% of its population engaged in agricultural activities. Bihar’s productive
contribution to food grain, fruit, vegetables, spices, and flowers can increase
manifold with improved methods and system management (Bansil, 2011). In
this chapter, we will discuss the various strategies used in the crop improve-
ment and development in major field crops in Bihar state.
6 Sustainable Agriculture

1.2 MAJOR CEREALS IN BIHAR STATE

Bihar has a geographical area of approximately 94.2 thousand square km

which is divided by river Ganges into the north Bihar (53.3 thousand square
km) and the south Bihar (40.9 thousand square km). In Bihar, on the basis
of rainfall, soil characters, temperature and terrain, four main agro-climatic
zones have been identified viz. Zone-1, North Alluvial Plain; Zone II, north-
east Alluvial Plain; Zone III, A South East Alluvial Plain Zone, and Zone III
B, South West Alluvial Plain. Zones I and II are situated on the north of the
river Ganges whereas Zone III is situated on its south. Zone I is located in
the northwestern part and Zone II on the northeastern part of the state with
Zone I and Zone II being flood-prone and Zone III drought-prone. Bihar is
mostly of subtropical climate as it is located between 25 to 27 north latitude.
Across the state soil texture is varies from sandy loam to heavy clay, the
majority type being loam category. The crop seasons are Kharif, Rabi, and
Zaid. Cropping pattern in Bihar is dominated by cereals. The major cropping
system is rice-wheat which occupies 70% of the gross cropped area. Maize
occupies around 7% of the gross cropped area in the state. Rice, wheat and
maize are grown in all the districts however the choice of the crop and crop
rotation varies across the agro-climatic zone (Table 1.1).

1.3 BREEDING METHODS IN CROP PLANTS

Plant breeding has integrated the latest innovations in biology and genetics
for the enhancement of crop improvement (Moose and Mumm, 2008). Crop
improvement methods have also changed dramatically. Mass and pure line
selections in landraces, consisting of genotype mixtures, were the popular
breeding techniques until the 1930s for most crops. There has been a
splendid progress in crop productivity; still greater progress is needed to
meet the food requirements of an additional 2 billion people by the early
part of the 21st century. Approximately 800 million people are facing hunger
and another 185 million pre-school children are malnourished due to lack of
food and water, or disease. Hence as suggested by the Nobel Peace Laureate,
Norman Borlaug (1997), new bio-techniques, in addition to conventional
plant breeding, are needed to boost yields of the crops that feed the world.
In this section, we discussed about the different conventional and molecular
methods involved in crop improvement.
TABLE 1.1 Area Production and Productivity of Major Cereals in Bihar State (Directorate of Statistical and Evaluation, Government of Bihar),
* th
4 Advance Estimate
Year Rice Wheat Maize
Area Production Productivity Area Production Productivity Area Production Productivity
(Lakh ha) (Lakh (kg/ha) (Lakh ha) (Lakh Metric (kg/ha) (Lakh ha) (Lakh Metric (kg/ha)
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals

Metric tons) tons) tons)

2011–12 33.24 71.63 2155 21.42 47.25 2206 7.12 26.67 3745
2012–13 32.99 83.22 2523 22.08 61.743 2797 6.93 27.56 3975
2013–14 31.51 66.50 2110 21.49 61.347 2855 7.32 29.04 3966
2014–15 32.63 82.42 2525 21.54 35.702 1657 7.07 24.79 3508
2015–16 32.32 68.02 2104 21.10 47.36 2244 7.04 25.17 3571
2016–17 33.40 82.38 2467 21.05 59.85 2843 7.20 38.45 5335
2017–18* 32.84 79.11 2409 20.38 57.41 2816 6.68 26.10 3904
7
8 Sustainable Agriculture

1.3.1 CONVENTIONAL PLANT BREEDING METHODS

Conventional breeding is the oldest method of changing genetic constituent

of species through successive generations. Whereas nature changes a species
through natural selection, human apply artificial selection; we identify the
traits we want in individuals, and then breed those individuals to pass on
their genetics. In due course of time, the desired characteristics become
the usual character with complete alteration of species genetic makeup.
Conventional plant breeding has been in practice for over thousands of
years, since the advent of human civilization, recoded evidence being as
early as 9000–11,000 years ago. Domestication in ancient times has lead to
the development of the present-day crops. The domesticated varieties have
given a way to the development of all major food crops varieties. The various
methods used in classical/conventional plant breeding are Mass selection,
pure line selection, hybridization, pedigree breeding, etc.
The above-mentioned breeding methods have been going on for
hundreds of years, and are still commonly used today. Early farmers found
that artificial mating or cross-pollination of crop plants leads to an increase
in yield. Further development of plant breeding in the 20th century allowed
plant breeders to create new and improved varieties. The productivity and
quality of the plants were dramatically increased. In plant breeding, the most
important aspect is the art of recognizing desirable traits and incorporating
them into future generations. Breeders travel long distances to search the
individual plants exhibiting desirable traits. The selection for features such
as faster growth, higher yields, pest and disease resistance, larger seeds, or
sweeter fruits has dramatically changed domesticated plant species compared
to their wild relatives.

1.3.2 MOLECULAR METHOD OF CROP IMPROVEMENT

The advances in biotechnology hold great promise for crop improvement. For
instance, molecular breeding, the integration of molecular biology techniques in
plant breeding, through enhanced efficiencies, has great potentials for changing
permanently the science and art of plant breeding. Molecular breeding uses
molecular profiles for a selection of breeding materials and application of
rDNA technology, i.e., genetic transformation. The efficiency of plant breeding
can be enhanced using various molecular biology-based techniques.
The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) development (PCR, Saiki, et
al., 1988) has made DNA marker-techniques easy, convenient and cheaper.
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 9

Several PCR-based markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNAs

(RAPDs), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), simple
sequence repeats (SSRs or microsatellites), inter SSRs (ISSRs) and most
lately single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) have been developed and
applied to a wide range of crop species including cereals. Under the past
decades, the molecular marker technology has rapidly evolved into a valu-
able tool able to dramatically enhance the efficiency of conventional plant
breeding (Peleman and van der Voort, 2003).
Modern plant breeding is an amalgamation of genotype building and
manipulating variation within the gene-pools. DNA-fingerprinting of breeding
lines using molecular markers, as well as detailed genome analysis of plants,
provides in this aspect a very powerful and efficient tool to characterize,
monitor and protect germplasm (Lombard et al., 2000). The availability of
molecular markers segregating with candidate genes, marker-assisted selection
(MAS) can improve the efficiency of simple traits selection in conventional
plant breeding programs (Knapp, 1998; Podlich et al., 2004). The MAS
approach is not only a tool of speeding up the process of gene transfer, but
also allows the pyramiding of desirable genes and QTLs from different genetic
backgrounds. MAS strategies facilitate the development of lines with stacked
resistance genes, giving the cultivar more durable protection than that afforded
by a single resistance gene. Also, genes controlling resistance to different
races or biotypes of a pest or pathogen, or genes contributing to agronomic or
seed quality traits can be pyramided together to maximize the benefit of MAS
through simultaneous introgression (Dwivedi et al., 2007).
Genetic transformation is another approach that offers direct access
to a vast pool of useful genes not previously accessible to plant breeders.
Current genetic engineering such as Agrobacterium-mediated transforma-
tion (Vergunst and Hooykaas, 1998) and biolistic/gene gun method (Sriv-
astava et al., 2004) allow the simultaneous use of several desirable genes in
a single event, thus allowing coordinated approaches to the introduction of
novel genes/traits into the elite background. The priorities for applied trans-
genic research are similar to those of conventional plant breeding, aiming
to selectively alter, add or remove a specific character in order to address
regional constraints to productivity. Genetic engineering broadens the
possibility for the introduction of a desirable character from related plants
without associated deleterious genes. In many species, the development of
rapid, highly efficient, and routine transformation systems is still in progress
and thus represents a bottleneck in the development of stable high yielding
transgenic plants. The sustainable and economic use of biotechnology can
be achieved through the development and deployment of transgenic plants.
10 Sustainable Agriculture

The advancements in the field of genetic transformation and gene expres-

sion have led to rapid progress in genetic engineering and crop improvement
in terms of herbicide tolerance, pest resistance, and male-sterility systems.
The potential of this technology has now been widely recognized and exten-
sively adopted in the plant breeding of temperate crops (Albert et al., 1995;
Vergunst and Hooykaas, 1998; Vergunst et al., 1998; Srivastava and Ow,
2002; Srivastava et al., 2004; Chawla et al., 2006; Louwerse et al., 2007).
The GM techniques used for the development of good quality food
supply to the world is meeting public worries about the security of the
derived food and their resulting products. The controversy spotlights the
probable hazards due to the agglomeration of new substances in crop plants
conferring allergy toxicity and genetic threats in human nutrition. Cisgenic
(Schouten et al., 2006) plants are presumably considered safer than those
produced through conventionally bred plants because of the lack of linkage
drag. In cisgenesis, there is an introduction of desired genes without the
inference of undesirable genes. It furnishes no hazard when compared to
induced translocation or mutation breeding. Thus, it excludes linkage drag
and, therefore, prevents hazards arising from unidentified genes. Therefore,
cisgenesis is safer than traditional breeding programs. To provide long-
lasting and wider forms of resistance, the various biotic and abiotic stress
resistance genes can be pyramided (Holme et al., 2013).

1.4 DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT CROPS FOR DIFFERENT AGRO

CLIMATIC CONDITION OF BIHAR

Agriculture is a major sector in Bihar state since it contributes about 16% to State
GDP and provides employment to about 70% of the working force in a rural
area. More than 90% of farm households belong to the marginal farm category
(less than 1-hectare land) but own about 44% of cultivated land in Bihar. Bihar
is having a great history for developing different new and improved varieties in
rice, wheat, and maize. The varietal improvement program got accelerated after
the establishment of the first agricultural university, i.e., Rajendra Agricultural
University, Pusa, in this state. In this section, we would discuss the historical
perspective and development of various cereal crops of this state.

1.4.1 RICE BREEDING

With the separation of Bihar from Bengal in 1911 and the establishment of
the Department of Agriculture in Bihar in 1914 the work of rice improvement
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 11

of this state was undertaken by the Deputy Directors of Agriculture in

different ranges viz., (1) South Bihar with headquarters at Patna, (2) South
East Bihar with headquarters at Sabour, (3) Chotanagpur at Kanko (Ranchi),
and (4) Cuttack with headquarters at Cuttack, which is now the Central
Rice Research Institute, of course, with a much larger area. These Deputy
Directors, with some improved varieties selected from the local varieties.
Mr. D.R. Sethi evolved Dahia and an early Katika variety and Latisal, a late
Aghani variety. Mr. C.B. Machean evolved from Kanke, which was released
and distributed to Bihar farmers up to 1932.
Organized research work on a rice was undertaken in 1932. Late Mr.
Madam, who was then working as an economic botanist for improvement of
all cultivated crops, was appointed as the Rice Specialist Bihar with head-
quarters at Sabour, supported by two assistant botanists (rice) and a contin-
gent of senior and junior research assistant, fieldsmen, and plant collectors.
The main objective of rice improvement work was undertaken on the
following lines:

1. Complete botanical and agricultural survey of the paddy varieties of

the province.
2. Isolation of pure line and their classification and maintenance besides
the selection of improved strains.
3. Conduct of cultural and manurial improvements.
4. Genetical studies.

As a result of research work from 1932–38 a few improved varieties were

recommended after trials of these varieties with local varieties in different
departmental farms. They are (1) (early Aman (Katika) 115 BK and 141BK
(2) medium Aman 88BK and 16 BK and (3) late Aghani 36 BK 498–2A.
These new varieties rapidly replaced earlier released varieties and became
very popular with the farmers all over the State. Two more fine-grained vari-
eties viz., Tulsi-Manjari and Badshabhog were also released.
Along with varietal improvement suitable manurial and cultural recom-
mendations were also released for higher production of rice in different
rice-growing areas of the state. Apart from the work of research on rice
undertake at the main station at Sabour, a few substations were also started
to test the results evolved at Sabour. They were (1) Patna (South Bihar),
(2) Kanke (Chotanagpur), (3) Purnea (South-East Bihar), (4) Sipaya (North
Bihar), and Dumka (Santhal Parganas) The sub-station at Cuttack and
Dumka discontinued after the separation of Orissa from Bihar in 1938 and
Jharkhand in 2000.
12 Sustainable Agriculture

The entire rice research work at Sabour was cut down drastically in 1941
when I.C.A.R. reduced their grant significantly and the work was somehow
maintained at Sabour with one assistant botanist, one junior research assis-
tant, and a few field overseers. They could only maintain the pure lines;
somehow research work came to an almost standstill in 1944 when the
I.C.A.R. stopped the grant.
In 1951–52 the agricultural Development and Research work got another
big boost with the launching of the first five-year plan. The post of Rice
Specialist was again revived with headquarters at Sabour with a contingent
of assistant botanists, senior research assistants, junior research assistants,
and fieldmen. Rice substations were also sanctioned at Patna, Sipaya, Purnea,
Kanke, Dumka with one assistant botanist, one senior research assistant and
two field overseers for each sub-station.
It may be mentioned here that during 1942 and 1951 when the rice
work was again being supervised by the Economic Botanist, Bihar with
headquarters at Sabour some exotic varieties were released for farmers
viz., CH10 (BR24) and CH1039, etc. These were very early maturing ‘Aus’
varieties and replaced mostly some of the low yielding ‘Gora’ varieties of
Chotanagpur uplands. These became very popular with early ‘Áus’ growing
farmers of Bihar. Other early Aus varieties released were Sona and Sathika
(Big 19 and BR20, respectively) but they did not become very popular. The
variety, namely, 2206 B was released in 1953–54 which was later named
BR34. This was a selection from the local variety of Munger district. The
variety BR34 became very popular as early Katika variety replacing 115-BK
and 141-BK later named as BR-4 and BR-5, respectively. A number of rice
varieties were evolved by selection and hybridization as Aus paddy, Aman
paddy, early Aman paddy, medium Aman paddy, late Aman paddy and
christened as “BR” varieties. All evolved were fine-grained and scented
varieties, purple varieties and deep-water varieties. Some of these varieties
like BR-9 (fine-grained and scented), BR-13 (flood resistant) and BR-14
(Deepwater) served the farming community for a long period. During sixty
decades of 20th century high yielding varieties like Taichung native-1,
Padma, BCS, IR-8, Jaya, etc., were selected for commercial cultivation.
These varieties on an average yielded 50 q/ha in the research farmer
although IR-8 yielded up to 80 q/ha under good management.
During 1952–1970 pure line selections continued to occupy an important
place in the breeding program. The number of exotic cultures began to swell
the genetic stock, besides germplasm from a number of rice-growing coun-
tries were introduced. Large numbers of Japonica X Indica hybrids received
from C.R.R.S. Cuttack were tried against the local standard varieties. Most
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 13

of the earlier selections continued to occupy important placed in the rice

varieties of Bihar. No success, however, was obtained from Japonica X
Indicia crosses.
In the year 1964 two Indicas namely, Taiching Native-1 and Deo-geo-
woo-gen from Taiwan were introduced. A very short duration, very high
yielding and with coarse grain and summer paddy due to its excessive high
yielding as high as 8 tons per hectare of rice. This variety, however very
susceptible to bacterial leaf blight (BLB) particularly when grown in Kharif.
But this variety was later used as parents. Evolution of IR8 and later Jaya
completely replaced TN-1. Varieties IR-8 and Jaya are equally high yielding
with better grain quality and definitely very much less susceptibility to BLB
and much better fertilizer response. These two varieties at that time occupied
very large rice areas of almost all the rice-growing states of India.
The year 1963–64 saw the introduction of summer paddy (sown in
February-March and harvested in June-July) in Bihar in the irrigated areas.
Summer paddy in those years occupies about 1–2 lakh hectares yielding about
2–3 tons of rice per hectare thereby adding about 6–10 lakh tons of rice in
the total food grain production of the state previously the variety of rice used
in the three crop sequence (Paddy- paddy-wheat) was N-136 but it was soon
replaced by TN-1. The rice research center, Sabour has a great contribution
to the evolution of recommended varieties such as CR-44–35, Archana, Sita,
Deepa, Panidhan-1, Panidhan-11, and IET-3257. Two very early maturing
cultures of rice namely, ESI-2-3 and Es-29-3-2 evolved through hybridization
had been found to mature in 65–70 days. They were suitable for normal as
well as late sowing up to 10 September, their yield potential being 25–30 quin-
tals per hectare. They were particularly suitable for flood-prone areas where
they may be sown in the field direct when flood recedes. Radha variety of rice
(BR-51-46-5) had been identified tolerant to rice tungro virus at Sabour.
Rice improvement work was given greater part after the opening of the
All India Coordinated Rice Improvement project at Hyderabad under the
Joint auspices of I.C.A.R., Govt. of India, USAID, Rockefeller Foundation
and Ford Foundation of U.S.A.
Thereafter work was being pursued with the main objective of evolving
suitable varieties of different agro-climatic regions of Bihar by combining
the high yielding potential of the dwarf indicas with the agronomical base
tolerance to diseases and pests and superior grain quality of the traditional
local varieties. In April 1979 a group of scientists from ICAR and biochem-
ists from CRRI, Cuttack have laid down the criteria for quality grain rice for
the export purpose (Table 1.2).
14 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 1.2 Different Parameters Involved in Quality Grain Rice Selection

Parameters Range
Length More than 6.8 mm
L/B ratio More than three times
Classification LS
Scent Strongly scented
Volume expansion More than 3.8 times
Elongation ratio More than 1.8 times of preferably twice
Amylose content (%) 20–25
Alkali value 4–5

Several scented rice like Tulsi-Manjari (BR-9), Katarni, kamod Khirsapati,

Badshahbhog (BR-10), Cuttack Basmati have been growing by farmers,
however, these varieties have not satisfies the export quality parameters. With
the concerted efforts of the rice research group, several varieties (non-scented
/ scented) for different rice ecosystems have been identified for commercial
cultivation to enhance the production and productivity of rice in the state.
In general early to medium early group varieties like Turanta, Prabhat, R.
Bhagwati, etc., are being grown in upland, Mid early and Medium maturing
varieties (120–135 days maturity) like, MTU 1010, MTU 1001, Sita R. Sweta,
etc. under non-scented group and Rajendra Bhagwati, R. Suwasini, R. Kasturi,
under scented group are being grown in medium low land irrigated condition.
In low land irrigated and rainfed low land condition, late-maturing varieties
(more than 135 days maturity) like MTU 7029, R. Mahasuri-1, MTU 1001,
Kanak, traditional aromatic varieties, etc., are being grown (Table 1.3).

TABLE 1.3 List of Rice Varieties Released in Bihar (Up to 2010)

S. No. Name of Variety Days to Maturity Grain Type Yield (q/ha)
For Up Land
1. Turanta 75–80 Long-bold 25–30
2. Prabhat 90–95 Long-slender 35–40
3. Richharia 90–95 Long-slender 30–35
4. Dhan Lakshmi 95–100 Long-slender 30–35
5. Saroj 115–120 Long-slender 40–50
6. Rajendra Bhagwati 115–120 Long-slender (scented) 40–45
For Medium Land
8. Sita 130–135 Long-slender 45–50
9. Santosh 130–135 Long-slender 45–50
10. Rajendra Suwasini 120–125 Long-slender (scented) 40–45
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 15

TABLE 1.3 (Continued)

S. No. Name of Variety Days to Maturity Grain Type Yield (q/ha)
11. Rajendra Kasturi 125–130 Medium-slender (scented) 35–40
12. Rajendra Sweta 130–135 Medium-slender 40–45
For Low Land
14. Rajshree 140–145 Medium-slender 40–45
15. Rajendra Mahsuri-1 150–155 Medium-slender 55–60
16. Satyam 140–145 Long-bold 40–45
17. Shakuntala 140–145 Long-slender 40–45
18. Swarna Sub-1 145–150 Medium-slender 40–45
For Deep and Chaur Land
19. Sudha Long-bold 30–35
20. Vaidehi Long-bold 30–35
21. TCA – 177 Long-bold 25–30
22. Janaki Long-bold 20–25

1.4.1.1 NEW ACCOMPLISHMENT IN RICE RESEARCH SINCE

INCEPTION OF BIHAR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (BAU) (AFTER 2010)
The Bihar Agricultural University (BAU) was established in the year 2010
with the objective of improving the quality of life of people of this state
especially farmers constituting more than two-thirds of the population. This
university is dedicated to field crop improvement through various researches
that could improve overall agriculture production in Agro-climatic zone II,
IIIA and IIIB comprising larger parts of the state. The university has collabo-
rated with various national and international centers in order to improve the
present cultivar as well for the development of new varieties.

1.4.1.1.1 Research Priorities for Rice Research

The university identified several priorities area of research on the basis of
the problem faced by local farmers and burning issues in rice development.
After several brainstorming sessions with farmers and experts, the university
identified the following research priorities area:

 Collection, characterization, documentation of rice germplasm.

 Development of aerobic rice.
 Hybrid rice development for mid and early maturity group.
 Breeding hybrid, parents and varieties of medium and late maturity
duration.
 Development of aromatic rice.
16 Sustainable Agriculture

 Herbicide resistance rice.

 Pure line varieties tolerant to drought and waterlogging to address the
needs of the rainfed ecosystem.
 Development of resistance varieties against sheath blight, false smut,
and BLB.
 Tagging of the gene linked to specific traits through MAS.

1.4.1.1.2 Scheme in Operation
After identification of research priorities, the researchers of this univer-
sity started several projects funded by the state, national and international
funding agencies. The prime aim of these projects was to carry out the basic
and applied research on specific problems as well as the development of
improved/new rice varieties suitable for different ecological conditions of
this state (Table 1.4).

TABLE 1.4 List of Research Projects Under Implementation in Rice (2012–2016)

Sl. Project Funding
No. Agency
1. Stress Tolerant Rice for Asia and South Africa (STRASA) BMGF (IRRI)
2. Cereal System Initiatives for South Asia (CSISA, Breeding IRRI
component)
3. Development of high yielding aerobic rice through Institutional
marker-assisted breeding
4. Development of Early and Medium Maturity High Yielding Rice Institutional
Hybrids Suitable for the Ecosystem of Bihar
5. Pvt. Paddy hybrid testing Pvt. Co.
6. Mutational analysis of calmodulin-binding protein gene family DAE-BRNS
involved in abiotic stress responses in rice
7. Engineered resistance in rice against fungal pathogens Institutional
(rice blast and sheath blight)
8. Marker-assisted introgression of Sub-1 locus to transfer submergence Institutional
tolerance in rice
9. Breeding for the architectural modification for the Katarnirice through DST-SERB
marker-assisted selection
10. Identification and characterization of root physiological and biochem- Institutional
ical trials in significance of water uptake in rice grown under drought
11. AICRP on Rice ICAR
12. Molecular and morphological characterization of local Institutional
germplasm of the rice
13. Development of transgenic rice resistant to glyphosate herbicide Institutional
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 17

TABLE 1.4 (Continued)

Sl. Project Funding
No. Agency
14. Identification of high yielding wheat genotypes suitable for limited Institutional
irrigation
15. Maintenance breeding of crops Institutional

1.4.1.1.3 Varietal Development in Rice

Rice research gained momentum after the inception of this university and
several rice varieties were developed which were suitable for different
ecology. All credit of the rice research goes to the team who worked for it in
the past as well as working present on rice varietal improvement and devel-
opment. The development rice varieties by BAU, Sabour are:
1. Sabour Surbhit: Under the eastern region Bihar is the rice bowl of
India particularly for the aromatic rice. This aromatic rice (basmati
or non-basmati) fetches premium prices in the export market due to
its quality. Farmers of the many districts of Bihar are still growing
their local scented cultivars which are low yielding, short grain
and photo-period sensitive. Hence, to compete with the rice export
market there was a need of high yielding, fine grain varieties for
this community of farmers. By keeping farmers demand in the view,
Sabour Surbhit variety was developed which was the semi-dwarf
with long and superfine slender grain and strong aroma. This variety
was developed through the mutation of Rajendra Suwasini. The yield
of this variety is 30–35 q/ha. This variety can be grown in irrigated
medium upland and medium land situation of Bihar and can perform
well under limited irrigated conditions also (Figure 1.1).
2. Sabour Ardhjal: This variety was developed in the year 2013 as
aerobic rice suitable for both rainfed and irrigated conditions. This
aerobic rice variety was tailored for high yield potential (50–55 q/
ha), input responsive, drought-tolerant (save 50% water) and weed
competitive to attain high yields under aerobic soil conditions.
This variety was developed through the selection of Dhagaddeshi/
IR78584-98-2-2 cross. This variety is a promising approach for
dealing with the emerging water shortage due to climatic change
and sustained rice production. It can be direct seeded in upland as
well as unpuddled, non-flooded medium irrigated condition with
intermittent irrigation. However, under transplanted condition,
this variety is also performing well (Figure 1.2).
18 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 1.1 Sabour Surbhit (field view).

FIGURE 1.2 Sabour Ardhjal.

Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 19

3. Sabour Deep: Most of the rice varieties released for commercial

cultivation in the state of Bihar are either late or medium in maturity
and are poor yielder with coarse grain. Therefore, there was a need
to develop a high yield potential variety with long slender grain and
good cooking quality in the early group. Sabour Deep is fit for this
group of rice varieties. The parentage of this variety is VG-56 and
Type-3 and method used was the pedigree method of breeding. This
variety has extra-long slender grain, good cooking quality, and high
yield potential and early maturity. Under the late onset of monsoon
and low precipitation during the crop season, the variety may be a
good option. Therefore, this variety is suitable for contingent plan
in case of failure of monsoon in Bihar. The variety may fetch a high
price in the market due to high milling and head rice recovery and
good cooking quality. It can be grown in irrigated medium upland
and medium land situation of Bihar. This variety is suitable for
contingent plan in case of late-onset of monsoon (Figure 1.3).

FIGURE 1.3 Sabour Deep.

20 Sustainable Agriculture

4. Sabour Shree (RAU 724-48-33): It was developed by crossing

Haryana Basmati/Mahsuri. This variety recorded an average yield of
6 tonnes/ha under the irrigated medium favorable land agro-climatic
situation of Bihar. It has a semi-dwarf plant type (100–105 cm) with
the brown color of husk and white kernel. The spikelet is awnless. The
variety is of medium duration (135–140 days) and is moderately resis-
tant to Sheath Blight and BLB and highly resistant to BPH, GLH, and
Stem borer. The variety has non-aromatic medium slender grain with
very good cooking and a high degree of milling (70.6%) and head rice
recovery (63.0%). The variety can sustain drought at the early vegeta-
tive stage and waterlogging at the latter stage. The variety is suitable
for the irrigated medium favorable land of Bihar (Figure 1.4).

FIGURE 1.4 Sabour Shree.

5. Bhagalpur Katarni: Katarni rice was famous for its unique taste
and aroma. It was Grown natively in the Bhagalpur and Banka
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 21

districts of Bihar, Katarni rice is not only in demand in Bihar, but

throughout the country. Despite its uniqueness, Katarni rice was
facing the threat of extinction due to its genetic impurities over time.
The main aim of the development of Bhagalpur Katarina rice was
mainly to popularize this aromatic rice in this region as well as to
generate quick income for the farmers. This variety was developed
through pure line selection method of local landraces collected from
Jagdishpur Block of Bhagalpur district. This variety is suitable for
medium irrigated ecology of Agro-climatic zone IIIA of this state.
This variety is tall, erect culm, well exerted long panicle with unique
aroma having a maturity period of 150–155 days. This variety has
the medium erected slender kernel and excellent cooking quality due
to its strong aroma, soft texture. Besides rice, its Chura is highly
aromatic. It has an excellent export potential as the producers get a
premium price by selling the product (Figure 1.5).

1.4.2 WHEAT BREEDING

Wheat research in Bihar dates back to the first decade of the twentieth
century when the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was established at
Pusa (Bihar) in 1905. Sri Albert Howard and his wife Mrs. G.L.C. Howard
started their pioneering work in wheat improvement in 1906 at I.A.R.I.,
Bihar. They made a comprehensive collection of local types. Pure lines were
isolated from the local types and that led to the release of Pusa 4, Pusa 6 and
Pusa 12. Pusa 4 (NP4), a pure line selected from the local type “Mundia”
was excellent with regard to maturity duration, adaptability, yield potential,
and grain quality. The variety won the first prize for grain quality in several
international exhibitions.
After the shifting of I.A.R.I., from Bihar to Delhi in 1935, the work on
the improvement of wheat was taken up at Sabour under the aegis of State
Department of Agriculture. Several varieties viz. BR 147 (medium maturing),
BR 152–2 (late maturing), BR 164 and BR 166 (very late maturing), and BR
319 (very early maturing) were evolved to suit different agro-climatic situa-
tions. BR 319 was one of the most predominant wheat varieties of the state
for its yield and quality under late sown conditions. It was a selection from
the local wheat of Munger district.
22 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 1.5 Bhagalpur Katarni.

Subsequently, the wheat research was reorganized in 1957, and system-

atic work on developing rust-resistant and high yielding varieties were
started. Three rust-resistant strains viz. HBR 2, HBR 3 and HBR 5 were
developed through hybridization. They had excellent grain qualities with
yield ranging from 25 to 30 q/ha. Some drought-resistant lines like HBR
13 and HBR 42 were also evolved and incorporated in the All India Coor-
dinated wheat trials. Wheat Research in India as well as in Bihar had taken
a great leap with the advent of Mexican dwarf wheat in 1966–67 which
heralded green revolution.
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 23

By 1970 the following improved varieties were under cultivation in

Bihar. Mid tall and tall varieties BR 147, BR 152–2, BR 164, BR 166, BR
319, NP 720, NP 761, NP 798, NP 799, NP 835, NP 846, NP 852, NP 884
and C 306. BR varieties were developed by scientists of this state. Semi-
dwarf varieties: Sonora 64, Kalyan Sona, Sonalika, Chhoti Lerma, Safed
Lerma, and Sharbati Sonora.
With the establishment of R.A.U., Bihar in 1970, the wheat improve-
ment was reoriented with the main objective of developing early maturing
drought and disease-resistant wheat varieties for rainfed conditions and
fertilizer responsive semi-dwarf wheat varieties for irrigated conditions of
the state. Systematic wheat breeding work in 1970 led to the development of
“Desharma” (BR 104) which was released in 1974. Desharma (S503/NP835)
was suited to late sown, high fertility irrigated condition. Grains were amber,
hard and lustrous. Multi-location field trials in different centers of the univer-
sity had resulted in the acceptance of varieties viz; C 306, NP 852 for rainfed
situation: Sonalika, Kalyansona, Sharbati Sonora, Janak (HD 1982), UP 262,
HP 1102, UP 115, HP 1209, HUW 206 HUW 234 and K 7410 for irrigated
situation of this state. Scientists of this university had developed materials
like BR 326, BR 380, BR 1012, BR 1015 and BR 1019 which performed well
in All India Coordinated trials. The list of wheat varieties released up to the
year 2010 is provided in Table 1.5.

1.4.2.1 WHEAT RESEARCH AT BIHAR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

(BAU), SABOUR

Similar to rice research, the university also identified various research

priorities area after several discussions with the farmers and experts. These
research areas were formulated to solve the burning issues and farmers prob-
lems. The following research priorities were identifies:

 Collection, characterization, documentation of germplasm.

 Evaluation of germplasm against biotic and abiotic stresses to iden-
tify resistant genes for utilizing in variety developmental program.
 Development of varieties against leaf rust, leaf blight and black point
diseases with high yield potential.
 Development of varieties for heat and drought tolerance including
duram wheat.
 Tagging of the gene linked to specific traits through MAS.
 24

TABLE 1.5 List of Wheat Varieties Released in Bihar (Up to Year 2010)
Sl. No. Variety Pedigree Yield (q/ha) Condition Maturity (in Days) Characteristics
1. RW 346 JANAK/SA42 40–42 Irrigated, 120–125 Semi-dwarf variety with slightly nonsynchronous,
Timely sown brown ear color at maturity. Grains bold and
amber color; Resistant to brown rust
2. RW 3016 NP852/S308 28–30 Marginal rainfed 125–130 Tall non-lodging variety. Glume surface glabrous,
awn white color, medium panicle length,
Resistant to brown rust
3. RW 3413 – 40–42 Irrigated, 120–125 Semi-dwarf variety with green foliage and white
Timely sown fusi form ear. Grains amber color and semi-hard,
Resistant to brown rust and tolerant to kernel bunt
Sustainable Agriculture
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 25

1.4.2.1.1 Scheme in Operation

After identification of research priorities, the researchers of this university

started several projects funded by the state, national and international
funding agencies. The prime aim of these projects was to carry out the
basic and applied research on specific problems as well as the development
of improved/new wheat varieties with high yield and disease resistance
(Table 1.6).

TABLE 1.6 List of Projects Under Implementation in Wheat (2012–2016)

Sl. No. Project Title Funding Agency
1. AICRP on wheat ICAR
2. Identification of high yielding wheat genotypes suitable for Institutional
limited irrigation
3. Development of spot blotch resistance genotypes of spring DST-SERB
wheat for eastern Gangetic plain of India using double
haploid technology
4. Development and identification of suitable double haploid Institutional
(DH) line for terminal heat and drought tolerance in spring
wheat for eastern Gangetic plains of India.
5. Identification of high yielding wheat genotypes suitable for Institutional
limited irrigation
6. Maintenance breeding of crops Institutional
7. Development of Heat tolerant Wheat through marker-assisted Institutional
backcrossing
8. Wheat bio-fortification with reference to Fe and Zn Institutional

1.4.2.1.2 Wheat Variety Developed by Bihar Agricultural University

(BAU), Sabour

Similar to rice research, wheat research and development was also a dedi-
cated and scientific effort by the wheat research team. The research team
also developed high yielding, timely/late sown variety suitable for irrigated
and rainfed conditions.

1. Sabour Nirjal: This variety is a selection from an international

nursery, EIGN-I 2009–10. Parentage: ACHYUT/BL 1887. It is a
medium-tall (105–110 cm) variety suitable for timely sown (Last
26 Sustainable Agriculture

week of October to 1st fortnight of November) rainfed condition. The

plant is semi-erect, pale green foliage, flag leaf long and drooping atti-
tude. Strong waxiness on leaf sheath. Ear shape is tapering, medium
dense and very long. Grains are bold (42–46 g/1000), amber-colored
and semi-hard. Protein content: 10–12%. It is matured in 125 to 135
days and tolerant to major diseases and insect pests. It is also tolerant
of lodging. The yield potential of this variety is 25–30 q/ha. This
variety has an advantage over other rainfed varieties in the sense that
other rainfed varieties do lodge if there is winter rain whereas this
variety does not lodge and giving higher yield. It is recommended
for timely sown rainfed ecological conditions and adaptable to the
wider agro-climatic situations of Bihar (Figure 1.6).

FIGURE 1.6 Sabour Nirjal.

2. Sabour Samriddhi: This variety is a selection from an interna-

tional nursery, SAWYT 2008–09, Parentage: PASTOR/ MILAN//
MILAN/SHA 7. It is a semi-dwarf (90–100 cm) variety suit-
able for timely sown (15th to 30th November) irrigated condi-
tion. The plant is semi-erect, green foliage, flag leaf long and
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 27

drooping attitude. Ear shape is tapering, dense and medium in

length. Grains are medium bold (37–41 g/1000), amber-colored
and semi-hard. Protein content: 10–12%. It is matured in 120 to
125 days and tolerant to major diseases and insect pests. It is also
tolerant of lodging. The yield potential of this variety is 45–50
q/ha. It is recommended for timely sown irrigated ecological
conditions and adaptable to the diverse agro-climatic situations
of Bihar (Figure 1.7).

FIGURE 1.7 Sabour Samriddhi.

3. Sabour Shreshtha (BRW 934): Wheat variety Sabour Shreshtha

(BRW 934) is developed by BAU, Sabour. The variety was evolved
by crossing HUW 234/CBW12-Sel. The variety is suitable for general
cultivation under the irrigated late sown situation of Bihar. It recorded
an average yield of 4.3 tonnes/ha. The variety has semi-dwarf (72–75
cm) and erect plant type with green and semi-erect flag leaf, white
28 Sustainable Agriculture

tapering and awned ear, bent peduncle, elliptical, amber and semi-
hard grain with test grain weight of 34.7 g. It matures in 105–110
days. It has resistance to lodging, brown rust and loose smut along
with tolerance to leaf blight. It is non-shattering and easily thresh-
able and fertilizer responsive. The variety has high protein content
(11.03%) and Zinc (36.8 ppm) contents along with good chapatti
making quality (7.60/10.0 score). The variety is suitable for the irri-
gated late sown condition (15–31 December) of Bihar (Figure 1.8).

FIGURE 1.8 Sabour Shreshtha.

1.4.3 MAIZE

A scheme on Maize and Millet’s research was initiated in the year 1951,
as one of the postwar research scheme with a view to augment research
on Maize and Millet crops. It was financed by the State Government. The
headquarters of the scheme was located at Sabour. As a result of the reorien-
tation of Agriculture Research in 1955 so as to serve five ecological zones
of the State, Maize and Millet Specialist was transferred to Pusa. Maize is
mainly cultivated during the Kharif season as a rainfed crop on the onset
of monsoon. Open-pollinated varieties of maize viz; Tulbulia, Mungetis,
Herbaria, Mukwa, Sona tikkar, etc. were cultivated by the farmers.
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 29

Tinpakhia and Jaunpur were found to be quite promising ones.

Tinpakhia is an early manuring variety, maturing in 75 days only. It is
yield is 10 to 15 quintals/ha. It is suitable for flood-prone areas and can
escape the flood. Jaunpur is a late-maturing variety. It matures in 90–95
days. Its yield is about 30 to 35 quintals/ ha. ICAR sanctioned Maize
Improvement Scheme for diara area at Sabour in 1976. A major break-
through in maize cultivation could be possible with the release of a series
of hybrids and composites.

1.4.3.1 HYBRID MAIZE
As a result of co-operative researches, the first set of 4 maize hybrids having
yellow grain, i.e., Ganga Hybrid Makka No.1, Ganga Hybrid Makka No.101,
Ranjit Hybrid Makka and Deccan Hybrid Makka were release in the year
1961. These four hybrids were tested at Sabour from 1961 to 1963. Ganga
Hybrid Makka No.1, early maturing hybrid having 85 days maturity was
found suitable for flood-prone areas. Ganga Hybrid Makka No.101 having
about 105 days maturity was found suitable for upland areas where flood is
not a common feature.
In 1963 two hybrids having white grain viz; Ganga Safed-2 and Histarch
were released by I.C.A.R. Their suitability was tested at Sabour. Ganga
Safed-2 has been found most suitable for cultivation in the Kharif season. It
matures in 95 to 100 days yield is 45 to 50 q/ha.
Ganga Hybrid No.5 having yellow grain and Ganga Hybrid Makka No.4
having white grain were released by ICAR in 1963. These were also tested
at Sabour. Ganga-5 is suitable for both Kharif and Rabi. It matures in 95 to
100 days. Ganga 4 has a yield potential of 55 to 60 q/ha. It matures in 105
to 110 days.
One of the biggest successes in the development of maize hybrids was
achieved by developing a Quality Protein Maize (QPM) hybrid. Shaktiman-1,
Shaktiman-2, Shaktiman-3 and Shaktiman-4 QPM hybrids were developed
between the years 2001 to 2007.

1.4.3.2 COMPOSITE MAIZE
The hybrid maize seed has to be replaced every year with new seed to
maintain the same hybrid vigor. To overcome this difficulty, a number of
composite varieties have been developed in which the same seed can be
utilized for three terms by following proper isolation. Six composites viz;
30 Sustainable Agriculture

Vijay, Vikram, Jawahar, Sona, Kisanand Amber were tested at Sabour and
released by ICAR in 1967 for commercial cultivation. Vijay was found
suitable for both Kharif and Rabi seasons; it matures in 100–150 days.
Diara composites have been released in the year 1978 as a result of
experiments at Sabour. It was released for Diara areas for summer seasons.
It matures in 75 to 80 days. Yields about 25 to 30 q/ha. Suwan composite has
been released in 1981 for cultivation in the Kharif season. Its yield is about
40–45 q/ha. The farmers were desirous of having white composites with the
potentials of Ganga Safed-2.
Two white composites viz; M-9 and M-13 have been developed at
Dholi. White composite M-9 has been found suitable for the Kharif season.
Composite M-8 and M-7 (pool 17) are of early maturing types. They have
given a higher yield than Diara composite but are about 4 to 7 days late.
Pool-17 may be suitable for summer maize cultivation in the Saharsa district.
Composite maize like Lakshmi, Heamant and Dewaki were developed
for the late sown condition in Rabi season. These maize varieties were much
popular among maize growers and breeders.

1.4.3.3 RABI MAIZE

Experiments on Rabi maize was started from Rabi 1961–62. The farmers saw
the performance of maize in the winter season and were quite astonished to
see the vigorous and healthy plants.
Hybrids Ganga-1, Ganga-101, Deccan, Ranjit, Ganga, Safed-2, and
Hi-starch were tested. Hi-starch was found to be the best for Rabi cultivation.
Composite maize varieties namely Amber, Kisan, Sona, Jawahar, Vikram,
and Vijay were also tested. Vijay was found suitable for Rabi season. White
composite Laxmi has been found at par with Hybrid Hi-starch and released
for Rabi cultivation. Several hybrids suitable for the Rabi season were
developed in which Rajendra Hybrid Makka-1, Rajendra Hybrid Makka-2,
Shaktiman-2, Shaktiman-3, and Shaktiman-4 was high yielder.
A brief detail of the maize varieties developed up to the year 2010 is
provided in Table 1.7.

1.5 WHEAT RESEARCH AT BIHAR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

(BAU), SABOUR

Similar to rice and wheat research, the university also identified various
research priorities area after several discussions with the farmers and
TABLE 1.7 List of Maize Varieties Released in Bihar (Up to the year 2010)
Sl.No. Season Variety Parentage Maturity (in Days) Yield (q/ha) Characteristics
Kharif Composite
1. Suwan — 85–90 40–45 Yellow, semi dent
2. Dewaki American early dent × 100–110 35–40 White, semi-dent, Early
Tuxpeno
3. Hybrid
4. Rajendra Hybrid Makka-3 Dholi inbred 32 × Dholi 110–115 50–55 Bold grain, Orange-yellow
inbred 40 color
5. Shaktiman-1 (CML 142 × CML 150) × 110–115 50–55 White, flint, QPM hybrid
CML 186
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals

6. Shaktiman-2 CML 176 × CML 186 110–115 60–65 White, flint, QPM hybrid
Rabi Composite
7. Lakshmi American Dent × Tuxpeno 150–155 60–65 White, semi dent, Late
Yellow
8. Hemant Dholi 7744 (AE) × Tuxpeno 165 60–65 White, bold grain, semi
dent
9. Dewaki American early dent × Tuxpeno 155 50–55 White, semi-dent
Hybrid
10. Rajendra Hybrid Makka-1 (CM 400 × CM 300) × P 7421 155–160 65–70 Yellow, semi-dent
11. Rajendra Hybrid Makka-2 EVM 13 × Jogia Local 155–160 65–70 White, semi-dent
12. Shaktiman-2 CML 176 × CML 186 145–150 80–85 White, flint, QPM hybrid
13. Shaktiman-3 CML 161 × CML 163 150–155 85–90 Yellow-orange, semi-flint
14. Shaktiman-4 CML 161 × CML 169 150–155 85–90 Yellow-orange, semi-flint
Summer Composite
15. Suwan — 85–90 35–40
31

16. Dewaki American early dent × Tuxpeno 100–105 40–45 White, semi-dent, Early
32 Sustainable Agriculture

experts. These research areas were formulated to solve the burning issues
and farmers problems. The following research priorities were identified:

 Collection, characterization, documentation of locally adopted short-

duration cultivars.
 Development of high yielding short duration hybrid and open-
pollinated varieties for Kharif and full-season hybrids for the winter
season.
 Inbred line development for abiotic stresses.
 Maintenance of inbreds.

1.5.1 SCHEMES IN OPERATION

The maize research of this university is supported by the state, national

as well as international center like CIMMYT. In the short span of time,
the maize research has achieved remarkable progress. The prime aim of
these projects is to development of high yielding hybrids and specialty corn
(Table 1.8).

TABLE 1.8 List of Projects Under Implementation in Maize (2012–2016)

Sl.No. Project Funding Agency
1. Heat Tolerant Maize for Asia (HTMA) USAID and CIMMYT
2. Breeding and seed production of Maize Institutional
3. Development of hybrids for specialty corn Institutional
4. AICRP on Maize ICAR
5. Short duration single cross hybrid maize for Kharif Institutional
season in Bihar
6. Maintenance breeding of crops Institutional

1.5.2 MAIZE HYBRIDS DEVELOPED/IDENTIFIED BY BIHAR

AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (BAU), SABOUR

Similar to rice and wheat research, the development/identified maize research

and development was also a dedicated and scientific effort by the maize
research team. The research team also developed high yielding suitable for
Kharif/Rabi/Summer season.

1. Sabour Hybrid Maize-1 (SHM-1): BAU covers 65% arable land

of Bihar that includes Agro-climatic Zone-II (northern-eastern part)
Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 33

and Zone III A and Zone III B (southern part). The northern part
is mostly affected by floods during the Kharif season whereas the
southern part of Bihar faces periodic drought. Production of Kharif
maize in the northern part of the state is uncertain due to high rainfall
and flood. In zone III-A in case of low rainfall or delayed monsoon
farmers require short duration maize hybrids. In the state, more
than 30% of the total acreage (2.75 lakh hectares) of the maize is
being grown during the Kharif season where crop faced drought
stress during the early growth stage in one hand and waterlogging in
another hand. Presently, available varieties are well suited only for
good environment and suffered badly under aforesaid stress condi-
tions. SHM-1 is developed for the Kharif season. This variety is
developed by the crossing of SML-1 × VQL-1 inbred. It is an early
duration (85–90 days) hybrid with the Yield potential of 55–60 q/ha.
SHM-1 is of yellow grain color, tolerant to major diseases and insect
pests. Being a short duration hybrid SHM-1 escapes both stresses
(Figure 1.9).
2. Sabour Hybrid Maize-2 (SHM-2): Many farmers grow potato,
mustard, and tobacco in Bihar. Mostly, the northern part is a flood-
prone area in Kharif and water recession is late in some of the areas.
There is the demand for spring maize after harvesting of potato,
mustard, tobacco and late recession of floodwater. Therefore, the
need was felt for high yielding spring maize such as SHM-2 for the
spring season. This hybrid is developed by the crossing of CML-451 ×
CLO-2450 inbred. It is heat tolerant, medium duration (100–105 days)
hybrid with the Yield potential of 65–70 q/ha. SHM-1 is of orange
grain color, tolerant to major diseases and insect pests. This spring
hybrid can sustain at high temperatures. It can be adopted in all Agro-
Climatic Zones of Bihar after harvest of potato, mustard, tobacco and
in a flood-prone area (Figure 1.10).
3. DHM-117: There is the demand of rabi maize especially in those
areas where a single crop is grown that covers around 5.0 lakh hectares
of the state. Simultaneously, the northern part is mostly affected by
floods during the Kharif season whereas the southern part of Bihar
faces a periodic drought. Production of Kharif maize in the northern
part of the state is uncertain due to high rainfall and flood. In zone III
A in case of low rainfall or delayed monsoon, farmers require short
duration maize hybrids. Therefore, there was a need of high yielding
rabi and Kharif maize such as DHM-117 for both the seasons. This
34 Sustainable Agriculture

variety was developed by ANGRAU, Hyderabad by the crossing of

BML-6 × BML-7 inbred. The maize research team of BAU, Sabour
identified the potentiality of this hybrid for both Kharif and Rabi
season for this state. It is a medium duration hybrid, sturdy plant type
with a yield potential of 55–60 q/ha in Kharif and 85–90 q/ha in Rabi
season. It is lodging resistant and stays green at brown husk stage or
harvest. Its grain is a very attractive orange-yellow seed color, bold
and flint grain type. It has field resistance to major foliar disease viz.,
MLB and TLB under Bihar conditions. It is a rabi and Kharif hybrid
that can sustain in waterlog conditions for few days during Kharif.
It can be adopted in all Agro-climatic Zones of Bihar (Zone II, Zone
IIIA, Zone IIIB) (Figure 1.11).

FIGURE 1.9 SHM-1.

Genetic Improvement of Major Cereals 35

FIGURE 1.10 SHM-2.

FIGURE 1.11 DHM-117.

36 Sustainable Agriculture

KEYWORDS

 Bihar
 cereals
 genetic improvement
 genomics

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Srivastava, V., & Ow, D. W., (2004). Marker-free site-specific gene integration in plants.
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bacterium T-DNA in Arabidopsis thaliana mediated by Cre recombinase. Nucleic Acids
Research, 26(11), 2729–2734.
CHAPTER 2

Status, Opportunities, and Challenges

of Spice Research and Development
SANGEETA SHREE and PARAMVEER SINGH
Department of Horticulture (Vegetable and Floriculture),
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Spices can be said to be a strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vege-

table origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment.
Spices constitute any part of plants which may be root, leaves, seeds, stems,
barks and even flower or fruit. The main function of spices is that they add
flavor to the food. Besides, they also add some color to the food and also
help in preserving them.

2.1 HISTORY OF SPICES

The history of the world is never complete without the information and
knowledge of the importance and role spices occupied in the olden times.
The discovery of countries and continents, economic rivalries, trade and
commerce, important war and ventures and many more such events and
advents were linked in one way or the other to search and hunt for spices.
Simultaneously study of spices will remain incomplete if its historical back-
ground is not diagnosed and unearthed. The history of spices dates back
to the pyramid age of Egypt, roughly 2600 to 2100 B.C. The existence of
a high quality of spices in South India is reflected from the Babyloman
and Assyrian era (Balraman et al., 1989). The sources of the spices were
not known to most of Europe till the Christian era began. Cinnamon was
supposed to be the aromatics that were utilized by the queen of Egypt,
Hatshepsut, (Parry, 1969). Spices and aromatics were among important
40 Sustainable Agriculture

commodities in the second-third millennium used by Arabian traders. Like-

wise, remnants of Indus Valley also validate the truth that spices used to be
the prized possession of the Harrappans. Besides, Kautilya’s Arthasasthra
also mentions plentiful usage of spices including coriander, ginger, pepper
cardamom fenugreek, and mustard in the third century B.C. Hippocrates
(460–377 B.C.), Theophrastus (372–287 B.C.), and Dioscorides, the father
of Botany (A.D. too had cited about the worth of spices in their literature
during their respective periods. Thus even in the early era of the history
of mankind spices were very important (Rosengarten, 1969). Romans used
spices lavishly both in kitchen as well as for cosmetics reasons. It is also
mentioned that in the olden days peppercorns were considered to be the
ready money and were used to pay taxes, excise, rental fee, even dowries
and for various social causes (Purseglove, 1981). Vedas and epics too
have cited the practice of using spices in various ways and for plenty of
purposes. Rigvedas, Yajurvedas, and Atharvedas have recognized the worth
and value of all types of spices and their medicinal properties (Rosengarten,
1969). The epics like Ramayana and Mahabharatha (Mahindru, 1982) both
old and new testaments of the Bible have the mention of spices in several
ways. Even a great prophet of Islam, himself was a spice merchant (Rosen-
garten, 1969). In the post-Vedic period, Charak and Susruta mention the
role of spices play in surgery in the classic book, Susruth Samhita. There
are references in the books of Vatsyayana on spices too. Theophrastus, the
Greek Philosopher in the fourth century B.C. pointed out that the sizzling
flavor of spices came out from the hotter parts of the Asian world. Pliny
also has mentioned about the value of pepper in some of his writings, as
early as the first century B.C. There was intensive trade and transaction of
spices between the Western world and India. The spice trade and commerce
between Hindustan and Rome was well organized. Petite in volume, soaring
in cost and stable in demand, spices were the most attractive object of busi-
ness. India was the most sought after place in olden, as navigators were lured
by spices possessed by India. In fact, rummage around for spices showed the
way to India via the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama in 1498. Subse-
quently, a monopoly on the spice trade was captured by Portuguese which
continued onto the 16th century. The domination in this area was passed on
to the Dutch, until the British finally took over. In the modern-day world,
the acquiring spices are not as complicated or death-defying as it was in the
past but the charm of Hindustani spices has still not faded as it was in those
days. Gradually spices in a way became started affecting lifestyle, culture,
business financial and diplomatic dealings among countries (shodhganga.
inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/156/16/09_chapter2.pdf)
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 41

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF SPICES

Spices have ever been closely associated with cultural traditions, social customs,
rites and rituals, magic and charms, preservation, medicines cosmetics and
what not since early human history. Spices are associated with human values
and culture in a variety of ways. They are part and parcel of kitchen. They are
exploited as various medicinal and cosmetic reasons. They are used as relaxants
as well stimulants. They occupy special privileges in various rituals of ancient
people of not only Indians but also the Egyptians, Arabians and the Romans
irrespective of caste, creed, religion, and culture. Ancient peoples such as the
Egyptians, the Arab and the Roman made extensive uses of spices, not only to
add essence to foods and drinks, but also as medicines, disinfectants, incenses,
stimulants and cosmetics. Spices are loaded with nutraceuticals, photochem-
ical and several secondary metabolites. They possess chemopreventive, anti-
oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory properties and facilitate indigestion.
They serve as a raw material in the treatment of stomach problems, diarrhea,
dysentery, and nausea. Thus they act like functional food. They also enhance
shelf life, advance storage and help preservation of foodstuff, etc. No wonder
in the bygone days they were craved as gold like other precious metals and
stones. India is thought to be the exquisite land of spices. Peninsular India is
endowed with the great diversity of herbs and spices grown naturally. Ginger,
turmeric, cinnamon, black pepper, capsicum, clove, nutmeg, cardamom, tama-
rind, and vanilla are the important spices. Seed spices like coriander, caraway,
fennel, fenugreek, dill, cumin, anise and herbal spices like saffron, lavender,
thyme, oregano, celery, anise, sage, and basil are also important. The Indian
peninsula is the native home of many key spices, viz., tamarind, curry leaf,
black pepper, cardamom, and to a certain amount, ginger, cinnamon turmeric
and where a good diversity exists.
In fact, there is no state in India that does not grow spices. This plays a
crucial role in providing livelihood security and economic sustainability to
the people in and around that area. From the Indian subcontinent, these spices
spread over other parts of the tropical world. Each country and each region
has its own traditional races/cultivars or spices types. As many as 109 spices
have been listed by IS out of which 75 types of spices are produced in India.

2.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SPICE CROPS

Directorate of Areca nut and Spices Development, Kozhikode, Kerala. The

importance and worth of spice crop was being felt and recognized by officials
42 Sustainable Agriculture

at various levels since a very long time but the first worthwhile initiative
regarding spice development was taken in 1951 when a high-level Spices
Enquiry Committee was set up by the Planning Commission in view of the
significant role spices play among the agricultural commodities produced in
the country. The committee considered that the spice crops were high-value
crops and could have enormous contributions in the construction of the
national wealth and economy. However, organized efforts were needed to
boost the production and strengthen the marketing structure as in other cash
crops. The committee emphasized the need of better planning, investigations,
explorations and joint efforts are required for the appropriate development
spice crops. Henceforth, the Government of India funded ICAR was for
implementing various schemes on Research as well as Development and
Marketing throughout the country. At present Directorate of Areca nut and
Spices Development at Calicut in Kerala which was established in 1966 acts
as a secondary office under the Ministry of Agriculture for paying enough
interest in different aspects of crop development. Simultaneously, the Council
for Development of Indian Spices was created to deal with various issues
related with the development programs on these crops. These institutions laid
stress upon improvement in production, the fulfillment of the export demand,
and enhancement of quality of spices and related products. The scientific post-
harvest procedure was encouraged to guarantee quality improvement. The
State Horticulture or Agriculture Departments act as line departments for the
execution of different programs. National Horticulture Mission (NHM) was
launched during 2005–06 by of Indian Government as a holistic approach for
the development of different horticultural crops together with spices, aromatic
and, medicinal crops. However, at present, for the holistic growth of the
horticulture sector including spices this scheme functions as a sub-scheme
under one Centrally Sponsored Plan called Mission for Integrated Development
of Horticulture (MIDH). The demand for spices, grown organically is on the
increase since spices are consumed invariably as a food additive and also as a
medicine or even as aromatics. Some farmer participatory program has also
been initiated by DASD to encourage most recent technologies in spices
during 2008–09 which are practiced effectively by different organizations.
During 2015–16, it was planned to establish 78 frontline demonstration plots
at various University centers/ICAR Institutes/Farmers fields for organic
cultivation of various spice crops. ICAR Institutes, some reputed NGOs and
several SAUs, jointly implemented the programs. Calicut Team observed that
seed spice still remains one segment, where output was not very significant.
This was primarily due to the non-implementation of the latest technologies
and current know-how evolved for various crops. Drip as well as sprinkler
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 43

irrigation technologies save water enhance water use efficiency (WUE).

Because of over-exploitation of the agricultural land fertility status has gone
down and developing water wealth or, implementation of water-saving
methods, etc., would make possible availability of water to the crop and help
in the growth and development of the plants. Growth and yield parameters of
spices like Black pepper, Chili, etc., showed a significant increase in response
to irrigation. A significant increase has been observed yield of rhizomes of
turmeric and ginger and growth and yield of Black and pepper, with proper
irrigation. The DASD has set up program namely, on management of farm
water which aims at increasing efficiency of water use by encouraging efficient
technologies and equipments of water management in spices crops Spices
Board (Ministry of commerce and industry, Government of India) Spices
Board, Ministry of Commerce and Industry is the apex body responsible for
the progress and promotion of spices in India on global basis. The one-time
Cardamom Board (1968) and Spices Export Promotion Council (1960) merged
into Spices Board in 1987] The Board serves to connect the exporters in India
and the importers overseas. The Board along with industrial sector caters to
different activities for maintaining quality and appeal of spices of India. It
autonomously controls the export promotion of all the listed spices and
development of Cardamom (Small and Large). Main functions include
research, growth, expansion and regulation of domestic marketing of small
and large cardamom, post-harvest enhancement of all spices, promotion of
organic spices, value addition, curing and certification of spices, development
of spices in North East, provision of quality assessment services, export
encouragement of all spices by means of technology up-gradation, quality
up-gradation, brand promotion, research and product development. Other
responsibilities include collection and keeping records of trade information
and provide guiding principles to the central government on policy matters
related to import and export of spices. It also promotes exports of spice and
their products, encourages growing of spices organically, facilitates basic
facilities for value addition, helps in registration and licensing of all spice
exporters, provides assistance for investigations and research for enhancing
quality Indian Society for Spices, Kozhikode, Kerala, the responsibility of any
scientific society in promoting indigenous research and exploring scientific
developments has ever since been immense. The Western countries have
greatly contributed towards development of science and technologies through
such societies. In India, too scientific societies have played a crucial task in
bringing forth novel research outputs and the latest technologies in diverse
fields. The scientific societies have played an important role in bringing
together multifarious and diverse scientific structures. Therefore, for the
44 Sustainable Agriculture

progress and expansion of science and research in spices, aromatic and related
crops, the Indian Society for Spices was formed in 1991. The society aims at
providing a forum for research workers on these crops for sharing ideas and
exists as a link between research and related organizations and the industry.
The society organizes the symposium, convention, seminar and other scientific
meets in association with other organizations on aspects pertinent to spices,
medicinal and aromatic crops. Aims and objectives of this Society are to
provide common platform for all those linked with spices, aromatic plants and
allied crops for fertile interactions and update of the latest technologies, to
publish an International Journal called Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops,
as a means for speedy publication of research results, to encourage
communication among scientists of different institutes and groups in India, to
organize symposia, conferences, workshops, etc., on spice, aromatic and
related crops, to connect the research organizations with the industry and
trade, and to keep brotherhood among research workers, farmers, industrialists,
traders and the consumers of spices, aromatic plants and allied crops. The ISS
is a tough pillar for attaining scientific literacy and this helps in understanding
science, its nature, and ethics that control scientists in their work, the
interrelationships of science and society and also the interrelationships of
science and the humanities (Pella et al., 1966). Production of Spices India is
the home of a large number of spices. The present status of different spices
production in India is around 3.2 million tonnes which are approximately 4
billion US $ worth, and holds a highflying position in world spice production.
Because of the changing climate from tropical to subtropical and temperate,
almost all spices grow superbly well in India. As many as 109 spices are
reported in the ISO list. However, only 52 spices are under the jurisdiction of
the Spices Board. The area and production of spices in the country has shown
increase up to 3% and 4% respectively in the year 2013–14 to 2014–15 as
compared to their respective previous years (Source: Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation). According to the Economics and Statistics Department, the
Ministry of Agriculture, the current scenario of the production of spices in the
country is approximately over 5 million tons out of which about 10% is
exported. Because of the social awareness, enhanced economic status and
boost in the living standard of the people and in the country and their shifting
food patterns, the domestic utilization of spices has augmented significantly in
recent years.
India holds a worldwide reputation of being the only nation where all
types of spices are produced. Spices serve as an important foreign exchange
earner and thus play a key role in the trade and commerce of India. With the
modernization in transport systems and the growing global market, spices of
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 45

India are savored by the people throughout the world and this definitely has
a role in improving the mutual trade and business relations. Spices Board,
Ministry of Commerce and Industry, is the highest authority for encouraging
export and international trade regarding Hindustani spices and their different
products. It is accountable for post-harvest enhancement and valorizations
as an export promoting measure for the spices under list. The last five years
registered significant growth in exports of spices leading to 14% increase
with respect to Indian currency and 5% in the dollar. India has a respectable
place in the world trade of spices. During the year 2015–16, 843,255 tons
of spices and products of spices worth Rs.16,238.23 crores was exported
by India while the export was 893,920 tons worth Rs.14,899.68 crores in
2014–15, with a record of 9% and 2% increase in terms of rupees and dollar
respectively. During 2015–16 the total export surpassed the target both with
respect to volume and price.

2.4 IMPORT OF SPICES

Foreign Trade Policy of India under recent scenario does not impose any
substantial boundary on spice import except for ‘seed quality’ of seed
spices, fresh ginger, and poppy seed. Gradually the duty for import has
also been lowered. There is no tariff for imports from Sri Lanka. There
exists Free Toll Trade Pact with Sri Lanka on spices. Under the Advance
Authorization System tax allow free imports for valorization and then
re-export of the product after value addition. The work on spice research
is primarily looked after by The Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR)
Kozikhkode; (Calicut) is a constituent unit of ICAR. It is a vital wing
dedicated to spice research since 1976. IISR works for mankind and owes
all its achievements to the farmers and industries, involved in one way
or the other with spices production, handling, post-harvest procedural
and marketing. The research programs are carried out under various proj-
ects, which are time-bound, and with specific objectives like collection,
conservation, screening, assessment and categorization of germplasm,
breeding varieties having high yield and quality employing all traditional
and biotechnological methods, production of nucleus seeds and planting
materials of superior cultivars, identification, characterization and stan-
dardization of techniques for the detection the diseases and losses caused
by infestation of insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses and pathogens specific
to spice crops, standardizing production and breeding methods for bulk
production and circulation of improved genotypes, development of agro
46 Sustainable Agriculture

techniques for augmenting production and for optimum exploitation of

integrated management of pest as well as disease. Post-harvest know-how,
socio-economic part of cultivation, distribution, and sale also some exten-
sion activities and investigation on nutrition and medicinal features of
spices are also researched upon by IISR.

2.5 CROP-WISE IMPROVEMENT IN SPICES

2.5.1 CHILI

Chili is a versatile and significant spice cultivated all over India. Chili is a
resourceful crop and has varied usages. It is chiefly utilized as spice, condi-
ment, culinary complement, medicines, vegetable, and ornamental plant. It
is one of the commercial crops and cultivated throughout the country. Chili
is most commonly cultivated in, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Karnataka, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh and about
46% of the Chili are produced in this area.

2.5.1.1 PRODUCTION IN INDIA

Various research works to study genetic variability and genetic diversity in

chili have been worked upon by various universities in India for the enhance-
ment in yield, quality, nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical properties in Chili.
Kumar in 1992 carried out heterosis study in F1 and F2 population in Chili
at BAC, Sabour and found that variety Sabour Angar, Pusa Jwala and 85–2
were the good combiners for yield as well as contributing characters. Sabour
Angar and Sabour Anal were the premiere varieties released from Sabour.
In the past studies were done on combining ability, heterosis, development
of CMS based hybrids and evaluation, path analysis, association of char-
acters and diversity study for genetic enhancement in yield in addition to
quality as reported by Gaddagimath (1992); Shirshat (1994); Giritamman-
navar (1995); Hiremath (1997); Lankesh Kumar and Sridevi (2005), and
Srilakshmi (2006). Savita (2013) conducted a study to evaluate the extent
of heterosis as well as to know good general combiners for yield in addition
to quality. Later molecular l approaches were used to attain improvement in
Chili. Improved varieties of Chili include N.P. 46, Pant Jwala, G-3, CA-960,
Pant C-t X-235, AKC-79-18, Parbhani Tejas K 1, K 2, CO2, CO4 (vegetable
type), PKM 1, PMK 1, PLR1, and KKM (Ch) 1.
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 47

2.5.2 GARLIC

Garlic, a member of the Amaryllidaceae family is a bulb crop and is invari-

ably used as spices due to its typical garlicky flavor. The intense aroma
and strong taste in garlic are due to the sulfur-containing compounds in
garlic. These compounds form the active principles in garlic which are
responsible for their characteristic odor and pungency (Robinowitch and
Currah, 2002). Garlic is propagated exclusively by the vegetative method.
Improvement in garlic is possible primarily through clonal selection of
existing types in various regions. Conventional research on garlic-breeding
has been restricted to screening and characterization and evaluation for
yield as well as morphological traits (Figliuolo et al., 2001; Khar et al.,
2005a, 2005b). A positive correlation between plant height, bulb weight,
bulb diameter and mean clove weight has been reported by Zhila (1981).
Baghalian et al., (2005) reported significant positive correlation between
mean weight of cloves and mean weight of bulbs and negative correla-
tion between mean weight cloves and number of cloves. In their work on
garlic Baghalian et al., (2006) reported that these traits could be helpful in
improvement program in garlic for yield and quality. Significant amount
of variability with respect to morphological character of garlic has been
observed by Shashidhar and Dharmatti (2005) as well as Khar et al., (2006).
Bulb weight, diameter, yield, number of cloves per bulb, maturity, plant
height, green leaves number and bulbing period are considered as main
traits responsible for to genetic diversity in garlic. Morphological charac-
terization of garlic intended diversity study was done by Baghalian et al., in
2005 and Panthee et al. in 2006. The physico-chemical characters including
allicin content and molecular characteristics was reported by Baghalian et
al. (2006). Resende et al. (2003) reported quality traits and chemotaxo-
nomic categorization was specified by Storsberg et al., (2003). Allicin is a
key chemical component of garlic as well is invariably exploited by phar-
maceutical industries for making several formulations of medicinal impor-
tance. Huchette et al. (2005) reported that allicin content in garlic is varied
by several factors, like light, temperature, genotype, location and also S
fertilization. Similarly, Yang et al. (2005) similarly reported that relative
humidity, soil type as well as the date of harvest affects the allicin content
in garlic. Contrary to these reports, Baghalian (2005) found no significant
interrelationship between the environment and allicin content of genotypes
of garlic. The true seed production in garlic (A. sativum and A. longicuspis)
is not recent phenomenon. It was with the discovery of fertile clones by
48 Sustainable Agriculture

Etoh (1986) first of all discovered fertile clones of garlic. He utilized the
same to bring flowering and seeds in garlic. With the knowledge of flow-
ering garlic, Jenderek and Hannan (2004) first time produced S1 bulbs
some fertile clones of flowering garlic. This served to be precious stuff for
research towards garlic genetics (Jenderek, 2004). Jenderek and Zewdie
(2005) in their study on genetic variability of garlic concluded that garlic
over the years due to clonal propagation, have become greatly heterozygous
in nature. Attempt was also made by Koul et al. (1979) to study genetics
as well as breeding systems for garlic improvement. Koul et al. (1979)
studied prospects for garlic improvement for genetic studies and complete
review about origin, flowering in addition to seed production was carried
out by Simon and Jenderek in 2004. Reports on of flowering in garlic,
helped further in the study of linkage as documented by Ipek et al. (2005)
and Zewdie et al. (2005). This helps tagging of significant genes in future.
Improvement of garlic was taken in BAC, Sabour under varietal trials of
AICRP. Recently project on varietal improvement in garlic for yield along
with storability is in headway. Over 142 genotypes are under study with
the objectives to find out variety having high yield and longer storability.
The biochemical basis of storability is also being studied at BAC, Sabour.
Morphological, biochemical plus molecular characterization of genotypes
was also done. MTA was signed with DOGR, Rajgurunagar, Pune. Few
genotypes are in advance stage of study and expected to be released in very
recent future. Garlic is primarily a vegetatively propagated crop and there-
fore improvement in garlic is limited to either clonal selection or by muta-
tion breeding among conventional methods and by somaclonal variations
created through biotechnology. In India, most varieties are bred by conven-
tional methods. Most of the varieties of garlic have been released under
the umbrella of National Horticultural Research and Development Founda-
tion (NHRDF). Various agricultural universities like Gujarat Agricultural
University, Punjab Agricultural University, MPKV, Rahuri, etc., also have
greatly have developed superior varieties of garlic which are normally short
day types, suitable for tropical and sub-tropical climates. Some temperate
varieties released at the national level are Agrifound Parvati, VLG-1
(VPKAS, Almora), SKUAG 1 (SKUAST, Srinagar), DARL 52 and Solan
Local (YSPUHF, Solan). Besides, varieties, G41, G1, G50, G282, are the
classical soft neck (short-day) released by NHRDF, Pune. Jamnagar Local,
Ooty Local, Jeur Local are the varieties selected by farmers, showing high
performance over the years.
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 49

2.5.2.1 MOLECULAR MARKERS IN GARLIC

Garlic is being cultivated since ages, but the taxonomic origins of this
domestication process are not well-known. According to modern taxonomy,
the world’s garlic germplasm has been subdivided into five distinct groups:
Sativum, Ophioscordon, Longicuspis, Subtropical, and Pekinense as per
Fritsch and Friesen, 2002. The Longicuspis group from central Asia is docu-
mented to be most primitive, and all other groups were known to be derived
from this group (MaaB and Klaas, 1995; Etoh and Simon, 2002; Fritsch and
Friesen, 2002). Central Asia was thought as primary center for evolution and
garlic diversity (Fritsch and Friesen, 2002). This proposition is very strongly
supported by modern studies on native garlic types in Tien-Shan Mountains
(Etoh, 1986; Kamenetsky et al., 2003). Simon and Jenderek, 2003 have
reported a broad array of morphological diversity in garlic for flowering
capacity, leaf character, bulb characters, plant development, influence of
temperature and photoperiod on bulb formation, bulbil and flowering pattern.
According to MaaB and Klaas (1995), the subtropical clones were undoubt-
edly different from all other types and Pekinense subgroup was rather alike
flowering type of type. Researchers, across the world have reported RAPD
techniques for characterization of garlic germplasm. Bradley et al., in 1996
have described the use of RAPD techniques for Australian garlic germplasm
characterization, Hsu et al. (2006) of Taiwanese garlic germplasm, Buso et
al. (2008) of Brazilian garlic germplasm, Xu et al. (2005) of Chinese garlic
germplasm, Paredes et al. (2008) of Chilean garlic germplasm, Rosales
et al. (2007) of Guatemalan garlic germplasm and Khar et al. (2008) for
Indian garlic. Ipek et al. (2003, 2005); Lampasona et al. (2003); Volk et al.
(2004); have reported AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism)
technique to characterize garlic. A comparative study of different markers
like AFLPs, RAPD, and isozymes for diversity estimation of garlic and for
polymorphism study was done by Ipek et al. (2003). He found good correla-
tion between the markers and established that there existed genetic diversity
amongst closely-related clones, which could not be distinguish with RAPD
markers and isozymes but was identified by AFLPs. Lampasona et al., 2003
have maintained that there exists correlation between geographical locations
and the diversity. Duplicity in commercial collections maintained at various
centers has been reported by Volk et al. (2004). Therefore speedy charac-
terization of garlic accession is essential for keeping away from duplicity.
Therefore a number of locus-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
based DNA markers were developed by Ipek et al. (2008) for this purpose.
Besides, markers have been exploited to explain the taxonomic status of
50 Sustainable Agriculture

some local cultivars of garlics as observed by Ipek et al. (2008) and Figli-
uolo and Stefano, (2007). Al Zahim et al., (1997, 1999) reported genetic
purity of micro propagated crops. A character like pollen fertility in garlic
was reported by Etoh et al. (2001) while Nabulski et al. (2001) reported
marker associated to white rot.

2.5.3 BLACK PEPPER

Piper nigrum belongs to the family Piperaceae. Most of the species of the
genus Piper are woody climbers which are perennial in nature, or maybe herbs
or shrubs and are pan tropically distributed. Work on Chili improvement
is mostly confined to Southern India. Well-organized and well-thought-out
research work in the last three decades led to the development of superior
breed of black pepper. Several breeding techniques like hybridization, open
pollination or clonal selection from the popular cultivars have been adopted
for the purpose. PRS (KAU) under AICRP has released seven varieties of
spices viz., Panniyur-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 yielding between 12.7 and 25.7
quintal/ha. IISR have released four varieties viz., Subhakara, Panchami,
Sreekara, and Pournami with a yield ranging from 23 to 28 quintal/ha.
Palode, a Regional station of CPCRI, released a variety PLD-2 with a yield
capacity of 24 quintal/ha as reported by Ravindran et al., 2000. Black pepper
vines should be kept under shade (7% incident light) to keep it green and
vigorous whereas when kept in sunlight they turned pale and turned sickly
and developed necrotic lesions during the summer months (Vijayakumar
and Mammen, 1990). Black pepper flourishes on soils, clayey to light sandy
clays which are rich and friable, well-drained and must have the capacity to
hold enough water. Sadanandan, 1993 observed that soils having neutral pH
and high organic matter were conducive high yield. Multiplication technique
using bamboo method to fulfill the demand of planting material was
developed (Ravindran et al., 2000). Spray of planofix 40 ppm decreased the
shedding of spike up to 20% (Ravindran et al., 2000). Salvi et al., 2000 have
opined that use of plant growth regulator like NAA and 2,4-D of 10 ppm
strength might be beneficial in promoting spike initiation and berry setting.
Application of biofertilizers and vermicompost improved growth, biomass,
absorption of nutrition, yield as well as quality of black pepper (Kandiannan
et al., 1998; Kandasamy et al., 1998; Kannan and Thangaselvabai, 2006).
Thangaselvabai et al., 2006 have concluded that multi-storeyed cropping
system of cinnamon, pepper, and pineapple as constituent crops under forest-
agro ecology was the most remunerative among all the cropping systems.
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 51

2.5.4 GINGER

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. It is a

huge family consisting of 47 genera and 1400 species. Ginger is a monocot
underground rhizome. It is an important spice and has medicinal importance
too. Muralidharan and Velayudhan (1983) and also Sasikumar et al. (1995)
have informed about the diversity in wild Western Ghats, India. Nonethe-
less, utmost variation among ginger under cultivation is prevalent in North
East India. The huge diversity may be accounted to the widespread from its
center of origin in Southeast Asia followed by local adaptation due to muta-
tions or other factors as suggested by Ravindran et al. (1994). Besides yield
quality is an important determinant for the ginger to be desirable. The impor-
tant quality traits include essential oil oleoresin, and fiber along with volatile
as well as non-volatile constituents according to Jaleel and Sasikumar, 2011.
Wohlmuth et al. (2006), studied oil content of fresh rhizomes of 17 Austra-
lian ginger clones and established that the cultivar Jamaican contained the
oil which had a considerably different composition. Datta et al. (2003) in
his study on quality estimation of ginger found that the cultivars ‘Suravi,’
Uttar Pradesh, Suprabha, ‘Tura,’ and Gorubathan suitable for producing dry
ginger, cultivars Suravi, Suprabha, Taffingiva and Jughijan for oleoresins
content and Suravi, Suprabha, Mazulay, Jughijan and Tura for essential oil
extraction. Goyal and Korla (2001) observed a negative correlation existed
between essential oil and oleoresins with the dry matter. Tiwari (2003) in
his study on ginger production under the mid-hill conditions of Himachal
Pradesh in India observed that genotypes, BDJR 1054, SG 687 SG 61 and
SG 62, were fit for ginger oil as well as oleoresin removal, while SG 692 was
as a rule apt for dry ginger. Furthermore, SG 646 was accepted as a replace-
ment variety for Himgiri for fresh ginger production is concerned.

2.5.5 TURMERIC

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. This is

grown for its underground rhizome. It is perennial in nature and is native to
India and Indonesia. It is popularly grown all over the world and is called
‘Golden Spice of life.’ It is an essential spices and used in a number of dishes
world over. It adds a rich golden color to the curry. It is a commercial crop
in India. Indian. Over 100 species of Curcuma are there out of which 41 are
known to be there in India. However, only 6% of the total area under spices
and condiments is occupied by turmeric. India accounts for 78% world’s
52 Sustainable Agriculture

total turmeric production and holds the topmost position in the production
and export of turmeric in the world. Moreover, turmeric in the second major
foreign exchange earner among the Indian spices. The world’s greatest
consumption of turmeric is done by India, which amounts to nearly 80% of
total turmeric consumed throughout the world. The main turmeric producing
states in India are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala; Andhra Pradesh occupies
the maximum area under turmeric cultivation and accounts for very high
production. Sustainable and dedicated research and development activi-
ties have boosted the production potential of the country. The prospects of
Turmeric production in India along with the state wise production of turmeric
in India has been analyzed by several workers. Turmeric exhibits very high
heritability with significant genetic advance for rhizome yield, number of
leaves, number of primary fingers, the yield of secondary fingers, the height
of the pseudostem and crop duration. Singh et al., (2003) recommended
promising genotypes must be identified through selection based on the
number and weight of mother, primary and secondary rhizomes. According
to Reddy (1987) and Panja et al. (2002) positive correlation of number of
leaves, number of primary fingers and crop duration was observed with yield
of rhizomes. Singh (1995) studied the production of turmeric in Bihar and
observed that area, production, productivity of turmeric in the Bihar is likely
to increase. The most important yield contributing character in turmeric is
the number of rhizomes and their size (Chadha, 2001). Studies on varietal
performance of turmeric was made by Chaudhary and Singh (2006) and
it was found that More number of rhizomes per plant were produced by
Krishna (11.48) followed by Rajendra Sonia (10.22). As an outcome of the
large number of quality research performed by some of the most qualified
scientists and research personnel, IISR Kozhikode – Kerala has given some
proven and suitable technologies for quality turmeric production. For raising
the seedling it recommends selection of most healthy turmeric rhizomes for
seed purpose and that selected rhizomes must be treated with mancozeb
(0.3%), and quinolphos (0.075%) for 30 minutes and stored in well-venti-
lated place. Pramila et al. carried out an experiment in the lab to study the
influence of growth regulators, strength of growth media used and photope-
riod on induction of micro rhizome in turmeric. BAP 1 mg l–1 with NAA 0.2
mg l–1 (31–33 days) gave the best response for early induction of microrhi-
zomes. High heritability with appreciable genetic advance was reported for
rhizome yield, number of leaves, height of pseudostem number of primary
fingers and yield of secondary fingers. Singh et al. (2003) suggested superior
lines may be obtained through selection based on the number and weight of
mother, primary and secondary rhizomes.
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 53

2.5.6 SEED SPICES

Seed spices are the largest group among spices consisting of coriander, fenu-
greek, cumin, fennel, celery, ajowan, nigella, dill, anise, etc. India stands
first in production, consumption, and export of seed spices and occupies key
position in our economy because of its large household consumption and
ever increasing demand for export. Seed spices mostly are annual and can
easily be grown in rotation with food crops and also as intercrops or mixed
crops under rained or irrigated conditions. Rajasthan and Gujarat in India are
major states which produce seed spices and no wonder states of these two
states and parts of Madhya Pradesh are said to be the ‘bowl of seed spices’
and accounts for 80% of the annual production of the country (Balraj and
Solanki, 2015). Crop breeding, production and plant protection technologies
and recommendations were the major thematic areas which were researched
upon and as an outcome it had a profound effect in changing the national
seed spice picture. Multidisciplinary research activities are performed at the
Center. The major research outputs include weed management by the appli-
cation of herbicides like pendimethalin and oxadiargyl, which had shown
significant impact in reducing crop-weed competition and cost of cultiva-
tion (Meena et al., 2013; Sundaria et al., 2014). Irrigation management
using sprinklers particularly for cumin in parts of western Rajasthan and
drip methods in fennel had played a noteworthy job in boosting yield and
quality (Ravindran et al., 2006; Sundaria et al., 2014). Disease as well as
pest management by integrated approach using both bioagents and pesticides
were effective in the management of downy mildew wilt, blight, aphids,
powdery mildew, in major seed spices (Israel and Lodha, 2004; Khare et
al., 2014a, b; Lodha and Mawar, 2014). Rathore et al. (2013) reported some
unique features and industrially important metabolites of these crops. Prom-
ising cultivars of many seed spices besides some outstanding varieties such
as extra early line of ajwain, AA-93 of about 110 days have been found to
be satisfactory for conserved moisture farming (Meena et al., 2014) Meena
et al. (2013) advocated some biopesticides for control of aphid pest in many
seed spices.
Postharvest management and latest packaging systems to preserve
quality and flavor of the crop has been recommended by Lal et al. (2013).
Varieties rich in essential oil content and showing resistance to stem gall
should be encouraged for boosting production and for meeting the criteria
for the export purposes (Meena et al., 2013). The state of Bihar is natu-
rally endowed with large stretch of fertile land and congenial subtropical
climate apt for raising seed-spices like fennel, coriander, fenugreek, nigella,
54 Sustainable Agriculture

and onum. Fennel, coriander, and onum are commercially grown in Cham-
paran, Muzzaffarpur, Samastipur, Begusarai, Munger and Bhagalpur but
nigella is restricted to Rohtas districts (Kumar, 2005). However, lack of high
yielding varieties, standard agro-technology and plant protection measures,
improved processing technology, organized marketing system and organized
spice extension programs for farmers are major limitations that impede spice
production in Bihar. Spice improvement and production programs in the two
agricultural universities in Bihar have been taken up under various schemes
like Macromode, NHM and very recently under MIDH. The Spice improve-
ments project in the agricultural university in Bihar has developed coriander
variety, like Rajendra Swati, Rajendra Dhania-1, fenugreek variety Rajendra
Kanti, Rajendra Abha and fennel variety Rajendra Saurabh, nigella variety,
Rajendra Shyama and ajwain variety, Rajendra Mani and has also standard-
ized dates of sowing, seed rate, spacing, fertilizer dose and plant protection
measures. The seed production of coriander, fenugreek, fennel, dill has been
in practice at the agricultural university, Sabour since along back. Of late
nigella and ajwain has been added to the list of spice. In spite of many such
remarkable achievements, much more has to be done to meet the constraints
of the spice growers of Bihar (Kumar, 2005).

2.6 OPPORTUNITIES OF SPICE RESEARCH

Time has seen the continually rising demand for spices and its value-added
products throughout the world which implicates a huge possibility for crop
improvement like the development of genotypes resistant to biotic and abiotic
stresses and also responsive to low input management through conventional
breeding and biotechnological approaches. There is the immense scope of
large-scale multiplication of quality planting materials of released varieties
with strict quality regulation and certification. Also, there is room for the
establishment of Advanced Centers for Research on Biotechnology, Phytoph-
thora Research, Biocontrol and Biosystematics, high-value compounds, etc.
The production and productivity of spices can be sustained by popularizing
the soil conservation/water management technologies and encouraging
organic farming and IPM approaches at the community level. There is also
potential for establishment of cooperative movement to regulate production
and marketing to increase competitiveness of Indian products in the interna-
tional market. Vast employment opportunities for trained manpower in spice
industry and spice farming cannot be overlooked. There is substantial scope
for value addition and diversification in spices. The envisaged increase in
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 55

share of value-added products in the export basket of spices needs strength-

ening of processing facilities. Spices are increasingly being noticed for their
pharmacological activities and therefore their potential as functional food
has magnified scope. The scientific validation of the medicinal properties of
spices using state of the art technology like drug modeling, molecular biology
and nanotechnology holds great promise and will provide greater avenues for
medicinal uses of spices.

2.7 CHALLENGES IN SPICE RESEARCH

The major challenges involved in spices production are, Emergence and

epidemics of pests and diseases, vagaries of monsoon resulting in drought,
emergence of other chief spice producing countries which compete with
India in the International market, shifting of interests of growers to more
profitable/less risky crops, adulteration of spices, cyclic market fluctuations
at international and national level, lack of awareness about pesticide residues
and mycotoxin contaminants in the products and lack of MRL and ADI
standards in some of the pesticides used in spices. The research programs
for the future has to be geared to meet the challenges that can arise from
these risk factors.

2.8 FUTURE STRATEGIES FOR RESEARCH

The work on genetic enhancement will play a major role in the near future.
Collection, conservation and characterization (molecular markers, barcoding)
of germplasms and establishment of a global gene bank of spices genetic
resources should be taken up on a priority basis in the future. The breeder
will have to own up the responsibility of locating the source for resistance to
all types of stresses, be it biotic or abiotic with the help of a traditional and
modern biotechnological tool for and evolving new varieties which would
ultimately increase production. Work of developing molecular bar codes for
all germplasm accessions, pests and pathogens their natural enemies and
molecular profiles of all released varieties and molecular farming to identify
desired genes must be prioritized. Convergent improvement of black pepper
for multiple resistance genes (Pollu beetle, Phytophthora, and nematodes)
and developing crop ideotypes suited for uniform ripening (black pepper),
synchronous flowering (cardamom) should be propelled. Breeding of vari-
eties of ginger for a specific purpose such as ginger candy, ginger shreds,
56 Sustainable Agriculture

ginger wine and also curcuminoids rich turmeric has to be taken up. Acces-
sibility of an excellent superior grade of planting materials is important for
the success of spice cultivation. Hence the development of novel techniques
for accelerating yield of quality planting material and certification systems
for planting materials has to taken up on priority basis in future. Horticul-
tural interventions (high tech horticulture) to maximize productivity of spice
based cropping systems and expansion of precision farming for spices to
boost productivity especially for ginger and turmeric must be worked upon as
the matter of foremost concern. Vertical farming, hydroponics and aeroponic
cultivation for ginger and turmeric, protected cultivation, alternate cropping
systems with spices/farming system approach, high-density planting (HDP)
in black pepper, cardamom and tree spices including dwarf plant types must
be exploited to sustain high production of spices in future. Development
of varieties suitable for organic farming (through organic plant breeding)
and extreme climate situations must also be taken up. Development of agro-
ecosystem based insect pest control strategies using novel selfish gene drive
systems; gene silencing must be taken up in the times to come. Study of
crop weather soil relation based simulation models for extreme climatic
conditions and impact of climate change on productivity, emergence of new
diseases and pests and adaptation and mitigation studies will be the need
of the future. Futuristic research for dryland/rain fed cropping system for
spice crops; study on increasing the water up-take ability of plants, drought
management studies of spice crops, designing smart fertilizer and pesticide
delivery systems shall have to be taken up in the days to come. Molecular
profiling, marker aided selection for desired traits, allele mining and iden-
tifying genes controlling superior quality traits, pest and disease resistance,
genome sequencing of P. capsici and comparative transcriptomics/genomics
for identification of species-specific markers will play an important role
in the future spice improvement program. Application of nanotechnology-
enabled devices for real-time monitoring of soil conditions and crop growth,
development of super sensors for detecting a specific molecule for detection
of a pathogen in the rhizosphere, rhizoplane and in plant parts and biosen-
sors for detecting spoilage of post-harvest spice products by sensing meta-
bolic products of spoilage bacteria or direct detection of spoilage bacteria
should be explored. The development and popularization of cost-effective
agricultural practices (INM/IPM) for increasing productivity and carbon
sequestration potential in spice-based cropping systems should be priori-
tized. Value addition through microencapsulation, extrusion and other tech-
niques, bioprospecting using bioinformatics tools, chemical modification,
synthesis and appropriate packaging of spice(s) derived phytochemicals at
Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Spice Research 57

defined dosages in conditions supporting optimum bioavailability, minimum

toxicity, encapsulation of spice extracts, nutraceutical, drug, agricultural and
other novel applications, with improved physicochemical properties should
be taken up in future. Developing electronic devices for monitoring quality
and adulteration of spices should be taken up on a priority basis. Devel-
opment of implements/tools for harvesting and processing for value-added
spice products, developing precision farming models for the management
of nutrient and water to get optimum production from unit of water and
nutrient used, development of solar dryers and solar cookers for post-harvest
processing to enhance and economize the production. Policy issues to be
exerted upon in the future are commercialization of techniques/technolo-
gies, genetic fingerprinting of germplasm and its registration, registration of
released varieties, patenting technologies related to spices, documentation of
ITKs and conversion of agriculture into a business venture with maximiza-
tion of profit. Giving a prime attention to market promotion for these low-
volume high-value crop species has also been essential. There is a serious
gap in the demonstration and popularization of available technologies of
these invaluable crops of economic significance. Transfer of technology
(TOT) systems would have to be strengthened by way of, establishing 24 × 7
knowledge centers on spices, large scale demonstration of proven technolo-
gies through KVK’s as FLDs, establishing technology incubation center,
participatory seed production of major spices and use of next-generation
ICT for knowledge updating of farmers to develop the technopreneurs.

KEYWORDS

 high-density planting
 irrigation management
 polymerase chain reaction
 transfer of technology

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WEBLINKS

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2019).
CHAPTER 3

Perspective of Plantation Crops in

Bihar with Special Reference to
Coconut and Palmyra
RUBY RANI,1 VISHWA BANDHU PATEL,2 and H. P. MAHESHWARAPPA3
1
Department of Horticulture, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
2
Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research–Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi, India
3
AICRP, Palms, CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala, India

ABSTRACT
Plantation crops are a group of commercial crops cultivated extensively over
a large area of tropics and subtropics zones. Plantation crops comprise a
large number of crops like coconut, areca nut, oil palm, cashew, tea, coffee,
rubber, and cocoa. Their total coverage is comparatively less as compared to
the other fruit crops and mostly grown by the farmers with smallholdings.
These crops play an important role owing to their export potential values,
domestic requirements, employment generation, and poverty alleviation,
especially in the rural sector. Plantation crops have a unique role in the
national economy owing to the source of basic raw materials for a number
of industries and form the mainstay of the agrarian economy of the nation
and thus considered as the lifeline of many states of India.

3.1 AREA AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTATION CROP IN INDIA

The crop-wise area, production, and productivity of major plantation crops
in India during 2012–13 and 2013–14 are listed in Table 3.1.
64 Sustainable Agriculture

Coconut is grown in about ninety countries in the world covering about

12 million hectares and about 75% of total area and production comes from
South East Asia like the Philippines, Indonesia, and India. About 90% of
the total Coconut cultivated area under in India lies in the southern states
of the country, i.e., Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telengana, Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh. Similarly, the area under areca nut in the world is about 0.702
million hectares with an annual production of 0.854 million tonnes. The
major countries producing areca nut are India, Bangladesh, China, Indo-
nesia, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. India ranks first in both areas (49%) and
production (50%) of areca nut and the major growing states are Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, West Bengal Assam, and Meghalaya.
On the other hand, India’s share in cocoa production is only 0.3% of total
world production. The state like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra
Pradesh produces cocoa. The total cocoa production in the country is 15,133
tonnes covering an area of 71,335 hectares.

TABLE 3.1 Crop-Wise Area, Production and Productivity of Major Plantation Crops in
India During 2012–13 and 2013–14
Crops 2012–2013 2013–2014
Area Production Productivity Area Production Productivity
Coconut 2137 15,609 7.3 2140 14,912 7.0
Cashew Nut 992 753 0.8 1011 753.0 0.7
Areca nut 446 609 1.4 452 622 1.4
Cocoa 66 13.0 0.2 71 15 0.2
Area in ‘000 ha, Production in ‘000 MT and Productivity = MT/HA.

The area under coffee plantations in India is about 400.0 thousand hectares
as in 2015–16 with the productivity of 876 kg/ha. Major coffee growing area is
concentrated in the southern states of Karnataka (54.95%), Kerala (21.33%),
and Tamil Nadu (8.18%). The coffee industry involved a large number of
enterprises involving 280,241 coffee growers of which 99% are small growers.
India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world where it
is produced in around 563.98 thousand hectares of area in the states such as
Assam (304.40 thousand hectares), West Bengal (140.44 thousand hectares),
Tamil Nadu (69.62 thousand hectares) and Kerala (35.01 thousand hectares).
The tea industry is India’s employs over 3.5 million people across 1,686
estates and 157,504 smallholdings.
India contributes about 0.2% in the total world produce with 1% of total
acreage in the world. Presently area under oil palm is around 200,000 hectares
and with production of 70,000 tones a year. Largest area is under Andhra Pradesh
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 65

including Telangana. The other oil palm producing states and UTs include
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Tripura.
Palmyra Palm: Borassus flabellifer L. or commonly called Taad or
Tarh in Bihar. It is native to South and Southeast Asia, in the Indo Malaya
ecozone. The palm tree of the Sugar palm group, found from Indonesia to
Pakistan in India, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China South-Central and South-
east Asia. The name Palmyra Palm has derived from the Portuguese word
of palmeira. Toddy Palms are very common in India especially in Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, West Bengal, and Bihar. The total
population of palmyra in India is about 102 million and about 50% of the
total population is in Tamil Nadu. In Bihar, the total population of palmyra
palm is estimated to be about 92 lakh. The districts with a larger Palmyra
population are Gaya, Nawada, Nalanda, Aurangabad, Bhagalpur, Banka,
Samastipur, and Muzaffarpur.

3.1.1 STATUS OF PLANTATION CROPS IN BIHAR

Plantation crop requires moderate climate and do not thrive well under
extremes of climate. An average temperature around 25–35°C and humidity
above 60% are considered ideal for the plantation crops. It requires less
variation in diurnal temperature and well-distributed rainfall throughout the
year. Bihar is situated between 25 to 27° North latitude; the climatic condi-
tion of Bihar is of mostly semiarid sub-tropical that experiences moderate
rainfall, hot and dry summer and cold winter. This region being close to
Tropic of Cancer experiences tropical climate during summer. Average
temperature is 35–40°C throughout the summer season May and June are
the hottest months of the year and when the maximum temperature goes
up to 45C. The average minimum temperature during the coldest month of
December and January goes down to 5 to 10°C. Bihar gets its maximum
rainfall during South-West monsoon season which prevails from June to
September. The natural precipitation ranges between 990 mm and 1700
mm, average annual rainfall being 1205 mm. Most of the annual rainfall
received between the month of May and October. Thus the climate of Bihar
is not very much suitable for plantation crops cultivation. However, crops
like coconut, palmyra palms, betel vine, tea are cultivated in some of the
area in the state.
The climate of Zone II commonly known as Kosi zone consisting the
districts like Kisanganj, Araria, Purnea, Katihar, Eastern part of Madhepura,
66 Sustainable Agriculture

Saharsa, and some parts of Bhagalpur has been found to be suitable for coconut
cultivation (See map-1). The zone experiences an average minimum temper-
ature of 8.8C and maximum temperature of 33.8°C. This zone comprises a
network of rivers like Bagmati, Kosi and their small tributaries, thus humidity
is quite high in this zone as compared to other areas of the state.

3.1.2 POTENTIAL AREA OF COCONUT CULTIVATION IN BIHAR

The total area is about 15,166 ha under coconut in the state with annual
nut production of 123,755 MT (Database, 2005–06, Ministry of Agriculture,
Bihar). Coconut planted in theses area are mostly of tall type mostly planted
as stray, backyard or bund plantation. However few orchards in Katihar and
Purnea districts have been established also (Figure 3.1).

FIGURE 3.1 Potential area of coconut cultivation in Bihar.

Coconut plantation at large scale in the state was done during late nine-
ties. Most of the plantations were of tall type. Growth of palms and yield
potential of theses coconut palms were good. But in due course of time
yield reduced probably due to lack of technology know-how of cultivation
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 67

practices and maintenance of the palm. But well-maintained palms are still
bearing up to more than 120 nuts per year. The yield of coconut reduced
drastically during 2008 and in 2011 when minimum winter temperature went
down to 7–10°C that prolonged up to 10 to 15 days. Even though, bearing of
nut in some palms is quite good, i.e., 80–100 nuts per year.

TABLE 3.2 District Wise Population of Palm Tree in Bihar

Name of District Palmyra Palm Date Palm Coconut Total
Patna 413,292 71,373 3546 488,211
Nalanda 774,252 22,422 2730 799,404
Bhojpur 146,876 16,504 1776 165,156
Buxar 15,492 854 469 16,815
Rohtas 59,039 3238 286 62,563
Bhabhua 29,726 6596 269 36,591
Gaya 14,574,10 353,037 2134 1,812,581
Jahabnabad 334,618 6011 4089 344,718
Arwal 182,254 7419 1172 190,845
Nawada 865,097 115,456 2898 983,451
Aurangabad 400,461 106,142 1379 507,982
Saran 352,708 117,015 12,914 482,637
Siwan 172,445 65,542 5326 243,313
Gopalganj 139,112 46,629 4564 190,305
Muzaffarpur 399,867 551,370 12,850 964,087
East Champaran 212,836 120,607 10,048 343,491
West Champaran 50,510 18,738 2852 72,100
Sitamarhi 77,192 98,346 5956 181,494
Shivhar 14,922 18,077 912 33,911
Vaishali 356,617 240,378 10,282 607,277
Darbhanga 154,182 213,236 18,834 386,252
Madhubani 58,988 80,073 29,004 168,065
Samastipur 485,425 405,662 18,061 908,848
Begusarai 145,343 105,912 8342 259,597
Munger 62,668 26,106 10,578 99,352
Lakhisarai 95,415 29,122 2795 127,332
Shekhpura 267,526 32,436 1098 301,060
Jamui 149,506 209,577 5713 364,796
Bhagalpur 508,245 210,553 18,652 737,450
Banka 647,886 592,130 15,216 1,255,232
Saharsa 67,764 41,255 20,662 129,681
68 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 3.2 (Continued)

Name of District Palmyra Palm Date Palm Coconut Total
Supaul 6409 9919 49,047 65,375
Madhepura 13,129 12,728 34,353 60,210
Purnea 56,799 31,617 39,509 127,925
Kishanganj 677 666 4610 5953
Araria 3849 3989 17,290 25,128
Katihar 18,738 9262 18,860 36,860
Khagaria 22,398 9568 7238 39,204
Total 9,219,373 4,009,565 396,314 13,625,252
Department of Industry, Govt. of Bihar, 2016.

Thus at present total population of coconut in the state is about 4.0 lakh
with the maximum number in Supaul followed by Purnea, Madhepuera,
Katihar, Madhubani, and Bhagalpur.

3.2 COCONUT RESEARCH IN INDIA

The coconut palm is known as “Kalpavriksha: the tree of heaven” as each

part of the plant is used in various ways. It provides food, fuel, drink, fiber,
feed and timber that are used to prepare various edible and non-edible
items. Large populations in rural India either directly or indirectly depend
on coconut for their livelihood and economic security.

3.2.1 GERMPLASM COLLECTION AND CONSERVATION

Research on coconut was started in 1916, when Coconut Research Stations

at Kasaragod and Nileshwar was established in India to increase the nut size
and yield per plant later, production of short stature varieties and resistance
to different stresses was also considered under crop improvement program.
Introduction of germplasm of coconut in India began during 1923–24 and
diverse types improved genotype from countries like Indonesia, Philippines,
Fiji, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam and also from Bengal, Laccadives
and Andamans (under the colonial empire). The introduced genotypes were
planted at the Coconut Research Station, Pilicode, for their evaluation and
selection. Progenies of these were later replanted in 1940 at the Coconut
Research Station, Kasaragod. In addition, 16 ‘Presidency varieties,’ from
different regions of the country were also planted at Pilicode No 1 station
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 69

during June–July 1923. Further, germplasm collection was intensified in

1952 again and the first indigenous germplasm survey and collection was
started in 1958.
The systematic collection, conservation, characterization of coconut
diversity was initiated when the Central Plantation Crops Research Insti-
tute Kasaragod, in 1970 field gene bank was established thee to maintain
the collected germplasm. Now, the worlds largest germplasm collection
of coconut comprising 401 accessions (269 indigenous and 132 exotic) is
being maintained in the Institute and also acts as National Active Germ-
plasm Site for Plantation crops and National Gene Banks for cocoa, coconut
and areca nut.

3.2.2 VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS

After conservation and evaluation of germplasm at different regions of

the country, coconut varieties were identified and released for commercial
cultivation. Basically, coconut cultivars are categorized into two groups,
i.e., tall and dwarf.

3.2.2.1 TALL CULTIVARS

Tall coconut varieties are the most common. The life span of the tree is
from 60 to 80 years and the height may go up to 15 to 18 m, produce good
quality copra with high oil content as compared to dwarf cultivars. The
different cultivars of the talis are generally named after the major place of
growing The Tall cultivars commonly grown in India are the West Coast
Tall (WCT), Tiptur Tall (TPT) and East Coast Tall (ECT). The tall varieties
developed after improvement is Chandrakalpa or Lakshadweep Ordinary
(LCT), VPM-3 (Andaman Ordinary), Philippines Ordinary (Kerachandra),
and Aliyar Nagar 1 (ALR 1).
Aliyar Nagar 2 (ALR 2), Benavali Green Round (Pratap), Kerakeralam,
KeraSagara (Seychelles), Philippines Tall (Chandrathara), Assam Tall
(Kamaroopa), KalpaPratiba, Kalpadhenu, and Kalpa Mitra.

3.2.2.2 DWARF CULTIVARS

These are small stature plants with less life span as compared to tall. The
general height is of 5–8 m, start bearing at the age of 3–4 years and have
70 Sustainable Agriculture

40–50 years of life span. The nuts are smaller with soft copra and low in oil
content. These varieties are mainly grown for tender water nuts The Dwarfs
varieties available in India are Chowghat Orange Dwarf (COD), Chowghat
Green Dwarf (CGD), Malayan Yellow Dwarf (MYD), Kenthalli (KTOD),
and Gangabondam (GBGD). The improved dwarf varieties are Strait Settle-
ment Dwarf Green, and Kalpa Raksha.

3.2.2.3 HYBRIDS

Efforts have been taken to improve the coconut for their yield, copra content,
oil content, tender coconut water, biotic and abiotic stress. The improved
hybrids are Chandralaksha (LCT × COD), Kerasankara (WCT × COD),
Chandrasankara (COD × WCT), Lakshaganga (LCT × GBGD), Keraganga
(WCT × GBGD), VHC 1 (ECT × MGD), VHC 2 (ECT × MYD), VHC 3
(ECT × MOD), Anandaganga (ADOT × GBGD), Kerasree (WCT × MYD),
Kerasoubhagya (WCT × SSAT), KalpaSamrudhi, Gadavani Ganda (ECT ×
Gangabandom), and KalphaShankara (CGD × WCT).

3.2.3 CROP IMPROVEMENT UNDER OF ALL INDIA COORDINATED

RESEARCH PROJECT ON PALMS

The all India Coordinated Coconut and Arecanut Improvement Project was
conceptualized in the year 1970 and started functioning from the year 1972
with 12 centers located in eight states. It was renamed as “All India Coordi-
nated Research Project on Palms” during 1986. Four oil palm centers were
added during 1990 and two centers of palmyrah were added during 1995.
The mandate of this project was to conserve and utilize the available genetic
resource of palm crops and to improve them for higher yield and quality.

3.2.3.1 VARIETIES/HYBRIDS RELEASED

The following varieties/hybrids have been developed by the AICRP on

palms for cultivation in different agroclimatic regions (Table 3.3).
About 112 ecotypes of coconut have been collected from different
centers of AICRP, Palms located in different states like Assam, W.B, Chhat-
tisgarh, Karnataka, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra
for desired traits and conserved for further evaluation.
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 71

TABLE 3.3 Varieties/Hybrids Developed by the AICRP on Palms for Cultivation

Varieties Released by Hybrids Released by Varieties/Hybrids Released Jointly by
AICRP AICRP AICRP on Palms and CPCRI)
Kamrup, Konkan Bhatye Kalpa Dhenu Kalpa Samrudhi
Coconut Hybrid-1
Gauthami Ganga Godavari Ganga Kalpa Pratibha Kalpa Jyohti
Kera Bastar Vasishta Ganga Kalpa Mitra Kalpa Surya
Kalyni Coconut-1 Kalpa Ganga Kalpataru Kalpa Sreshta

3.2.4 IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BIOTECHNOLOGY INTERVENTIONS

The protocol has been developed for embryo culture. Recently the opportunity
of exchange of germplasm of coconut has been provided in the form of embryo
through in vitro germination of zygotic embryo. The embryo culture protocol
developed by ICAR-CPCRI was first utilized during 1994 for transferring
gene. Pacific Ocean accession maintained at World Coconut Germplasm
Center, Andaman Island to the mainland. Embryo rescue of rare type has
also been achieved. Cryopreservation technique for conserving embryo and
pollen has also been developed, where pollen can be stored without losing its
viability up to four years.

3.3 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY REFINEMENTS

The ultimate goal of any crop research is improving productivity and

quality. The research work on coconut for standardization of production
technology was started in 1917, in the three stations: near the village of
Nileshwar, an existing garden in the village of Kudluandin and Kasaragod
(where the present CPCRI is located). The important findings as a result of
outcomes of coconut research on different aspects of production technology
are as under:

3.3.1 SEED NUT COLLECTION AND PLANTING

Research findings reflected that seed nuts collected during April–July germi-
nated in less than 125 days after sowing with significantly more number of
leaves, larger leaf area and wider girth at collar indicating more vigorous in
growth. Whereas those collected during September–January took 160–180
72 Sustainable Agriculture

days for germination. Considering all the growth characters, May and June
were identified as the ideal time for sowing the seed nuts.

3.3.2 PLANTING MATERIAL

Unavailability of good quality plants is a major bottleneck in coconut devel-

opment. If the seed nuts and seedlings are of poor quality, the plantation will
become uneconomic and loss of time and money to the grower. Being a cross-
pollinated plant coconut does not breed true to type as mother palm. Thus
the selection of seed nuts and seedlings is more important. Thus, the quality
of seed nuts and seedlings should be improved by a series of selections at
different stages.

3.3.2.1 MOTHER PALM SELECTION

An ideal mother palm should have an age of 20 years or above, yielding more
than 80 nuts per palm per year and free of any disease. A minimum of 30
leaves at the crown and nut weight more than 600 g with copra weight 150g
and above is required for a mother palm. Nowadays, the Coconut Devel-
opment Board is plays a major role for providing quality planting material
through their DSP Farm (Demonstration and Seed Production Farm).

3.3.3 WATER MANAGEMENT

Proper tilling is very important for soil aeration and moisture conservation.
Thus the experiments to demonstrate the importance of tilling the garden was
started in 1919 and the research on water management was started in the late
1920s. The irrigation with 45 liters of water at 4 days interval has been found
to be better in coconut. It was reported that irrigation with seawater did not
leave any residual harmful effects. During the dry months irrigations of 60
mm depth at IW/CPE ratio 0.15 (average interval of 17 days) was better than
40 mm and 20 mm depth given at the IW/CPE ratios of 1.0, 0.75, or 0.5.

3.3.3.1 DRIP IRRIGATION AND FERTIGATION

Coconut gardens are commonly irrigated by flood-or basin method, having

irrigation efficiency of only 30 to 60% due to the wastage of water, labor,
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 73

and energy. It was standardized that WCT palms irrigated with 20 mm

water/irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 gave the highest yield. For humid
tropics, it is sufficient if we irrigate at the rate of 66% of the open pan evap-
oration through drip in the basin area (1.8 m radius) of the palm based on
the monthly mean evaporation, irrespective of the varieties. Irrigation once
in four days with 45 l water to young palms planted in laterite soil resulted
in better growth and vigor. Around 50% of the chemical fertilizer and the
cost on labor could be brought down apart from increasing the yield by 20%
following fertigation technology.

3.3.3.1.1 Findings on Drip Irrigation Trials in Coconut Under

AICRP Palms

It has been found that irrigation efficiency can be increased when four drip-
pers of discharge rates of 30 l/h is used placing at equal distance around the
trunk is used at 8 days interval. Experiments were conducted at different
centres of AICRP, Palms to estimate the water requirement through drip irri-
gation and the findings are as given in Tables 3.4 and 3.5.

TABLE 3.4 Technology Developed at CRS, Aliyarnagar, Tamil Nadu

Months Quantity of Water to be Applied (lit/day) in the Area of
Different Level of Water Availability
Adequate Moderate Low
Feb–May 65 45 22
Jan, Aug, and Sep 55 35 18
June, July, Oct–Dec 45 30 25
All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Palms: The national network for location-
specific research, Vistas in Coconut Research, CPCRI-100 Years of scientific excellence,
(2016). pp. 131–133.

TABLE 3.5 Water Requirement at Different AICRP Centers Using Drip Irrigation
Centers Months Quantity of Water Months Quantity of
(lit/day) Water (lit/day)
Veppankulam Mar-Sep 80 Oct–Feb 50
Arsikere Feb-May 65–75 Jun–Jul 40–50
Ratnagiri Oct-Jan 30 Feb–May 40
Annual Report AICRP, Palms , 2016 & 2017.
74 Sustainable Agriculture

The experiment conducted on fertigation at Aliyarnagar, Veppankulam,

Mondouri and Kasaragod Centers under AICRP, Palms recommended @
50% recommended dose (RD) of fertilizer (RDF for improving the nut and
copra yield per palm. Whereas, the experiment conducted at Ambajipeta,
Ratnagiri, Arsikere Centers observed the application of 75% RDF through
fertigation for higher nut and copra yield.

3.3.4 ORGANIC FARMING OF COCONUT

The first attempt was taken in the 1920s to increase the organic matter content
in garden soil. Cow dung was used initially as organic manure. Later, green
manuring like use of cow gram, glyricidia, Calopogonium muconoides,
Crotolaria retusa, Tephrosia purpurea, Crotolaria striata, T. candida, and
Indigofera parviflora. Calopogonium muconoides was suggested as in
situ green manure crop and cowpea as cover crop. Glyricidia is suggested
growing as a boundary crop with prunings of the plants once in three months
to use the leaves for green manuring. Coconut husk burial was also used as
a technology to enrich the soil with organic matter. The supplementation of
organic sources with inorganic fertilizers (blending) is beneficial to coconut
during the early establishment period.

3.3.4.1 BIO-FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATION

Application of mixture of 50 g of Azospirillum, 50 g of phosphobacteria (or)

100 g Azophos, and 50 g of VAM in sufficient quantity of compost or FYM
near feeding roots once in 6 months/palm starting from planting have been
found very beneficial.

3.3.4.2 ORGANIC RECYCLING

The crops like sunn hemp, Calapagonium, or Daincha may be sown as green
manure in place of compost and plowed in situ at the time of flowering.

3.3.5 INTER-CULTURAL OPERATION WEED MANAGEMENT

The inter-space in the coconut garden has to be plowed twice in a year in

June-July and December-January to keep the field weed-free and efficient
use of resources.
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 75

3.3.6 INTER CROPPING

Inter/mixed crops should be selected according to the age and growth habit,
climatic requirement, demand of the crop, irrigation facilities and soil type.

3.3.6.1 MULTIPLE CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR DIFFERENT REGION

The essentiality of increasing productivity from unit area. Efficient resource

utilization was felt long back and screening for suitable intercrop in coconut was
initiated in the early 1920s. Later in the 1970s and systematic research was initi-
ated to grow different vegetables, flowers, medicinal plants and perennial crops
as intercrops in coconut garden. Vegetable crops like brinjal, chili, tomato, etc.
were grown successfully in coconut gardens. Crops like cocoa, banana, pepper,
medicinal and commercial flowers were found to be suitable for growing as
mixed crop in coconut garden. The results indicated that the income from
coconut garden can be doubled by adopting a cropping system approach.
It was estimated that young-bearing palms (spacing 7.5 m2) and adult
palms permit less than 20% incident radiation to reach the ground, while the
middle-aged palms allowed about 30% light and pre-bearing and old palms
permit up to 80% light. Thus, intercropping should be selected as per the
interspace available in the coconut garden.

3.3.6.2 COCONUT-BASED CROPPING SYSTEM FOR DIFFERENT

AGROCLIMATIC ZONE OF INDIA DEVELOPED UNDER AICRP, PALMS

By seeing the success of multi-story cropping in coconut, coconut-based

high-density multispecies cropping system model was established under
AICRP, Palms which aims at developing a coconut-based cropping system
which is self-sustaining and produces maximum biomass and returns with
least inputs for the different agro-climatic zone of the country. The research
over years has resulted in identifying crops that can be grown as inter/mixed
crops in coconut gardens (Table 3.6).

3.7 STATUS OF COCONUT RESEARCH IN BIHAR

AICRP on Palms (Coconut) was initiated at Bihar Agricultural University

(BAU), Sabour during on 6th March, 2009 to promote coconut in Bihar. The
ongoing research programmers are given in subsections.
76 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 3.6 Location-Specific Coconut-Based Cropping Systems

Cooperating Center’s Recommended Intercrops
Aliyanagar (Tamil Nadu) Coconut + Banana + Turmeric + EFY + Tapioca +
Bhendi + Cocoa
Veppankulam (Tamil Nadu) Coconut + Black pepper + Banana + EFY + Coriander
+ Cocoa
Mondouri (West Bengal) Coconut + Black pepper + Pineapple + Banana + Lime
Bhubaneshwar (Odisha) Coconut + Banana + Tuberos (In Young Coconut
Garden)
Jagdalpur (Chhattisgarh) Coconut + Black Pepper + Carnation + Chrysanthemum
Kahikuchi (Assam) Coconut + Black Pepper + Turmeric + Assam lemon +
Banana
Konkan region of Maharashtra Coconut + Turmeric + Banana + Pineapple + Tapioca +
Nutmeg + Cinnamon
Arsikere (Karnataka) Coconut + Banana + Drumstick + French bean + Ladies
finger + Redgram
Coconut + Banana (High Water Requirement)
Coconut + Annual Drumstick (Medium Water
Requirement)
Coconut + Red Gram (Low Water Requirement)
Navasari (Gujarat) Coconut + Turmeric
Sabour (Bihar) Coconut + Guava + Banana + Turmeric + Cowpea +
Pea + Mustard + Elephant Foot Yam

3.7.1 CROP IMPROVEMENT

A. Gen.1: Conservation and evaluation of coconut genetic resources in

different agro-climatic regions
Experiment 1: Collection, conservation and evaluation of location-specific
germplasm:
In Bihar, more than seven germplasm were identified from different
coconut growing area of Bihar during 2012–13 to 2016–17. Seed nuts of
three accessions collected during 2012–13 from Sabour and Naugacchia
block were transplanted and named as SBRC-1 and SBRC-2 and SBRC-3.
Four more accession identified and collected during 2014–15 and 2015–16
(Figure 3.2).
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 77

FIGURE 3.2 Different coconut growing area of Bihar.

Experiment 2: Evaluation of released varieties in coconut.

 15 varieties namely Assam Green Tall (AGT), PHOT or Philippines
Ordinary Tall (Kera Chandra), Arasampatti Tall (Aliyarnagar Tall),
ADOT or Andman Ordinary Tall (IND 018), ECT (CPR 509), Sakhi
Gopal Tall (IND 041), Pratap, Zanzibar Tall (IND037), LCOT (Chandra
Kalpa), TPT (KalpaTharu), MYD (KalpaRaksha), GBDB (Gang-
abondam Green Dwarf), MOD or Malayan Orange Dwarf (IND 048),
COD or COD (IND007), Gonthembilli Tall (IND 051), KGD (Kama-
rupa Green Dwarf) are under evaluation at Sabour.
 On the basis of data collected on vegetative growth parameters var.
COD, MYD, ECT, Shakhi Gopal Tall, Kera Baster, Kera Chandra,
and Chandra Kalpa have been found better for agro-climate of Bihar.

The growth pattern of all the varieties was recorded over the years at three
months interval in all varieties. The average data reflected that 60–68% of
total vegetative growth takes place during June to November. The extent of
vegetative growth in terms of plant height was minimum (10–14%) during
December to February. It was found that difference in day-night temperature
78 Sustainable Agriculture

also played important role in growth parameters of coconut in Bihar region

(Figure 3.3).

Dec, 14-
Feb, 15
12%
Sep, 15-Dec, 15
30%
March, 15-May, 15
20%

June, 15-Aug, 15
38%

FIGURE 3.3 Vegetative growth pattern of coconut in different time of year.

B. Gen. 3: Establishment of mother blocks and production of quality

planting material in coconut
Activity 1: Demonstration of released coconut varieties in different agro-
climatic regions.
 Seed nuts of ten improved verities / hybrids under evaluation namely
Konkan Bhyte Hybrid-I, CCS-4 (Kalpa Pratibha), Kahi Kuchi
Hybrid-1, CCS-5 (Kalpa Mitra), Kera Bastar, CCS-6 (Kalpa Dhenu),
Gauthami Ganga, CCS-7 (Kalpa Raksha), Kalyani coconut-1, CCS-9
(Kera Keralam) were planted and maintained in the field since
2012–13.
 On the basis of data collected on vegetative growth parameters var.
Kera Bastar, Kalyani Coconut-1, Kalpa Pratibha were found better
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 79

for agro-climate of Bihar. Kahi Kuchi hybrid-1 was not found suit-
able for this region as this variety was found highly susceptible to
cold weather.

3.7.2 CROP PRODUCTION

AGR.5 A: Studies on fertilizer application through micro-irrigation

technique in coconut.
The significant influence of fertigation levels was recorded on plant
growth of palms in terms of plant height, plant girth, number of func-
tional leaves and leaf charters parameters. The experiment was laid in
RBD comprising six treatments, i.e., 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% RDF
through drip fertigation, 100% RDF as basin application and treatment
with no fertilizer application as control. Fertigation was started at three
and a half years age of palm in variety Sakhi Gopal in six equal split doses
from October to May.
The highest plant height of 515.50 cm was recorded in T5 (100%
RDF fertigation) with 18.39% annual increase which was at par with
T4 (75% RDF through fertigation) Likewise the maximum collar girth
(188.0 cm), number of functional leaves (26.50/plant) and annual leaf
production (11.0 per plant) was recorded in T5 (100% RDF fertigation)
followed by T4 (fertigation at 75% RDF) having collar girth of 179.00,
24.8 number of functional leaves and annual leaf production of 11.8. The
plant under T5 (100% RDF fertigation) were earliest to flower that took
only 62.5 months to flower that was at par with T6 (100% RDF though
basin application).
Fertigation levels also influenced leaf nutrient status of palms having
maximum nutrient status in terms of percent of N, P, and K in T5 (100% RDF
fertigation) followed by T4 (75% RDF through fertigation) and T6 (100%
RDF though basin application.

AGR.10: Development of coconut-based integrated cropping system

models for different agro-climatic regions:
The recommended coconut-based integrated cropping system models
(Figure 3.4) for Bihar region is: Coconut + Guava + Banana + Turmeric +
EFY + Cowpea + Pea + Mustard.
80 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 3.4 Recommended coconut-based integrated cropping system models.

3.8 COCONUT-BASED CROPPING SYSTEM IN BIHAR

On the basis of findings of the project following knowledge has been gener-
ated (Figure 3.5):

1. Kahi Kuchi Hybrid-1 is not suitable for growing in the Bihar region.
2. Manuring before winter, i.e., in September–October and water sprin-
kling during morning and in evening hours reduced frost injury in
coconut seedlings.
3. Pomegranate should not be planted as an intercrop in a coconut-
based cropping system for the Bihar region.
4. Seedling plants should be protected from frost during winter by
covering it with transparent polythene sheets and thatching should
be done to protect the young seedlings during summer (Figure 3.6).

Following technology developed by other centers of AICRP, Palms

(Coconut) were transferred to farmer’s field:

1. Rejuvenation of old and senile orchard by proper manuring, irriga-

tion, and IPM.
2. Log tapping with toddy, root feeding with monocrotophos and use of
pheromone trap to control red palm weevil.
3. Integrated disease management for managing bud rot disease.
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 81

FIGURE 3.5 Coconut-based cropping system in Bihar.

FIGURE 3.6 Seedling plants.

3.9 STATUS OF PALMYRA PALM

The palmyra palm is botanically known as Borassus flabellifer L to family

Arecaceae. It is considered as a minor tropical fruit. India has the maximum
palmyra having a total palm population of about 122 million (Vengaiah et al.,
2012). It is a very hardy crop that can withstand extremes of climatic situa-
tions. It grows very tall ranging between 30–60 meters height and has great
economic potential. All the plant parts of palmyra are used right from trunk,
82 Sustainable Agriculture

root, young tuberous seedlings, fruits, fruit sap, leaves, trunk; roots are used
for making different edible and non-edible products. Despite, somewhat less
attention has been given for the development of Palmyra palms. There is
a large population of Palmyra in Bihar. Palmyra can be grown in unculti-
vable wastelands, farm field boundaries, bunds, roadsides, housing colonies
without much care for livelihoods and for aesthetic look and ambiance.
The slow-growing palmyra has very long juvenile phase and takes from
12 to 20 years to bear. The palms are almost free from any insect and disease
infestations that can tolerate prevailing extreme high and low temperatures
as well as waterlogged and drought conditions. Mahatma Gandhi told the
Palmyra palm an antidote to poverty.

3.9.1 SCOPE OF PALMYRA IN BIHAR

There is a rich genetic diversity of palmyra in Bihar. Diversities are with

respect to plant height (dwarf and Tall), fruit size (small to large), fruit shape
(oval, round), fruit color (blackish, orange, dark brown, yellowish), and a
number of endosperm per fruit (one to four). Although no database is avail-
able regarding genetic diversity of palmyra in the state. Palmyra cultivation
is usually done by poorest sector of people in the state mainly for toddy
tapping, immature embryo (kowa), and ripened fruits. Pulp of ripened fruits
consumed as raw pulp or for making different types of products. Spongy
haustorium that forms during germination of seed nut is spongy and sweet is
also used to eat as fresh. Germinating plumule is used as raw and in cooked
form in the state. But no processes products are made from palmyra in the
state. There is much scope of palmyra in the state. However, their use is
restricted due to lack of value addition for both edible and non-edible prod-
ucts. By establishing palmyra palm-based processing industries a significant
chunk of human labor may be engaged for their livelihood security. But no
database is available on the quality of fruits of palmyra in the state.
Mat, baskets, etc., are made from leaves of palmyra in the state in rural
areas that need to strengthen in the form of a cottage industry.
Plants are dioecious in nature, i.e., male and female flowers are borne on
the separate palm. Both male and female trees produce spikes of flowers but
only the female plant bears fruits. However, both trees are used to tap toddy.
The male plant that is commonly known as Shishua in local language in Bihar
is commonly used for toddy tapping, and female plant that is locally called
“Falua” is mainly used for fruit production. Neera tapping in Bihar starts in
the month of April and continues up to July. The average neera production
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 83

varies from 300–450 liters per palm/year in male plants (Shishua) and about
200 liters palm/plant in female plants (Falua). Fruit production in female
palm (Falua) varies from 100 to 350 nuts/palm/year. Fruits mature in the
month of August-September.
Palmyra is referred as versatile tree of immense use to mankind with
more than 500 uses including various edible and nonedible products. Thus,
the existing population of Palmyra in the state is needed to be exploited for
their economic use.

3.9.2 PALMYRAH PRODUCTS

Neera is the topmost economic produce of Palmyrah. It is a good source of

minerals like phosphorus, calcium, and iron. Vitamins like A. citric acid,
Niacin, Thiamin, and Riboflavin are present in neera. Neera acts as laxative
and diuretic.

3.10 RESEARCH STATUS OF PALMYRA AT NATIONAL LEVEL

3.10.1 CROP IMPROVEMENT

The systematic work for crop improvement on palmyra has started very
recently since 1995 under the All India Coordinated Research Project on
Palms. The germplasm collection and maintenance has been started at Horti-
cultural College and Research Institute, Killikulam Tamil Nadu, and the
Horticultural Research Station, Pandirimamidi, Andhra Pradesh. Different
types of germplasm have been identified from different states of India like
Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Bihar. The plants
of collected germplasm are being maintained at a different center. A total of
265 germplasm are being maintained at HCRI, Killikulam till date.
In an experiment performed to evaluate the physicochemical constituent
of the fruit of Palmyrah palm available in Bhagalpur district. These different
types of fruits were collected from different locations of Bhagalpur district
and evaluated for their quality parameter. Amongst 15 accessions collected,
average fruit weight of different accession of Palmyra ranged from 1192
to 1480 g. Maximum pulp weight was recorded 590 g. Highest TSS was
recorded 15.96°Brix. Fruit has been found to be a good source of antioxidant
and carotenoids also. These findings can be utilized to exploit this crop at
commercial level to achieve livelihood security in the state.
84 Sustainable Agriculture

3.10.2 CROP PRODUCTION

There is no organized plantation of palmyra in India and thus systematic

production of palmyra is not done. Work of reducing juvenile phase has been
started using different growth regulators. There is no specific production
technology of palmyra palm.

3.11 POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

3.11.1 NEERA COLLECTION AND STORAGE

Tapping of Neera is done in both male and female trees of palmyra. The
flowering of the female palms is seasonal and comes to flowering at 10–12
years under ideal growth conditions. Tapping is done normally for a period
of 90–130 days from February to May.

3.11.2 FINDINGS OF EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED UNDER AICRP,

PALMS

The yield of sap varies with climatic factors, i.e., temperature and relative
humidity along with genetic variability in palms. A male palm can yield
maximum of 5 liters per day and female palm up to 12 liters per day.
Application of ethereal and citric acid on cut portion of spathe almost
double the yield. The Time gap between two cuts should not be more than
24 hours, if so the spathe do not yield neera as it dries completely. Shape of
cut surface influence the yield of inflorescence sap. Yield of Neera for male
palms 30° angle of cut gives more yields followed by 45°.
1. CPCRI Method of Collection (Figure 3.7): In this method, cocosap
chiller is connected directly sliced spathe. Coco sap chiller is portable device
characterized by hallow PVC pipe of one end expanded into box shape
contained ice cubes. The sap collected by this method can be kept as such
without fermentation up to 6 hours.
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 85

FIGURE 3.7 CPCRI method of neera collection.

Inflorescence sap using CPCRI method remained in acceptable condition

under ambient conditions is 3 hours, under refrigerated condition up to 10
hours, there is no significant change. The shelf life can be extended beyond
one week using freezing conditions.
Neera can be stored at room temp for 8 hours by adding 200 ppm KMS,
stored up to 15 days in the refrigerator and stored up to 2 days by heating at
90°C for 15 min.
Neera can be stored under the refrigerated condition for 60 days by using
heating for 5 min under 90°C followed by microfiltration.
2. Kowa or Nungu or Ice Apple (Endosperm): The clear, crunchy yet
jelly-like sweet young seed from the Palmyra Palm is known as Ice Apple
(Figure 3.8). The young plants are eaten as a vegetable or cooked and made
into meal. The fruits can be eaten raw or cooked; the sweet sap can be eaten
or concentrated into palm sugar.

FIGURE 3.8 Palmyra palm.

Tender fruits are to be harvested between 60–70 days to get soft ice apple
or kowa or nungu. Kowa fruits are to be harvested when the epicarp near the
86 Sustainable Agriculture

perianth region is light to yellowish-green in color. It is also observed that

at the stage of 70 days from the initiation flower was good and more pulp as
compared to others for tender nut and at the age of 80 days have more the
pulp was hard and suitable for jam and jelly preparation only.
Physical and chemical properties of tender fruit has also been estimated
was measured and average weight of tender fruit of after flower initiation 75
days, various from 0.625 kg to 1.25 kg, diameter of the tender fruit various
from 33 cm to 45 cm, height of the ender fruit various from 13 cm to 15 cm
and average weight of kowa is 75 g to 80 g and about 25% in tender fruit and
tender fruits mostly 3 seeded with equal distribution and rarely two seeded
and single-seeded.
The tender fruit endosperm treated with sugar syrup concentration of
50°Brix under refrigerated condition was found to be acceptable in sensory
qualities up 60 days and 180 days at –4°C to –5°C except slight color change
on storage.
Standardization and commercialization of inflorescence sap extraction
and inflorescence sap based products (Jaggery, Palm sugar and Candy) has
been done. Methods of making jaggery, palm sugar and palm candy has also
been standardized.
3. Ripe Fruits: Ripe Palmyrah fruits give a sweet aroma and they drop
off from the tree when fully ripe (Figure 3.9). The mesocarp is fleshy and
fibrous. The fruit is roasted in fire and consumed. Several value-added prod-
ucts can be prepared from the fleshy mesocarp after removing the fiber.
Palmyra pulp is used in the preparation of palm leather, RTS beverage,
concentrated pulp, jam and bakery, and confectionary items.

FIGURE 3.9 Ripe Palmyrah fruits.

4. Non-Edible Products: Leaves are used for thatching roofs, screening

as fence, as mats, baskets, fans, hats, umbrellas, buckets, sandals and as
writing material and as organic fertilizer in their farms and field. Tough and
Perspective of Plantation Crops in Bihar 87

long fiber extracted from petiole is used for making of ropes and fancy arti-
cles which are in good demand. Dried up leaf petioles are also in use for
making of trellis for use as fence and it further serves as a fire wood.
Palmyrah trunks are used either as live poles in construction of thatch
sheds, or as a timber in replacement of wooden poles. The trunk of the tree
is hallowed, and is directly used as boat for travel and fishing in many parts
of the tropics.
5. Palmyra Germplasm in Bihar (Figure 3.10)

FIGURE 3.10 Palmyra germplasm in Bihar.

88 Sustainable Agriculture

Thus, the existing population of Palmyra in the state is needed to be

exploited for their economic use.

KEYWORDS

 coconut-based cropping system

 CPCRI method of neera collection
 palmyra palm
 seedling plants

REFERENCES

Annual Report. All India Coordinated Research Project on Palms, rear, 2015–2018.
Chowdappa, P., John, G., Muralikrishna, H., & Rajesh, M. K., (2016). Vistas in Coconut Research
(pp. 23–86). Book CPCRI-100 Years of scientific excellence. ISBN 13-978-81-932263-1-5.
Indian Horticulture Database, (2014). NHB, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (p.
85). Institutional Area, Sector-18, Gurgaon-122 015.
Vengaiah, P. C., Murthy, G. N., Prasad, K. R., & Kumari, K. U., (2012). Post-harvest technology
of Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer L.) present practices and scope. International Conference
on Food Processing by Omics Group. India.
CHAPTER 4

Overview of the Floriculture Sector:

Performance, Problems, and Prospects
PARAMVEER SINGH, SANGEETA SHREE, and AJAY BHARDWAJ
Department of Horticulture (Vegetable and Floriculture),
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Floriculture industry provides a fertile ground for development and

commercialization of floricultural crops (bedding, flowering, foliage or
indoor plants; cut greens, cut flowers, etc.), landscape industry, essential oils
manufacture industry, confectioneries, perfumes and medicines. Floriculture
industry is the lucrative business of India, because of its diverse utilization,
satisfying aesthetic needs of the people, generating more employment, guar-
anteed higher returns and more earning of foreign exchange to the growers
of country. Due to economic reform and liberalization policies and modified
export-import policies have given a boost to this industry. After liberaliza-
tion, this sector identified as a sunrise business by the Government of India
and accorded this sector 100% export-oriented status. Increasing demand
and high return per unit area as compared to other agricultural commodities
have dared growers to take the floriculture sector. India achieved signifi-
cant development in ornamental plants and flower production, particularly
foliage plant and cut flowers, which have good export potential. Production
of commercial floriculture has been progressively increasing with increased
use of protected structure, improved varieties and production technology
and accessibility of airfreight or cooling systems. India has better scope in
the future as there is a shift in trend towards tropical flowers and this can
be lucratively exploited by India with enormous of diversity in Indigenous
flora.
90 Sustainable Agriculture

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Floriculture sector is a subdivision of horticulture dealing with growing

of showy plants and flowers, gardens and floriculture industry, altogether
comprise floral industry (Khan and Fazili, 2015). Floricultural crops include
bedding, flowering, foliage or indoor plants; cut greens, cut flowers, etc.
Ornamentals are mostly herbaceous in nature. Of which, bedding and garden
plants are annuals or perennials in nature. These are grown in cell packs (in
flats or trays), pots and hanging baskets, usually inside a protected structure
and sold for gardens and landscaping purposes. Petunias, geraniums, impa-
tiens are the largely selling bedding plants.
Nowadays, floriculture or ornamental industry is becoming a blossomy
business in the world. This sector is classified as (i) tuberous roots, tubers
and bulbs, (ii) live plants, (iii) flower bud and cut flowers (fresh or dried,
tinted, lightened, steeped or prepared), and (iv) foliage and parts of plant
(except flowers bud and flower) of shrubs, trees, ornamental plants, grasses,
mosses and lichens (fresh, dried, tinted, lightened, steeped or otherwise
prepared). These are suitable for ornamental purposes and bouquets prepa-
ration. Demands for floricultural commodities are progressively growing in
the domestic market as well as international markets.
Floriculture industry is the lucrative business of India, because of its
diverse utilization, satisfying aesthetic needs of the people, generating
more employment, guaranteed higher returns and more earning of foreign
exchange to the growers of country. More specifically, aromatic flower and
plant parts are being utilized as raw materials in essential oils manufacture
industry, confectioneries, perfumes and medicines for direct utilization by
the peoples.
Initially, floriculture is started in England and afterwards popularized in
the world. Floriculture is the sunshine sector with its large genetic diver-
sity in India. Flowers or ornamental crops are cultivated in both conditions,
i.e., Open field as well as protected conditions in India. Currently, there are
more focused on floriculture crops growing in protected conditions which
are having more profit margin.
Flowers are the beautiful and loveliest things on earth. They immedi-
ately advise beauty because they are linked with things that offer happi-
ness and joy. People have customarily used of flowers for expressing their
innermost feelings to God, presenting to the dearly loved ones or praise
someone and versifying any believable emotion. Flowers are cultivated
in India from ancient times. Since immemorial times ornamental plants
have been an important part of life with flowers, gardens and ornamental
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 91

horticulture which are being noted in most of our historical references like
the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The roman soldiers were wore Garlands
which were made with olive leaves whereas; blossoms of lotus decorated
the Egyptian royalty. Flowers were grown for aesthetic purposes as also
for their scent, perfumes, and medicines. Changing lifestyle of persons has
led to the commercialization of flower, ornamental and aromatic plants
cultivation nowadays. The vast demand of ornamental plants and flowers
coinciding with different occasions has led to expansion of market for orna-
mental plants and flowers.
Now, various flowers are cultivating for domestic requirements and
export by the farmers. Flowers and ornamental plants are now touching
long distances because of the accessibility of airfreight or cooling systems.
Due to economic reform and liberalization policies and modified export-
import policies have given a boost to this industry. After liberalization, this
sector identified as a sunrise business by the GoI and accorded this sector
100% export-oriented status. Mounting demand and high return per unit
area as compared to other agricultural works have dared growers to take
the floriculture sector. The mounting demand of floricultural product has
also increased due to increased buying capacity of middle-income class, fast
urbanization, availability of more information Technology Units, Tourists,
Hotels and Temples, improvement in individual Incomes and GDP, change
in lifestyle and social standards of the peoples, greater consciousness among
the public to ameliorate the waning environment and economic upliftment
of individual people.
India achieved significant development in ornamental plants and flower
production, particularly foliage plant and cut flowers, which have good
export potential. Floriculture sector is imperative from the economic point
of view. Production of commercial floriculture has been progressively
increasing with increased use of protected structure employing polyhouse,
shade net house, greenhouse, etc. Commercial production of ornamental
plants and flowers in India offered a chance for rural development due to
its higher profits per unit area and the new employment opportunities. India
has the capacity to accomplish the gap between demand and supply of flori-
cultural products as international demand is rising at a fast rate. India is
enriched with varied agro-climatic environment and different soil types,
rich water supply, sufficient technical workforce, low charge of labor, devel-
oped markets, well-developed communication and transportation facilities,
growing trend in protected cultivation, utilization of cool chain facilities and
progressive farmers organization offer wide opportunities for cultivating
various flower and ornamental plants around the year.
92 Sustainable Agriculture

Cut flower farming received importance in the globe since the early
twentieth century, mainly after the Second World War. So many changes
happened in this sector from the production to storage, classification, and
marketing of the same to the end consumers. Modern technologies and prac-
tices are being utilized in the production to consumption for cut flower trade
(Kalmegh and Singh, 2016). Due to all of this floriculture sector becoming
one of the high-value agricultural trade around the globe. Worldwide trade
in this industry is rising at a fast rate with an approximate yearly growth
rate of about 25%. The global trade of this sector is around US$ 11 billion
in which cut flowers contributed about 60% in this sector. The international
exports in floriculture sector increased by twenty times from 0.5 billion to 10
billion during the year 1990 to 2010 and if it raises at this rate, its expected
double by 2025 (Kalmegh and Singh, 2016). This sector could be utilized as
a solution to get fast growth in economic by those nations that have different
geographical conditional (Kalmegh and Singh, 2016).

4.2 GLOBAL SCENARIO OF FLORICULTURE SECTOR

More than 145 countries are associated with floriculture sector worldwide
and the worldwide floriculture trade is approximate to be at US$ 70 billion at
present (Misra and Ghosh, 2016). The total area occupied under floriculture
is 6,20,000 ha in the world, among which Asia-Pacific occupies nearly 73%
(4,53,000 ha). India covers about 51% of area under floriculture crops in
Asia-Pacific region. International floriculture market is rising significantly
@ of 10–15% annually. Developed countries like America, Europe, and Asia
account more than 90%of the total world trade in floricultural products. The
Netherlands continue leads in floriculture sector in the world, about 60%
share of global floriculture exports in 2013 (Nazir, 2015). Countries viz.
Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, and the USA are major
exporting countries for floriculture products. Major importing countries
are Germany, France, Netherlands, USA, UK, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland,
Austria, and Japan for floricultural products.
The global floriculture sector perceives fast changes due to globalization
and its influence on financial growth in the different regions of the globe.
Simultaneously, competition is increasing globally. Well-known traditional
flowers growing countries are the Netherlands, the USA, Columbia, Japan,
and Italy. Some Asian countries viz. India, China, Thailand, Bangladesh, etc.,
is also progressively improving floricultural production. Major ornamental
plants and flower products consuming nations in the world concentrated
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 93

in North America and Western Europe. Around 80% of the total flower
productions of the world are consumed by Germany, USA, UK, France,
Netherlands, and Switzerland altogether. Ten largest domestic markets of
cut flowers are available in the world, out of ten, six markets are available
in Europe viz. Netherlands, Germany, UK, France, Spain, and Italy. Other
important markets are the United States and Japan, which are accounting
nearly 20% each. Most recently, the Middle East and Russia have also become
vital markets demonstrating fast market growth. International floriculture
industry is mainly depending on the trade of cut flowers, buds of flower, cut
foliage, bedding and potted plants. Most important cut flowers in international
trade are rose, gerbera, chrysanthemum, lily, carnation, orchid, and anthurium
(Misra and Ghosh, 2016). Worldwide total export of floricultural commodities
is US$ 9,784,525,000 and the Netherlands having 47.7% share of this value.
The other major exporting countries are Colombia, Ecuador, Kenya, Ethiopia,
and Belgium. India having the fourteenth position in floricultural commodities
export (Misra and Ghosh, 2016).

4.3 INDIAN SCENARIO

The floriculture segment in India is unorganized and done on a very small

scale. Mostly smallholding farmers are engaged in the cultivation and
production of ornamental plants and floricultural products in the country.
These small holding growers are not aware and lacking in scientific infor-
mation about effective cultivation methods of flower crops that resulted in
poor production and quality products. Recently some entrepreneurs have
started showing interest in the production and export of flowers in large
scale and in an organized manner. But additional such steps are needed from
both private entrepreneurs as well Government. Due to high competition in
global market and increasing market share of floricultural products, neces-
sary attempts requires to be taken for ensure more production of flowers and
their products as per quality standards of the international market.
In India, flower cultivation was 53,000 hectares in 1993–1994, after
that it has been growing with compounded annual growth rate of the 7.76%
(Misra and Ghosh, 2016). Cut flower production gradually increased up to
the year 2006–07; after that its production greatly rises at a Compounded
Annual Growth Rate of 40.5% (Misra and Ghosh, 2016). India occupied
255,000 ha area under flower production during 2013–14 with produc-
tion of 1754 thousand MT loose flowers and 543 thousand MT cut flowers
(Indian Horticulture Database, 2016). This shows that production of cut
94 Sustainable Agriculture

flowers playing important role in development of floriculture sector in India.

Presently cut flowers are greatly demanding commodity, mainly for export
purpose and country has been shifting from loose flowers or traditional
flowers cultivation to cut flowers in open as well as protected conditions.
Different type of flowers is now being produced in huge quantity for export
as well as domestic market. Country has exported 22,518.58 MT of floricul-
tural commodities with the value of Rs. 479.42 crores to the world during
2015–16 (APEDA, 2016).
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,
Rajasthan, and Haryana have emerged as major floriculture cultivation centers
in India. Major cut flower cultivating states are West Bengal (33.1%), Karna-
taka (12.3%), and Maharashtra (10.3%). Whereas, major loose flower culti-
vating states are Tamil Nadu (18%), Andhra Pradesh (12.98%) and Karnataka
(12%) as reported by Nazir, 2015. Floricultural commodities exports from
country include fresh cut flowers to Europe, Japan, Australia, Middle East,
and the USA, loose flowers to the Gulf countries, cut foliage to Europe, dry
flowers to the USA, Europe, Australia, Japan, and Russia. Ornamentals and
dry flowers have a great export potentiality and almost 70% of total export of
floriculture commodities from India consists of dried products.

4.4 BIHAR SCENARIO OF FLORICULTURE

Horticulture has diverse components of fruit, vegetables, plantations, spices,

and floriculture. All of these, vegetables and fruits division has been able
to attract the early attention of farmers and entrepreneurs while floriculture
sector is still fairly untouched in Bihar. The sector is still in an emerging stage
of development and accounts for a negligible share in the Indian production.
However, the sector has attracted attention of the major giants from the state
as well as overseas market. Thus, floriculture segment offers a ray of hope
to farmers of Bihar as the state has suitable soil type and favorable climatic
conditions for flower production. All these favorable conditions provide an
opening to the early movers in floriculture sector in respect to harvesting
hidden demand in the market, simple supply chain set-up and accessible
foreign markets. Floriculture sector is growing very fast as a business in all
over the globe and also in India. The progressive and enterprising farmers
of Bihar are fast taking up flower cultivation as an alternative to the conven-
tional crops cultivation.
Flower cultivation in Bihar has increased recently, providing immense
opportunity of employment and income in rural regions of Bihar. In Table 4.1,
TABLE 4.1 Year Wise Area and Production of Flower Crops in Bihar
Year Area/Production Flower Crops
Rose Marigold Jasmine (Bela) Tuberose Others Total
2009–2010 Area (in hectare) 63.55 269.85 91.6 87.45 113.9 626.35
Production (in tonnes) 80.86 4877.97 268.39 435.05 966.91 6629.18
Overview of the Floriculture Sector

2010–2011 Area (in hectare) 68.05 283.15 105.15 105.25 126.05 687.65
Production (in tonnes) 86.52 5119.66 307.46 522.94 1068.23 7104.81
2011–2012 Area (in hectare) 72. 9 359.95 113.5 116.65 138.85 801.85
Production (in tonnes) 95.14 6565.8 348.32 595.45 1210.04 8814.75
2012–2013 Area (in hectare) 73.64 314.70 113.4 110.15 132.6 744.49
Production (in tonnes) 98.90 5603.12 317.66 535.84 1080.23 7635.75
2013–2014 Area (in hectare) 73.59 363.48 113.4 110.15 132.6 793.22
Production (in tonnes) 98.90 6798.68 317.66 535.84 1080.23 8831.31
CAGR Production 5.51 7.80 3.77 4.51 2.36 6.70
Source: Economic survey, 2016, GOB.
95
TABLE 4.2 District-Wise Acreage and Production of Flowers (Area in Hectare/Production in Tonnes) 96
Districts Rose Marigold Jasmine (Bela) Tuberose
2013–14 2013–14 2013–14 2013–14
Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production
Patna 4.70 (6.4) 7.87 (8) 58.00 (16.0) 1012.00 (14.9) 5.40 (4.8) 17.28 (5.4) 5.00 (4.5) 25.88 (4.8)
Nalanda 2.50 (3.4) 3.4 (3.4) 18.75 (5.2) 413.00 (6.1) 3.20 (2.8) 9.92 (3.1) 2.60 (2.4) 13.00 (2.4)
Bhojpur 2.60 (3.5) 3.48 (3.5) 19.00 (5.2) 283.00 (4.2) 3.15 (2.8) 9.45 (3) 1.80 (1.6) 9.09 (1.7)
Buxar 1.40 (1.9) 1.54 (1.6) 3.55 (1.0) 63.90 (0.9) 1.80 (1.6) 5.22 (1.6) 1.60 (1.5) 7.84 (1.5)
Rohtas 1.10 (1.5) 1.16 (1.2) 2.30 (0.6) 38.64 (0.6) 1.50 (1.3) 4.75 (1.5) 1.20 (1.1) 5.64 (1.1)
Kaimur 1.20 (1.6) 1.5 (1.5) 2.05 (0.6) 34.85 (0.5) 1.40 (1.2) 3.78 (1.2) 2.50 (2.3) 5.56 (1)
Gaya 3.20 (4.3) 4.75 (4.8) 27.5 (7.6) 512.00 (7.5) 12.70 (11.2) 25.00 (7.9) 4.85 (4.4) 22.81 (4.3)
Jehanabad 1.20 (1.6) 1.44 (1.5) 13.00 (3.6) 283.00 (4.2) 3.45 (3.0) 10.01 (3.2) 2.40 (2.2) 11.52 (2.2)
Arwal 1.30 (1.8) 1.56 (1.6) 7.75 (2.1) 135.63 (2) 3.30 (2.9) 9.57 (3.0) 1.95 (1.8) 9.56 (1.8)
Nawada 1.50 (2.0) 1.7 (1.7) 2.45 (0.7) 41.65 (0.6) 1.25 (1.1) 3.25 (1.0) 1.10 (1) 5.06 (0.9)
Aurangabad 1.50 (2.0) 1.8 (1.8) 6.25 (1.7) 217.00 (3.2) 2.40 (2.1) 8.20 (2.6) 1.35 (1.2) 6.48 (1.2)
Saran 1.30 (1.8) 1.5 (1.5) 4.4 (1.2) 77.00 (1.1) 2.30 (2.0) 6.21 (2.0) 1.60 (1.5) 7.84 (1.5)
Siwan 1.20 (1.6) 1.44 (1.5) 3.05 (0.8) 54.29 (0.8) 1.45 (1.3) 4.06 (1.3) 1.65 (1.5) 7.90 (1.5)
Gopalganj 1.25 (1.7) 1.53 (1.5) 3.50 (1.0) 60.28 (0.9) 1.50 (1.3) 4.20 (1.3) 1.45 (1.3) 7.32 (1.4)
E. Champaran 2.50 (3.4) 3.48 (3.5) 9.40 (2.6) 174.84 (2.6) 3.70 (3.3) 10.20 (3.2) 4.80 (4.4) 24.96 (4.7)
W. Champaran 2.45 (3.3) 3.33 (3.4) 8.60 (2.4) 156.52 (2.3) 2.45 (2.2) 7.60 (2.4) 3.40 (3.1) 17.34 (3.2)
Muzaffarpur 5.72 (7.8) 7.5 (7.6) 27.00 (7.4) 628.00 (9.2) 7.40 (6.5) 23.68 (7.5) 8.85 (8.0) 40.82 (7.6)
Sitamarhi 1.05 (1.4) 1.16 (1.2) 2.90 (0.8) 49.88 (0.7) 2.00 (1.8) 5.46 (1.7) 1.25 (1.1) 5.75 (1.1)
Sheohar 0.85 (1.2) 0.89 (0.9) 1.05 (0.3) 17.85 (0.3) 0.90 (0.8) 2.34 (0.7) 0.80 (0.7) 3.60 (0.7)
Vaishali 4.85 (6.6) 8.52 (8.6) 32.5 (8.9) 610.00 (9) 7.50 (6.6) 23.25 (7.3) 9.40 (8.5) 47.94 (9)
Darbhanga 1.90 (2.6) 2.38 (2.4) 6.80 (1.9) 119.00 (1.8) 2.60 (2.3) 7.28 (2.3) 1.90 (1.7) 10.03 (1.9)
Sustainable Agriculture
TABLE 4.2 (Continued)
Districts Rose Marigold Jasmine (Bela) Tuberose
2013–14 2013–14 2013–14 2013–14
Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production
Madhubani 1.00 (1.4) 1.3 (1.3) 3.55 (1) 63.19 (0.9) 3.10 (2.7) 7.69 (2.4) 1.40 (1.3) 7.00 (1.3)
Samastipur 4.00 (5.4) 5.83 (5.9) 17.53 (4.8) 315.00 (4.6) 6.35 (5.6) 19.69 (6.2) 8.95 (8.1) 49.98 (9.3)
Begusarai 2.75 (3.7) 2.88 (2.9) 12.00 (3.3) 180.17 (2.7) 3.45 (3.0) 10.35 (3.3) 3.25 (3.0) 16.25 (3.0)
Munger 0.70 (1.0) 4.15 (4.2) 10.6 (2.9) 188.68 (2.8) 3.20 (2.8) 7.20 (2.3) 4.70 (4.3) 18.32 (3.4)
Sheikhpura 0.95 (1.3) 0.77 (0.8) 0.90 (0.2) 15.48 (0.2) 1.00 (0.9) 2.66 (0.8) 0.80 (0.7) 3.76 (0.7)
Lakhisarai 0.90 (1.2) 1.09 (1.1) 2.30 (0.6) 40.02 (0.6) 1.20 (1.1) 3.18 (1.0) 0.95 (0.9) 4.47 (0.8)
Overview of the Floriculture Sector

Jamui 1.05 (1.4) 0.99 (1.0) 1.70 (0.5) 28.90 (0.4) 0.80 (0.7) 2.08 (0.7) 0.7 (0.6) 3.15 (0.6)
Khagaria 1.05 (1.4) 1.16 (1.2) 1.95 (0.5) 33.93 (0.5) 1.30 (1.2) 3.45 (1.1) 1.30 (1.2) 6.24 (1.2)
Bhagalpur 2.7 (3.7) 3.62 (3.7) 10.95 (3.0) 202.58 (3) 6.40 (5.6) 19.20 (6.0) 4.40 (4.0) 22.44 (4.2)
Banka 0.85 (1.2) 0.98 (1) 2.10 (0.6) 36.12 (0.5) 1.35 (1.2) 3.51 (1.1) 0.80 (0.7) 3.68 (0.7)
Saharsa 1.80 (2.4) 2.23 (2.3) 7.05 (1.9) 124.08 (1.8) 2.15 (1.9) 5.81 (1.8) 2.40 (2.2) 11.52 (2.2)
Supaul 0.70 (1.0) 0.77 (0.8) 1.95 (0.5) 33.35 (0.5) 0.85 (0.8) 2.25 (0.7) 0.80 (0.7) 3.68 (0.7)
Madhepura 0.90 (1.2) 1.04 (1.1) 2.80 (0.8) 48.16 (0.7) 1.05 (0.9) 2.84 (0.9) 1.10 (1.0) 5.17 (1.0)
Purnea 1.8 (2.4) 2.39 (2.4) 7.55 (2.1) 134.39 (2.0) 2.60 (2.3) 7.28 (2.3) 3.20 (2.9) 15.36 (2.9)
Kishanganj 2.5 (3.4) 3.20 (3.2) 8.85 (2.4) 157.53 (2.3) 3.35 (3.0) 9.05 (2.9) 5.55 (5.0) 27.20 (5.1)
Araria 1.1 (1.5) 1.23 (1.2) 1.65 (0.5) 28.22 (0.4) 1.05 (0.9) 2.73 (0.9) 0.80 (0.7) 3.68 (0.7)
Katihar 2.55 (3.5) 3.34 (3.4) 10.25 (2.8) 186.55 (2.7) 2.85 (2.5) 7.98 (2.5) 7.60 (6.9) 38.00 (7.1)
Bihar 73.59 98.90 363.48 6798.68 113.40 317.66 110.15 535.84
(100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
Note: Figures in parentheses denotes percentage.
97
98 Sustainable Agriculture

the area and production of diverse flowers grown in Bihar have been presented
for the period 2009–10 to 2013–14. From the table, it is evident that about
6799 tonnes of marigold, 99 tonnes of rose, 318 tonnes of jasmine (Bela)
and 536 tonnes of the tuberose were produced in 2013–14 in Bihar. Over the
period 2009–10 to 2013–14, the growth rate of rose and marigold was higher
at 5.51% and 7.80%, respectively.
There is a large difference in the acreage and production of various flowers
across the districts. It is clear from Table 4.2. For rose, the leading districts
in respect of production in 2013–14 are Vaishali (8.6%), Patna (8.0%), and
Muzaffarpur (7.6%). For marigold, in terms of production in 2013–14, the
leading districts have been Patna (14.9%), Muzaffarpur (9.2%) and Vaishali
(9.0%). For jasmine (Bela), the leading districts in terms of production in
2013–14 are Gaya (7.9%), Muzaffarpur (7.5%), and Vaishali (7.3%).

4.5 PROFITABILITY AND SCOPE IN FLORICULTURAL SECTOR

Various present and earlier studies prove that the floricultural sector is
the gainful business for smallholding farmers because of they have less
capacity for cultivating diverse crops. The demand of flowers and showy
foliage plants has been increasing in the metro cities and towns especially
from middle and higher income group peoples and hotel industry. Prices of
selected flowers are fetched relatively high during the month of September
to February due to various occasions (Ganvir and Patil, 2000). Deshpande
and Deshmukh (2002) studied the cost of cultivation and marketing of some
flower crops viz. Rose, Gerbera, Carnation, Gladiolus, and Tuberose under
High-Tech cultivation. They were revealed that flowers are economically
beneficial due to high-profit margin capacity in a short time, as compared to
other horticulture crops like vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants, etc. It is a
well-known fact that in the initial stage of flower cultivation, the expenditure
on planting material is high due to all planting materials are to be procured
from outside. After that propagating material like bulbs, corms, tuberous
root, suckers, clumps, terminal cuttings, etc., easily becomes available from
out of the previous crops. From these propagating materials could be saved
an average 67 to 88% of the total working cost, as a result of which the entire
floriculture unit can be treated as a profitable venture in succeeding years as
reported by Deshpande and Deshmukh (2002). An experiment was conducted
by Ghadge et al. (2002) to found the most appropriate and economical flower
crop based cropping systems at Ahmednagar (Maharashtra). They were tried
various cropping systems viz. Chrysanthemum planted in April–wheat,
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 99

chrysanthemum planted April–Rabi onion and chrysanthemum planted

in June–groundnut for evaluation and compared with well-established
cropping system groundnut-wheat. Among the all cropping systems, the
chrysanthemum planted in April–Rabi onion and marigold-onion cropping
system were found to be the most economical and gainful. The economic
returns obtained by these cropping sequences were Rupees 134,667.00 and
Rupees 124,391.00 per hectare and B:C ratio was 5.18 and 5.21, respectively.
A variety of cut flower crops are cultivated in protected structures.
Among those Roses, Gerbera, Carnations, Anthurium, Orchid, and Lilium
are most common. Gerbera and Carnations can’t produce in an open field.
Intensive production of rose is done by using protected structures. In
other words, more inputs are required under protected structures for the
cultivation of roses. Obviously, the cost of cultivation per unit is higher
in protected structures as compared to field conditions. Cultivation cost in
protected structures is sevenfold more than in field conditions. Marketing
cost is also six times more to produce cultivated in protected structures.
But net profit is greater for protected produce. Floriculture sector in India
achieved its great level through the use of protected cultivation technology
which gives much satisfactory results to smallholding farmers in the
country (Swaminathan, 2003).
An investigation was conducted by Ravinder et al. (2006) in Punjab
to study contract farming in floriculture sector and they found that five
companies involved in flower seed production by this farming system. They
revealed that contract farming in floricultural sector had been beneficial
to farmers and contracting agencies. Kale (2008) studied production cost
for rose under hi-tech cultivation; she worked out cultivation cost for one
hectare of rose, i.e., Rs. 147.23 lakh. Out of Rs. 147.23 lakh was spent viz.
Rs. 58.87 lakh on greenhouse construction, 41.25 lakh on rose cultivation
and Rs. 20.45 lakh on input used in cultivation. She also worked out the net
return per flower which was Rs. 1.46, Rs. 2.46 and Rs. 4.46 for 40 cm, 50
cm, and 60 cm long stem, respectively. She concluded that net returns of
the project were Rs. 51.49 lakh. After reviewed of production cost studies
it observed that protected flower production venture is important in respect
to farm income. It confirms by studies, flower production is getting higher
earnings compared to other agricultural crops.
Pandit and Patil (2009) revealed that protected cultivation of carnation
in 2300 sq.ft. area gives Rs. 3 to 5 lakh as a profit per year to the grower.
Cultivation of Chrysanthemum is the easiest and cheapest flower crop which
gives higher yield throughout the year (Adat, 2011). Jadhao and Bahirat
and Jadhav (2011) studied cost of production, returns and profit for rose
100 Sustainable Agriculture

production in Satara district of Maharashtra. They were received gross value

of Rs. 380,242 per hectare with the B:C ratio of 1:1.29. Bhattachrya (2013)
reported that farmers shifting from conventional farming of paddy to flower
crops cultivation in West Bengal.
Floricultural sector has come out as an important agribusiness. This sector
provides employment opportunities and entrepreneurship in both urban areas
as well as rural areas. If anyone wants to establish floriculture business NHB
helps them. APEDA provides cold storage space facilities and freight subsidies
to entrepreneurs. It has been proved that commercial flower cultivation has
more potential than other agricultural field crops in per unit area. That’s why, it
is a profitable business. Floricultural sector offers a huge chance to growers in
respect to income generation and empowerment. Small and marginal farmers
may also utilize their small land for growing the flowers, foliage and showy
plants for trade. Floricultural sector also offers careers in different segments
like production, procurement, marketing, export, and research.

4.6 POTENTIALITY OF DIVERSIFICATION IN FLORICULTURAL

SECTOR

4.6.1 CONVENTIONAL FLOWER CULTIVATION

Flowers grown in the open field from ancient times are known as tradi-
tional flower and growing flowers by a traditional method called conven-
tional flower cultivation. Traditional flowers are used for social functions,
public functions, worship, festivals, and individual adornments. Mostly
traditional or loose flowers are used in garlands. Some traditional flowers
viz. Jasmine, rose and tuberose are also used for oil extraction and
perfumes production. Conventional flower cultivation is mostly done by
small holding farmers. The other conventionally cultivated flowers are
marigold, chrysanthemum, China aster, crossandra, barleria, nerium, cocks
comb, lotus, etc. Marigold deserves special mention followed by jasmine
among the loose flowers. Jasmine is known for its distinctive fragrance. It
is mainly used for hair decorations by women. It is mostly grown in Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka in the south and West Bengal in the east. Crossandra
and aster form the rest two varieties of loose flowers; those are cultivated
in wide area in certain parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
and Maharashtra.
This segment is still unorganized and often does not get proper impor-
tance despite of its potentiality. There are urgent needs for developing high
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 101

yielding varieties, throughout the year production of loose flowers viz.

marigold, chrysanthemum, China aster, etc., and promotion of flowers like
annual chrysanthemum, desi gulab, etc.

4.6.2 MODERN/PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF CUT FLOWERS

Flowers which are cultivated in protected structures and harvested with

their long stem known as cut flower and growing system of these cut
flower known as modern or protected cultivation of cut flowers. These cut
flowers are used for bouquets preparation and decoration purposes. Some
important cut flowers are rose, orchids, gerbera, carnation, anthurium, lilies,
tuberose, gladiolus, etc. Rose is the major cut flower crop cultivated all
over the country. Gladiolus is the next major cut flower crop cultivated in
India. Previously gladiolus was restricted only to northeastern region. This
region still continues to supply the corms to most parts of the county. But
nowadays, with improved varieties and agro-techniques and better crop
management, the northern parts of Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Utter Pradesh,
as well as Karnataka and Maharashtra have appeared as the major areas for
gladiolus cultivation.
Tuberose is also an important and popular cut flower crop in India. It is
mostly cultivated in eastern India, i.e., West Bengal, some parts of northern
plains and south India. Single and double type flower varieties are available in
tuberose for commercial production and both are similarly popular. Flowers
of tuberose are also selling as a loose flower in some regions for making
garlands and wreaths. Orchids are also an important cut flower crop in India.
Orchid cultivation is basically restricted in the North-Eastern Hilly areas and
some parts of the southern states viz. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Cut flower cultivation under protected structures is limited, i.e., only 5%
of the total flower crop area. But its contribution to total floricultural exports
is very significant. Currently, there are more than 110 export-oriented flori-
cultural units in function. Area under protected structures has been expanded
from 500 ha to around 5000 ha in recent years. Major cut flowers are rose,
gerbera, carnation, etc. grown in these units, but can be diversified into
anthurium, orchids, gladiolus, lilium, and tuberose due to increasing demand
of tropical cut flowers worldwide. India has many advantages and great
potential to boost the area under concentrated production of cut flowers and
ultimately to increase the flowers and their product exports. This is possible
when these units to be established in ideal locations with sound technolog-
ical knowledge.
102 Sustainable Agriculture

4.6.3 DRY FLOWER PRODUCTS

Mostly used flowers and plant parts for dry flowers are Helichrysum
(Helichrysum bracteatum), Statice (Limonium sinuatum), Gompherena
(Gomphrena globosa), Dahlias (Dahlia hortensis), poppy seed heads, roses
(Rosa), Delphinium, larkspur (Consolida ambigua), lavender (Lavendula
augustifolia), Jute flowers, African marigold (Tagete serecta), lotus pod,
etc. Dry flowers comprise almost 15% of the world floriculture trade and
form the major share in Indian floricultural exports. Dry flowers share is
more than 60% in total floricultural products exports of India. Presently,
the dry flower industry is not well organized and mostly depends on forest
for plant materials and no organized cultivation of particular flowers exists
anywhere in the country for dry flowers. The demand of dry flowers is
rising at striking rate of 8–10% and therefore there is a vast scope available
for unemployed youth, farmers and entrepreneurs in the country.

4.6.4 PRODUCTION OF FLOWER SEED

Commercial F1 hybrid seed and open-pollinated seasonal flower seed produc-

tion are considered as a rewarding business and it is popular among the
farmers on a limited area. Earlier flower seed production was being done on
limited scale due to limited demand as compare to other horticultural crops.
Presently many companies started production of flowers seed on large scale
for export to other countries viz. U.K., USA, Holland, France, Germany,
Japan, etc. Area under flower seed production is nearly 600–800 ha in India.
In India, major areas involved in flower seed production are Sangrur, Patiala,
and Ludhiana in Punjab; Panipat and Sirsa in Haryana; Bengaluru and Rani
Banur in Karnataka; Kullu Valley (H. P.); Sri Nagar Valley in Jammu and
Kashmir; and Kalimpong (W. B.). Flower seed production venture offers
higher returns from per unit area to the growers. Flowers seed production
cost varies from Rs. 10,000 to 15,000 per hectare and generate net profit Rs.
25,000 to 75,000. There is urgent need to develop high-yielding varieties of
flowers including F1 hybrids and improved agro-techniques for producing
uniform flower seed according to certification standards.

4.6.5 NURSERY BUSINESS

Quality seed and propagating material is the most important goods for
successful flower production. Lack of quality seed and planting material is the
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 103

main barrier for not realizing the full potential of floriculture in India. Planting
material of different kind’s like seed of annuals, rooted cuttings, tubers, corms,
bulbs, budded and grafted plants and seedlings are required for commercial
flower cultivation, plants for pots and landscaping purposes. Indian flower
seed and nursery industry is going enormously yearly. Several private compa-
nies involved in producing quality planting material with multinational base in
India. Increasing areas under ornamental gardening, varied agro-climatic situ-
ations and accessibility of vast and economical human resource are creating
immense scope for growth of nursery business in India. Nursery industry
has positive influence on Indian economy in respect to income, employment
generation and foreign exchange earning in global market.

4.6.6 POTPOURRI BUSINESS

Potpourri is a mixture of dried and fragrant plant parts like roots, leaves,
stems, flowers, and seeds. Aromatic oils are the basis of a potpourri
which is found within the plant. A significant constituent of dried flower
product export includes potpourris. Nowadays, floriculture has been
considered as a viable alternative for diversification in agriculture.
But at present, within the floriculture sector itself so many options are
available, a florist and floriculturist could take those. Essential oils and
perfumery from natural sources is in great demand. Flower crops culti-
vated for essential oil production are limited in the country. Flower crops
are grown for essential oils are included mainly jasmine, rose, tuberose,
etc. Rosa damascene species is exclusively grown for essential oil extrac-
tion, attar, gulkand, rose water, rose, etc. It is mostly grown in Pushkar
and Haldighati in Rajathan, Kannoj in Uttar Pradesh and some pockets
of Himachal Pradesh. There is urgent need to research for development
of high oil containing varieties and distillation methods for higher oil
recovery. Further, identification of more aromatic plants for extraction of
essential oil and standardization of production technology for these crops
needs to be incorporated in the research program. Encouragement of this
sector encourages auxiliary industries like making various value-added
products and steam distillation units.

4.6.7 PRODUCTION OF NATURAL DYES

The natural dyes from plants were discovered a long time ago. About 450
plant species are known which could be good source of natural dyes. Natural
104 Sustainable Agriculture

dyes can be extracted from various parts of plant such as seeds, leaves,
barks, flowers, berries, and fruits. While, many natural dyes have been
replaced by synthetic dyes, but some natural dyes are still used to add color
to foods, cosmetics, and fabrics. Many colors are created with flowers and
flower parts. Flowers used for natural dyes are Red Rose, Hollyhock, Mari-
gold, Chrysanthemum, Sunflower, etc. Pigments of marigold are generally
used to improve the color of the eggs yolk and meat in the poultry industry.
These pigments also utilized in the food and textile industry. There is a
requirement to more crops identified and standardized extraction methods
for full exploitation.
Technologies development in the above-mentioned areas not only
improves the condition of particular floriculture sub-sector, but these provide
opportunities for employment, means of income generation sources and
diversification in floriculture industry.

4.7 CONSTRAINT AND CHALLENGES IN FLORICULTURE BUSINESS

Exports of floricultural commodities from India is fallen slightly in

respect to value, due to increasing domestic consumption of these prod-
ucts at an extraordinary speed, very high import duty, perishable nature
of flowers, high rates of freight, unavailability of refrigerated transporta-
tion systems. The floricultural division is also faced several challenges at
the production level like quality seeds and propagating material, quality
irrigation water, skilled manpower, etc. Challenges at the marketing
level also faced by our exporters due to less diversification of products
and differentiation, lack of defragmentation and novelty, poor quality of
products and challenges related to environmental issues. Inadequate cold
chain system for transportation and storage is not only affecting present
produce and its marketability but also affect the future floricultural busi-
ness in the country.

4.7.1 STRATEGIES FOR FLORICULTURE BUSINESS IMPROVEMENT

1. Firstly the most important requirement is to increases an integrated

cold chain system for carrying produce from the growers (production
site) to customers (market).
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 105

2. Developments of the non-traditional production areas may help in

fulfill the growing requirements of the both domestic and global
markets.
3. Developing and propagating indigenously varieties for supply of
quality seed and propagating material regularly.
4. Establish training centers and organize trainings for skilled manpower.
5. To develop network of support systems involving public institutions
and private organizations.
6. Reducing import tariffs with Government efforts in negotiation with
preferred tariff regimes countries.
7. Periodic re-plantation.
8. Development and popularization of integrated supply chain model,
i.e., integration of small and middle-class growers in large size
producer supply chains.
9. Increasing the frequencies of International and chartered flights.
10. Allocation of additional cargo space for floricultural products.

4.7.2 RESEARCH WORK IN FLORICULTURE

Research work in floriculture division is being conducted by the different

research organizations like ICAR and CSIR institutes, Department of Flori-
culture or Horticulture in SAU’s, different societies and AICFIP with a
network of 21 centers (15 budgetary, 4 institutional and 2 voluntary Centers).
Flower crops like rose, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, orchid, tuberose, jasmine,
aster and marigold have obtained larger attention of researchers. Recently,
research work in floriculture division focused on improvement in flower
crops, improved propagation techniques, standardization of agro techniques,
measures of plant protection and management of flower produce after harvest.
Earlier most of researchers focused on traditional flower crops because of
major flower crops are being cultivated in open field. But presently, mass
multiplication of planting materials through tissue culture and technologies
of protected cultivation has also got attention. Many ornamental and cut
flower species and varieties have been identified which are appropriate for
cut flower and landscaping or garden display. Various varieties also devel-
oped in cut flowers which are suitable for protected structures and also for
open field cultivation. In India, the private sector contribution in floriculture
research activities is very negligible.
106 Sustainable Agriculture

4.8 IMPROVED VARIETIES IN FLOWER CROPS

Floriculture as a commercial activity is still largely practiced on smallhold-

ings all over India. Flower crops cultivated in 2,49,000 ha area and this
large area produced 1.69 million tonnes loose flowers and 96,327 lakh cut
flowers during 2014–2015 (NHB, 2015). The improved varieties of various
flowers and ornamental plants developed by different institutes can meet
the increasing market demand for these crops with higher quality and yield.
The information regarding improved varieties in different flower crops is
discussed in the following subsections.

4.8.1 ROSE

1. Pusa Arun: Queen Elizabeth × Jantar Mantar.

Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: Pusa Arun variety produces 20 flowers/plant in winter
season and 35–40 flowers/plant in spring season.
Characteristics of variety: Fleshy and meteoric dark red, big sized
flower, double blooms, long and strong stems. It has 38 to 40 thick
petals. Flowers are gently scented and good for cut flowers cultivation
and also suitable for exhibition purpose. Pusa Arun is tolerant against
powdery mildew disease and red scale.
2. Pusa Shatabdi: Jadis × Century Two.
Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: 20–30 flowers/plant in winter season and 35–40 flowers/
plant in spring season.
Characteristics of variety: Attractive light pink flowers, fleshy 35–40
pink color petals, moderately tolerant to leaf spot and powdery mildew
diseases, suitable for cut blooms and exhibition purposes and mildly
fragrant blooms.
3. Pusa Ajay: Pink Parfait × Queen Elizabeth.
Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: 15–20 flowers/plant in winter season and 35–40 flowers/
plant in spring season.
Characteristics of variety: Foliage pigmented, glossy and dark pink
blooms, 35–40 petals, fleshy and dark pink color petals, recurrent
blooming, moderately tolerant to powdery mildew and black spot diseases,
mildly fragrant blooms, suitable for cut flower and exhibition purposes.
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 107

4. Pusa Komal: Pink Parfait × Suchitra.

Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: 20 flowers per plant in winter and 45 flowers per plant
in spring.
Characteristics of variety: Thornless variety, petals are red with lighter
shade on the reverse side, black spot tolerant.
5. Pusa Mohit: Suchitra × Christian Dior.
Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: 20 flowers per plant in winter and 45 flowers per plant in
spring.
Characteristics of variety: Thornless variety, red petals with lighter
shade on the reverse side and tolerant to black spot.
Recommended cultivation practices
Spacing: 50–60 cm.
Budding: February–March.
Planting time: September–October.
Pruning: First fortnight of 2 October.
Fertilizer requirement: 75 g N, 125 g P O and 100 g K O/1.44 m area
and 4–5 kg FYM Irrigation: As per need.
Disease control: Spray Captan @ 0.2% for black spot.
Insect control: Parathion for red scale and malathion @ 0.1% for aphids
control.

4.8.2 MARIGOLD

A. African Marigold
1. Pusa Basanti Gainda: Golden Yellow × Sun Giant.
Recommended area: Throughout India.
Average yield: Fresh flowers 20–25 t/ha; seed 70–100 kg/ha.
Characteristics of variety: Medium size flower, flowers in lemon
yellow color, blooms in 135 to 145 days after sowing, suitable for
growing in pot and garden display purposes.
2. Pusa Narangi Gainda: Cracker Jack × Golden Jubilee.
Recommended area: Throughout India. Popular in southern India
due to big flower size.
Average yield: 25–30 t/ha of fresh flowers, 100–125 kg/ha of seeds.
Characteristics of variety: Deep orange flowers with ruffled florets,
blooms in 125–135 days after sowing, rich source of carotenoids
108 Sustainable Agriculture

(329 mg/1000 g petals), broadly used in food, poultry industry, and

pharmaceutical industries.
B. French Marigold
1. Pusa Arpita: Selection from heterozygous (local) population.
Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: 18–20 t/ha.
Characteristics of variety: Medium-sized flowers with light orange
color, blooms during mid-December to mid-February in northern India.
Recommended cultivation practices
Seed rate: 600–800 g/ha.
Spacing: 45 × 60 cm.
Sowing time: Second fortnight of July to the first fortnight of August.
Fertilizer requirement (NPK, kg/ha): 120–80–80.
Irrigation: As per need.
Disease control: Spray soluble sulfur solution @ 0.2% for powdery
mildew and rust diseases.
Insect control: Spray Dicofol @ 0.3% for mites.

4.8.3 GLADIOLUS

1. Pusa Shubham: Lucky Shamrock × Green Lilac Open.

Suitable for: Northern plains.
Average yield: Produces 1.6–2.3 spikes per plant, average 2 corms per
plant and 20 cormels per mother corm.
Characteristics of variety: 14 to 16 florets per spike, florets are cream
to yellow color, early in flowering (72 days) compact spikes with good
vase life (10 days).
2. Pusa Kiran: Selection from the open-pollinated population from cv.
Ave.
Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: Produces 1.9–2.7 shoots, >2 corms, and 20 cormels.
Characteristics of variety: Produces 1.9–2.7 shoots and more than 2
corms and 20 cormels from each mother corm.
3. Pusa Manmohak: A selection from Mayur × Hunting Song.
Recommended area: Northern plains.
Average yield: Produces 2.22 spikes and 2.33 corms.
Characteristics of variety: Mid-maturing, blooms in 100–105 days,
florets in saffron red color, whitish stripes on the throat of two oppositely
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 109

located lower petals, spikes length more than 93 cm, rachis length 55
cm, 19–21 florets per spike, 5–6 florets open at a time, excellent for vase
decoration, vase life is 10 days.
4. Pusa Vidushi: Selection from the progeny of Melody × Berlew.
Suitable for: Northern plains.
Average yield: Produces 2.11 spikes and 2.33 corms.
Characteristics of variety: Plants light green in color and straight,
early and mid maturing variety, blooms in 80–85 days, straight spikes,
15–16 florets/ spike, florets purplish white in color with grayed purple
spots on throat base, 11 days vase life.
5. Pusa Red Valentine: Selection from the open-pollinated population of
the ‘Regency’ variety.
Suitable for: Northern Plains.
Average yield: Produces 2.11 spikes and 2.33 corms.
Characteristics of variety: Plants are healthy, green in color and
straight reaching a height of 125 cm, each corm produces two shoots
with 7–8 leaves, mid maturing variety, flowered in 95 days, long straight
spikes and good length of rachis about 50–55 cm, 18–19 florets/spike,
florets brick or blood-red in color and lower petals have sun ray-like
small lines, 10 days vase life, produces 2.33 corms and > 28 cormels.
6. Pusa Srijana: Selection from the progeny of Berlew and Heady Wine.
Suitable for: Northern Plains.
Average yield: Produces 2.11 spikes and 2.33 corms.
Characteristics of variety: Very long sturdy spike (115 cm) with
good rachis length (> 56 cm), 16–20 florets, more than 9 days vase
life, produces 2.88 corms and 49.78 cormels per plant, medium to late
flowering hybrid, takes 107 days to first floret opening after planting,
floret color is red-purple group (72B) (inner two petals are dark/pink
with one white stripe on center and outer petals are light white at base)
with a vase life of 7 days.
7. Pusa Unnati: A selection from the progeny of Berlew and Heady Wine.
Recommended area: Northern Plains.
Average yield: Produces 2.11 spikes and 2.33 corms.
Characteristics of variety: Medium long sturdy spikes (>85 cm),
rachis length more than 49 cm, 15–17 florets, vase life (9 days), good
multiplier produces 3.10 corms and 27.44 cormels from each mother
corm, early flowering hybrid, first floret opened in 73.22 days, dark pink
110 Sustainable Agriculture

or mauve color floret (purple group, N-78B), best for kitchen garden,
garden display and landscaping also.
Recommended cultivation practices:
Requirement of corms for planting: 1.5 lakh/ha.
Spacing: 60 cm.
Sowing: October to November.
Fertilizer requirement (NPK, 2 g/m): 25–16–25.
Irrigation: As per need.
Disease control: Spray of Captan @ 0.2% for black spot.
Insect control: Mixing of Thimet 10 G granules @ 20–25 kg/ha in soil
at land preparation to control chafer beetle and 0.2% spray of Metacid-50
for control of aphids and thrips.

4.8.4 CHRYSANTHEMUM

1. Pusa Anmol: Mutant of cv. Ajay.

Recommended area: Hills and plains to get off-season blooms.
Average yield: 100–150 flowers/plant.
Characteristics of variety: It is bushy variety with yellowish pink
flowers, thermo-photo insensitive variety, blooms thrice in a year, i.e.,
October–November, February–March and June–July, flowers in 85–100
days, ideal for loose flowers, vase life on the plant is 20–22 days.
2. Pusa Centenary: Gamma-ray induced mutant of cv. Thai Chen Queen.
Recommended area: Hills and plains to get off-season blooms.
Average yield: 10–12 standard flowers/plant.
Characteristics of variety: A vigorous variety that produces very big
size yellow flowers, blooms in 100–110 days after transplanting, suitable
for cut flowers, vase life on plant is 20–22 days.
3. Pusa Aditya: Seedling of cv. Jaya.
Recommended area: Northern Plains.
Average yield: 300–400 flowers/plant (Spray type).
Characteristics of variety: The Plants are bushy (30–35 branches) and
medium in height (55–60 cm) with moderate spread (45–50 cm). The
variety is a spray type that produces star-shaped semi-double flowers
that resemble to gazania flowers. Flowers are yellow in color (5 A) at
the periphery and orange red color (45A) in the center. The florets are
spatulate with distinct keel. This is suitable for garden display purposes.
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 111

4. Pusa Chitraksha: A seedling of cv. Lal Pari.

Recommended area: Northern Plains.
Average yield: This is spray type variety, 400–500 flowers/plant.
Characteristics of variety: Plants are bushy with 24–30 branches, plant
height is 60–65 cm with best spread of 60–65 cm, spray type variety,
flower deep magenta in color, florets are spatulas in shape with magenta
color (59A), disc florets are yellow (12A) that provide good contrast,
suitable for pot culture and good for garden display purpose.
5. Pusa Sona: A seedling of cv. Sadbhawana.
Recommended area: Northern Plains.
Average yield: 200–300 flowers/plant (Spray type).
Characteristics of variety: Bushy type plant (20–25 branches), dwarf
in height (25–30 cm) with an excellent spread (50–55 cm). Spray type,
produces single flower, flowers yellow in color (8A), disc florets are also
yellow (12C), early variety (20 days early flowering), suitable for pot
mums.
6. Pusa Kesari: A gamma-ray induced mutant of Thai Chen Queen.
Recommended area: Northern Plains.
Average yield: 30 flowers/m2.
Characteristics of variety: The plants are tall in height (65–70 cm) with
good spread (60–65 cm). The flowers are semi-double and big in size
(9–10 cm in diameter). It is red in color, red-colored ray florets (171A)
appeared as chimers, suitable for pot culture and cut flower.
7. TQP-06-01: An induced mutant of Thai Chen Queen.
Recommended area: Northern Plains.
Average yield: 30 flowers/m2.
Characteristics of variety: It is a gamma-ray induced pink-colored
mutant of cv. Thai Chen Queen, which is orange in color. Pink colored
ray florets (65D) appeared as chimeras which were used for in vitro
regeneration to establish as a new variety. The plants are medium in
height (50–55 cm) with good spread (60–65 cm). The semi-double
flowers are big (7–8 cm diameter). The variety is suitable as a cut flower
and pot culture.
Recommended cultivation practices:
Spacing: Line to line 30 cm and plant-to-plant 30 cm.
Time of cutting: May-June.
Pinching: After 30 days of planting.
Transplanting: First fortnight of August month.
112 Sustainable Agriculture

Fertilizer requirement (NPK, kg/ha): 200-100-100.

Irrigation: As per need.
Insect control: Aphids-control by spray of Rogor (30%) @ 2 ml/l water.

4.8.5 TECHNOLOGY FOR DRYING FLOWERS

Drying of Chrysanthemum: Drying technology for chrysanthemum vari-

eties like Gauri, Vasantika, and Jayanti has been standardized. Fresh flowers
are inserted in silica gel and dried at 45°C for 48 hours in hot air oven which
was ideal for Vasantika, Gauri and Jayanti.

4.8.5.1 CROP-SPECIFIC DRYING METHODS FOR ANNUAL FLOWERS

1. Crop Drying method

 Calendula: Press drying; Flowers drying in the microwave oven for
90 seconds.
 Marigold: Press drying; Drying of flowers in microwave oven for 120
seconds.
 Larkspur: Press drying; Drying at 40 C in hot air oven for 24 hours.
 Pansy: Press drying; Drying of flowers in microwave oven for 100
seconds.
 Poppy: Press drying; Drying of flowers in microwave oven for 90
seconds.
2. Initiatives Taken at B.A.U., Sabour
i. High value flower crops and their varieties tried in protected cultiva-
tion/ polyhouse. The findings in brief are given hereunder.
¾ In Orchid, cultivar D. Sonia produced maximum number of flower
sticks and gave more earnings (Agenda Notes, 12th RCM, Rabi,
2016).
¾ In Anthurium, the cultivar Xavia followed by Angel performed
better with respect to growth, quality and yield of spikes (Agenda
Notes, 12th RCM, Rabi, 2016).
¾ In gerbera, 10 varieties viz. Laura, Szantal, Delfin, Newada,
Olympia, Kormoran, Partrizia, Rock, Feliks, Samuraj were evalu-
ated. Among all of these varieties patrizia recorded maximum
number of flowers per plant with longest stalk length (Singh, 2017).
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 113

ii. Identified marigold lines suitable for summer cultivation. The find-
ings in brief are given hereunder.
¾ An experiment was carried out to evaluation and screening of
twenty genotypes during summer season (March, 2014) from
which three promising lines were identified. Maximum yield was
recorded in BRM 113 (461.93 g) followed by BRM 714 (438.70
g) and BRM 414 (412.30 g). High variability among the genotypes
was observed in traits viz. Days to flowering, height of plant,
spread of plant, length of stalk, secondary branches, flowering
duration, number of flowers/plant and yield/plant which can be
helpful for future breeding program for marigold improvement.
Varietal differences were found significant for these traits (Annual
Report BAU, 2014–15).
3. Ongoing Research Projects:
i. Selection of suitable vegetable and flower cultivars for protected
cultivation in Bihar (Figures 4.1–4.6 ).
ii. Identification of marigold lines suitable for summer cultivation.
iii. Value addition of flowers through dehydration techniques.

FIGURE 4.1 Chrysanthemum in polyhouse.

114 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 4.2 Anthurium var. Xavia in shade net house.

FIGURE 4.3 Anthurium var. Angel in shade net house.

Overview of the Floriculture Sector 115

FIGURE 4.4 Dendrobium var. Singapore White.

FIGURE 4.5 Dendrobium var. Sonia.

116 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 4.6 Gerbera cultivation in polyhouse.

KEYWORDS

 chrysanthemum
 floriculture
 flower crops
 natural dyes
 polyhouse
 potpourri business

REFERENCES

Adat, S. S., (2011). Chrysanthemum cultivation. Baliraja Magazine (pp. 82–85).

Agenda Notes (p. 2). 12th RCM, Rabi 2016, Directorate of Research, BAU, Sabour.
Annual Report BAU, (2014–2015). Sabour, p. 47.
APEDA, (2016). Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. http://agriexchange.
apeda.gov.in/indexp/genReport_combined.aspx (Accessed on 21 November 2019).
Bahirat, J. B., & Jadhav, H. G., (2011). To study the cost returns and profitability of rose
production in Satara district, Maharashtra. The Asian Journal of Horticulture, 6(2), 313–315.
Bhattacharya, R., (2013). Behavioral, education, economics, business and industrial
engineering. International Journal of Social, 7(6), p. 1398.
Deshpande, S. D., & Deshmukh, C. M., (2002). Hi economics of production and marketing
of selected floriculture plants under Hi-tech growing. Journal of Maha. Society of Agril.
Economics, 42.
Ganvir, & Patil, (2000). Marketing of selected flowers in GalveKadi (pune market).
Maharashtra Economic Society Journal, 24, 25.
Overview of the Floriculture Sector 117

Ghadge, H. L., Mokate, A. S., Deshmukh, P. H., & Pawar, V. S., (2002). Production potential
and economics of floriculture-based crop sequences in irrigated areas of Maharashtra.
Indian Journal of Agronomy, 47(4), 499–503.
Kale, M. S., (2008). Gulab Phulanche Utpadan ek Vyasti Adhyayan. Dissertation submitted
to T.M.V., Pune.
Kalmegh, S., & Singh, N., (2016). Review of floriculture as a promising industry for marginal
farmers in Maharashtra. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 5(7),
141–144.
Khan, D., & Fazili, A. I., (2015). A SWOT analysis of floriculture industry in Kashmir.
Abhinav International Monthly Refereed Journal of Research in Management and Tech-
nology, 4(12), 1–4.
Misra, D., & Ghosh, S., (2016). Growth and export status of Indian floriculture: A review.
Agricultural Reviews, 37(1), 77–80.
National Horticulture Board Database, (2015). Available from: http://nhb.gov.in (Accessed
on 21 November 2019).
Nazir, M., (2015). Floriculture-Scenario. Posted on 30/12/2015 by Daily excelsior, http://
www.dailyexcelsior.com/floriculture-scenario (Accessed on 21 November 2019).
Pandit, S. N., & Patil, M., (2009). Studied the cultivation of carnation in polyhouse with
organic farming in Pune district. Baliraja J., 20–22.
Ravinder, S., Dhaliwal, H. S., & Joshi, A. S., (2006). Contract farming of floriculture in
Punjab-problems and prospects. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 9(3), 15.
Singh, P., Bhardwaj, A., Kumar, R., & Singh, D., (2017). Evaluation of gerbera varieties for
yield and quality under protected environment conditions in Bihar. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol.
App. Sci., 6(9), 112–116.
Swaminathan, M. S., (2003). An action plan for agriculture for coming 25 years. Report of
Maharashtra Council of Agriculture Education and Research, pp. 30–39.
 PART II
Natural Resource Management
CHAPTER 5

Climate Change and Natural Resource

Management
SUBORNA ROY CHOUDHURY and SYED SHERAZ MAHDI
Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Climate change now becomes a serious concern for agricultural production

and its sustainability. Natural and anthropogenic moderation causes irregu-
larities in the normal climatic phenomenon, thus creating a severe threat to
human survival. Higher number of natural calamity phenomenon like every
year occurrence of heals and cold waves, tropical cyclone, flood, drought,
etc., are apprehending the climate change phenomenon. Several scientific
technologies have been developed to cope up with the ill effect of the climate
change. Site specific management of natural resources like water, nutrient;
tillage management practices, development of new varieties are considered
as an adaptive strategy to sustain agricultural production under changing
climatic scenario.

5.1 CLIMATE CHANGE

Global warming and climate change are the most widely used terms since
last three decades and they are often used synonymously. But the term
‘climate change’ broadens its impacts from every sphere. It includes changes
in the pattern for an extended period of temperature, precipitation, or wind.
It may occur either instantaneous natural factors (slow changes in the Earth’s
orbit around the sun) or faulty human activities. In India, climate change is
explicated by the concurrent occurrence of disasters like drought (65% Indian
landmasses are prone), flood (12% area), and tropical cyclones (~8%). As a
122 Sustainable Agriculture

corollary, climate change put forward its destructive impacts on livelihoods

viz., socio-economic, cultural, ecological systems, infrastructural, etc., and
posing severe risks to the development of the developing country. Since
inceptions its impacts are observed at multiple levels from the global to the
local; thus, its mitigation strategy should be local to global.

5.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIA

Although, India is an accelerated growing economy country in the world,

but it ranked fourth-largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG), contributed
about 5.8% of total global emissions. In the last two decades, the GHGs
emission rate has been enhanced by 67.1% (1990–2012) and projected to
be 85% by 2030 under a business-as-usual scenario. India is designated as
the most vulnerable country in perspective of climate change impacts due
to huge population pressure, acute dependency on agriculture and excessive
utilization of natural resources. Cereal productivity is likely to decrease up
to 10–40% by 2100 and severe loss is expected in the winter season. There
are several evidences of negative impacts on wheat and rice productivity in
the major growing areas of India due to temperature hike, water stress and
reduction in a number of rainy days. Model projects a significant decrease in
cereal production by the end of this century (Mahdi et al., 2015). However,
climate change behavior and its consequent impacts are different in different
parts of the country. For example, Parts of western Rajasthan, Southern
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka, Northern
Andhra Pradesh, Utter Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal are expected to be
more vulnerable in respect of extreme events.

5.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIHAR

Bihar state is usually vulnerable to hydro-meteorological natural disasters,

with north Bihar being highly flood-prone and south Bihar being highly
drought-prone. The northern and southern parts of Bihar were assessed
to be most vulnerable regions in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). Twenty-
eight districts have been categorized under medium to very high degree
of vulnerability owing to high exposure, high sensitivity and low adaptive
capacity of people (Sehgal et al., 2013). Last 45 years trend analyzed weather
attribute data of different Agro-climatic zones of Bihar revealed the signs of
climate change induce variability in temperature and rainfall events (intensity,
Climate Change and Natural Resource Management 123

frequency and duration), which projects an increasing trends in maximum and

minimum temperatures by 2–4°C and irregular distribution (–25 to + 30%
deviation) in the monthly rainfall pattern that may cause large implications
on the agricultural production, food security and livelihoods. Weather-related
extremes (heatwave, cold waves, floods, droughts, cyclones, etc.) have
become a recurrent phenomenon, which affects more than 45% of the state’s
geographical area (Economic Survey, 2014). Frequent disasters are often
attributed to the state’s ever-increasing population (103.8 million), its growth
rate (25.42%/decade) and density (1102 people per sq. km), which has made
the region second most populous state in India (Economic Survey, 2014).
Climate change may be ascribed with the aberrations in the climatic
normals and Bihar is a live example within effect especially on water avail-
ability. The mean annual rainfall in Bihar is 1120 mm, but its magnitude
varies from 1000 mm in the western and south-western Bihar to 2000 mm
in the extreme eastern and northern Bihar and 33% of the State receives
<750 mm rainfall annually. Thus, Bihar vulnerable with two opposite natural
calamities; southern part of Bihar by drought and northern part by flood.
Although 35% area in Bihar (northeastern part) receives mean annual rain-
fall once in 4–5 years since last two decades. The major implications for
changes in the rainfall pattern threaten crop protection and food security.
Lack of state level climate models and/or vulnerability studies, as well as
low community awareness, the state like Bihar is potentially more delicate
and vulnerable towards the changing climate.

5.4 TRUTHS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The IPCC postulated that if the average surface temperature is rised by 1.4°C
to 5.8°C in the next 100 years, sea levels will expected to rise by 9–88 cm
depending partially on the future GHG emissions rate. This situation will
also aggravate tropical cyclones intensity, higher wind speeds, and rainfall,
as well as the intensity of other extreme events of weather, including storms.
The ranges of projected temperature and sea-level rises reflect different
assumptions about future global GHG emissions and, to a lesser extent,
uncertainties associated with earth’s circulation system. Despite so many
international efforts to reduce global emissions it is continued to grow,
particularly in the developing countries. There is also growing concern that
biological feedback, such as melting of permafrost, emissions from peat
bogs, may cause higher emissions. These raises trigger the possibility of
global warming, causing the release of biologically fixed carbon as carbon
124 Sustainable Agriculture

dioxide. Thus carbon dioxide concentration becomes doubled by the end of

this century from pre-industrial era.

5.5 CAUSE OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Excavating intensely into the roots of climate change it becomes fairly

clear that there are enough scientific evidences that high concentrations of
GHG in the atmosphere, due to human activities, are intensifying the natural
“greenhouse effect” thus increasing the Earth’s temperature, ultimately
changing the climate and direct or indirect effect on agriculture. Agriculture
accounts for approximately 10–12% of total global anthropogenic of GHG
emissions. People usually release chlorofluoro carbons into the atmosphere,
thus degrading stratospheric ozone and increasing biologically harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches earth’s surface. Methane (CH4) and
nitrous oxide (N2O) is primarily responsible for global warming, because
their global warming potential (GWP) are 25 and 298 times greater, respec-
tively, than that of CO2 over a time span of 100 years (IPCC, 2007). Global
warming may distort global carbon cycle, thereby structures and functions of
ecosystem. GHGs emission from agricultural land depends on soil properties
as well as environmental factors which get influenced by the management
practices and global warming respectively (Roy Choudhury et al., 2015a).

5.6 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

5.6.1 MAJOR CEREALS

Heat stress caused significant reduction in phenological dates and final yield
of wheat. The results obtained from the research conducted in BAU, Sabour,
exhibited that the days taken to attain anthesis, maturity and yield were
less under elevated temperature of 5°C and above 5°C, when compared to
phenological dates and yield of wheat crop exposed no heat stress (Normal).
It can be further inferred that among the different crop growth stages, a
thesis to milk stage was most sensitive to heat stress, where physiological
maturity got reduced to 9 days and yield was reduced to 29.05% (Agricultural
Technologies Inventory, 2016). The grain yield gets declined at elevated
temperature significantly than the normal. When the temperature rises
beyond 5°C above normal the grain yield was lowest to the tune of 3660 kg/
ha, followed by 5°C with 3965 kg/ha compared to normal 5363 kg/ha. Rice
Climate Change and Natural Resource Management 125

yield reduction due to elevated temperature was 26.0 and 31.75% for 5°C and
above 5°C treatments respectively (Research Farm, BAU, Sabour). Similarly
based on another model it was revealed that with 2°C increase in temperature
during panicle initiation to anthesis stage in rice resulted in higher grain yield
reduction for 30th June transplanting compared to 15th July transplanting.
The impact of temperature rise during a thesis period of wheat was more
for timely sown conditions compared to late sown conditions (Agricultural
Technologies Inventory, 2016).

5.7 NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TO OVERCOME THE

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

It was found that GHG emissions from the agriculture sectors contribute over
30% of the current annual total emissions (deforestation and forest degrada-
tion 17.4%, agriculture 13.5%). Soils significantly contributed towards GHG
emission into the atmosphere. Many methods have been tested to reduce
GHGs emissions from agricultural field as well as mitigate the impact of
climate change. Some important methods for reducing the GHG emission
are described in subsections.

5.7.1 SITE SPECIFIC NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Application of fertilizer as per the requirement of crop improves the

fertilizer use efficiency due to application of lesser amount of fertilizers.
As a consequence, less accumulation of nutrients within the crop root zone
reduces the emission of GHG particularly nitrous oxide where nitrogen is
added as per the requirement of the crop. Numerous studies have revealed
the impact of chemical fertilizers on CH4 and N2O emissions which depend
on rate, type, and mode of fertilizer application. Application of ammonium
nitrate exhibits competitive inhibition to nitrate reduction caused reduced
methane emission. Under field conditions, it has been found that the
application of sulfate-based fertilizers such as (NH4)2 SO4 and CaSO4 have
reduced CH4 emission, while application of K2HPO4 enhanced the CH4
emission. It has been reported that application of undecompost organic
manure increases the methane flux. On the other hand, application of well-
decomposed vermicompost (Research Farm, BAU, Sabour) and the use of
sulfur amendment has been found to be very effective for reducing methane
flux from rice fields.
126 Sustainable Agriculture

5.7.2 METHOD OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

It is also important in the mitigation of GHG. It has been found that the applica-
tion of urea in plow layers gives less emission of N2O than band application.
The addition of phosphorus and liming materials can also affect nitrous oxide
evolution from the soil. However, phosphorus induced emissions are higher
than those obtained with lime. Plant uptake of fertilizer N can be improved by
various methods as deep placement and placing fertilizers in the band.

5.7.3 TILLAGE MANAGEMENT

Optimizing tillage practices, i.e., no tillage or minimum tillage (Research

Farm, BAU, Sabour), bed planting and reducing compaction also help in the
mitigation of nitrous oxide and methane flux from the soil. Direct sowing
of rice recorded lower methane flux as compared to mat type paddy trans-
planter and manual transplanting (Research Farm, BAU, Sabour).

5.7.4 WATER MANAGEMENT

Out of several factors affecting GHG emission, water management plays

a very crucial role. Various technologies viz., drip irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation, use of soil moisture sensor to predict irrigation requirements
have immense potential in increasing water and N-use efficiencies. It has
been found that water regime in irrigated rice fields with higher water
percolation and poor water supply often results into multiple aerations,
which has direct bearing on CH4 emissions. Therefore, water management
practices might be one of the most promising measures to reduce CH4
emission from rice fields. Keeping the rice field moist rather than flood
or continuously saturated, thereby minimizing anaerobic conditions, and
improving root growth and diversity of aerobic soil organisms, helps in
mitigation of climate change.

5.7.5 USE OF NITRIFICATION INHIBITORS

N2O is formed as a gaseous intermediate during oxidation of ammonia (NH3),

i.e., nitrification and during reduction of nitrates (NO3), i.e., denitrification
by soil microbes participating in the N-metabolism cycle. Paddy fields are
Climate Change and Natural Resource Management 127

considered a major source of N2O emission as flooded paddy soils have both
an aerobic surface layer and an anaerobic sub-surface layer where N2O can
be produced via nitrification of ammonium to nitrate and denitrification of
accumulated nitrate respectively with the aid of specific microbes. Thus in
order to control N2O emission from soil into the atmosphere, use of specific
microbial inhibitors, which can inhibit or slow down N2O formation, can
prove to be a potential management strategy for safeguarding our environ-
ment from the harmful effects of N2O increase in our atmosphere. Thiourea
had shown an extremely positive effect on plant growth as well as yield
but its inhibitory effect on N2O emission was not found to be substantial in
comparison to other treatment. However, the application of Dicyandiamide
(DCD) was found to very effectively control N2O emission rate from the soil
while also maintaining the yield at a considerable higher level.

5.7.6 SEED INOCULATION

Seed inoculation with stress-tolerant strain of Pseudomonas putida helped

sorghum and pearl millet seedlings survive at 500C up to 21 days, whereas
the controlled seedlings could survive only up to 10 days.

5.7.7 USE OF MICROBES

One of the key emerging technologies to reduce GHGs emissions from rice
fields is the use of zymogenous bacteria, acetic acid and hydrogen producers;
methanogens, methane oxidizers, etc. in rice, which will help in maintaining
the soil redox potential in a range where both N2O and CH4 emission are low.

5.7.8 SELECTION OF SUITABLE VARIETIES

The emission of methane and nitrous oxide gases can be mitigated by

choosing the appropriate variety that can help in reducing the ill impacts
of climate changes. The nitrous oxide flux from five different varieties
of vegetable pea and concluded that variety VL-7 is most suitable for
reduced N2O emission from the field grown with vegetable pea. Crop
cultivars with low emission, high N use efficiency, faster decomposition
of residues and less water demanding have potential to reduce nitrous
oxide emission from soil.
128 Sustainable Agriculture

5.7.9 CLIMATE RESILIENT VARIETIES

Utilization of tolerant genetic resources for direct use or for development of

new resistant variety or hybrid is the most important mitigation approach.
Use of tolerant rootstocks for grafting scions of otherwise good quality but
susceptible genotypes can be an efficient way to cope up with the vagaries
of climate change. Grafting of fruit trees has been common for centuries, but
it is relatively new in vegetable farming. The rootstock is selected based on
its ability to enhance vigor and marketable yield and resisting the relevant
climatic stress. In tomato Solanum pimpinellifolium resistant to heat stress,
S. cheesmaniae, S. chilense, S. pimpinellifolium, S. penellii, S. lycopersicum
var. cerasiforme, S. peruvianum resistant to drought stress, S. cheesmaniae,
S. chilense resistant to salinity stress, S. habrochaites is resistant to Chiling
stress and in brinjal, Solanum incanum resistant to drought stress, S. torvum,
S. sisymbrifolium resistant to heat stress can be efficiently used as rootstock
for grafting.

5.7.10 APPLICATION OF HORMONES

The adversity of temperature (both high and low) leads to flower drop
resulting in no fruit set in vegetables. Foliar application of para-chlorophe-
noxy acetic acid (PCPA) 50–100 ppm at the flowering stage triggers the
fruit set at low and high temperature as found in tomato. Besides, tomato
fruit setting has also been reported to be promoted by gibberellic acid (GA)
at low concentration (20 ppm). The application of synthetic auxin 4-CPA
(4-chloro phenoxy acetic acid) reduced pre-harvest fruit drop and increased
the number of fruits per plant and yield.

5.8 AGRONOMIC PRACTICES

Mulching is another management aspect that can confront the environmental

vagaries. Mulching improved the growth of brinjal, okra, bottle gourd,
round melon, ridge gourd, and sponge gourd compared to the non-mulched
controls. Straw mulch lowers temperature in summers. Silver mulch reflects
back heat. In winters, black polythene mulch increases soil temperature, thus
enhancing germination and root activity. Studies of AVRDC (1990) have
shown that dark-colored plastic mulch in combination with rice straw was
effective for vegetables, which prevents injuries due to direct sunlight and
Climate Change and Natural Resource Management 129

maintains a conducible temperature for crop growth Mulching also reduces

fruit cracking and unmarketable fruits numbers.

5.8.1 PROTECTED CULTIVATION

Protected structures such as polyhouses, greenhouses and shade nets can be

very effective in the changing climate scenario. Polyhouses are less prone
to waterlogging higher yields of crops can be obtained. Low/medium cost
polyhouses could raise temperature in the winters by 6–7°C and satisfactory
crop growth can occur. Shade nets and shade net houses can be effectively
used to reduce high temperature stress. Polyhouses with cooling system and/
or temperature control can also be the means of crop cultivation under high
temperature stress.

5.8.2 PLANTING METHODS

Planting vegetables in raised beds can improve the ill effects of flooding
during the rainy season and ultimately enhance vegetable yield. Raised bed
planting facilitates good drainage and confiscates anoxic stress.

5.9 APPROACHES OF BIHAR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (BAU),

SABOUR

5.9.1 AGRONOMIC APPROACHES

Good agronomic practices, efficient nutrient and weed management, and

plant protection measures would have predominant influence on the produc-
tivity of different crops.

5.9.2 CROP MANAGEMENT

Direct seeded rice (DSR) followed by zero till wheat, under rice-wheat
cropping system which can augment annual GWP by reducing 62% of CH4
emissions through moist irrigation or alternate wetting and drying in rice
(Research Farm, BAU, Sabour). Therefore, DSR followed by zero tillage
technology may play a major role in making Bihar self-sufficient in cereals.
Effort should be given to provide an enabling environment for the accelerated
130 Sustainable Agriculture

spread of this technology as an important element of sustainable intensifica-

tion in Eastern India (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).

5.9.3 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

50% reduction in Nitrogen application and incorporation of bio-fertilizers,

brown manuring and residue mulching with or without FYM in soil helps
in maintaining organic carbon, soil temperature, reduction in NO3 loss,
improvement in soil micro flora, etc. were found important strategies to
mitigate the ill-effects of climate change in agriculture (Research Farm,
Sabour and Patna). In an another experiment regarding precision Nitrogen
management it was found that SPAD based real-time N management was
effective in saving of nitrogenous fertilizer up to 24% in rice and 27% in
wheat (Research Farm, BAU, Sabour) without deteriorating the grain yield
over conventional fixed time N management in the cropping system (Agri-
cultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).

1. Conservation Agriculture: Seed-cum-fertilizer drill under no-till

condition increased yield, provided soil N for subsequent crops,
enhanced organic matter content of the soil and microbial biomass,
reduced moisture loss, saved energy as compared to conventional
tillage (Research Farm, BAU, Sabour).
2. Adjustment in Sowing Dates: Among the different dates of sowing
for wheat, 15th November sown crop recorded the highest yield
and 15th July transplanting for rice (Research Farm, BAU, Sabour).
Delayed transplanting of rice on 30th July and 15th August lead to yield
decrement of 51 and 55 kg/ha/day respectively compared to 15th July
transplanting of rice. Delayed in sowing from 15th November, yield
reduced by 6, 15, and 32% which accounted for yield decrease of 17,
23 and 33 kg/ha/day for 30th November, 15th and 30th December sowing
respectively (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
3. Application of Synthetic Compounds: The extent of increment of
yield was found to be around 10–11% on average as a result of foliar
spray of synthetic compounds (KNO3 and Cacl2) (Research Farm,
BAU, Sabour). The treatments recorded significantly higher yield also
significantly reduced electrolytic leaf leakage and Proline content in
flag leaf both at anthesis and grain filling stage as well as maintained
a higher level of chlorophyll content. Thus these treatments signifi-
cantly improved high-temperature stress characteristics of late sown
wheat (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
Climate Change and Natural Resource Management 131

5.10 NANO-TECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology seems to play pivotal role in agricultural sciences in various

sub-disciplines (Increasing input use efficiency, draught stress alleviation,
novel agrochemicals formulations, increasing shelf life of harvested fruits
and vegetables and production of quality planting materials, etc.) in changing
climatic scenario. Specific application of nanotechnology in climate change
alleviation is being mentioned in the following sections like, alleviation of
draught: Novel superabsorbent nanopolymeric hydrogel having equilibrium
water absorbency (WA) (ranging from 350 g g–1 to 500 g g–1) is good
materials under moisture stress condition. Products are biodegradable, can
withstand high salinity level (100 Mm NaCl solutions), input use efficiency:
Nanofertilizers (P, K, Zn, Fe, etc.) with higher use efficiency and greater
diffusion rate in rhizosphere as well as within plant system would bring cost-
effective nutrient formulation in changing climate scenario. Mode of nutrient
transport via diffusion is temperature and moisture controlled which could
be effectively controlled by nano-formulations, agrochemical formulation:
Shift in pest dynamics and population is anticipated in changing climate
scenario. Novel nanopesticides (Nano silver, cu, and chitosan) with minimal
dose, more biodegradability and cost effectiveness would of great interest in
changing climate scenario.
Carbon sequestration: Nano titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles are reported
to increase carbon sequestration potential in soil by escalating degree of aroma-
tization and polycondensation of carbon. Increased C storage would facilitate
in combating global warming, photosynthetic radiation use efficiency: Silicon
nanowires, a solar cell for Mg and Ti nanoparticles that increases photosyn-
thetic radiation use efficiency. Silica nanoparticles as a tool for fluorescence
collection efficiency enhancement would be of great use in changing climate
scenario. Temperature sensors for managing radiation use efficiency would
be of good use, increasing shelf life: nanosilicon, silicon dioxide, and nanop-
olymeric coating materials would improve shelf life of fruits and vegetables
in changing temperature scenario. Nanobiosensors and nanosensors for intel-
ligent packing materials development and determination of contaminants in
packaged food materials are of great help. Nevertheless agricultural applica-
tion of nanotechnology is its infancy stage. Systematic scientific researches on
long-term basis need to be done following interdisciplinary approach with due
consideration in nanotoxicology for its wide scale application.

1. Breeding Approaches: Efforts are being made for crop improve-

ment by large scale screening of the accessions/germplasm lines and
132 Sustainable Agriculture

by using various traditional and non-traditional methods resulted in

number of good improved crops varieties.
2. Sabour Surbhit (Rice): It can perform well under limited irrigated
condition. It is the semi-dwarf variety with long and super fine slender
grain and strong aroma with yield potential of 30–35 quintal per hectare
and suitable for irrigated medium up land and medium land situation
of Bihar (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
3. Sabour Ardhjal (Rice): It can save about 50% of water requirement
for rice. It is an aerobic rice variety with long slender grain suitable
for upland and medium land under non-puddled, direct seeded and
non-flooded irrigated condition with intermittent irrigation. The yield
potential is 50–55 quintal per hectare (Agricultural Technologies
Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
4. Sabour Deep (Rice): This variety is very much suitable for contin-
gent plan under late arrival of monsoon. It is an early maturing, semi-
dwarf variety with long slender grain with yield potential of 40–45
quintal per hectare and suitable for irrigated medium up land and
medium land situation of Bihar (Agricultural Technologies Inven-
tory, BAU, Sabour).
5. Sabour Samriddhi (Wheat): It is tolerant to numerous emerging
diseases like, Leaf Blight, Brown Rust and major insect-pest, Suit-
able for timely sown irrigated condition (TS- IR), 120–125 Days
Maturity, Medium Height, Lodging resistance, Non Shattering,
Fertilizer responsive, having good Chapatti Making Quality, Yield
45–50 Q/Ha (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
6. Sabour Nirjal (Wheat): It is lodging resistance and low water
required variety. Suitable for timely sown rainfed condition (TS-
RF), 125–135 Days Maturity, Medium Height, Long Earhead, Non
Shattering, Fertilizer responsive, Tolerant to Leaf Blight, Brown
Rust and major insect-pest, Good Chapatti Making Quality, Yield
25–30 Q/Ha (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
7. Sabour Shreshtha (Wheat): Suitable for late sown irrigated (LS-IR)
condition, 105–110 Days Maturity, Semi Dwarf, Lodging resistance,
Non-Shattering, Fertilizer responsive, Tolerant to Leaf Blight, Brown
Rust and major insect-pest, Good Chapatti Making Quality, Yield
43–45 Q/Ha (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
8. DHM 117 (Maize): It is tolerant to major evolving diseases and
insect-pests. Medium duration hybrid recommended for Kharif and
rabi season, Yield: 95–100 q/ha, Grain color orange, Plant stay green
at harvest (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
Climate Change and Natural Resource Management 133

9. SHM 1 (Maize): It is tolerant to major evolving diseases and insect-

pests. Early duration (72–75 days) hybrid, Recommended for Kharif
season, Yield: 55–60 q/ha, Grain color yellow (Agricultural Tech-
nologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).
10. SHM 2 (Maize): It is tolerant to newly emergent diseases and insect-
pests. Heat stress tolerant medium duration (100–105 days) hybrid
Recommended for spring season, Yield: 65–70 q/ha, Grain color
orange yellow (Agricultural Technologies Inventory, BAU, Sabour).

In order to improve the present cultivar and enhancing the yield, BRC-1
and BRC-2 (Chickpea), BRM-1 and BRM-2 (green-gram), BRP-1 and
BRP-2 (an early and extra-early cultivar of Pigeon pea) have been identified
by the breeders which have potential to cope in several biotic and abiotic
stresses. At present, multi-locational trails is going on for these identified
varieties and will be released in near future.
Therefore, there have been only limited studies on the impacts of climate
change at state level of Bihar. The identification of suitable response strate-
gies is crucial to develop sustainability in agriculture. The important miti-
gation and adaptation strategies required to cope with anticipated climate
change impacts is the resilient management of natural resources which
include adjustment in sowing dates, breeding of plants that are more resil-
ient to variability of climate, and improvement in agronomic practices.
The proper understanding of climatic conditions and efficient utilization of
natural resources are, therefore, of great concern for the improvement and
sustainability of agricultural production by maintaining the food security
vis-à-vis environmental safety with high economic yield and lowering the
GHG emission.

KEYWORDS

 direct seeded rice

 gibberellic acid
 global warming potential
 greenhouse gases
 harmful ultraviolet
 para-chlorophenoxy acetic acid
134 Sustainable Agriculture

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cultural University, Sabour-813210, Bhagalpur (Bihar).
AVRDC, (1990). Vegetable Production Training Manual (p. 447). Asian Vegetable Research
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Committee on Earthquake Engineering Research, (1982). “Earthquake: Engineering
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Economic Survey of India, (2014). India Today.in New Delhi.
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of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (p. 976). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
IPCC, (2013). Summary for policymakers. In: Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G. K., Tignor,
M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., & Midgley, P. M., (eds.),
Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
IPCC, (2014). Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. In: Field, C. B.,
Barros, V. R., Dokken, D. J., Mach, K. J., Mastrandrea, M. D., et al., (eds.), Part A: Global
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the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (p. 1132). Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
Jain, S. K., (1983). “Analytical Models for the Dynamics of Buildings.” EERL 83–02.
(PB-84-161009).
Mahdi, S. S., Dhekale, B. S., Roy, C. S., Bangroo, S. A., & Gupta. S. K., (2015). “On the
climate risks in crop production and management in India: A review”. Australian Journal
of Crop Science, 9(7), 585–595.
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Roy, C. S., Chowdhury, R. M., & Brahmchari, K., (2015a). “Approaches to reduce green-
house gases from rice-rice cropping sequence in new alluvial zone of West-Bengal”.
Ecoscan., 9(1&2), Supplement on Rice.
Roy, C. S., Chowdhury, R. M., & Brahmchari, K., (2015b). “Moderation of green-house
gas emission from rice based cropping system to combat the effect of climate change”.
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Sehgal, V. K., Singh, M. R., Chaudhary, A., Jain, N., & Pathak, H., (2013). Vulnerability of
Agriculture to Climate Change: District Level Assessment in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
Singh, C. S., (2004). “Earthquake resistant building design.” M.Tech Thesis. NIT Patna, Patna
University, Patna (India).
Singh, C. S., (2013). “Earthquake resistant design of concrete gravity dam.” PhD Thesis. NIT
Patna, Patna University, Patna (India).
CHAPTER 6

Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a

Particular Reference to Bihar
RAJEEV PADBHUSHAN,1 ANUPAM DAS,1 and SWARAJ KUMAR DUTTA2
1
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
2
Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Anthropogenic influences especially deforestation, fossil fuel and crop

residue burning have contributed a significant enhancement of carbon
dioxide concentration (CO2) in the atmosphere, thus become one of the lead
causes of global warming. Agriculture and allied sectors contributed global
warming through emitting methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide into the
environment and deforestation, intensive cultivation, enteric fermentation,
and indiscriminate inorganic fertilization are the paramount processes for
those emissions (IPCC, 2007). As a consequences of this ill effect, sea level
rises, natural calamities viz., drought, flood, tropical storms, etc., become
more regular, erratic rainfall distribution, disruption of ecological balance
occur that also adversely affect agricultural production sustainability and
soil health. There is a crucial need for some feasible strategies to mitigate
this alarming situation.

6.1 CARBON SEQUESTRATION

To overcome the consequences of GHGs emissions mainly carbon-rich

gases need to be trap in the various ecosystems that can overall control the
ill-effects of climate change. The emission can be reduced by retarding at
their source or buried into the ocean, trap trough the terrestrial environments
136 Sustainable Agriculture

(vegetation, soils, and sediments) and geologic transformations. A negative

balance between emissions and the uptake of CO2 can able to reduce global
warming. The trapping of the carbon in the ecosystem for a longer period
time eventually control the adverse affect on the atmosphere is termed as
“carbon sequestration.” The feasibility of different aspects of carbon seques-
tration under a diversified environment and their consequences has been
evaluated by a number of researchers working throughout the globe.

6.1.1 TYPES OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION

The carbon sequestration is broadly classified into three groups:

1. Chemical transformation;
2. Engineering techniques; and
3. Terrestrial sequestration.

Atmospheric CO2 is converted into mineral carbonates. Chemical trans-

formation is a stable solution for sequestering atmospheric CO2 but is cost
involvement renders its wide spread applicability. Engineering techniques of
carbon sequestration are carbon dioxide buried into the soil or ocean where
it can reside for a longer period of time. The most important carbon seques-
tration having agricultural significance is terrestrial carbon sequestration. It
is also referred as “biological sequestration.” It includes forest, wetlands,
grasslands and resource conservation practices that enhance the storability
of carbon in the system. The reduction of gas emissions through minimizing
agricultural tillage practices and subduing wildfires is also important part of
terrestrial carbon sequestration. Conversion of land use pattern, i.e., restora-
tion of wetlands, degraded lands, etc. may increase carbon sequestration,
enhance ecosystem livelihood and recreational potential.

6.1.1.1 SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Soil carbon sequestration is an important component of terrestrial carbon

sequestration. Building healthy soil maintenance and management of carbon
sources are required. Agricultural practices through organic amendments
addition, conservation agriculture, and crop residue management retain carbon
in the soil. Trapping of carbon for longer period is only possible through the
above agricultural practices on continuous basis. The phenomenon of this
Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a Particular Reference to Bihar 137

carbon trapping through long-term management practices in the soil is called

“Soil Carbon Sequestration.” Many researchers in the world are engaged in
defining the management practices that enhance the carbon retention and
sequestration in the soil. The practices of the carbon farming studied on soils
and crop production seem very effective to some extent by capturing carbon
in soil to combat this climate change.

6.1.1.2 SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND SOIL HEALTH

Soil quality/health is a key driver of agricultural productivity, environmental

resilience, and human food security worldwide. Healthy soils also provide
numerous environmental co-benefits to society, including soil carbon seques-
tration and reduced risk of flooding, erosion, pest and plant disease outbreak
at various scales. Soil quality and soil health are interchangeable terms
include physical, chemical and biological environment as a whole. Modern
intensive cultivation causes decline in the quality of soil. The reason behind
this deterioration is decline in the soil carbon stock due to mismanagement
followed in modern cultivation. This causes degradation of soil and decline
in microbial population. The studies have also reported that conventional
cultivation was more beneficial for sustained soil health. Long-term soils
studies have shown that improvement in trapping of carbon in the soil due
to recommended management practices results into improved soil health.
Tropical and subtropical climate is characterized to higher organic matter
decomposition rate due to persisting high temperature for long duration.
This may causes carbon losses from the soil and overall impact the carbon
stock. The decline in carbon content influences the nutrient availability in
the soil.
Building healthy soil maintenance and management of carbon sources
are required. Agricultural practices through addition of organic sources,
conservation agriculture, and crop residue management retain carbon in
the soil. Trapping of carbon for longer period is only possible through the
above agricultural practices on a continuous basis. The phenomenon of this
carbon trapping through long-term management practices in the soil is called
“Soil Carbon Sequestration.” Many researchers in the world are engaged in
defining the management practices that enhance the carbon retention and
sequestration in the soil. The practices of the carbon farming studied on soils
and crop production seem very effective to some extent by capturing carbon
in soil to combat this climate change.
138 Sustainable Agriculture

The importance of soil organic matter to soil fertility, crop productivity

and terrestrial cycling of carbon, nitrogen and other nutrient is well known.
Organic matter addition in the soil enhances not only soil health but also
work as an important source to maintain both active and passive pools of
carbon. Studies have advocated that increase in amount of aggregate asso-
ciate carbon and passive pools of carbon as a result of organics addition
enhance the carbon stock in soil. Many long-term field trials have shown that
organic amendments increase macroaggregates and their associated carbon
along with the amount of structurally trap carbon from the added biomass
and mitigate the soil-based eco-climate. Now a day to take sustainable
crop production and soil health management of organics has been priori-
tized. Really this carbon farming practice is better option to control global
warming impacts that is mainly due to release of carbon-based greenhouse
gases (GHG) in the atmosphere.
The concept of conservation agriculture also works on the same theory
of sustainability. It is practiced to foster natural ecological processes to
increase yield and environmentally sustainable. Minimal soil disturbance,
crop rotation, and permanent soil cover are the basic principles on which
conservation agriculture stand. This carbon farming practice on long-term
capture carbon and protect the soil health. Minimal soil disturbance can be
done by following minimal tillage practice, because tillage expose the soil
carbon to the environmental oxidation and this eventually emitted CO2, a
GHG. It has been observed that just plowing soil only one year can also
negate the carbon accumulation and if continues this process for many years
reduces the overall carbon storage potential of the soils. Thus, the idea of
“no-till” practice has been found more practical for overall enhancement in
the carbon storage potential on longer period of use.
Bare soils adversely affect the soil quality. That is why cover cropping
practice is being followed under this agricultural production system. Perma-
nent cover crop has the potential to increase net carbon in the soil. The field
research has proved that if one-fourth of the cropland globally followed by
cover crop practice-could offset approximately 8% of the total agricultural
emissions. This can be better starting appeared for soil-based climate mitiga-
tion. Agricultural emissions make up approximately 11–12% of the overall
global emissions. The practice of cover cropping is creating difference in
these total agricultural emissions that would really source generation for
sustained environment.
Agricultural constraints like nutrient losses, low nutrient use efficiency
and intensive environment pollution is real culprit for sustained agricultural
production system. Crop residue management is better option to overcome
Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a Particular Reference to Bihar 139

these constraints. Under this carbon farming practice residue of the harvested
crop is allowed to incorporate in the soil and thus retaining nutrient and
biomass in soil. Overall, increases in the soil carbon content. Residue manage-
ment is also providing diverse and positive effect on soil health.

6.2 MITIGATION OPTION FOR CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is real threat to food security and livelihoods for the popu-
lation. Rising global temperature, increased climate variability and extreme
weather events impact the crop production and its sustainability. Combating
climatic change in present scenario is a big challenge for the scientific commu-
nity and it can be possible through the soil management practices. “Carbon
farming” practices are one of the better options to reverse the climate change
impact. Under this concept management practices are followed to build
carbon stock in the soil and draw down carbon in the atmosphere through
improved soil management that stabilizes the climate require taking carbon
out of the atmosphere.
Agriculture and climate change are the interrelated processes, both of
which take place globally. Agriculture emits GHG that contributes to the
climate change mainly through four ways viz., deforestation, cultivation,
enteric fermentation and inorganic fertilization. According to IPCC, 2007
these agricultural phenomenon releases GHG like methane, carbon dioxide
and nitrous oxide abundantly. The energy conversions from grain to meat
also contribute towards climate change. Different energy-intensive practices
from farm to the food end also contribute towards climate change measur-
ably. Many researchers globally provided quantitatively measure emissions
from the different sources. Smart cultivation practice can provide a pathway
for combating the ill effects of climate change and keep the environment
safe for sustainable life for future generation.
Global warming is a global problem persisting from almost a century.
Carbon sequestration can help to control this problem by sequestering
carbon-rich compositions in the soil and protect the environment from the
greenhouse effect. It also helps by improving productivity, water quality, and
restoration of degraded soils and ecosystems and soil-based climate change
mitigation.
Soil carbon sequestration is a conduit among the three global issues—
climate change, desertification, and biodiversity conservation. But there is
a tradeoff relationship between enhanced carbon stock and methane flux.
Soil carbon sequestration capacity can be improved by some recognized
140 Sustainable Agriculture

management practices like reduced or zero tillage, residue retention, use of

organic manure, etc. But soil carbon sink capacity depends on its saturation
deficit. Saturation deficit depends on some intrinsic properties of soil like
nature and amount of clay, moisture and thermal regime, texture, etc.

6.3 CARBON SEQUESTRATION POTENTIAL

Carbon sequestration capacity in a soil can be viewed from three levels-

potential, attainable and actual. The potential carbon sequestration capacity
for soils can be approximately equated to the initial value observed under
historic land use prior to any change in the site management. The attain-
able soil carbon sink capacity refers to the amount which can be achieved
following the best management practice over a long period of time and
would hardly approach more than 50% of the potential capacity. The actual
soil carbon sink under common land use will be usually low.
Soil is the second-largest sink for the sequestering carbon from the
atmosphere and its sequestration rate can be enhanced with the adoption
of appropriate management practices. On study over carbon stock and
rising greenhouse emissions, the usefulness of soil as a carbon sink and
source of solution has been observed. There is a dichotomous philosophy
remains behind the carbon sequestration, either upholds native soil
organic carbon (SOC) concentration or protect the same from microbial
degradation. The management strategies that satisfy either or both the
options will work for long run and mitigate the problems of climate
change. The phenomenon is very specific to the state and origin, thus
it become a matter of big puzzle for scientific community. Uniform
recommendation is very scanty throughout the globe. Conservation of
SOC not only mitigate the effect of climate change but also provide
some auxiliary benefits that improves soil physical (e.g., soil structure,
porosity, etc.), chemical (e.g., available nutrient content) and biological
environment for plant growth.
Carbon retention potential and carbon sequestration potential are two
similar words used as misnomer. Carbon retention potential is the capacity
of a system to store carbon for short duration while this storage of carbon is
done by the system for long duration is the carbon sequestration potential.
Agricultural system as a part of the terrestrial ecosystem has the potential to
sequester carbon but its magnitude varied with the soil carbon concentration,
bulk density, and depth of soil.
Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a Particular Reference to Bihar 141

6.4 ORGANIC FARMING AND SENSITIVE INDICATORS OF CARBON

Organic farming is a type of farming system which has gained importance

under present scenario worldwide. For human health prospective as well as
soil health this system is much outfitted. The concept of organic farming has
provided a suitable pathway for sustainable crop production. The practices
of organic farming provide invaluable insight in improving the soil fertility
and its productivity for sustainable agriculture. The basic perspective for
application of organic amendments in the soil is required to maintain organic
carbon stock and the microbial activity. In India, Sikkim state has shown the
way related to organic farming to the country.
Liability of carbon, carbon management index, sustainability index and
sensitivity index are the important sensitive indicators to study the stratifi-
cation SOC and its influence on diverse management practices. Liability of
carbon is explained using graded use of sulfuric acids. The use of this acid
in the soil will extract different amount of carbons. On calculation finally
various labile and non-labile form of carbon is obtained. The loss of carbon
from a small pool, i.e., labile pool is more critical than loss of carbon from
a large pool, i.e., non-labile pool. Carbon management index compares the
changes that occur in carbon pools as a result of agricultural practices with
respect to natural ecosystem as reference. Other carbon indicator is sensi-
tivity index which is used to compare the magnitude of changes in different
carbon pools compared to stable reference soils. Sustainability index is an
indicator represents the set of requirement that is felt appropriate to evaluate
the sustainability of particular farm. Studies have shown that these param-
eters improve the carbon pools on addition of recommended management
practice. The effects of manures and fertilizers on carbon pools and on sensi-
tive indicators have been studied extensively and positive impact on soil.

6.5 SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND BIHAR

Bihar is one of the eastern states of the country India. A various type of soils
are present in different part of the states. Alluvial and red soils are prominent
in the state. Rice, maize and wheat are the main field crops covering larger
area of the state. Soil carbon sequestration Studies have been implemented
under different land use systems agroforestry and under various long-term
experimentations running under the jurisdictions of Bihar Agricultural
University (BAU), Sabour. Some of the important findings of these works
have been briefed below.
142 Sustainable Agriculture

A survey on the carbon status of the red soil under different land use was
carried out in the year 2014. In surface soil, the highest SOC was recorded
in forestland use (0.75%) followed by orchard land (0.51%), grazing land
(0.45%) and cultivated land (0.39%), whereas in subsurface soil the highest
SOC was observed in forest land (0.46%) followed by orchard and grazing
land (0.33%) and the lowest in cultivated land (0.29%) (Figure 6.1). The
highest SOC stock was observed in forestland use (61.37 Mg ha–1) followed
by orchard land (53.81 Mg ha–1), grazing land (53.47 Mg ha–1) and cultivated
land (52.54 Mg ha–1) (Figure 6.2). The present study showed that the decline
in soil carbon and its stock from natural land use to anthropogenic land use.
This might be the mismanagement practice followed due to excessive culti-
vation. The modification of artificial land use to back natural land use by
establishing forestry in the region improves the sequestration of carbon and
thus helps to mitigate the climate change.

FIGURE 6.1 Effect of land use on soil organic carbon (SOC) and different land use systems
in the red soil.

A long-term organic farming experiment was initiated in alluvial soil

under scented rice-potato-onion cropping system and on 9th cycle increase in
SOC, aggregate associated carbon and passive pools of carbon was observed.
The increase in the amount of carbon on long-term organic amendments
suggested improvement of soil carbon sequestration. At a soil depth 0–10
cm, SOC content was increased by 9–14%, with the application of sole
Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a Particular Reference to Bihar 143

organic amendments (viz., FYM + VC + NC, FYM + VC + NC + PSB, FYM

+ BFN + BM + PSB and NPK + FYM) over sole mineral fertilizer treatment
(NPK). Subsurface soil (10–20 cm) also showed similar pattern alike surface
soil (0–10 cm). (Figure 6.3) (Padbhushan et al., 2016b).

FIGURE 6.2 Soil organic carbon stocks (Mg ha–1) under different land uses in the red soil
of Banka district.

FIGURE 6.3 Effect of long-term use of fertilization on soil organic carbon (g kg–1 soil) in soil
depths (0–10 cm, 10–20 cm and 20–30 cm) under scented rice-potato-onion cropping system.
144 Sustainable Agriculture

Aggregate associated carbon in >5000 µm soil aggregate fraction was

69–133%, higher in case of FYM + VC + NC + PSB as compared to NPK
in soil depth 0–30 cm, respectively. Similarly, carbon concentration in soil
fraction 2000–5000 µm was 29–55%, 1000–2000 µm was 35–92%and
500–1000 µm was 62–126% higher in FYM + VC + NC + PSB as compared
to NPK in the above-mentioned depths, respectively (Table 6.1). Long term
addition of organic amendments exhibit a higher redundancy to microbial
degradation, organic amended treatments retained higher carbon in different
aggregated size classes over sole mineral fertilizer. High content of polysac-
charides (cellulose and hemicelluloses) in organic amendments could lead to
the production of higher carbon (Padbhushan et al., 2016a).
Organic amended treatments had more humic acid and fulvic acid as
compared to blanket recommended treatments. Treatment FYM + VC + NC
+ PSB had the highest humic acid (6.05 g kg–1) and fulvic acid (2.83 g kg–1)
followed by FYM + BFN + BM + PSB>FYM + VC + NC>NPK + FYM,
while the lowest humic acid (3.70 g kg–1) and fulvic acid (1.96 g kg–1) was
obtained in the treatment NPK. The soils containing more amounts of these
acids can be considered sequestering more carbon and ultimately declining
the impact of global warming (Table 6.2).
A study was conducted to reveal the long term influence of organic
amendments on native carbon pools under alluvial soil of Bihar and it was
observed that organic amendments enhanced the liability of carbon by 54.5–
77.3% as compared to chemical fertilizer applied alone in soil depth 0–10
cm. The amount of carbon pools decreased on increasing soil depth (0–10
cm > 10–20 cm > 20–30 cm). In the soil depth 0–10 cm, carbon management
index values were 1.80–1.62 times more in organic manure added treatments
as compared to chemical fertilizer applied alone. Sensitivity index of labile
carbon for different treatments showed positive values, which indicates
positive impact of the management practices on soil organic matter content
and on the soil quality. The management practices are approaching towards
natural ecosystem (Padbhushan et al., 2015).
Some experiments have also been conducted on carbon sequestration
potential in diversified cropping system and greenhouse emissions through
the particular cropping system and reported the context of climate change
well furnished. These studies have provided detailed information about the
soil carbon sequestration and also quantified greenhouse emissions from
alluvial soils of Bihar. In the western part of the state where crop residue
burning in the crop field is a big challenging issue. This has ill effects on
soil as well as climate. The government has banned the crop residue burning
and suggested them to go for crop residue management. Because of this
TABLE 6.1 Effect of Long-Term Use of Fertilization on Water Stable Aggregates Organic Carbon (g kg–1) in Soil Depths (0–10 cm, 10–20 cm
and 20–30 cm) Under Scented Rice-Potato-Onion Cropping System
Soil Depths Soil Fractions (µm) >5000 2000–5000 1000–2000 500–1000 250–500 100–250 Mean
(cm) Treatments WSAOC (g kg–1)
0–10 NPK 3.6c 4.7a 4.9c 2.9a 3.8b 5.5a 4.2
NPK + FYM 5.9b 6.2b 6.7b 4.3a 4.1b 5.6a 5.5
FYM + VC + NC 8.2a 7.1c 8.9a 4.5a 4.4ab 5.9a 6.6
FYM + VC + NC + PSB 8.4a 7.3c 9.4a 4.7a 5.1a 5.8a 6.8
FYM + BFN + BM + PSB 6.3b 6.1b 6.5b 3.7b 4.2b 5.6a 5.4
Mean 6.5 6.3 7.3 4.0 4.3 5.7
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.7 NS
10–20 NPK 3.1c 3.1b 4.8c 1.9b 5.6c 3.5b 3.7
NPK + FYM 4.3b 3.3b 5.5b 2.1b 6.5ab 3.6ab 4.2
FYM + VC + NC 6.2a 4.9a 6.2a 4.2a 6.6ab 3.7ab 5.3
FYM + VC + NC + PSB 6.6a 5.1a 6.5a 4.3a 6.8a 3.9a 5.5
FYM + BFN + BM + PSB 4.7b 3.1b 5.2bc 2.2b 6.1bc 3.7ab 4.2
Mean 5.0 3.9 5.6 2.9 6.3 3.7
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.8 NS
Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a Particular Reference to Bihar

20–30 NPK 2.3b 2.4b 3.6b 1.4c 3.6c 0.8a 2.4

NPK + FYM 2.7b 2.7ab 3.8b 2.1b 4.2ab 0.8a 2.7
FYM + VC + NC 3.6a 3.0a 4.9a 2.7a 4.5a 0.9a 3.3
FYM + VC + NC + PSB 3.9a 3.1a 5.0a 2.7a 4.8a 0.9a 3.4
FYM + BFN + BM + PSB 2.9b 2.8ab 3.7b 1.8b 3.7bc 0.9a 2.6
Mean 3.1 2.8 4.2 2.1 4.2 0.9
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.4 NS 0.6 0.3 0.6 NS
145

*
Values followed by different letters in the same column and LSD are significantly different at P = 0.05.
146 Sustainable Agriculture

management practice the carbon retention in the soil has improved and
improved the carbon sequestration potential of the system.

TABLE 6.2 Effect of Different Treatments on Soil Humic Substances (g kg–1 soil) in Long-
Term Organic Farming System
Passive Pools Humic Acid Fulvic Acid
Treatments
NPK 3.70a 1.96a
NPK + FYM 4.56b 2.72c
FYM + VC + NC 5.51 c
2.80c
FYM + VC + NC + PSB 6.05d 2.83c
FYM + BFN + BM + PSB 5.60 c
2.41b
Values followed by different letters in the same column.
*

Some of these studies in the state showed both conditions of recommended

management practices and mismanagement anthropogenic activities. The
climatic condition of the Bihar is subtropics. Thus prolonged high temperature
aggravated the organic matter decomposition rate. Decompositions of these
native organic matters decline the content and storability of soil carbon for
longer period. This impacts the soil fertility of the region and climate change.

KEYWORDS

 biological sequestration
 carbon dioxide
 carbon sequestration
 fulvic acid
 humic acid
 soil organic carbon

REFERENCES

Amarjeet, K., (2016). M.Sc.Thesis. Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour (Bhagalpur), 813210.
Eric, S., Robert, B., Stephen, F., Robert, G., Jennifer, H., Yousif, K., Larry, T., & Mark, W.,
(2016). Edited by Dale, L. Simmons Graphic Design by Christine, T. Mendelsohn Figure
Soil Carbon Sequestration: With a Particular Reference to Bihar 147

4 by Eric, A. Morrissey and Sean Brennan For additional information about this report,
please contact Eric Sundquist ([email protected]). For additional information about the
U.S. Geological Survey, please visit our web site at: http://www.usgs.gov/ (Accessed on 21
November 2019).
IPCC, (2007). Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007-Impacts. Adaptation and
vulnerability.
Léopold, B., Rebecca, C. C., Ritt, K., Sara, L., & Hortencia, R., (2016). Soil Health and
Carbon Sequestration in US Croplands: A Policy Analysis Prepared for: Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and
the Berkeley Food Institute (BFI) By: Goldman School of Public Policy. University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley.
Rajeev, P., Anupam, D., Rajiv, R., Rajendra, P. S., Anshuman, K., & Rajesh, K., (2016a).
Long-term organic amendment application improves influence on soil aggregation,
aggregate associated carbon and carbon pools under scented rice-potato-onion cropping
system after the 9th crop cycle. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. doi:
10.1080/00103624.2016.1254785. Online Published.
Rajeev, P., Rajiv, R., Anupam, D., & Rajendra, P. S., (2015). Assessment of long term organic
amendments effect on some sensitive indicators of carbon under subtropical climatic
condition. The Bioscan., 10(3), 1237–1240.
Rajeev, P., Rajiv, R., Anupam, D., & Rajendra, P. S., (2016b). Effects of various organic
amendments on organic carbon pools and water stable aggregates under a scented rice-
potato-onion cropping system. Paddy and Water Environment. doi: 10.1007/s10333-015-
0517-814: 481-489.
Rattan, L., et al., (2004). Climate Change and Food Security. doi: 10.1126/science.1097396
Science 304, 1623.
CHAPTER 7

Agromet Advisory Services:

Tool to Mitigate the Effect of
Extreme Weather Events
SUNIL KUMAR
Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Climate change has increased the extreme weather events in many parts of the
world. Situation is adverse for the agriculture sector which is the back bone
of the country like India. Some efforts has been initiated to combat the effect
of climate change. But for farmers, it is very less and they have not adapted
all the recommendations due to several reasons. Extreme weather events like
extreme heat and cold, drought, extreme heavy rainfall, storms, hail etc. has
been increased in its frequency and it’s duration by climate change. Agromet
Advisory Services (AAS) initiated by India Meteorological Department in
collaboration with National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast
(NCMRWF) and State Agriculture University (SAUs) showed the path to
support efforts made by other organizations and Government. Farmers are
given weather forecast with agro advisory for 5 days in advance. Weather
parameters like maximum temperature, minimum temperature, rainfall,
wind direction, wind speed, maximum relative humidity, minimum relative
humidity are forecasted and are provided to the farmers through different
media at district level and now it has been started at block level. Feedback
of the farmers are also taken to improve the forecast and agro advisory. It
has improved the productivity of the crop and has decreased the loss due to
different aberrant weather situation not favorable for agriculture. It will also
be helpful to increase the income of farmers by reducing the cost of culti-
vation. Further improvement is needed for weather forecast which may be
150 Sustainable Agriculture

increase its accuracy and duration will be certainly helpful to diminish the ill
effect of extreme weather and climate change.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy and several factors affect
its success or failure. Weather and climate are very important factors which
effect on each phase of growth and development of plant. Variation in the
weather or climate during crop season, like delay in the monsoon, extreme
rainfall, flood, droughts, long spells of very high or very low temperatures
may affect the crop growth as well as quantity and quality of the yield. Yield
loss may be reduced by proper management in real-time by planning in
advance based on timely and accurate weather forecasts. The weather-based
agro advisory includes best-suited crops in the region based on expected
weather and actual weather condition which may be affecting regular farm
works of farmers. Weather forecast and agro advisory try to reduce the
losses and risks, reduces the cost of cultivation by saving irrigation cost,
labor cost and in total increases the agricultural production. Rathore et al.
(2001) discussed properly about how the weather forecast by the National
Center for Medium Range Weather Forecast (NCMRWF) would be issued
for different location for five days in advance. Damrath et al. (2001) reported
that statistical interpretation methods maybe helpful to increase the reliability
of the rainfall forecast. Climate change, which is one of the major challenges
of the 21st century, is tackled by Agromet Advisory Services (AAS). The
Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) is the new name of AAS in India
and it intends to link the farmers in respond of climate change at root level.
GKMS aims to create efficient, effective and synergistic linkages to improve
the delivery of these services to the farmers. GKMS operates under the guid-
ance of India Meteorological Department (IMD), which is serving for Indian
farmers to enhance their livelihoods. It directly addresses the needs of Indian
farmers, contributing to sustainable growth in and transformation of Indian
agriculture by providing effective advisory services. It gives the opportuni-
ties for AAS as well as a great challenge to adapt in response to climatic and
other drivers of change, and begins to outline the possible roles and charac-
teristics of adaptive AAS.
Day-by-day increase in uncertainties of weather and climate is giving a
big threat to food security of the country and is becoming obstacle for farm-
er’s empowerment by taking decision in agricultural risk management. In
coming decades, there is high probability that the combination of long-term
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 151

variation of climate and greater frequency of extreme weather events will

likely to have adverse impacts on the agricultural production.
Agro-meteorological service provided by IMD is an innovative step to
disseminate the weather information and based on weather forecast, crop/
livestock management strategies and farming operations are advised to
increase the crop/livestock production by providing real time crop and loca-
tion specific agrometeorological services with outreach to village level. It
has a potential to change the face of the country in terms of food security
and poverty alleviation. It has tried to make a tremendous difference to the
agriculture production by taking the advantage of favorable weather and
minimizes the adverse impact of adverse weather. A mechanism has been
developed to integrate weather forecast and to prepare agromet advisories
which contribute significantly to increase the farm productivity and is trying
to solve the problem of food security.

7.2 AGROMET ADVISORY BULLETINS

Medium range forecast information and advisories at district level help to

maximize output and to reduce crop damage or yield loss. It also helps farmers
to plan in advance for pesticide applications, irrigation scheduling, disease,
and pest outbreaks and many more weather-related farm-specific operations.
These may include cultivar selection, their dates of sowing/planting, dates
of intercultural operations, dates of harvesting and post-harvest operations.
It helps to increase profits by consistently delivering weather information,
analysis and decision support for farming operations.

7.3 POPULATION TREND

Globally, sustainable long-term food production is needed to be doubled in order

to meet the basic needs of increased urban population. Demographic changes
include not only urbanization, but also increasing migration and seasonal
mobility. Climate change, increasing population and food security, among other
factors, are highlighting the importance of the provision of different ecosystem
services and the finite nature of these land resources. To avoid expansion
into other ecosystems, agricultural productivity will have to increase, while
minimizing the associated environmental damage and with net reductions in
GHG emissions from food production and postharvest activities (World Bank,
2010a). This concept of increasing output but using less resources and reducing
152 Sustainable Agriculture

the environmental impact has been described by UNEP (2011) as ‘decoupling.’

Climate change is likely to alter countries’ comparative advantages in agriculture,
and thereby alter the pattern of international trade (Tamiotti et al., 2009).
The visions and policies are fairly consistently based on the premise of
increasing agricultural productivity to drive economic growth and poverty
reduction. This is being implemented alongside major statements regarding
food security. Current policies are generally supportive of agricultural practices
that focus on increasing short-term production (e.g., expansion of agricultural
land, increasing mechanization, increasing use of fertilizer and other inputs).

7.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF AAS AND EXPLORATION OF

‘ADAPTIVE’ ATTRIBUTES

Over many decades in India, regular use of old ICTs (such as telephone or
television) was rare for large sections of the rural populations. The most
striking was radio, which quickly became widespread due to the easy avail-
ability and of low cost. GKMS have maintained communication depart-
ments and produced regular radio programs on agricultural topics for
broadcast to rural populations, often through state-owned radio stations.
In some cases, educational videos or TV programs were also produced via
mobile audio-visual vans. The content was largely created and controlled
by the AAS organizations and targeted at the farmer recipient. Since the
turn of the millennium, vary fast growth of private mobile-phone owner-
ship and use in both rural and urban areas, increasing access to TV and
video-screening facilities, and digital filming apparatus (cameras, mobile
phones), and the more recent spread of internet access in towns and even
into smaller towns and canters via mobile net services, have offered a
whole new world of opportunity for multi-directional communication.
Interestingly, in our experience, even while AAS has embraced new partic-
ipatory approaches such as farmers field schools and farmers participatory
research to mobilize communities and to harness complementary contri-
butions from researchers, farmers and AAS staff for innovation, AAS in
general seems to have been relatively slow to explore opportunities for
revolution in multi-stakeholder information sharing, knowledge creation
and advocacy activities offered by combinations of new and old ICTs.
A major challenge for ICTs in AAS vis-à-vis climate change issues will
be to develop ICTs as multi-way platforms and break with the unidirec-
tional communication traditions of the past. It is not only AAS staff who
are in need of information and perspectives about climate change science
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 153

and their expression in their local environment. Researchers and official

meteorological stations are one source of these, but both AAS leaders and
researchers also need to access and learn from the experience of farmers,
frontline AAS staff and other sector staff living and working in the focus
areas. Adaptive capacity varies widely between individuals and communi-
ties, due to differences of access and control of assets and the environment
in which people are living. In order to strengthen adaptive capacity, GKMS
needs to be able to recognize these differences and develop strategies to
address them. Self-organization is a key element of adaptive capacity.
Climate change has emerged only recently as a critical issue and so most
AAS individuals would have received little specific training in relation to
climate change in their formal training. This is starting to change, but many
AAS actors have limited capacity to actively seek and use new knowledge
and information.

7.5 AGROMET ADVISORY METHODS

In moving towards adaptive AAS, the advisory methods used are critical. In
dealing more explicitly with climate change and other uncertainty, methods
need to emphasize such aspects as: strengthening the capacity of clients (rather
than delivering messages), and enabling clients to experiment and use climate
information, strengthening the self-organization of farmers, enhancing local-
level innovation, improving links between research and extension, and consid-
ering the content of advice in relation to what is appropriate to the context
(e.g., balancing production-innovation, growth, and climate resilience).

7.6 GRAMIN KRISHI MAUSAM SEWA (GKMS)

The Agromet advisory service based on a medium-range weather forecast has

been made operational by NCMRWF. NCMRWF has proposed to establish
130 agro meteorological field units (AMFUs) in all the agro-climatic zones,
which cover the entire country (Figure 7.1 and Table 7.1). The agro advisory
bulletins are prepared by the panel of scientists based on the “Package of
practices recommendations developed by the concerned University for the
Respective Zones. The essence of the agro advisory is to make the farmers
aware of farm operations for sustainable agricultural production based on
weather forecast. Weather forecast for 5 days district wise is received regu-
larly twice a week on Tuesday and Friday. For e.g., during the year 2015–16,
154 Sustainable Agriculture

102 weather forecasts for 365 days were received. Based on total forecasts
received 102 Agromet Advisory Bulletins were prepared and circulated
among 50 selected farmers of different villages of the region. Weather fore-
casts and agro-advisories were also communicated telephonically to some
of the nearby farmers of Bhagalpur, Banka, Munger, Jamui, Lakhisarai,
Sheikhpura Patna, Gaya, Aurangabad, Jahanabad, Nawada, Kaimur, Rohtas,
Bhojpur, Buxar, Arwal and Nalanda districts of agro-climatic zone III A and
III B. For immediate benefit of the local farmers in 100 km radius, All India
Radio, Bhagalpur broadcasted Agromet Advisory bulletins in between 18.30
and 19.00 hours on every Tuesday and Friday of the week as their regular
feature. Similarly different Newspapers like “Hindustan,” “Danik Jagaran,”
“Dainik Bhaskar,” “Prabhat Khabar,” “Rashtriya sahara,” and “Nayi baat”
published weather forecasts and Agro-advisories on regular basis. Weather
forecasts and agro-advisories were also sent by email/ faxed to Annadata
Programme of ETV Bihar, Sahara TV Bihar, Sadhna TV Bihar for telecast,
for the benefit of farmers of this state. Agro advisories were also sent by
email to IMD, Pune and uploaded on website of the Agromet Division of
IMD and Website of Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour. Among
the officials, Agromet Advisory bulletins were sent to Joint Director of Agri-
culture and all District Agriculture Officers of different districts of zone III A
and III B, Project Directors of ATMAs of Bihar, Block Agriculture Officers,
for communication among the farmers through Village Extension workers
or local medias. The college also organized Kisan Mela and Kisan Gosthi
in which the visiting farmers were made aware about this service. Weather
forecast and agro advisories were also sent through SMS on mobiles of
Farmers of zone III A and III B on regular basis. Till date 220 SMS had
been sent and more than 10 million farmers had been benefited and 5,34,736
Farmers from 17 Districts of Bihar has been registered and are getting SMS
at a time (Figures 7.2 and 7.3).
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 155

FIGURE 7.1 Agro climatic zones of Bihar.

TABLE 7.1 Agro Climatic Zones of Bihar and AMFUs of GKMS

S. Agro Climatic Zone Districts Agromet Field
No. Unit (AMFU)
1 North West Alluvial W Champaran, E Champaran, Gopalganj, Pusa
Plain Zone (Zone-I) Vaishali, Sitamarhi, Muzaffarpur, (Samastipur),
Siwan, Darbhanga, Samastipur, Sheohar, RAU, Pusa
Begusarai, Madhubani, Saran.
2 North East Alluvial Saharsha, Purina, Katihar, Supaul, Agwanpur
Zone (Zone-II) Khagaria, Madhepura, Kishanganj, (Saharsha),
Araria. BAU Sabour
3 South Bihar Alluvial IIIA: Bhagalpur, Sheikhpura, Lakhisarai, Sabour
Zone (Zone III A and B) Jamui, Munger, Banka. (Bhagalpur),
IIIB: Bhojpur, Buxar Aurangabad, BAU Sabour
Nalanda, Jahanabad, Gaya, Nawada,
Patna, Kaimur, Arwal Rohtas.
156 Sustainable Agriculture

7.7 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The first objective of the project is to pass on weather data biweekly to

NCMRWF, Delhi and DDGM (Agrimet) India IMD, Pune from 1.8.2007.
The second objective is to prepare Agromet Advisory Bulletin on the basis
of forecast received from Meteorological center Patna after modification of
the forecast. Dissemination of the Agromet Advisory Bulletins (prepared
biweekly) is the another objective through All India Radio, different T.V.
channels, Newspapers, IMD website and also through personal contact to
the selected farmers of zone III A, III B of Bihar. Regular collection of feed-
back from the selected farmers of these zones is also the duty of AMFUs.
At meanwhile verification of the reliability of weather forecasts using actual
observation recorded in the observatory is also one of the objectives of the
project. At the first time, the preparation of Agromet Advisory Bulletin was
started weekly from April 1997 and from 1998 it was started biweekly prep-
aration of bulletin.

7.8 STATUS OF DISTRICT AGROMET ADVISORY SERVICES (AAS)

BY FARMER’S PORTAL

There is a problem in preparing the District Agromet Advisory bulletin

through the farmers portal. It needs fast internet connectivity for online
preparation. So, it could not be prepared online through the farmers
portal. In Hindi, it needs to improve the software so that some mistake in
the name of place or crop will be improved. For example, at our Center,
it has not been written correct in heading. In Hindi bulletin, Sabour is
not written in right way and it was informed to the office by mail. For
one district Arwal, moderated weather forecast is not given. There is no
facility directly to upload all the pdf files on IMD website and on our
University website. The very important fact is that, there is no weather
data for all districts to fill up the table for all districts regarding previous
week weather condition.
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 157

FIGURE 7.2 Agromet advisory bulletin for Patna district (Hindi).

158 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 7.3 Agromet advisory bulletin for Bhagalpur district (English).

7.8.1 FEEDBACK FROM THE FARMERS

To improve the quality of the AAS, regular direct interactions are being
made with local farmers. The feedback is collected regularly through Kisan
Chaupal (Gosthi), Kisan mela, Farmers gathering and through interaction
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 159

with farmers personally. A survey was conducted to obtain the feedback

from the participating farmers. Data were collected through semi-structural
questionnaire and personal contact was made with the farmers for getting
the feedback from the participating farmers. Out of 50 farmers, only 44
farmers replied to the questionnaire. It was seen that about 90% farmers
were benefited through weather forecasts and Agromet Advisory Bulletins
with respect to various agro management viz; timely preparation of land,
use of suitable varieties, timely sowing of seeds, amount of water applied,
timely irrigation scheduling, fertilizer application, Seed treatment with
suitable chemicals, plant protection measures and its application, etc. The
responses of the farmers were observed to be very positive and encouraging.

7.9 IMPACT OF AGROMET ADVISORY BULLETINS

To strengthen weather-based Agromet advisory for the benefit of farmers and to

ensure food security it is felt that there is a need to study the economic impact of
weather-based agro advisory which was already in operation under NCMRWF.
From the study, it is clear that the economic gain by an individual farmer is
considerable and it varied from 10 to 35% or more depending upon the crop and
the season if one follows the biweekly agro advisory over the non-followers.
No doubt, the weather-based agro advisory has an overall beneficial effect and
farmers gain knowledge in addition to monetary benefit. The Agromet advisory
service based on weather forewarning is an effective tool if properly and timely
disseminate to the farmers. On the basis of weather forecasts received from
Meteorological Center, Patna (Bihar) and Agromet Advisory Bulletins were
prepared and served among the farmers through various medias as well as by
direct contact with the local farmers of the region. A sample survey was made
to get the feedback from the participating farmers. The views of the farmers
are collected through semi-structural questionnaires regarding the benefit of
Agromet Advisory Bulletins circulated, are being briefly presented below.
During the month of April, 15 there was a prediction of no rain and the
same was communicated time-to-time to the farmers of this region with
advise to continue their harvesting and threshing operations of rabi crops
without any delay. Thus, the farmers could take advantage of clear weather
and dry westerly winds in all these post-harvest operations of crops.
During the month of May, 15 there were forecast of no rain and the
farmers were advised in this forecast to irrigate the summer crops and vege-
tables and for spray in chili. Following our suggestions from the advisories,
the farmers were thus benefited by good crops and vegetables.
160 Sustainable Agriculture

During the month of June, 2015 there was forecast of rain between 12–14
June, accordingly farmers were advised to keep themselves in readiness for
sowing of medium duration of rice varieties in the nursery. At the same
time, they were also advised to sow Kharif fodder. The rain received the
above said period and the farmers were benefited by timely sowing of Kharif
fodder and timely sowing of medium and long duration rice seedlings for
raising seedlings.
During the month of July, 2015, there was prediction of heavy rain during
8–10 July and similar situation occurred during the above said period. The
farmers were advised to reap the benefit of predicted rain in transplanting of
long and mid duration rice and sowing of short duration rice for seedlings if
not done earlier. Thus most of the farmers could reap the benefit of predicted
rain in transplanting of rice and also utilized rainwater in irrigation to prior
transplanted rice crop.
During the month August, 2015 there was forecast of rain during 01–02
August. The same was communicated to the farmers of this locality and were
advised to transplant short duration and photosensitive local tall varieties of
rice seedlings, if not transplanted earlier. At the same time, they were also
advised to utilize predicted rain in irrigation to transplanted rice crop and
to drain excess water from Kharif maize, pulses, and oilseed crops to avoid
waterlogging. Rain occurred during the period and farmers were benefited
by timely transplanting of rice crop, utilized rainwater in irrigation to prior
transplanted rice and saved their other Rabi crops from waterlogging.
During the month of September, 2015 there was a forecast of no rain
during 9–13 Sept. 2015. Accordingly, farmers were advised to irrigate the
transplanted rice crop and to maintain the water in the field due to panicle
initiation stage of the crop which is very crucial period for better production.
During the month of October, 2015 there was prediction of no rain during
17 to 21 October 2015 and farmers were advised to spray Quinalphos in rice
crop due to attack of Gundhi bug. The same was followed by the farmers and
took the benefit of timely spraying of the insecticide in rice crop.
During the month of November and December, 15 there was forecast
of no rain and the same weather situations continued during that month.
The farmers were communicated about the prediction of clear weather and
advised to reap the benefit of clear weather in harvesting of matured rice
crop and to prepare field for sowing of rabi crops like-maize, wheat, pulses,
and oilseeds. The same was followed by the farmers and took the benefit of
timely sowing of the above-mentioned crops.
TABLE 7.2 Monetary Gains Accrued to Farmers During the Year 2015–2016
Season Crop Grown by the Mean Productivity Realized in kg/ha Additional Production Price Rs./kg Additional
Farmers GKMS Adoptive GKMS Non-Adoptive Gains of Adoptive Income Rs./ha
Farmers Farmers Farmers (kg/ha)
1. Kharif Rice 3000 2760 240 12.00 2880/-
Maize 4000 3740 260 13.00 3380/-
Vegetables (Brinjal) 20 MT 17 MT 03 MT 15 4,50,000/-
2. Rabi Wheat 3500 3200 300 10.00 3000/-
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate

Maize 5800 5510 290 14.00 4060/-

Gram 1200 1000 200 80.0 1600/-
Lentil 1150 900 250 70.0 1750/-
Vegetable (Cauliflower) 21 MT 18 MT 3 MT 14 4,20,000/-
3. Summer Moong 0880 0760 120 60.00 7200/-
Vegetable (Okra) 15 MT 13.5 MT 1.5 MT 16.0 2,40,000/-
Fruit-1. Mango 8.2 MT 7.0 MT 1.2 MT 30 3,60,000/-
1. Litchi
1. 7.6 MT 6.3 MT 1.3 MT 70 9,10,000/-
161
162 Sustainable Agriculture

During the month of January, 2016 there were the prediction of no rain
during 6–10 January. This was communicated to the farmers well in advance
and was advised to irrigate the crop and spray insecticides and fungicides
for control of insects, pest of their Rabi, maize, potato and wheat crops. No
rain was received during that said period and thus the adoptive farmers could
save their crop from attack of pest.
During the month of February, 2016, there was prediction of no rain and
the same was communicated time to time to the farmers of this region with
advice to spray the insecticides in mustard against aphid and fungicides in
pea against powdery mildew. Thus, the farmers could take advantage and
sprayed the same to protect the above-mentioned crops.
During the month of March, 2016, there was prediction of no rain and the
same was communicated time to time to the farmers of this region with advice
to spray the insecticide in chickpea against pod borer. Thus, the farmers could
take advantage and sprayed the same to protect the mentioned crop.

7.10 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF GRAMIN KRISHI MUASAM SEWA

7.10.1 CASE STUDY

GKMS is a useful information tool to the farmers of this region in deciding

their planning and budgeting for weather-agro management operations to
achieve maximum benefit from predicted weather forecast served to them
periodically by AAS Unit comprising of eminent scientists of different
disciplines of Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour.
Table 7.2 indicates that in the case of Kharif rice, maize and brinjal mone-
tary value of saving was estimated as Rs. 2880, Rs. 3380, and Rs. 4,50,000
per hectare. The estimated loss to the non-adoptive farmers who did not care
the Agro Advice rendered by GKMS, served by this center was estimated at
240, 260 and 03 MT per hectare in rice, maize, and brinjal respectively under
this region.
In the case of Rabi season wheat, maize, gram, lentil and cauliflower
monetary value of saving was estimated Rs.3000/-, Rs. 4060, Rs. 1600/-,
Rs. 1750/- and 4,20,000/- per hectare respectively. The grain yield losses to
wheat, maize, gram, lentil, and cauliflower the non-adoptive farmers who did
not follow the Agromet Advisories was 300 kg, 290 kg, 200 kg, 250 kg, and
03 MT per hectare, respectively.
Similarly, in the case of summer season Moong, Okra, Mango and Litchi
are cultivated and the benefit to the Growers was estimated as Rs. 7200/-,
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 163

2,40,000/-, 3,60,000/-, and 9,10,000/- per hectare to adoptive farmers of the

locality.
So, all overviews it was indicated that the adaptive farmers who adapted
agro advisory services got the benefit of Rs. 1600 to 4060 for cereals crop
and from Rs. 2.4 lakh to 4.5 lakh and Rs. 3.6 to 9.1 lakh in vegetables and
fruits crop, respectively.

7.11 VERIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF WEATHER FORECAST

A five-day medium-range weather forecast was received from M.C, Patna

on every Tuesday and Friday of the week. The data related to the weather
forecast of the whole year was grouped in four distinct seasons, i.e., pre-
monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter for analysis and verification.
Both qualitative and quantitative verification analysis was carried out using
skill score and critical values for error structure. The correlation coefficient
and root mean squire error have also been worked out of all the four seasons.

7.11.1 QUALITATIVE VERIFICATION ANALYSIS

7.11.1.1 RAINFALL FORECAST VERIFICATION

For qualitative analysis verification of rainfall forecast, the skill score test has
been used as suggested by NCMRWF, which are based on 2 × 2 contingen-
cies table. The result of all the four seasons for the year 2015–16 has been
presented in Table 7.3.
It is evident from the perusal of Table 7.3 that the value of ratio score was
higher during pre-monsoon (94%), post-monsoon (95%), and winter (93%)
season because this technique of analysis considered NN cases also. The
value of ratio score during monsoon season was 68%, this clearly shows that
there was better occupancy of forecast during monsoon season.
The value of threat score, which considered only YY cases, was also found
maximum during pre-monsoon season (82%). During monsoon, Post monsoon
and winter seasons its value observed were 53, 52 and 0% respectively.

7.11.1.2 ANALYSIS VERIFICATION OF OTHER WEATHER PARAMETERS

Qualitative analysis verification of some other weather parameters was also
carried out using standard statistical procedure for all the four meteorological
seasons and has been presented in Table 7.3.
164 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 7.3 Rainfall Prediction Trends During Different Seasons at AMFU, Sabour of
Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour (Year 2015–2016)
Sl. Type of Skill Score SEASON
No. Pre-Monsoon Monsoon Post-Monsoon Winter
1. Ratio Score 0.943 0.679 0.952 0.932
2. Bias Score 0.921 0.604 0.523 0.677
3. Probability of Detection 0.867 0.572 0.543 0.000
4. False Alarm Ratio 0.015 0.036 0.000 0.032
5. Threat Score 0.823 0.536 0.521 0.000
6. Haidke Skill Score 0.778 0.468 0.391 –0.684
7. Hansen and Kuipper Score 0.843 0.402 0.506 –0.036

7.12 CORRELATION-COEFFICIENT AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE

ERROR (RMSE)

The perusal of correlation coefficient and root mean square errors (RMSE)
data which were worked out using standard statistical procedure between
weather forecast and actual weather prevailed during the same period
indicated that the forecasts made by this AMFU were more or less close to
correctness excluding wind direction. All observed weather parameters via;
cloud cover, rainfall, wind speed, max. and min. temp, except wind direction
were found in the line of forecast made in all the four seasons respectively.
The RMSE values of wind direction were found too high in all the four
seasons to accept any homogeneity in the predicted and observed values.
The RMSE value of rainfall during monsoon season was also higher which
clearly indicated that forecasts of rain were more or less correct but amount
of rain predicted never tallied with observed value of rain occurred.

7.13 QUANTITATIVE VERIFICATIONS ANALYSIS

The quantitative verification analysis worked out between weather forecast

made and actual weather prevailed during the same period and has been
presented in Table 7.5 (a, b, c, and d). Total numbers of forecasts received
during the year 2015–16 were 360 out of which 91 were during pre-monsoon
season, 121 were during monsoon season, 92 were during post-monsoon
season and 56 were during winter season. These forecasts have been verified
by correct, usable and unusable methodology. In this procedure some limits
of predicted values of different parameters as suggested by NCMRWF, were
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 165

used for quantitative verification analysis. Forecast values falling within

these limits are recorded as correct and usable and beyond these limit, the
forecasts are rated as unusable for meteorological application (Table 7.4).

TABLE 7.4 Season-Wise Correlation Co-Efficient and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)
Value of Different Weather Parameters
Sl. Weather SEASON (2015–16)
No. Parameters Pre-Monsoon Monsoon Post-Monsoon Winter
CC RMSE CC RMSE CC RMSE CC RMSE
1. Cloud cover 0.549 2.332 0.442 2. 778 0.5467 2.794 0.561 2.066
2. Rainfall 0.802 4.966 0.309 15.315 0.9400 9.021 0.802 0.880
3. Wind speed 0.720 2.863 0.771 3.749 1.1354 3.548 0.426 3.739
4. Wind direction 0.545 98.678 0.359 82.287 0.3592 90.125 0.568 95.522
5. Max. temp. 0.877 1.651 0.771 2.112 0.9665 1.055 0.837 2.825
6. Min. temp. 0.870 2.378 0.230 1.825 0.9453 2.197 0.781 2.672

TABLE 7.5(a) Weather Parameters During Pre-Monsoon Seasons-2015

Sl. Weather Parameters Pre-Monsoon Season, 2015
No. Correct Usable Unusable Total
1. Cloud cover 66 (72) 12 (13) 13 (14) 91 (100)
2. Rainfall 84 (92) 03 (3) 04 (4) 91 (100)
3. Wind speed 45 (49) 14 (15) 32 (35) 91 (100)
4. Wind direction 34 (37) 16 (17) 41 (45) 91 (100)
5. Maximum Temperature 72 (79) 10 (11) 09 (10) 91 (100)
6. Minimum Temperature 67 (73) 14 (15) 10 (11) 91 (100)

TABLE 7.5(b) Weather Parameters During Monsoon Seasons-2015

Sl. Weather Parameters Monsoon Season, 2015
No. Correct Usable Unusable Total
1. Cloud cover 88 (72) 17 (14) 16 (13) 121 (100)
2. Rainfall 65 (53) 26 (21) 30 (25) 121 (100)
3. Wind speed 32 (26) 23 (19) 66 (55) 121 (100)
4. Wind direction 48 (39) 12 (10) 61 (51) 121 (100)
5. Maximum Temperature 57 (47) 36 (30) 28 (23) 121 (100)
6. Minimum Temperature 59 (47) 37 (32) 26 (21) 121 (100)
166 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 7.5(c) Weather Parameters During Post Monsoon Seasons-2015

Sl. Weather Parameters Post-Monsoon Season, 2015
No. Correct Usable Unusable Total
1. Cloud cover 61 (66) 08 (9) 23 (25) 92 (100)
2. Rainfall 88 (96) 01 (1) 03 (3) 92 (100)
3. Wind speed 35 (38) 12 (13) 45 (49) 92 (100)
4. Wind direction 46 (50) 19 (21) 27 (29) 92 (100)
5. Maximum Temperature 60 (65) 27 30) 05 (5) 92 (100)
6. Minimum Temperature 53 (58) 21 (23) 18 (19) 92 (100)

TABLE 7.5(d) Weather Parameters During Winter Seasons (2015–2016)

Sl. Weather Parameters Winter Season (2015–2016)
No. Correct Usable Unusable Total
1. Cloud cover 40 (71) 6 (11) 10 (18) 56 (100)
2. Rainfall 46 (82) 6 (11) 4 (7) 56 (100)
3. Wind speed 29 (52) 15 (27) 12 (21) 56 (100)
4. Wind direction 23 (41) 17 (30) 16 (29) 56 (100)
5. Maximum Temperature 32 (57) 11 (19) 13 (24) 56 (100)
6. Minimum Temperature 33 (59) 14 (25) 9 (16) 56 (100)
Note: Figures in parenthesis indicate in percent.

7.13.1 CLOUD COVER

It evinced from the above tables that out of 91, 121, 92 and 56 cloud cover
forecasts received during pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and
winter season, respectively, 85, 86, 75 and 82% were correct in the respec-
tive seasons. The correctness of cloud cover ranged between 75 to 86% in
different seasons during the year 2015.

7.13.2 RAINFALL

Total numbers of rainfall forecasts received during Pre-monsoon, Monsoon,

Post-monsoon and winter seasons were 91, 121, 92, and 56, respectively.
Out of these rain forecasts in the respective seasons 95, 74, 97 and 93% were
found to be correct. During the rainy season, the correctness of forecasts was
only 69% while during other seasons the correctness of rain forecast were
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 167

much truer because on most of the days there were neither prediction of rain
nor it occurred during the said period.

7.13.3 WIND SPEED

During pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter seasons, total

number of wind speed forecasts were 91, 121, 92, and 56, respectively.
Out of these forecasts, 64, 49, 51, and 79% were observed to be correct
in the respective seasons. The percent of correctness of wind speed fore-
cast was highest (79%) during winter and lowest during monsoon seasons
(49%).

7.13.4 WIND DIRECTION

Total number of wind direction forecast received during the four meteoro-
logical seasons, i.e., pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter was
91, 121, 92, and 56, respectively. Out of these wind direction forecasts, 51,
49, 71, and 71% were correct during the respective seasons, which clearly
indicated that on most of the days, forecast of wind direction were beyond
and specified limit of ± 30°.

7.13.5 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES

In case of maximum temperature, out of 91, 121, 92 and 56 forecasts

received during pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter seasons
82 during pre-monsoon 93 during monsoon, 87 during post-monsoon,
and 43 during winter were found correct. This clearly indicated that the
percentage of correct forecasts were 90, 77, 95, and 76 in the respective
seasons.

7.13.6 MINIMUM TEMPERATURE

Similarly, in the case of minimum temperature forecasts, out of 91, 121, 92

and 56 forecasts received during the respective season, 81, 96, 74 and 47
were correct indicating 88, 79, 81 and 84% correctness in the respective
seasons.
168 Sustainable Agriculture

7.14 AGROMET ADVISORY BULLETIN BASED ON NDVI MAP

The map (Figure 7.3) is regularly prepared by India IMD and is sent at fort-
nightly to different AMFUs for preparation of Agromet Advisory bulletin.
Agriculture vigor is observed for the period and for the area concerned. The
analysis is done based on the vigor and weather. Then Agromet advisory
bulletin is prepared for the next five days based on the study.

FIGURE 7.3 Feedback from the farmer of the Bhagalpur district.

Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 169

7.15 AGROMET ADVISORY BULLETIN BASED ON THE

STANDARDIZED PRECIPITATION INDEX (SPI) MAP

The map is received from IMD Pune. This is prepared based on the rainfall
and its deviation from the normal of the area and the period. The map with
full details of the map is sent to the AMFUs by email (Figures 7.4 and 7.5).

FIGURE 7.4 NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) map.

7.15.1 DETAILS ABOUT THE MAP OF SPI (STANDARDIZED

PRECIPITATION INDEX) (FIGURE 7.5)

 Extremely wet/severely wet conditions experienced over most parts of

Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, some parts of Andhra
Pradesh, Rajasthan; Karnataka; Koraput, Nawarangpur, Rayagada
districts of Odisha, Monghyr, Patna, Rohtas districts of Bihar.
 Moderately/severely dry conditions experienced over East Siang,
Papumpara districts of Arunachal Pradesh, Lakimpur, Sibsagar,
Karimganj, Sonitpur, Bongaigaon, Tinsukia, Kamrup Metro districts
of Assam and South Tripura district of Tripura.
170 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 7.5 Standardized precipitation index for the period 27 February to 26 March 2014.

 Extremely dry conditions experienced over Changlang, East Kameng,

Lohit, West Kameng districts in Arunachal Pradesh, Dibrugarh, Jorhat,
Morigaon, Golaghat districts of Assam, Ladakh (Leh), Poonch districts
of Jammu and Kashmir.
 Rest of the country experienced mild wet/dry conditions.
Agromet Advisory Services: Tool to Mitigate 171

The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is prepared by Hydromet

section of India IMD and is sent fortnightly to every AMFUs for every
districts of the Country. Based on the moisture condition, advisory regarding
irrigation is given to the farmers based on the weather forecast for the next
five days (Table 7.6).

TABLE 7.6 Weather Forecast for the Next Five Days Received from India Meteorological
Department
Date 5 October 6 October 7 October 8 October 9 October
Rainfall (mm) 3 5 8 0 0
Cloud cover Partly Partly Partly Partly Partly
Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy
Max. Temp. (°C) 33 32 32 33 33
Min. Temp. (°C) 25 24 24 24 24
R.H. (%) 53–82 50–92 56–91 56–87 59–90
Wind Speed (km/hr) 4 3 5 6 8
Wind Direction South South South South South
Easterly Easterly Easterly Easterly Easterly

7.15.2 AGROMET ADVISORY (BASED ON WEATHER FORECAST)

 Farmers are advised to monitor crop regularly, if population of stem

borer is above ETL, broadcast of Cartap 4% granules or carbofuran
3% G @ 10 kg/acre or chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2 ml/l of water for
effective control is recommended.
 Present weather conditions are highly favorable for infection of Blast
disease in rice. Early symptoms include development of eye shaped
spot in the leaf sheath with light center and dark boundaries. At later
stage these spots coalesce to form big spots. If symptoms appear then,
spraying of Bavistin 2 gram/liter of water 2–3 times with an interval
of 10 days is advised for effective control.
 In present weather conditions, constant monitoring for brown plant
hopper (BPH) in paddy field is advised. Farmers are advised to enter
into the middle of the crop field and see mosquito-like insects at the
basal portion of the plant. If insect population is above ETL, spray of
Imidacloprid 17.8% SC@ 1.0 ml/3 liters or fenobucarb 50 EC @ 1
ml/l or buprofezin 25 EC @ 2 ml/l of water is recommended.
 This is suitable time to all crops and vegetables for hoeing and weeding
after that split dose of nitrogen should be broadcast for optimum growth.
172 Sustainable Agriculture

Constant monitoring of ladyfinger, brinjal, and chili crop against attack

of mite and jassid is advised. To control mite, spraying of phosmite @
2 ml/l of water is advised while spraying of Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l
of water is advised against jassid when sky remains clear.
 In maize fields, constant monitoring of stem borer should be done. If
insect population is above ETL then spraying of carbaryl @ 2.0 gm/
liter of water is recommended in clear sky.
 To control external parasites in animals, provide them Butocus medicine.

KEYWORDS

 agro meteorological field units

 agromet field unit
 brown planthopper
 root mean square error
 standardized precipitation index

REFERENCES

Damrath, U., Doms, G., Friihwald, D., Heise, E., Richter, B., & Steppeler, J., (2000). Operational
quantitative precipitation forecasting at the German weather service. J of Hydrology, 239,
260–285.
Rathore, L. S., Gupta, A., & Singh, K. K., (2001). Medium range weather forecasting and
agricultural production. Journal of Agric. Physics, 1(1), 43.
Tamiotti, L., Olhoff, A., Teh, R., Sommons, B., Kulaçoglu, V., & Abaza, H., (2009). Trade
and Climate Change: A Report by the United Nations Environment Programme and the
World Trade Organization. WTO, Geneva, Switzerland.
UNEP, (2011). In: Fischer-Kowalski, M., Swilling, M., Von Weizsäcker, E. U., Ren, Y.,
Moriguchi, Y., et al., (eds.), Decoupling Natural Resource Use and Environmental Impacts
from Economic Growth. A report of the working group on decoupling to the International
Resource Panel. United Nations Environment Programme.
World Bank, (2010a). World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change.
The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
CHAPTER 8

Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific

Reference to Bihar
M. K. DWIVEDI, S. KUMAR, A. KOHLI, Y. K. SINGH,
SHWETA SHAMBHAVI, and R. KUMAR
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Accelerated soil pollution that has been taking place in India during the last
few decades has created environmental complexities including soil. Soil
pollution adversely affects the vegetation in urban and peri-urban areas. In
the past, soil research focused largely on agricultural soils but now increased
research interest is being observed in urban soils too because of the signif-
icant increase of the urban population. Undisturbed or partially disturbed
urban soils are indicator of environmental perturbations which are respon-
sible for altering soil profile characteristics. Soil properties that are subject
to change over relatively short time periods can be a result of natural process
and pollutant deposition. The Arsenic contamination in soils of Bihar is a
serious threat to human being as well as to soil flora and fauna. Study reveals
that the Arsenic contamination in soils of Bihar is mainly due to excessive
and irrational exploitation of Arsenic contaminated groundwater. Besides
this anthropogenic activity, some geogenic activities are also responsible for
Arsenic contamination in soils.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The accumulation of any substance that makes soil, air, and waterless valu-
able and less desirable is known as pollution. The decline in the production
of soil system due to the presence of various soil pollutants is also known
174 Sustainable Agriculture

as soil pollution. The term pollution is used to describe the presence of any
elemental, molecular or ionic species at a concentration that has been uncon-
sciously raised as a result of anthropogenic activities. Pollutant substances
degrade the quality of the environment. Pollution adversely affects the
health of human beings, animals and plants and it may be caused by a simple
substance such as soluble salts or toxic substances. Pollution leads to degra-
dation of the environment and organisms particularly the humus fraction of
soil. To notice the level of pollutants or contaminants in any part of the soil,
air, and water needs sensitive and suitable methods of chemical analysis. The
soil, water, and air quality are being continuously degraded by construction
activities, waste dumpings, and fumes, respectively. Therefore, the activities
of human beings are strongly associated with pollution and its control in
the environment. The possible reasons for pollution are changes in land use
patterns, soil erosion, increasing salinity and sodicity, shortage of water and
use of refined technologies.
The soil pollutants affect the physical, chemical and biological charac-
teristics of the soils and results in the decline of soil fertility as well as its
crop productivity. Build-up of these soil pollutants also affects the inhabiting
soil flora and fauna. Persistence of pesticide residues, fertilizers, radioactive
substances, industrial wastes, and plastic materials are the main contributing
agents towards soil pollution. Soil pollution can lead to other pollutions like
air pollution and water pollution. Strengthening of agricultural production by
the use of excessive fertilizer and pesticide application, contaminated irriga-
tion water, etc. has created the problem of soil pollution. Soil pollution can be
checked by restricting the use of the above-mentioned pollutants and utilizing
better agricultural production systems like organic farming and adopting other
suitable production systems. Sustainable production can happen if we follow
suitable and adopt such practices that protect the soil from pollutants hazard.
In any cultivated region, soil pollution is one of the main reasons for low
crop productivity and soil health. Decline in soil fertility and availability
of various toxic materials has affected the soil quality. Very few literatures
are available to understand the impact of soil pollution on crop productivity
with respect to Bihar. In this part, the information about the soil pollution
with special reference to Bihar, a state of potentiality with prospect to crop
production has been outlined.

8.2 SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION

The general soil pollutants are chemical pesticides, organic wastes, inorganic
pollutants, salts, radionuclides and acid rain.
Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar 175

8.2.1 CHEMICAL PESTICIDES

To control detrimental organisms in every field of modern life especially agri-

culture, chemical pesticides are being used. Various forms of pesticides are
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, and nematocides. Applica-
tion of these chemicals at high concentrations is detrimental but at low concen-
trations, they may be beneficial. Any chemical pesticide becomes pollutant if
it harms beneficial soil organisms. Application of pesticides to plants, animals
or other places enters the soil system through the soil-plant-atmosphere
continuum (SPAC).
Following are the acceptable properties of pesticides:

1. Their residence time in the environment must be very short. Their

residues must not be accumulated in the food chain. More persistent
pesticides may kill non-target organisms.
2. The pesticide must not have the capability to cause cancer in animals,
tissue deformation and mutations.
3. The pesticide must not spread extensively in the environment after
its application.
4. Chemical pesticides should be of low cost, low corrosiveness and of
low caustic in nature.

8.2.2 ORGANIC WASTES

Sewage, sludge, and effluents (organic wastes) produced from domestic or

industrial activities are the major source of toxic elements. There must be
technologies to ascertain the level of organic and inorganic chemicals prior
to its application in agricultural fields.

1. Garbage: Municipal garbage after decomposition can be used as

a compost to increase crop production and soil conditioner. Urban
garbage contains a high amount of decomposable organic matter and
can be used as composting material.
2. Sewage, Sludge, and Effluents: These are being generated from
industrial wastewater treatment plants. Long-term use of industrial
effluents in agricultural crops can build-up soil salinity since its
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is very high.
176 Sustainable Agriculture

8.2.3 INORGANIC POLLUTANTS

The maximum permissible limit (MPL) of several chemicals in soil, water,

air, and food chain has been prescribed and the primary objective is to
protect human and animal health. The hazardous chemicals may reach the
soil through the inherent system, active volcanoes and release of metals into
the environment from industries and waste disposal. The inorganic pollut-
ants that are considered to be hazardous include Arsenic (As), Cadmium
(Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Mercury (Hg), Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb),
and Zinc (Zn).

8.2.4 SALTS

Soluble salts are mineral substances present in all-natural waters bodies. As

water is evaporated or flows on the surface, the salt concentration increases.
Salt accumulation in soil and water bodies of arid, semi-arid and coastal
regions of the world has been observed. Excess salts can hinder plant growth,
accelerate corrosion of metals and do contamination of drinking water. The
low-cost remedial measure of salt management in the soil is the urgent need
of today.

8.2.5 RADIONUCLIDES

Radioactive substances containing unstable chemical isotopes of elements

and give off radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, and other rays) at some specific
half-life rate are known as radionuclides. The decay time of radionuclides is
in contrast to stable isotopes. These can destruct biological tissues and are
carcinogenic and mutants in nature. The presence of these substances in the
soil degrades its quality and adversely affects the population of flora and
fauna reside in the soil. The retained residues of radioactive compounds in
the soil further decline the soil characteristics.

8.2.6 ACID RAIN

Rainfall containing dissolved acids with very low pH value can be said to be
acid rain. The name of acids present in the acid rain are sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3). Carbonates can be dissolved by acid rain and kill
aquatic life. It increases the toxicity of Aluminum (Al3+) in the soil. In the
Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar 177

atmosphere, Nitric acid comes from different oxides of Nitrogen accumulated

in the atmosphere. The atmospheric sources responsible for soil acidification
are sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, carbonic acid, sulfur dioxide,
reduced sulfur compounds, oxides of nitrogen and ammonia.

8.3 METAL CONTENTS IN SOIL

During the last few decades, soil and plants are being exposed to some
metals as influenced by anthropogenic factors. Biochemical and geolog-
ical cycles of many heavy metals have been changed due to man-made
activities. We can determine and evaluate the heavy metal content and its
exposure in the environment by various methods; however, it is accepted
by many researchers that, soil analysis is one of the crucial factors for the
identification of environmental contamination. An estimation of the envi-
ronmental threat caused by soil contamination is principally important for
cultivated and uncultivated areas due to the fact that metals are harmful to
human health, its lasting effect remains in soils for a reasonably long time
and may shift into the food chain in considerable amounts. These days,
growing concern about the studies of the value of soil and wastes scarce to
dust fall deposition generated from industrial and urban actions is observed.
However, little has been recognized about the accurate mechanism of trans-
port of heavy metals into soil and the mode they are released. It could be
quite endorsed to the complex organo-mineral character of soils. The varia-
tions in metal content of soils can be linked with composition, oxidation/
reduction and adsorption/desorption processes, physical transport or cate-
gorization in addition to man-made metal input. The fact which should be
taken into account also that, metal is associated with soil in different ways
and strengths that make the analysis more difficult. Soil is a vital compo-
nent of rural-urban environments where land management is the key to soil
properties and quality.
Apart from mining and manufacturing activities, the use of synthetic prod-
ucts (e.g., paints, pesticides, batteries, industrial waste and soil application
of industrial effluents) may result in heavy metal contamination of urban and
rural soils. Heavy metals also occur in nature, but not often at toxic levels.
Potentially contaminated soils may take place at old landfills and orchards
that used insecticides containing heavy metal as an active constituent, field,
and farms that had earlier applications of effluents or sewage sludge, areas
in or around mining waste heaps, industrial lands where chemicals may have
been deposited or in non-point source areas downwind from point source.
178 Sustainable Agriculture

The surplus heavy metal build-up in soils is lethal to human beings and
animals. Chronic introduction of heavy metals over a longer period of time
leads to transfer in the food chain. Severe poisoning from heavy metals is
uncommon (but possible) through intake or skin contact. Chronic troubles
linked with continuous and long-term use of heavy metals are Lead (Pb,
Atomic No. 82), Cadmium (Cd, Atomic No. 48) and Arsenic (As, Atomic No.
33). Frequent problem causing cationic metals (positively charged metallic
elements) in soil are Mercury (Hg, Atomic No. 80), Cadmium, Lead, Nickel
(Ni, Atomic No. 28), Copper (Cu, Atomic No. 29), Zinc (Zn, Atomic No. 30),
Chromium (Cr, Atomic No. 24) and Manganese (Mn, Atomic No. 25). The
most familiar anionic compounds (negatively charged metallic elements) are
Arsenic, Molybdenum (Mo, Atomic No. 42), Selenium (Se, Atomic No. 34)
and Boron (B, Atomic No. 5).

8.4 TRACE ELEMENTS AS SOIL CONTAMINANTS

It is discernible from the literature that, during the last two decades, the trace
elements have been considered as environmental contaminants, even more
than organic chemicals. The problems associated with man-made environ-
mental pollution of metal sources have been creating a matter of concern
in the densely populated cities of India. In this view, industrial and agri-
cultural practices, in particular, are answerable for extensive contamination
of the environment in many places. Therefore, the impacts of this pollu-
tion on the associations between animals and human health and exposure to
such elements via air, water, and food, is a vital area of environmental study
(Fifield and Haines, 1995).
Human activities globally are extremely changing the distribution and
characteristics of the world’s forests (Noble and Dirzo, 1997). In fact,
human ecological studies and the promising field of forest history progres-
sively showed that human influences have long been noticeable in many
forests (Baiee, 1989; Thirgood, 1989; Denevan, 1992; Lepofsky et al., 1996;
Roosevelt et al., 1996; Schnieder, 1996; Kirby and Watkins, 1998; Agnoletti
and Anderson, 2000).
In China, environmental pollution has been growing for the last decades.
High atmospheric emission of sulfur has been, and still is, of major concern
(NEPA, 1997). Heavy metals contents in Chinese cultivated soils have been
studied by many researchers, but small information exists on heavy metal
contamination in forest soils.
Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar 179

The core origin of air pollution is fuel combustion through any of the
sources. In India, 25% of the total energy (of which 98% comes from oil) is
consumed by transport sector only, which is reported to be contributing more
than 50% of air pollution in most of the metro cities and in some cases, it
was even up to 80%. A study in 2001 showed that, air pollution contribution
of transport sector was about 72% in Delhi and 48% in Mumbai.
One of the anthropogenic sources of heavy metals exist in various indus-
trial point sources (Nilgun et al., 2004).
Hydrospheric heavy metals are important because they act together
with soil/sediment samples of geological origin and further can influence
biological processes. Ingole and Bhole (2000) revealed that plants, especially
aquatic species, can accumulate heavy metals and act as indicators of the
condition of the water environment in which they are located.
Substantial amounts of lead have accumulated in soils all over the world
due to man-made activities in the last few decades. This metal is highly
lethal for human and animals. So recognizing and characterizing its perfor-
mance in soils is essential. Lead forms strong complexes with organic matter
therefore, it often suffers almost entire retention within forest soils (Wang
et al., 1995). Many heavy metals are biogenic elements, i.e., they occur in
inadequate amounts in living organisms and play definite roles in them.
However, higher concentrations can cause serious problems. In recent years,
due to anthropogenic activity, some heavy metals accumulate in upper soil
layer, enter into the food chain and affect human health.
All over the world, there is a long custom of intensive farming within
urban and peri-urban areas (Smit et al., 1996). However, most of these peri-
urban lands are contaminated with pollutants including heavy metals such
as Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, and Hg. These metals are generated mostly through
industrial effluents, sewage, and sludge, vehicular emission, diesel generators
and application of pesticides in agriculture. This loading of heavy metals
frequently leads to deterioration of soil health and food chain contamination
mainly through the vegetables grown on such soils (Jackson and Alloway,
1992; Rattan et al., 2002).
The emission pathways of metal pollutants into the atmosphere are of
very different types viz. volcanic activity, agricultural emission, soil erosion
and man-made. In other terms, pollutants are emitted from natural and
anthropogenic sources. An accurate evaluation of natural source strength
is pretty difficult but also important, as for many elements, natural emis-
sions exceed those from anthropogenic sources. Among the natural sources
180 Sustainable Agriculture

of trace metals, the windblown dust or dust fall and volcanic eruptions are
considered as the most important (Thakur et al., 2002).
Today’s lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) pools of Swedish forest soils are
mostly originating from anthropogenic sources (Andersson et al., 1992;
Johansson et al., 1995). In southern Sweden the Pb pool of the top soil has
increased during 2000 years between 5 and 10 times the background level
(Johansson et al., 1995). While iron crusts (ferricretes) are pervasive in
western and Central Africa, those are characterized by a contrasted seasonal
climate; they generally not seen in tropical rain forest regions, due to distorted
climatic conditions.

8.5 EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

The main reason for soil pollution is human activities. Contaminates

adversely affect the health of soil directly and indirectly. The soil pollu-
tion interrupts the natural environment and affects the ecological balance.
The nutrient supplying capacity of soil declines abruptly and in turn affects
sustainability. The soil pollution influences the plant growth and nutrient
stock poorly and leads to accumulation of toxic material in the soil. Once
toxic materials enter in the plant system, they disturb the different physi-
ological and biochemical pathways. Consuming contaminated food material
cause ill effects in the human and the animals. Several infectious diseases
in human and animals are results of these contaminants. The health hazards
are great concern for us. Soil pollution results in deterioration of soil char-
acteristics and disrupts the arrangement of soil particles (soil structure).
Alteration in soil structure causes death of many beneficial microorgan-
isms. It affects the life of larger predators (e.g., birds) that do environmental
cleaning to supporting life system on this planet. Soil pollution also affects
the water bodies. For example, the use of excessive nitrogenous and phos-
phatic fertilizer in the soil washes by running water and gets accumulated
in water bodies (eutrophication). These fertilizers affect the quality of the
water and growth and development of such organisms that cause pollution
of water systems.
The cleanliness of the environment is directly related to the state of the
soil. Release of toxic gases in the environment that pollute the air which is
inhaled by humans and animals for their survival is due to anthropogenic
soil contamination. People residing near the polluted land are prone to many
severe diseases like cancer, leukemia, kidney and liver damage, etc. People
of those regions face the problem of migraines, nausea, fatigue and skin
diseases. These problems are caused by direct poisoning of soil pollution.
Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar 181

The long term effects of soil pollution have become more important all
over the world that has affected the life of the entire living society residing
on the earth. Higher dose of heavy metal in the potable and edible food
material enters into food chain and finally does detrimental problems.
Remediation of soil pollution is a big challenge and requires considerable
awareness and attention of society. Biological soil remediation is one of
the techniques which can be utilized on mass scale in getting rid of soil
pollution.

8.6 BIOLOGICAL SOIL REMEDIATION

Not like the physical remediation techniques, biological techniques are

usually performed in-situ. These techniques comprise of microbial reme-
diation, phytoremediation, fungal remediation and composting. Further, the
descriptions are not broad, as we obtain to emphasize the major benefits and
drawbacks of each technique and provide a relationship among the tech-
niques. Widespread literature on these techniques and methodologies are
available for further understanding.

8.6.1 MICROBIAL REMEDIATION

Remediation through microbes refers to the utilization of microbes in

degrading contaminants into a reduced toxic form. This technique can be
very effective in the treatment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or PAH’s,
pesticides and Polychlorinated biphenyls or PCB’s. The normal cost is rela-
tively low and timeframe is little. However, there is a likelihood of enhanced
toxicity of definite metals.

8.6.2 PHYTOREMEDIATION

Phytoremediation is the method of using plants to extract contaminants or to

degrade/decompose them in the soil. As in the case of microbial remediation,
the cost is little. However, the time frame can be longer than quite a few years.
Efficiency of soil to meet agricultural standard varies because one species of
plant is characteristically used on one type of contaminant, potentially leaving
behind a variety of contaminants. Hence, the contaminated plants used for
extraction must be disposed off.
182 Sustainable Agriculture

8.6.3 FUNGAL REMEDIATION

Remediation through Fungi refers to the use of distinct types of fungi to

degrade contaminants. This commercial technique can be available only after
its development.

8.6.4 COMPOST REMEDIATION

Remediation through compost involves the addition of compost materials to

the soil. This is inexpensive and rapid to do. However, it is not an accurate
remediation method, as the contaminants normally remain together in the soil.
Further, the compost addition can, on the other hand, is used to make a raised
bed, in which the plant roots may not have contact to contaminated soil.

8.6.5 NON-REMEDIAL OPTIONS

Other than these remediation techniques, soil contamination issues can be

dealt with the other options also. The options involve growing the produce
in a detached container or raised bed above the contaminated soil. It can be
used in an endeavor to avoid plant roots from attaining the contaminated
soil. Likewise, techniques such as aquaponics are an additional method
to prevent growing directly in the soil. Alternately, for highly contami-
nated soil, one may consider for another portion of land for the garden. As
expected, the health risks of growing food grains in contaminated soil can
be noteworthy.

8.7 SOIL POLLUTION IN BIHAR

Soil is one of the most important resources of a nation. It is the gift of nature
of immense value. The most common use of the word soil is in the sense of
a medium in which plants grow, although it has a different connotation at
different time and place, and for persons engaged in different professions.
Almost all the economic activities are directly or indirectly dependent on
soil. Thus soil is the backbone of agricultural and industrial development.
Soil has a number of characteristics, which may be regarded as the aggregate
of the physical, chemical and biological properties. The Bihar plane, in most
part, consists of a wide alluvial layer of drift origin.
Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar 183

Human efforts for the better living standards and pollution of the environ-
mental are the two sides of the same coin. Considering rapid industrialization,
consequent urbanization and ever-increasing population, the basic services
of life, i.e., water, air, and soil, are being populated constantly. Industrial
complexes have become the center of environmental pollution. When changed
in its quality and composition as affected by anthropogenic activities, air may
be regarded as polluted. Since the atmosphere has a considerable absorptive
capacity, the release of fewer amounts of pollutants into the air does not lead
to any severe effects.
Various industrial installations form the stationary sources of the urban
air pollution viz. asphalt plants, brick chimney plants, boiling and heating
installations, cement manufacturing, fertilizer manufacturing, mineral acid
manufacturing, paper and pulp manufacturing, thermal and nuclear power
plants, sewage treatment plants and engineering workshops, etc. The mobile
sources of air pollution are automobiles such as cars, scooters, motors, trucks,
and buses moving on the urban roads. North Bihar’s Saran district has a
variety of temporary as well as permanent brick chimney plants adjoining
the district headquarter Chhapra town (Srivastava and Singh, 2012). All the
brick chimneys emit CO2, SO2, etc., which directly or indirectly interrelate
with the soil constituents. The interaction of the dust smoke with soil may
bring about physical and chemical changes of the top fertile layer of soils.
Groundwater contamination with natural Arsenic and Fluoride is posing
a serious problem to the soil as well as the environment and causing serious
health hazards to human beings, soil flora and fauna. This is because the
source of Arsenic and fluoride contamination in soils is unexceptionally
contaminated groundwater (Table 8.1). It is only due to the excessive and
irrational exploitation of contaminated groundwater, that there occurs a
substantial build-up of Arsenic and fluoride in soils. In India, this problem
is mainly concerned in the states like Bihar, UP, Chhattisgarh and some
parts of Jharkhand. Arsenic contamination reaches the soil due to various
geogenic and anthropogenic activities and it pollutes the soil badly. More
than 10 million people in the rural part of Bihar are exposed to high levels
of Arsenic through naturally contaminated drinking water sources. Arsenic
levels in the water go beyond the permissible limits in some areas. To the
inhabitants, Arsenic contamination in soil and food chain could be a poten-
tial threat. People suffering from Arsenicosis symptoms and supposed to
Arsenic induced cancers were observed in the state. The state needs ample
Arsenic mitigation policies and decision-making tools to help prioritize the
areas. For assessing and mapping the vulnerability to groundwater Arsenic
contamination, extent, distribution and its possible mitigation options a
184 Sustainable Agriculture

decision-making tool such as a composite vulnerability framework would

be the absolute necessity.
Shallow depth hand pump water samples collected from some villages in
the Ganga basin in Kahalgaon. Nathnagar, Sultanganj, Pirpainti and Sabour
block of Bhagalpur district were found to be contaminated with Arsenic in
quantities more than the permissible limit (> 50 ppb). The maximum fluo-
ride content of water samples was found to be 3.61 ppm in Kola Khurd
village of Jagdishpur block which was substantially higher than the permis-
sible limit of 1.50 ppm. Fluoride contamination was also detected in some
villages of Shahkund and Nathnagar blocks. Vegetable crops were found to
contain more Arsenic than cereals, pulses and oilseed crops in the Arsenic
contaminated areas. No Arsenic and fluoride contamination was detected
n water samples collected from a depth of more than 130 ft. In the studied
areas, the Nathnagar block showed maximum Arsenic content (460 ppb).
Some villages of Kahalgaon, Pirpainti, Sabour and Sultanganj blocks also
exhibited Arsenic content beyond the permissible limit of 50 ppb. Arsenic
content in soils of different blocks of Bhagalpur varied from non-detect-
able to 3.88 ppm whereas the content in plant parts of cereals, tubers, bulbs,
pulses, oilseeds, and vegetables are presented in Table 8.2.

TABLE 8.1 General Information on Groundwater of Bhagalpur

S. No. Parameters Values
1 EC (dS m )–1
0.07–1.3
2 pH 6.8–8.35
3 Total dissolved solids (ppm) 163–788
4 Total hardness as CaCO3 (ppm) 61–505
5 Calcium (ppm) 11–172
6 Magnesium (ppm) 7.3–81
7 Sodium (ppm) 14–189
8 Potassium (ppm) 0.18–4.0
9 Chloride (ppm) 10.6–200
10 Carbonate (ppm) 0.12–0.91
11 Bicarbonate (ppm) 102–742
12 Sulfate (ppm) <3.0
13 Fluoride (ppm) 0.0–3.61
14 Arsenic (ppm) 0.0–0.46
Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar 185

Experimental studies conducted at Bihar Agricultural University (BAU),

Sabour, Bhagalpur for minimizing Arsenic hazards in rice have suggested that
the Arsenic accumulation in grain, straw, and roots of rice could be reduced
with the application of organic materials such as FYM, rice straw, green
manure. The same results were found to be true when studies were upscaled
on farmer’s fields in the villages of Nathnagar and Pirpainti blocks. The incor-
poration of organic manures minimized the Arsenic accumulation in rice grain
and straw and also sustained the soil health against Arsenic contamination.

TABLE 8.2 Arsenic (As) Content of Various Crops Grown in Contaminated Areas
Crops Range of as Content Mean Content of as
(Parts Per Billion) (Parts Per Billion)
Wheat 43–76 57
Maize 38–85 74
Potato 119–156 131
Brinjal 75–108 84
Cauliflower 51–129 81
Coriander 15–47 35
Beans (Seem) 18–36 27
Onion 154–255 180
Tomato 20–61 35
Mustard 23–81 50
Linseed 18–52 32
Lentil 25–48 33
Green gram 21–41 34

8.8 WET AND DRY POLLUTANT DEPOSITION ON SOIL

The wet removal process is helpful only during the monsoon period (June-
September) when about 90% of the annual rainfall occurs in India. During
the rest of the year, dry conditions prevail which determine the atmospheric
deposition chemistry in India. Ambient concentration and atmospheric
reactions are restricted by the continuous input of dust particles suspended
in the air which are contributed by soil suspension for the duration of dry
weather conditions. Hence, dustfall deposition is a significant removal
method in India as it provides an extremely good sink for acidic gaseous
pollutants covering the earth’s atmosphere (Kulshrestha et al., 2003).
186 Sustainable Agriculture

Saxena et al. (1997) considered that besides wet deposition, dry deposition
is another major atmospheric removal process of both gases and particulates
to the earth’s surface. The dry deposition of minute acidifying substances
containing SO42–, NO3– and NH4+ contribute to the total acid input to
ecosystems. For hefty particles containing base cations, the understanding of
deposition is important for the understanding of through fall measurements,
nutrient cycling, and assessment of significant critical loads.
Dry deposition of airborne pollutants contributes importantly to the
atmospheric load of ecosystems and is studied intensively. The dry deposition
process is influenced by numerous chemical, physical, and biological aspects
of the atmosphere, the deposited substance, and the surface structure (Sehmel,
1980; Hosker and Lindberg, 1982). Factors influencing the rate of dry
deposition may have different effects of the deposition of particles and gases.
Differences in factors influencing deposition may occur within small distances
and within short periods of time. Forest edges provide a situation where many
factors regulating deposition are changing within very small distances. Wiman
and Agren (1985) showed in their model studies that, the higher the wind speed
at the forest edge increased the dry deposition of particles.

8.9 CONCLUSION

Leaving crop residues on the soil and incorporating it into the soil reduces
erosion and increases soil organic matter. The introduction of organic
matter into the soil also makes compaction less likely. Crop rotation is a
valuable way to improve soil fertility, reduce erosion and control pests.
With respect to organic farming, there has been a point of view both for
and against. Critics argue that organic farming cannot produce the amount
of food required for today’s population and in certain conditions only it
is economically viable. However, a group of organic farming feels that if
the unseen costs of soil erosion and pollution are taken into account, it is
a feasible approach. One more way to reduce pollution impacts on soil is
via use of integrated pest management (IPM). This is a technique that uses
a complete thought of all the natural aspects of a crop and the meticulous
pests to which it is vulnerable to establish pest control strategies that uses
no or few pesticides.
Soil Pollution: Studies with a Specific Reference to Bihar 187

KEYWORDS

 biochemical oxygen demand

 compost remediation
 fungal remediation
 integrated pest management
 maximum permissible limit
 soil-plant-atmosphere continuum

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B., (2002). Content, distribution, and solubility of cadmium in arable and forest soils. Soil
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Banat, K. M., Howari, F. M., & Al-Hamad, A. A., (2005). Heavy metals in urban soils of
central Jordan: Should we worry about their environmental risks? Environmental Research,
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Bruemmer, G. W., Gerth, J., & Herms, U., (1986). Heavy metal species, mobility and
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Davies, T. D., & Mitchell, J. R., (1983). Dry deposition of sulfur dioxide onto grass in
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Pruppacher, H. R., Semonin, R. G., & Slinn, W. G. N., (eds.), Precipitation Scavenging,
Dry Deposition and Resuspension (pp. 795–806). Elsevier, New York.
Dudka, S., Piotrowska, M., Matysiak, Z., & Witek, T., (1995). Spatial distribution of trace metal
concentrations in arable soils and crop plants of Poland. Polish Journal of Environmental
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Fifield, F. W., & Haines, P. J., (1996). Environmental Analytical Chemistry. Blackie Academic
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Goyal, S. K., Ghatge, S. V., Nema, P., & Tamhane, S. M., (2006). Understanding urban
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Grzebisz, W., Cieśla, L., Komisarek, J., & Potarzycki, J., (2002). Geochemical assessment of
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water hyacinth. Pollution Research [Pollut. Res.]., 19(4), 575–583.
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Kumar, R., Rani, A., Kumari, K. M., & Srivastava, S. S., (2005). Atmospheric dry deposition
to marble and red stone. J. Atmos. Chemistry, 50, 243–261.
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Mehra, R. K., (2016). Soil and environment. In: Text Book of Soil Science (pp. 456–484).
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NEPA and the National People’s Congress, (1997b). The Handbook for Environmental Laws
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Nilgun, G., Omar, A., & Gurdal, T., (2004). In vestigation of soil of multi- element composition
in Antalya, Turkey. Environmental International, 29, 631–640.
Noble, I. R., & Dirzo, R., (1997). Forests as human-dominated ecosystems. Science, 277,
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Omar, A., & Al-Khashman, (2004). Heavy metal distribution in dust, street dust and soils from
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Saari, A., Martikainen, P. J., Ferm, A., Ruuskanen, J., De Boer, W., Troelstra, S. R., &
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Saikh, H., Varadachari, C., & Ghosh, K., (1998). Changes in carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus
levels due to deforestation and cultivation: A case study in Simlipal National Park, India.
Plant and Soil, 198, 137–145.
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particles in Quetta valley. J. Zhejiang Univ. Science B., 7(7), 542–547.
Saxena, A., Kulshrestha, U. C., Kumar, N., Kumai, K. M., Praksh, S., & Srivastava, S. S.,
(1997). Dry deposition of sulphate and nitrate to polypropylene surfaces in a semi-arid area
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metals in the airborne dust particulates of an urban city of Central India. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 95, 257–268.
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CHAPTER 9

Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science

NINTU MANDAL,1* KASTURIKASEN BEURA,1 and ABHIJEET GHATAK2
1
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
2
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
*
E-mail: [email protected] (N. Mandal)

ABSTRACT
Nanotechnology, the science as well as the art of manipulating matter
at atomic or nanoscale (1 nm = 10–9 m) is cutting edge technologies in
agricultural sciences. Nanotechnological interventions in increasing input use
efficiencies, decontamination of toxicants, manipulating genetic materials,
increasing shelf life of harvested produce and production of quality planting
materials may lead to sustainable agricultural production. Nanoscience and
nanotechnology unit of BAU, since its inception is engaged in developing
novel agrochemicals with an intelligent delivery system as well as human
resource development (UG and PG teaching and research in Nanotechnology
in Agriculture). Novel nanopolymeric hydrogel, nanoformulation of P, Zn,
Fe, chitosan, Ag, and Cu have been developed and evaluated under laboratory
and greenhouse conditions. Field evaluation of novel nanomoleclues for
benefit:cost ratio and multi-location field trials are underway.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Nanoscience is the study of matter at atomic or nanometer (1 nm = 10–9 m)
scale. Nanotechnology is the designs, fabrication and control structure for
specific applications. According to US EPA (the United States Environment
Protection Agency, 2007), nanoparticles are substances that are less than 100
nm in size in more than one dimension. Such particles are minerals that are
as small as roughly 1 nm and as large as several tens of nanometers in at least
one dimension. Limiting size in one, two, or three dimensions results in a
190 Sustainable Agriculture

nanosheet (e.g., Vernadite), a nanorod (e.g., Palygorskite), or a nanoparticles

(Ferrihydrite), respectively.

9.1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Richard P. Feynman in 1959 suggested that it would be possible to build
machines small enough to manufacture objects with atomic precision. His talk
“There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” is widely considered to be the fore-
shadowing of nanotechnology. In 1990, a team of IBM physicists revealed that
they could write (arrange) the letters IBM using 35 individual atoms of Xenon.
In 1992, a book entitled Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufac-
turing and Computation was published by Eric Drexler where he outlined a
way to manufacture extremely high-performance machines out of molecular
carbon lattice (diamondoid).
Around the year 2000, federal funding for nanotechnology in the United
States began with the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). NNI
defined nanotechnology as dealing with materials with sizes between 1 and
100 nanometers exhibiting novel properties.
The Government of India, in May 2007 launched a mission on nanosci-
ence and nanotechnology (nano mission) with an allocation of Rs. 1000 cores.
Nanosynthesis involves two fabrication techniques, i.e., top-down
approach and bottom-up approach. The first approach is working with
macroscopic materials and coming gradually to nanoscale, relatively easy
but there may be imperfection in the crystals. The second one, i.e., bottom-
up approach is working with atomic level particles and gradually build-up of
nanoscale materials. It is time taking, but more perfection on the structure is
obtained. There is a summary of these two techniques.

9.2 SYNTHESIS AT NANOSCALE
Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science 191

9.3 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

9.3.1 NANOSCALE CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

The development and continual refinement of nanoscale techniques have

allowed for much of the revolution in nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Wide array of microscopes such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM)
and epifluorescence microscopy are used for characterization at nanoscale.
Analytical methods ranging from atomic absorption (AA) and inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) emission spectrophotometry (ICP) to extended x-ray
absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and x-ray absorption near edge structure
(XANES) spectroscopies are crucial for understanding material composition
and structure.

9.4 APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanomaterials have a wide potential in agricultural science. Several fields

of potential nanotechnology Increase in input use efficiency (Fertilizers,
agrochemicals), controlled release agrochemical formulations, biosensors in
precision agriculture and so on (Figure 9.1).

FIGURE 9.1 Application of nanotechnology in agriculture.

192 Sustainable Agriculture

Horticultural science also having immense application of nanomaterials

viz increase of vase life of cut flowers, food packaging, biosensors, control
release fertilizers, and pesticide formulations, micropropagation, as well as
horticultural waste materials, can be a good source for nanoparticle synthesis
for other applications.

9.4.1 AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY:

GLOBAL SYNTHESIS

9.4.1.1 NANOCLAY POLYMER COMPOSITES (NCPC): NOVEL

FERTILIZER FORMULATIONS

Slow-release carrier of urea fertilizer was developed by aqueous solution

copolymerization of partially neutralized acrylic acid and acrylamide in
presence of kaolin nanopowder. The release of urea could be affected by
many factors such as contents of acrylamide, crosslinker, kaolin, the neutral-
ization degree of acrylic acid, temperature, pH and ionic strength of release
medium (Liang and Liu, 2007).
In a greenhouse experiment, Sarkar et al., 2013 reported that Olsen P,
CaCl2-extractable P and mineral N content in soils increased significantly
due to the addition of fertilizer as NCPC (Nanoclay polymer composite) as
compared to conventional fertilizer. Moreover, nutrient availability in soils
receiving lower doses of fertilizer as NCPC was statistically at par with the
higher dose of conventional fertilizer.
NCPCs based controlled release nutrient formulation was reported by
Sarkar et al. (2013). Among various types of clays, smectite-dominated clay
had the highest hydration and distention among the selected clays (Kaolinite
and Mica); this resulted in more crosslinking in the composite, which in
turn, resulted in the lowest equilibrium water absorbency (WA) and nutrient-
release (N and P) rate of the corresponding NCPC. Smectitic types of clay
minerals are reported to be exfoliated into the galleries whereas mica and
kaolinite, intercalation occurred.
Superabsorbent polymer with slow-release phosphate fertilizer
(SAPSRPF) was reported by Zhan et al., (2004). The experimental result for
phosphate release in the SAPSRPF about 26.5% of phosphate in SAPSRPF
was released out within 24 h; on the 72nd hour, the total amount of phos-
phate released out was about 47%. The phosphate released out in this period
mainly existed in the SAPSRPF surface layer, because it would go into water
without diffusing as soon as it was dissolved, so the release rate was fast, and
Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science 193

on the (672th hour) 28th day, the total amount of phosphate released out had
gradually increased to 79%.
However, the application of NCPCs in the field have met some problems
because most of these superabsorbent are based on pure poly (sodium acry-
late) and then they are too expensive and not suitable for saline containing
water and soils (Mohan et al., 2005). Recently there have been many reports
on introducing inorganic clays into pure polymeric superabsorbent to
improve swelling property, hydrogels strengths, and reduce production cost
(Wu et al., 2003).
Nanomaterials based controlled release nutrient formulations were
reported recently (Sarkar et al., 2013; Mandal et al., 2015). Nanoclay poly-
meric based controlled release formulation for fertilizers to supply N, P
had been attempted (Sarkar et al., 2013) and under pot experimentation
reported to give promising results. Zincated nanoclay polymer composites
(ZNCPC) as controlled releaser Zn formulation was reported to enhance Zn
uptake, P uptake in rice and also stimulated soil microbial activities in terms
of enhanced soil dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphatase activity
(Mandal et al., 2015).
Mosanna and Behroztar (2015) reported that the use of zinc nano-chelate
application had positive effect on yield and yield components. Based on the
results, soil application of nano-chalate zinc had the highest plant height.
Prasad et al., (2012) was observed that application of nano ZnO to Peanut
resulted to increases pod yield per plant was 34% higher compared to bulk
ZnSO4. Consequently, and with the foliar application of nano-scale ZnO
particles at 15 times lower dose compared to the chelated ZnSO4 recom-
mended and we recorded 29.5% and 26.3% higher pod yield, respectively,
compared to chelated ZnSO4.
The effect of NCPC combination increases the availability nutrient in
soil and enhanced the microbial activity due to high organic matter decom-
position and mineralization (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2015).
ZnO-NPs enhanced growth of mung bean and chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
seedlings at low concentrations (Mahajan et al., 2011). They reported that
mung bean seedlings, the best growth response for root (a 42% increase in
length or 41% in biomass) and shoot (98% in length or 76% in biomass) was
observed at a concentration of 20 mg L–1 over those of the control; 1 mg L–1
caused significant increases in root (53% in length or 37% in biomass) and
shoot (6% in length or 27% in biomass) growth for the chickpea seedlings.
However, the decline in growth rates of roots and shoots were observed
beyond these optimal concentrations.
194 Sustainable Agriculture

Starch (by 1.1–1.6 times), glutelin (by 0.9–2 times), and Zn (by 1.7–2.5
times) content increased by application of ZnO-NPs in the harvested
cucumber fruits (Zhao et al., 2013, 2014). Further, there were no adverse
effects of ZnO-NPs observed on any growth-related parameters. 2 mg L–1 of
ZnO-NPs enhanced root elongation of germinated radish (Raphanussativus)
and rape (Brassicanapus) seeds over those of the control (deionized or DI
water only), while 2 mg L–1 of metallic Zn-NPs improved growth of ryegrass
(Loliumperenne) seedlings (Lin and Xing, 2007).

9.5 SUPER ABSORBENT HYDROGEL

Super absorbents are three-dimensionally cross-linked hydrophilic polymers

capable of swelling and retaining huge volume of water in swollen state.
Recently, research on the use of superabsorbent as water management
materials for agricultural and horticultural application (Mohana et al., 2003)
and as slow-release carrier of agrochemicals has attracted great attention
(Shavit et al., 2003; Sarkar et al., 2013). The optimized combination of
superabsorbent and fertilizers may improve the nutrition of plants and
concomitantly mitigate the environmental impact from water-soluble
fertilizers, lowered evaporation losses and reduced frequency of irrigation
(Li et al., 2005: Chatzoudis and Valkanas, 1995).
Equilibrium WA in distilled water showed that for polyacrylamide/clay
(PAM/clay) composites incorporated with the same clay content was in the
order PAM/vermiculite > PAM/mica > PAM/attapulgite ≈ PAM/kaolinite >
PAM/Na+ -montmorillonite and they also proposed that this might be due
to the hydration and distension difference of these clays (Zhang and Wang
(2007). For example, Na+ -montmorillonite clay had the highest hydration
and distention among the clays selected, that resulted more crosslinking in
the composite which in turn resulted the lowest equilibrium WA of the corre-
sponding PAM/clay composites. Equilibrium WA of PAM/clay composites in
distilled water decreased with increasing clay content from 5 wt% to 40 wt%.
Decreasing tendency of WA with increasing clay content might be due to the
fact that the clays could react with acrylamide and acted as crosslink points in
the corresponding polymeric network and their observations were in confor-
mity with the study of other researchers (Lin et al., 2001; Li et al., 2004).
Moisture release curve (expressed in terms of difference in moisture held
at zero pressure and a particular pressure) indicates that soil amended with
0.75% NSAPC (Novel Nano-Superabsorbent Composite) led to maximum
improvement in its water release property. As expected, 0.75% P-gel
Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science 195

amended soil-less medium exhibited most superior moisture release pattern

(Singh et al., 2011).
SAPSRPF was prepared by esterification of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
and phosphoric acid (H3PO4), which was a slow-release fertilizer as well as
superabsorbent polymer was reported by Zhan et al., 2004. The product’s
WA was about 480 times its own weight if it was allowed to swell in distilled
water at room temperature for 24 h.

9.6 BAU INITIATIVES IN NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology unit was established at BAU, Sabour (O.O.

No: 40/Registrar/BAU., Sabour dated 30.07.2015) under the department of
Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, BAC, Sabour.

9.6.1 EDUCATION

 The unit is offering one UG course (ASS 301 Introduction to Nano-

technology) and one PG (MSc, Ag, and PhD) (SOILS 516 Introduc-
tion to Nanotechnology) course.
 Innovative teaching methodologies including models, small projects,
multimedia projector are being used.

9.6.2 RESEARCH PROJECTS

 Development of multinutreints NCPCs fertilizer formulation for

cereals.
 Development of partially acidulated nano-rock phosphate formulation
for rice wheat cropping system.
 Novel antimicrobial polymeric coating materials for increasing shelf
life of fruits.
 Novel nanobiomolecules for controlling pathogenic fungi.

9.6.3 ACHIEVEMENTS

 Novel Superabsorbent Hydrogel: Novel superabsorbent hydrogel

development protocol has been designed having equilibrium WA
(ranging from 230 g g–1 to 500 g g–1) (Table 9.1). Products are
196 Sustainable Agriculture

biodegradable, can withstand high salinity level (100 Mm NaCl solu-

tion). These are being processed for patent filing and subsequently will
be licensed for commercial production.

TABLE 9.1 Equilibrium Water Absorbency of Novel Superabsorbent Hydrogel

Combination Water Absorbency (g g–1)
Polymer Iymer I 550,500,000
Polymer II 450
Polymer III 350
Polymer IV 275
Polymer V 250
Polymer VI 230
LSD (P<0.05) 15

 Novel Nano Fe Fertilizer: Novel nanoformulation of Fe has been

developed; protocol has been standardized in the laboratory. Products
content Fe ranging from 6% to 10%. Fe use efficiency under pot
experiment goes high (25%) in comparison with conventional
fertilizer (FeSO4. 7 H2O) having use efficiency of 1–5%. Novel Fe
nanofetilizers seem to be a promising technology for increasing
Fe content in cereal grains which will in the future eliminate Fe
malnutrition. These products will be submitted for patent and in due
course will be released for commercial production.
 Novel Nano P Fertilizers: Protocol for development of novel nano
P fertilizers from indigenous rock phosphate (Udaipur, Purulia, and
Mussourie) has been developed. Watersoluble P content in nanofor-
mulations goes high (Figures 9.2 and 9.3) as compared to rock phos-
phate. P use efficiency in nano P goes high up to 30% in pot experi-
ment as compared to conventional (DAP, SSAP) P fertilizers (use
efficiency 15–20%). These products will be submitted for patent
and in due course will be released for commercial production.

9.7 SYNTHESIS, FORMULATION AND EVALUATION OF NANO ZN

FERTILIZERS UNDER RICE RHIZOSPHERE

Various nano Zn formulations (ZNCPC and Nano ZnO) were evaluated in

comparison with ZnSO4. 7H2O (Conventional Zn fertilizers) under rice-
rhizosphere. There was significant increase in DTPA ZN content under NCPC
Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science 197

based Zn formulations (Table 9.2). Apparent Zn recovery went as high as

25.56% under NCPC Zn formulation (Table 9.3) followed by nano ZnO spray
(15.25%).

FIGURE 9.2 Watersoluble P content in Rock phosphate and nanoformulations.

FIGURE 9.3 Watersoluble P content in various nanoformulations.

198 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 9.2 Effect of Different Inorganic and Bio-Inoculating Treatments on DTPA

Extractable Zn in Soil (mg kg–1) of Rhizosphere Soil at Different Growth Stages of Rice Plants
Treatment S1 S2 Panicle S3 Mean
Maximum Initiation Harvesting
Tillering
T1: Control 0.50 0.73 0.64 0.62
T2: RDF (ZnSO4, 7H2O) soil application 0.76 1.05 0.98 0.93
T3: ZnSO4, 7H2O (2%) + Lime spray 0.58 1.59 1.54 1.24
T4: RDF + Azospirillum brasilense 2.65 3.52 3.46 3.19
T5: Nano Zn spray at recommended dose 0.64 1.39 1.43 1.15
T6: NCPC* based Zinc 2.63 3.60 3.50 3.24
Mean 1.02 1.98 1.92 1.73
Initial value 0.48
Particulars SE m(±) CD at 5% CD at 1%
Stage (S) 0.05 0.13 0.18
Treatment (T) 0.06 0.19 0.25
Interaction (S × T) 0.11 0.32 0.43

TABLE 9.3 Effect of Various Nano Zinc Sources with Zinc Mobilizer on Apparent Zinc
Recovery (%)
Treatment Apparent Zinc Recovery (%)
T1: Control -
T2: RDF (ZnSO4, 7H2O) soil application 2.23
T3: ZnSO4, 7H2O (2%) + Lime spray 3.14
T4: RDF + Azospirillum bracilense 10.76
T5: Nano Zn spray at recommended dose 15.25
T6: NCPC* based Zinc 25.56

However, these products need to be evaluated in field experiments at

multi-location trial.

9.8 MULTINUTREINT NANOCLAY POLYMER COMPOSITE

FORMULATION (MNCPC) FOR CEREALS

Nanotechnological intervention in rhizosphere is of utmost importance. Novel

NCPCs based multinutreint formulations have been developed for cereal
crops. Product contains N, P, K, and Zn (%): 34, 6.67, 12 and 1 respectively
(Maize) product contains N, P, K, and Zn (%) 36, 6, 6 and 1 (Rice). Labo-
ratory released study (Figure 9.4) revealed that MNCPCs had a controlled
release of nutrients as compared to conventional fertilizer molecules.
Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science 199

FIGURE 9.4 Release of N over incubation period in laboratory experiment.

9.9 NOVEL NANOFORMULATIONS FOR CONTROLLING

PATHOGENIC FUNGI

Novel chitosan nanoformulations has been synthesized in the laboratory.

Ag and Cu based nanocomposites have been developed in the laboratory.
These have been tested in vitro on Sclerotium rolfsii. These formulations
under controlled condition giving promising results in terms of germination
of sclerotia (Table 9.4; Figure 9.7), radical growth (Figure 9.5) and status of
scerotia germination (Figure 9.6).

TABLE 9.4 Sclerotia Germination of Sclerotium Rolfsii Upon Dipping of in Colloidal Nano-
formulation of Chitosan
Dipping Period Status of Germination
in Hour Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6
Mock* - + + + + +
0 - + + + + +
4 - - - + + +
6 - - - + + +
8 - - - + + +
24 - - - - + +
28 - - - - - +
30 - - - - - +
32 - - - - - -
*
Mock: water dipping for 0 h.
200 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 9.5 Effect of concentration of chitosan nanoformulation on radial growth of

Sclerotium rolfsii.

FIGURE 9.6 Status of sclerotial germination upon treatment of chitosan colloid.

9.10 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Efficacy of novel nanoformulations developed need to be evaluated under

field experimentation in long-term basis at multi-location trial.
Nanotechnology in Agricultural Science 201

FIGURE 9.7 Germination percent of sclerotia.

KEYWORDS

 atomic absorption
 atomic force microscopy
 farmers adaptability
 human resource development
 inductively coupled plasma
 nanotechnology

REFERENCES

Lin, D., & Xing, B., (2007). Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: Inhibition of seed germination
and Influence of CeO2 and ZnO nanoparticles on cucumber physiological markers and
bioaccumulation of Ce and Zn: A life cycle study. Journal of Agriculture and Food
Chemistry, 61, 11945–11951.
Linng, R., & Liu, M., (2007). Synthesis of polymer–montomorillonite nanocomposites by in
situ intercalative polymerization. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 106, 3015–3030.
Mahajan, P., Dhoke, S. K., & Khanna, A. S., (2011). Effect of nano-ZnO particle suspension
on growth of mung (Vigna radiata) and gram (Cicer arietinum) seedlings using plant agar
method. Journal of Nanotechnology, 7. Article ID 696535.
202 Sustainable Agriculture

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growth. Environmental Pollution, 150, 243–250.
CHAPTER 10

Endomycorrhizal Fungi: Phosphorous

Nutrition in Crops
MAHENDRA SINGH, RAJIV RAKSHIT, and KASTURIKASEN BEURA
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar
Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Phosphorus (P) is one of the most important plant growth nutrient which is
immobile in soil. In soil, it occurs in three forms namely, soluble and insoluble
inorganic phosphorous and organic phosphorus. Uptake of phosphorus from
soil solution is increased by endomycorrhizal fungi in addition to increase
plant root surface area. They are commonly found in association with
approximately 85% of angiosperm plants. The enhancement in growth of
plants is mainly attributed to uptake of less mobile nutrients such as P, Zn, Cu,
etc., from the soil. The other advantageous properties are their role in the plant
growth hormone production, greater capability to endure water stress and
synergistic association with agriculturally beneficial soil microorganisms. It is
believed that mycorrhizal fungi secret some phosphatases enzyme which also
increased the availability of P. The field studies have shown that inoculation
with efficient mycorrhizal fungi not only improves growth and yield of crop
plants while it reduces the application of phosphatic fertilizer. Advantages of
endomycorrhizae are attaining through the application of suitable and efficient
AM fungi inoculums and augment resident mycorrhizal fungal actions in the
soil through manipulating agricultural practices in support of these inoculums.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Mycorrhiza is a mutualistic symbiosis between certain groups of soil fungi
and most plant root systems (Hata et al., 2010). The most important assistance
204 Sustainable Agriculture

of mycorrhiza is the enhanced growth of plants which is mostly due to

improvement in phosphorus nutrition. Various mechanisms (e.g., explora-
tion of large soil volume, faster movement of mycorrhizal hyphae and solu-
bilization of soil phosphorus) are responsible for increasing the uptake of
phosphorus by mycorrhizal plants. Non-nutritional benefits to plants, such
as changes in water relations, phytohormone levels, carbon assimilation,
secretion of enzymes, increased microbial count in soil, etc. have also been
reported, but they are difficult to interpret (Andrade et al., 1998).
Phosphorus is one of the major essential macronutrients which limit
plant growth owing to its low bioavailability in soils (Feng et al., 2004).
Improving plant acquisition of P from soil is an obvious alternative for the
management of those low P soils (Zhu et al., 2003). It is commonly known
that arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) fungi, they act as a direct link between
soil and roots, AM fungi help plants to capture water and nutrients (espe-
cially P) from the soil, and in return, the plant provides the fungus with
relatively constant and direct access to carbohydrates (Smith and Read,
2008), which are translocated from their source to root tissue and on to
fungal partners.
Soil enzymatic activities regulate the various indices of soil fertility, soil
productivity and soil quality (Busto and Perez-Mateos, 1997). AM fungi
can increase soil enzyme activities, such as phosphatase dehydrogenase,
urease, protease and β-glucosidase (Caravaca et al., 2004). Mar Vazquez et
al., (2000) reported mycorrhizal colonization induced qualitative changes
in the microbial population and enzyme activities in the rhizosphere of
maize plants. Rao and Tak (2001) found that mycorrhizal fungal inocula-
tion resulted in enhanced plant growth, total uptake of N, P, and many other
nutrients, activities of dehydrogenase, phosphatases and nitrogenase in the
rhizosphere in gypsum mine spoil. Due to the energy-intensive manufacture
of chemical fertilizers, use of microbial inoculants to supplement a part of
phosphorus requirement has been attaining enormous significance.

10.2 TYPE OF MYCORRHIZAE

There are two main kinds of mycorrhiza- the ectomycorrhizae (ECM) and
the endomycorrhizae. In the ECM (also called ectotrophicmycorrhize), the
fungus completely encloses each feeder rootlet in a sheath or mantle of
hyphae. The hyphae or germ tube of spore of mycorrhizae get penetrate only
between the root cortex cells. In endomycorrhizae fungi, it does not form a
Endomycorrhizal Fungi: Phosphorous Nutrition in Crops 205

hartig net which is an external sheath but lives inside the cells of root and
develop structure namely vesicles and arbuscules. Hence, it is established
straight connections among the cells of the root and the nearby soil of roots.
The details of beneficial effects of both ecto- and endomycorrhizae on
plant growth is presented here.

10.2.1 ECTOMYCORRHIZAE (ECM)

ECM are generally formed by hundreds of different fungal species belong to

class Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. Most of the fungi forming ECM with
trees are basidiomycetous belonging to Hymenomycetes and Gasteromy-
cetes (families: Agaricaceae, Tricholomataceae and Sclerodermataceae, etc.)
and some belonging to class Discomycetes, Plectomycetes and Zygomycota.
The well- known genera in ECM are Pisolithus, Thelephora, Scleroderma,
Cenoccocum, Boletus, Laccaria, etc. An ectomycorrhizal root increases the
surface area of root hairs and is sheltered by a stratum or sheath of fungal
which more or less looks like host plant tissue.

10.2.2 ENDOMYCORRHIZAE

Endomycorrhiza is an obligate symbiontic association between fungi and

roots of plants. About 80 fungal species form endomycorrhiza which are
mainly the members of Zygomycota. The hyphae of endomycorrhizae enter
the cortical cells of feeder roots of nearly all the cultivated plants and many
forest trees, shrubs, and wild herbaceous plants. Endomycorrhiza forms
large vesicles and Arbuscules in their host cells and because of this they are
also known as vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM).’

10.2.3 ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZA (AM)

AM occurs in roots of most of angiosperms, pteridophytes and bryophytes,

although absent in plants which form only ectomycorrhiza (Pinaceae,
Betulaceae) or two other specific types of endomycorrhizae of Ericales and
Orchidales. AM develops special characteristics structures called arbuscules
and vesicles. The Arbuscules help in the transfer of nutrients from a distant
location in the soil to the root system.
206 Sustainable Agriculture

10.3 ENDOMYCORRHIZAE FUNGI AND PHOSPHOROUS

NUTRITION

Uptake of phosphorus from the soil is performed by mycorrhizal fungi in

addition to increasing the surface area of plant roots. Although there are
various types of mycorrhizal fungi, but here AM fungi are discussed. AM
fungi are omnipresent, which are present in most of the soils. They belong
to the phylum Glomeromycota, which has three classes (Glomeromycetes,
Archaeosporomycetes, and Paraglomeromycetes) with five orders (Glom-
erales, Diversisporales, Gigasporales, Paraglomerales, and Archaeospo-
rales), 14 families and 26 genera (Stermer, 2012). AMF are not host-specific
although evidence is growing that certain endophytes may form a preferen-
tial association with certain host plants (Rivera et al., 2007 and Bagyaraj,
2011).
A pot experiment was conducted at BAU, Sabour by Singh et al. (2015)
which revealed that the higher P uptake was recorded with the applica-
tion of Glomus mosseae, in both straw (0.065 g plant–1) and grain (0.12 g
plant–1). However, Glomus coronatum was quite competitive with Glomus
mosseae with respect to the uptake of P in straw and grain of maize.
Glomus mosseae also gave significantly higher P uptake by straw when
compared with all treatments except G. coronatum. Application of G. coro-
natum significantly increased P uptake in straw by 53.65, 96.87, 21.14,
and 231.57% higher than G. intraradices, G. margarita, G. decipiens and
local, respectively. A similar trend was observed in the uptake of P by
grain. Application of G. decipiens significantly increased straw-P uptake
by 62.5173.68 and 550% over G. margarita, local species and control,
respectively. Similarly, application of G. decipiens numerically increased
the grain-P uptake by 11.49, 49.23, and 155.26% over application of G.
margarita, local species and control, respectively.

10.4 INITIATIVE TAKEN AT BAU

10.4.1 COLLECTION OF LOCAL AM FUNGI INOCULUM

We have collected root samples from different crops from different loca-
tions of Bihar. Analysis of root samples for mycorrhizal root colonization
was done by following standard methodology. The maximum root colo-
nization was observed under the litchi root from Muzzafarpur, Bihar and
Endomycorrhizal Fungi: Phosphorous Nutrition in Crops 207

lowest in the Brinjal roots from the Halsi, Lakhisarai, Bihar, India (Table
10.1 and Figure 10.1).

TABLE 10.1 Native Status of AM Fungi Colonization of Various Crops of Bihar

Sl. No. Location Crop pH Colonization (%)
1 Rajpur, Sabour Maize 5.9 60.34
2 University Orchard Litchi 7.8 65.33
3 Chandeli, Sabour Wheat 8.2 55.00
4 Chandeli, Sabour Maize 8.3 60.34
5 Suryagarh, Lakhisarai Potato 6.9 44.50
6 Saidpur, Lakhisarai Coriander 7.75 35.55
7 Saidpur, Lakhisarai Tomato 8.35 39.00
8 KVK Halsi, Lakhisarai Brinjal 8.1 34.66
9 KVK Halsi, Lakhisarai Gram 8.2 40.55
10 KVK Halsi, Lakhisarai Potato 7.5 50.55
11 Lakhisarai Gram 8.15 35.80
12 Fatehpur, Lakhisarai Lentil 7.8 49.88
13 Katoria, Banka Gram 6.5 47.56
14 KVK Banka Pigeonpea 7.5 40.00
15 Satisthan, Tarapur Sugarcane 7.3 45.76
16 Satisthan, Tarapur Gram 7.9 50.55
17 MurarPur, Bhagalpur Potato 8.1 44.70
18 Maize (Vill- Rajpura, Sabour) Litchi 7.8 50.34
19 Litchi orchard (RAU, Pusa) Litchi 8.5 80.66
20 Litchi orchard (NRC, on Litchi, Litchi 8.2 85.22
Muzaffarpur)

10.5 CONCLUSION

It has been observed from the investigation that the maximum root coloni-
zation was found under the litchi root from Muzzafarpur and lowest in the
Brinjal roots from the Halsi, Lakhisarai. The application of Glomus mosseae
increased phosphorous uptake by grain and straw when compared with unin-
oculated treatment.
208 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 10.1 Collection of VAM inoculum from Litchi orchard, BAU, Farm, RAU, Pusa
and NRC on Litchi, Muzafarpur.

KEYWORDS

 arbuscular mycorrhiza
 ectomycorrhizae
 glomalin
 maize
 mycorrhiza
 phosphorous

REFERENCES

Andrade, G., Linderman, R. G., & Bethlenfalvay, G. J., (1998). Bacterial associations with
the mycorrhizosphere and hyphosphere of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus
mosseae. Plant Soil, 202, 79–87.
Endomycorrhizal Fungi: Phosphorous Nutrition in Crops 209

Bagyaraj, D. J., (2011). Microbial Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture, Horticulture

and Forestry. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Busto, M. D., & Perez-Mateos, M., (1997). Stabilisation of cellulases by cross-linking with
glutaraldehyde and soil humates Extraction of humic-fl-glucosidase fractions from soil.
Biores. Technol., 60, 27–33.
Caravaca, F., Alguacil, M. M., Azcon, R., Díaz, G., & Roldan, A., (2004). Comparing the
effectiveness of mycorrhizal inoculation and amendment with sugar beet, rock phosphate
and Aspergillus niger to enhance field performance of the leguminous shrub Dorycnium
pentaphyllum L. Appl. Soil Ecol., 25, 169–180.
Feng, K., Lu, H. M., Sheng, H. J., Wang, X. L., & Mao, J., (2004). Effect of organic ligands
on biological availability of inorganic phosphorus in soils. Pedosphere, 14, 85–92.
Hata, S., Kobae, Y., & Banba, M., (2010). Interactions between plants and arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi. Int. Rev. Cell Mol. Biol., 281, 1–48.
Mar Vazquez, M., Cesar, S., Azcon, R., & Barea, J. M., (2000). Interactions between
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and other microbial inoculants (Azospirillum, Pseudomonas,
Trichoderma) and their effects on microbial population and enzyme activities in the
rhizosphere of maize plants. Appl. Soil Ecol., 15, 261–272.
Rao, A. V., & Tak, R., (2001). Influence of mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of different tree
species and their nutrient uptake in gypsum mine spoil in India. Appl. Soil Ecol., 17, 279–284.
Rivera, R., Fernandez, F., Fernandez, K., Ruiz, L., Sanchez, C., & Riera, M., (2007). Advances
in the management of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in tropical ecosystems. In: Hamel,
C., & Plenchette, C., (eds.), Mycorrhizae in Crop Production (p. 151). Haworth Food &
Agricultural Products Press, New York.
Singh, M., Beura, K., Pradhan, A. K., Rakshit, R., & Lal, M., (2015). Ability of arbuscular
mycorrhiza to promote growth of maize plant and enzymatic activity of an alluvial soil.
Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 7(2), 1029–1035.
Smith, S. E., & Read, D. J., (2008). Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Academic Press, London, UK.
Zhu, Y. G., Smith, F. A., & Smith, S. E., (2003). Phosphorus efficiencies and responses of
barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi grown in highly calcareous
soil. Mycorrhiza, 13, 93–100.
CHAPTER 11

Water Management in
Horticultural Crops
K. KARUNA and ABHAY MANKAR
Department of Horticulture, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, India

ABSTRACT

Agricultural practices like soil management, nutrient management, irrigation

management, disease and pest management, etc., all are helpful in sustain-
able water availability to the plants. Water is an important input for sustain-
able production of agricultural produce. Water is an important constituent of
food production in plants and most of these food materials are converted into
end products i.e. yield. The availability of fresh water also decreases day by
day and efficiency of irrigation is also low. Only 65 per cent of irrigation
water is utilized by the plants. Due to lack of surplus fresh water for irriga-
tion as well as climatic changes it is need to increase efficiency of irrigation
water to the plant by using advanced method of irrigation technique to cope
up unavailability of irrigation water and climatic changes. Another way for
maximum utilization of water in plant is partial root drying. It is most appli-
cable in dry areas. Under this condition half part of the root zone is irrigated
and left half part. Water percolated from irrigated part to other parts of the
root zone and make available to the plants.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Agriculture always have implicated economic risks due to almost every

farming depends on weather and after long research it may show the impact
of weather-related problems on plant and correlate the hazards with climate
to minimize them in a particular environment. In the early days, farmers
212 Sustainable Agriculture

showed that when water applied externally in the field it can minimize
drought effect on the crop. Water management is the major concern that
enhances efficiency and yield of horticultural produce. Under horticultural
crops vegetables (except potato) and ornamentals are irrigated while fruits
and other tree crops are predominately rainfed. This can be responsible for
the poor productivity of many horticultural crops. According to Ryan and
Pitman (1998) crop once needed to require water to its root zone, supplied
it for a long period of time and again dispose further unwanted water. It
shows the lack of water management practices in farmer’s field. Long time
of watering can cause negative environmental effects in the root zone of any
crops, particularly deposition of salts (Gardner, 1993; Van Schilfgaarde et
al., 1974).
Water is stored in soil which helps in continuous release of available
water during the growing period crops. The microbial activities are
maximized in the presence of optimum available water and good aeration.
The fertilizer compounds are converted into available forms and dissolved
into water. The nutrients are being absorbed by the roots through the
water solution due to water potential gradient of plant. Water is essentially
required for physical, chemical and biological activities of soil and plant,
in addition to plant metabolic activities and ET requirement. Hence, it is
life sustaining and renewable source. It is a prime importance for plant
constituent. A plant life has been defined as a ‘supported column of water’
because its physiological processes occur in solutions when huge quantities
of water are present. Adequate, timely and assured availability of irrigation
is critical to agriculture, horticulture and plantation crops for ensured yield.
Water management is important to reduce the wastages of water. It is our
need to enhance water use efficiency (WUE) and ensure uniform water
distribution. Water acts as important part of all living beings because its role
as solvent for synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and other metabolites.
Water influences photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration, translocation,
absorption and use of mineral nutrients and cell division besides some
other metabolic processes. All these above physiological activities depend
on water absorption rate and release of water from the plant. Vapor pressure
gradient in atmosphere and leaves helps transpiration rate. Dry matter
accumulation depends on these physiological activities which ultimately
relates to productivity of crops. For this reason, actively growing plants as
the case of all the vegetable crops need to maintain liquid phase continuity
from soil water through its vascular system and all the way to evaporative
sites in leaves. So, water management in annual crops especially vegetables
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 213

and flowers are very essential for good yield and quality. Vegetables liked
by the people who have qualities like crispness, tenderness, succulence,
and flavor. All these parameters depend on proper supply of water at right
stages. Texture of vegetables also determined by cumulative effect of turgor
pressure, cell wall characters and tissue structure.

11.2 IMPORTANCE OF WATER FOR PLANT LIFE

1. Water is the prime constituent of every cell.

2. Water is a way of transpiration of nutrients from roots to shoots and
vice-versa.
3. Water is the source for many metabolic reactions.
4. It acts as solvent as well as medium for biochemical reactions in all
living beings.
5. It regulates temperature inside the plants.
6. It actively takes part in photosynthesis and hydrolytic process.
7. Water imparts turgidity to cells and helps them to maintain their
form and structure.
8. Gain and loss of water from cells and tissue is responsible for other
movements in plants like opening of stomata, nocturnal folding of
leaves in some plants, opening and closing of flowers in certain
plants and sensitivity of leaflets to touch as in Mimosa pudica.
9. Cell elongation phase in growth is dependent on water.

Therefore, water for plants is important as a solvent, constituent, reagent

as well as maintainer of cell turgidity.

11.2.1 FACTOR INFLUENCING WATER REQUIREMENT

1. Soil Moisture and Humidity: When soils are wet and also follow
the heavy rain or irrigation, soil solution gets diluted and creates
anaerobic condition in the basal part of the plant and therefore more
water is required by the plant. In other words, under dry condition
water requirement by the plant increased. If the atmospheric humidity
is high, the plant required less water because of low transpiration.
2. Fertility Level: Water requirements of plants are considerably lower
on fertile soils than on unfertile lands. Therefore, adequate manuring
results in efficient water use by the plant.
214 Sustainable Agriculture

3. Cultivation: Water requirement of plant is materially reduced by

cultivation because it increases moisture content of soils and the
supply of available plant nutrients by providing good aeration. It
also depends on type of crops, age of plants, geometry of plants, etc.
4. Light: Water requirement of plants increases in exposed situations
than in protected situations and thus provision of windbreaks is
essential to reduce transpiration loss.

These factors show that in scientific water management practices, it

is essential to maintain optimum soil nutrient status as it reduces water
requirements.

11.3 SYSTEMS OF IRRIGATION

A major factor attributed to lower water productivity in inefficient irrigation

systems. The overall efficiency of canal system is about 30–40% while that
of ground water-based systems is about 60%. The contribution of the losses
during supply of water is approx 25–40%. With proper designing, these losses
may be minimized to 5–20%. This may be done from both flood irrigation
methods and pressurized irrigation methods. Pressurized irrigation system
can be extensively used for improving irrigation efficiency and enhancing
water productivity (Anonymous, 2002; Singh et al., 2000; Choudhary and
Kumar, 2005). Pressurized irrigation system is the efficient method of
irrigation for fruit and plantation crops where it saves 30–70% supplied
water and increases yield by 25–80%. The present status of area covered by
drip irrigation is over 3.0 lakh ha which is about 0.5% of net irrigated area
and major chunk of area is in few states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
and Karnataka. However, now the area growing fast in pressurized irrigation
system because of many development schemes are running at national level
such as National Horticulture Mission (NHM), Rashtriya Krishi Vikas
Yojana (RKVY), etc.

1. Basin System: This irrigation method is commonly used in India. It

is made around the plants which cover a small area. The size of the
basin depends on the age and canopy spread of the tree. The depth of
basin varies from 7–15 cm from the surface of the ground. A gentle
slope is provided from the stem of the plant to the outer side of the
basins.
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 215

The periphery of basin increases as the size of the plants increased. In

very old orchards, this system cannot be suitable as the root system
would have gone for beyond the canopy spread of the trees and the
entire orchard may be necessary to irrigate.
Merits:
i. Useful for new orchard;
ii. Limited area is wetted which economize water.
Demerits
i. Highly costly;
ii. High loss of water by evaporation and seepage.
2. Flood System: When the land is flat, and water supply is ample, this
system is preferred. For this, the entire area is divided into convenient
beds which are flooded for irrigation. This system is also generally
used in vegetable crops and flowers.
Merits:
i. Useful for old orchard;
ii. Suitable for interculturing.
Demerits:
i. High loss of water through seepage and evaporation.
3. Furrow System: This system is practiced in orchards in Western
countries. Furrows are made between the tree rows at one or both
directions of the row. Its number depends on the requirement of the
plants as well as age of the plants. The most suitable furrow structure
is about 60–90 m length and 45 cm width and 15 cm deep. Size of
furrow varies on the basis of soil type and topography of the field.
For example, in highly sloppy land the furrow length will be reduced.
Furrows should be shallow to assure quick spread of irrigation water
of targeted area.
Merits:
i. Water losses are lesser in comparison to basin system;
ii. Water distribution is more uniform.
Demerits:
i. It requires proper land leveling;
ii. Less costly.
216 Sustainable Agriculture

4. Ring System: In this irrigation method water is supplied in a ring

around the tree. This irrigation method is highly suitable for citrus
species because, water is not allowed to touch the trunk of the tree
thereby reducing the chances of collar rot of the tree which is suscep-
tible from this disease. Ring size should be increased as the tree grows.
Merits:
i. Useful for establishment of new orchard;
ii. Limited area is wetted to economize water;
iii. Less risk of spread of diseases.
Demerits:
i. Interculture is difficult;
ii. Labor intensive;
iii. High loss of water through seepage and evaporation.
5. Check Basin System: In this method, an irrigation channel is
prepared in between two rows of trees. The channel is then jointed
through square or rectangular shaped beds passing through a
number of trees. These beds are uniform in size, level inside and
are connected together by irrigation channels. This irrigation method
can be suitable for many crops, soils, and farming practices. The
supply of water is done by direct or cascade. It is expensive and
needs abundant water to sink upon finely pulverized soil and this has
an adverse effect on soil texture.
Merits:
i. Simple layout.
Demerits:
i. Interculture is difficult;
ii. Loss of water due to seepage and evaporation;
iii. Risk of stagnation of water;
iv. Labor intensive;
v. Distribution of water is less uniform.
6. Trickle/Drip Irrigation System: This system has originated in Israel
and has accepted internationally and popular as an efficient method
of irrigation having maximum water economy. This is highly water
use efficient (WUE) method of irrigation with very less requirement
of irrigation water. Especially in arid region, this method of irriga-
tion is very beneficial technique of irrigation. In this system plants
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 217

watering with a rate equivalent to its consumptive use so that plants

would not experience any moisture stress.
Water-soluble fertilizers may be applied along with irrigation water
through the drip system. The non-soluble manures and fertilizers are
also placed near the drippers where irrigation water is supplied. The
plants are irrigated daily by this method as per requirement.
Merits:
i. After installation maintenance is simple.
ii. Uniform supply of water.
iii. Water use efficiency is high.
iv. No wastage of water by evaporation, percolation, leaching or
run-off.
v Fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides may be supplied along with
irrigation water.
vi Eliminate soil erosion.
vii Improve quality and productivity of crops.
viii Problem soil may be managed more effectively.
Demerits:
i. High initial investment.
ii. Frequent clogging of emitters and drippers. It might be due to
accumulation of salt, algae or other waste materials.
iii. Skilled man power is needed for design of this system, main-
tenance as well as operation.
iv. Threat of all kinds of pollution due to use of nonbiodegrad-
able plastic materials.
v. Lack of training for efficient maintenance of this irrigation
system.

11.4 HOW TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY OF DRIP IRRIGATION

SYSTEM?

The initial establishment cost of this irrigation system is higher which

restricts its faster area expansion. This system further enhancing produc-
tivity of any crops by increasing the yield level through better management
of other inputs. Fertigation is one such method, in which fertilizer is applied
along with this system. The work conducted under AICRP on water manage-
ment has noted that fertigation improves the yield by 20–50%; it economizes
fertilizer use by 20–25%. The fertilizer use may be further economized by
218 Sustainable Agriculture

differential dose of fertilizer during different growing stage of plants instead

of applying it in equal splits during that period. Singandhupe et al., (2005)
found that differential fertilizer application with reduced fertilizer dose
during initial crop stage and higher dose during maximum vegetative growth
period and reproductive phase of tomato reduces fertilizer requirement by
23% due to fertigation.
Horticultural crops have an advantage of wide spaced and therefore
establishment cost of this irrigation system is less. Under horticultural crops
especially fruit crops the space between rows either remains fallow or used
for growing rainfed crops and therefore not utilizing the maximum potential
of that space. A suitable modification in irrigation system may ensure that
intercrop is also irrigated efficiently without any significant additional invest-
ment. A study at Water Technology Center for Eastern Region (WTCER),
Bhubaneswar has found that by providing microtubes in its system, the
banana rows and intercrop of turmeric can be irrigating efficiently without
hampering the irrigation potential of banana (Mohanty et al., 2006). The
productivity of banana increased from 61.25 t/ha to 68.35 t/ha with an addi-
tional yield of turmeric 4.1 t/ha.
Partial root drying (PRD) is also an important irrigation technique that
tends to increase WUE in crops. In this technique, half portion of the root
system is irrigated while the other half portion allowed drying out. Alternate
irrigation through drip of partial root zone maintained hot pepper yield with
up to 40% saving of irrigation water (Kang et al., 2001). Irrigation amounts
were reduced by 28 and 12% in a pear orchard using fixed partial root-zone
irrigation and alternate partial root irrigation as compared to conventional
flood irrigation (Kang et al., 2002).
Drip irrigation along with mulching enhancing its effectiveness by
preventing loss of moisture by evaporation. Various organic mulches like
straw, hay, organic manure, tree leaves, etc. and inorganic mulches like
alkathenes are available.

1. Sprinkler Irrigation: This system of irrigation can be beneficial

for almost all types of crops on plain as well as all types of topog-
raphy and soil. This system can be designed as per the necessity of
the crops. The design of this irrigation system can help to meet out
the demand of water by the crop at a particular growth stages. This
system is very beneficial in arid areas because lack of sufficient irri-
gation water in that area.
The different parts of this system are power generator, pump,
pipeline and sprinklers. Power generator used in this system may
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 219

be mechanical or electrical. There are many types of pump used

to lift the water. (a) Centrifugal pump used to lift the water up to
4.5–6.0 m. (b) A turbine pump useful if water is very deep. (c) A
piston pump used to spray liquid fertilizers as well as irrigation
water. The nozzles used in this system can be one or two, stationary
or revolving and are mounted on pole pipes which are attached
to the laterals. Every sprinkler head supplies water in a circular
area. Spread of water depends on size of nozzle and water pressure.
Water spread in a circular area and its diameter depends on size of
nozzle and water pressure.
Merits:
i. A fixed amount of water may be applied.
ii. Application of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can be
applied easily through this method of irrigation.
iii. It is a portable system and can be used anywhere as per need.
iv. It is a suitable method of irrigation where water is scanty.
v. It removes run-off and erosion of soil.
vi. Lands with irregular topography can be irrigated with a low
leveling and disturbance of the surface soil.
vii. Very high water supply efficiency.
viii. Water loss due to deep percolation almost totally avoided and
economize the water loses.
Demerits:
i. Freshwater is required to avoid choking of nozzles.
ii. Pipe systems spread on the field may interfere with farm
operations, movements of animal and farm implements.
iii. Highly costly for its installation.
iv. Operating costs also higher.
2. Quality of Irrigation Water: It is an important component for
drip irrigation. It should preferably be normal for best growth and
development. Quality of normal water depends upon nature and
quantity of salt present in it. Generally, water contains soluble salt of
magnesium, calcium, sodium in the form of ions of chloride, sulfate,
bicarbonate, and carbonate. Besides, these elements the heavy
metals are also available in water which causes detrimental effect on
the irrigation system as well as plants also. For this purpose borehole
water sources have pure water than other kinds. The quality of
irrigation water mainly depends on two aspects, i.e., microbiological
and chemical characteristics of water. Other factors also affect quality
220 Sustainable Agriculture

of irrigation water such as presence of pollutants like silt particles,

peat, moss, etc. The chemical characteristics of irrigation water are
pH, electrical conductivity, chloride level, carbonate, bicarbonate,
alkalinity, sulfate level, iron, and other elements.

11.5 TIME AND FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION

There are several devices useful to determine time as well as frequency

of watering. Irrigation is done to supplement the deficits of water in soil.
Irrespective of soil, irrigation also depends on the intensity of rainfall over
an area. In other ways, similar soils under different atmospheric conditions
require varying irrigation practices, depending upon not only the rainfall, but
also on humidity and temperature.

1. Wilting of Leaves: Generally, the growers irrigate their orchards

when the leaves start showing wilting. The other visual plant symp-
toms are change in foliage color, leaf angle, reduced growth, etc.
This is not a correct measure, as even before the leaves start wilting,
there are much damage is done by moisture stress. Curling of imma-
ture leaves is first visible sign of stress. For scheduling irrigation,
however, measurement of relative water content (RWC) in plant is
essential as practical one.
Moisture available in the plant may be expressed by RWC in leaves.
It can be measured by drying in oven at 60–70°C and expressed in
percent on dry weight basis. Several other indirect plant measure-
ments, such as leaf thickness, trunk diameter, and fruit measure-
ments also indicate water available in the plants.
2. Soil Tensiometers: It can be established at the specified depth in
root zone of the orchard to show the soil moisture tension. Tension
is the rigidity with which moisture is hold by the soil. Trees cannot
absorb soil moisture as the tension of soil moisture increases. This
is very useful in coarse textured soil because most of the usable soil
moisture is at lower tension.
3. Gypsum Blocks: It is fitted in the orchard at several places and at
different depths. These have wires and the electrical resistance is
measured by using a moisture meter. Higher the electrical resistance,
lesser is the available soil moisture.
4. Soil Signs: It indicates the quantity of soil moisture present as related
to its texture. In this method soil samples of root zone and try to make
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 221

a ball by squeezing a handful of soil. Throw the ball above and catch it
and on that basis of symptoms, determine the percentage of soil mois-
ture. Field could be irrigated at 50–70% depletion of soil moisture.

Soil Moisture Coarse Soil Medium Soil Fine Soil

(%)
50–70% Tendency to Ball can be formed Ball can be formed by
form a ball by pressing causes pressing and ribbon can be
slight bending formed by pressing between
thumb and forefinger

11.6 ANNUAL WATER REQUIREMENT OF SOME IMPORTANT

HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Crops Water Requirement (mm)

Banana 1200–2200
Bean 300–500
Cabbage 380–500
Citrus 900–1200
Cotton 700–1300
Grape 500–1200
Groundnut 500–700
Maize 500–800
Onion 350–550
Pea 350–500
Pineapple 700–1000
Potato 500–700
Sorghum/millets 450–650
Soybean 450–700
Sugarbeet 550–750
Sunflower 600–1000
Tomato 600–800
222 Sustainable Agriculture

11.7 EFFECT OF WATER ON CROP GROWTH AND YIELD

Optimum soil moisture requirement of every crop during the different

growing period varies. Every stage during growing period are very sensitive
to soil moisture and these stages are also called moisture sensitive stage.
The term critical stage is usually known as the most sensitive stage at which
shortage of water in any crop can cause economical loss to the growers.
Insufficient irrigation during moisture sensitive stage can reduce the
productivity and after that supply of water cannot recover the yield of the
crop. Vegetables are highly susceptible to water stress because it has very
weak root system. Vegetables require more water because it transpire and
utilize high amount of water during its life time. If water scarcity prevailed
at any critical growth stage cause reduction in yield.

11.8 EFFECT OF WATER ON CROP STAGES

Young and delicate plants require frequent supply of water. In initial growth
period plant grow at faster rate. For this all physiological and biochemical
processes in the plants are put up in a faster rate. This process leads to demand
of water supply liberally to maintain the active vegetative growth period and
physiological activities in the plants. The annual crops like vegetables and
flowers causes serious loss of yield when water stress occurred at any critical
stages and this stage differed from crop to crop. Stress of water at any critical
stages causes loss in yield and ultimately reduces the profit of the growers. So
this is the proven fact that every crop require sufficient water supply in whole
life for better growth and yield. Apart from this, plants also require some extent
of water stress for certain periods to increase productivity. This period may be
identified to save water, particularly in that area where water scarcity prevailed.

11.9 IRRIGATION/FERTIGATION STUDIES

11.9.1 EFFECT OF FERTIGATION ON VEGETATIVE PARAMETERS

According to Ramana et al. (2014) who obtained highest plant growth param-
eters, i.e., plant height (3.09 m) and canopy volume (20.9 m3) when higher
dose of NPK were applied in sweet orange. Kachwaya and Chandel (2015)
reported that higher doses of NPK (150, 100, 120 kg/ha.) through fertigation
increased growth parameters like maximum fruit length (42.49 mm), fruit
breadth (31.74 mm) and fruit weight (19.87 g) in strawberry cv. Chandler.
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 223

Ahmad et al. (2010) also observed that vegetative growth was positively
related to the amount of nitrogen applied through drip fertigation in sweet
cherry. The findings in relation to canopy volume was found agreement with
results of Menino et al. (2003), who found that application of nitrogen at
higher rate, i.e., 720 g N leads to the greatest tree canopy volume in Valencia
trees. The highest value of LAI may be due to the effect of nitrogen, the find-
ings in relation to LAI by nitrogen application were supported by Chatterjee,
2013. Experiment on citrus was conducted at BAU, Sabour, Bihar, India
which revealed that the application of fertigation with NPK at the dose of
120% RDF (360:108:108 g/plant/year) showed that increase in plant height
(36.75 cm), trunk girth (4.67 cm), canopy volume (1.83 m3) leaf area index
(5.51) and growth of current season shoot (9.42 cm) of the plant were more
responsive to higher dose of fertigation, i.e., T1 followed by T2 - 100% RDF
(300:90:90 g/plant/year).

11.9.2 EFFECT OF FERTIGATION ON PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

The data RWC and internal CO2 concentration of leaves were found statis-
tically non-significant by different level of fertilizer treatments in citrus.
Nitrogen is an essential part of many compounds, including chlorophyll,
nucleic acid, proteins and enzymes and found necessary for plant growth
and development (Sah et al., 2014). The pyrole rings of chlorophyll arise
after prior combination of amino acids, glycine, and succinic acid. Nitrogen
application increases chlorophyll content, which results in production of
photosynthates. Intrigliolo et al. (1992) found that continuous fertigation
significantly improved physiological plant status like photosynthesis rate,
transpiration rate and stomatal conductance in citrus tree. (Leuning, 1995)
found that photosynthetic rate, required supply of CO2 and stomatal conduc-
tance of leaves are highly correlated to light intensity, which subsequently
increase with higher leaf area. Leaf area increase can be due to the positive
effect of nitrogenous fertilizer on many important plant structures, genetic
and metabolic compounds in plant cells (Don, 2001). Nutrient application
through fertigation resulted in maintaining optimum moisture and nutrient
reserve in soil and hence, responsible for better physiological activity in
citrus plant whereas, under water deficit condition plant close their stomata
to prevent dehydration which affects both transpiration and photosynthesis
in citrus (Medina et al., 1999). The leaf RWC was found non-significant
effect in different treatments which might be due to light, temperature and
stress conditions during the period of investigation.
224 Sustainable Agriculture

11.9.3 EFFECT OF FERTIGATION ON YIELD

The investigation was carried out at RAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India
on pointed gourd to show the effect of fertigation along with mulch on
yield. The treatment has 100%, 80%, 60% fertigation through drip and
100% fertilizer application as farmer’s practices, i.e., flood irrigation with
and without plastic mulch. The highest fruit length (10.55 cm), width (3.96
cm) and mean fruit weight (38.50 g) were recorded with 100% fertigation
with mulch. Maximum fruit weight per vine (6.31 kg) and yield (15.78 tons/
ha) were noted with 100% fertigation along with mulch. Though, it was
statistically at par with 80% fertigation with mulch. The yield enhancement
due to fertilizer application as well as soil moisture maintenance in the
root zone might be the reason of increase in yield. Thus 80% fertigation
with mulch was found to be most effective treatment with 20% fertilizer
and water-saving 29.50% increase in yield as compared to the traditional
irrigation practices.

11.10 IN-SITU, EX-SITU WATER HARVESTING, AND THEIR

CONSERVATION

Rainwater, either store in in-situ or ex-situ rainwater harvesting, which is

very beneficial for the crops to irrigate at critical growth periods of both
rainfed and irrigated areas. It is the prime limiting production factor in
rainfed horticulture whereas in irrigated horticulture it supplements water
supply and helps to minimize pressure on applied irrigation water. There-
fore, conservation and storage of rainwater in subsurface and surface stor-
ages and its efficient use is the challenging issues for stabilizing horticulture
production. Water harvesting and integrated watershed management have
shown promising response especially annual and rainfed horticultural crops.

KEYWORDS

 partial root drying

 relative water content
 soil signs
 vegetative parameters
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 225

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Kang, S. Z., & Zhang, J., (2004). Controlled alternate partial root-zone irrigation: Its physi-
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Kang, S. Z., Hu, X. T., Goodwin, I., Jerie, P., & Zhang, J., (2002). Soil water distribution,
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CHAPTER 12

Orchard Floor Management

MANOJ KUNDU
Department of Horticulture, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Fruit crops are very slow growing in nature. Under the conventional planting
system, fruit plants are normally planted at a wider distance which results
in the creation of a significant amount of vacant land in fruit plantation for
the entire economic life of the fruit plant. In general, these vacant lands
become the habitat for different orchard flora which ultimately reduces the
amount of quality harvest in terms of yield of the main crop and leads to
huge economic losses to the growers. Therefore, maintenance of the orchard
floor from the very beginning of orchard establishment is the key operation
as it will improve the fertility status of orchard soil. It can be done by
adopting different techniques such as the application of organic fertilizers,
planting cover crops, sod culture techniques, etc. which will helps to prevent
the topmost soil layer of the orchard to expose directly to the atmosphere. In
addition, all these techniques help to incorporate organic matter to the soil
of the orchard. Further, scientific management of orchard floor would also
suppress the weed growth around the trunk of main fruit crop and deliver
enough space for different cultural operations in entire orchard floor including
spraying of different nutrients, pesticides, fungicides and harvesting of the
produce. In addition, short duration vegetables like tomato, brinjal, legumes,
cole crops, etc., has the potentiality to grow as intercrops at the vacant space
in-between two rows of the main crop which ultimately gives the extra profit
to the growers particularly during the pre-flowering stage of fruit crops.
Further, a growing short duration intercrop may also reduce the load of weed
population on the orchard floor. However, the cultivation of intercrops in
the vacant space of the orchard should be done in such a way so that these
228 Sustainable Agriculture

intercrops would not have any harmful effect on main fruit crops particularly
for nutrient competition, competition for natural resources, different biotic
and abiotic factors, etc.

12.1 OBJECTIVES OF ORCHARD FLOOR MANAGEMENT

While managing the surface of any fruit plantation, the management of both
tree rows as well as alleyways is most important. Covering of alley row by
using grasses is the general practice while the three rows remain clean without
any vegetation (Figure 12.1). The main objective of floor management involves
the suppression of weed population in the plantation, maintaining soil fertility
status, minimizing the death of beneficial insect populations to retain the
ecological balance, and optimum utilization of natural resources like land, light,
air, water, etc. However, during maintenance of the orchard floor, care must be
taken in such a way that it ultimately reduces the soil erosion and compaction.
In addition, a proper floor management system always gives economic benefits
to the orchardist for different objectives. Generally, grassy alleyways reduce
the erosion of surface soil of the plantation and also reduce the compaction of
soil in sub layer while vegetation-free clean tree rows minimize the competi-
tion between main crop and other vegetation on the floor especially for natural
resources and inputs.

FIGURE 12.1 Grass alleyway in the cherry orchard.

Orchard Floor Management 229

12.2 BENEFITS OF PROPER ORCHARD FLOOR MANAGEMENT

1. Unutilized space of the plantation can be unitized for growing

different short duration crops as intercrop which will ultimately give
some additional economic return to the growers.
2. Good floor management system will increase the soil fertility of
the plantation particularly by growing cover crop or intercrops.
Further, it also maintains the soil moisture status of the plantation by
hindering sunlight to come in direct contact with the surface soil.
3. Cover crops and intercrops are helpful to reduce erosion of top soil
especially during rainy season.
4. Weed growth can be suppressed by planting cover as well as inter-
crops which ultimately helps in the reduction of the weed population
in the plantation and also protect the main fruit crops particularly
at the early stage of their growth from different biotic and abiotic
stresses like wind damage, cold injury, hot stress, etc.

12.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ORCHARD FLOOR MANAGEMENT

12.3.1 WEED POPULATION

Any unwanted plants naturally grown with the main crop in the orchard
is known as weed. Weed population is very harmful for the main crop as
they create completion with the main crop not only for natural resources
but also for the other inputs and ultimately reduces the growth as well as
economic return of quality produce in optimum quantity of the leading
crop. Further, they create suitable micro-climate for different insect-pest
and micro-organisms for the entire life span of the main fruit crop of the
plantation. Hence, it is the urgent need for the orchardist to keep the surface
of the orchard clean without any weed growth, which ultimately will reduce
the competition of weed population with the main crop for any inputs and
natural resources and also reduce the problem of biotic and abiotic stresses.

12.3.2 SOIL STABILIZATION

During establishment of an orchard, it is essential to keep in mind that the

soil of the plantation is not very compact and it is free from any hardpan or
compact layer in the subsurface soil as these hardpan or compact layer in
230 Sustainable Agriculture

the sub-surface soil can hamper the root growth particularly during the early
stage of plant growth. Therefore, tillage or plowing of surface soil of the plan-
tation once in a year is essential with the dual benefit of reduction of weed
growth, exposing the eggs or larvae of different pests, improving soil aeration
process by loosening of soil. However, soil erosion is one of the key draw-
backs under such condition particularly in sloppy land. Thus, the cultivation
of cover crops or intercrops in between the tree rows is the commonly adapted
practice in the fruit plantation. Further, some compact and stabilized floor is
also required in the orchard for smooth conduction of various intercultural
operations like pruning, thinning, hoeing, spraying of plant growth regulators
(PGRs), micro-nutrients, pesticide, fungicides, harvesting, and transportation
of fruits, etc. Alleyway space has compact and stabilized soil which supports
all these operation and also maintains the soil properties in the plantation.

12.3.3 IRRIGATION WATER

The need of water to irrigate a particular orchard is partially influenced by the

intensity of orchard floor management, adopted in that plantation. Proper main-
tenance of ground floor of the orchard which includes cover crop and intercrop
cultivation may require some additional amount of irrigation water for optimum
growth and nutrition of those cover crop and intercrop along with the main
fruit crop. To maintain the grassy alleyway, it is essential to supply irrigation
water on the entire orchard floor. The need of water also varies with the nature
of grasses selected for the alleyway. For the slow growing grasses, it require
to supply comparatively smaller amount of water for irrigation as compared
to fast growing one or broad leaved plants which require significantly higher
more amount of irrigation water for their growth and development. However,
the conventional clean weed-free strip and grass alleyway significantly mini-
mize the competition with the leading fruit crops of the plantation for different
inputs. But continuous cultivation under clean tilled condition may cause
evaporation losses and with the increase of time span, the structure of soil of
the orchard may start to disrupt leading to the formation of dust. Therefore,
mulching can be done over the tilled portion of the orchard floor to prevent the
surface evaporation losses, particularly in the water scarcity area.

12.3.4 PEST MANAGEMENT

Management of pest population is another key component to improve the

productivity of a fruit orchard. The approach to control the pest population
Orchard Floor Management 231

in a healthy orchard includes the maintenance of insect pest diversity below

economic threshold level. Generally, the insect population increases at the
faster rate at the ground storey of the orchard as it remains covered with
green growth of the main crop especially during the initial stage of the
orchard establishment and with the population of cover crops as well as
intercrops particularly after the completion of juvenile phase of the main
crop. Leaf-feeding arthropods have the natural habitat at the ground storey
of the plantation. During mowing of ground floor vegetation or ground floor
weeds, these insect pests migrated to the standing fruit trees of the plantation
resulting higher infestation on the standing fruit crops. However, the infesta-
tion can be reduced by avoiding mowing operation during the month coin-
cides with very hot and dry condition. Further, mowing operation should
also be avoided when the population dynamics of the target pest remain very
high on the orchard floor. In addition, pest population on the orchard floor
can also be reduced by mowing the ground floor vegetation on alternate row,
so that the pest population can only migrate from one row to other rows,
covered with green vegetation instead of their migration on the standing fruit
trees of the orchard.

12.4 ORCHARD FLOOR MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The important feature of an ideal orchard floor would be easy in mainte-

nance, facilitation of optimum growth and development of the main fruit
crops, prevention of the completion among the main trees of the orchards
with other flora and fauna; especially for water or nutrients, reduction of
soil erosion, maintenance of fertility status of the soil orchard, etc. However,
the amalgamation of all these characteristics in a particular orchard under
a single floor management frame is not always possible but rather stability
among all these factors should achieve.
Different approaches are there to manage the orchard floors under
different situations with some specific advantages. These are:

 Weed control;
 Grass alleys;
 Solid vegetation covers;
 Clear cultivation;
 Mulching;
 Cultivation of intercrop;
 Fruit-based cropping system.
232 Sustainable Agriculture

12.4.1 WEED CONTROL

Control of weed population is a unique challenge in fruit plantation due

to very high cost involvement weed control process. Organically weed can
be controlled through cover crop cultivation, uprooting of weed population,
mulching to smoother weeds, application of organic herbicides and applica-
tion of flamers for burning or cooking of weeds.
Minimum competition for weed growth is a key objective for the entire
fruit growers of the world, especially during the initial phase of orchard
establishment when the main crops of the plantation are very young. Weed
competition during that stage can reduce the growth of the main fruit crop
up to 60–70% which ultimately may shorten the developmental process of
bearing shoots of main crops in the upcoming, resulting huge economic
losses. Cultivars which are dwarf in nature or grafted on dwarf rootstocks
are highly susceptible to adverse effect of weed population. Age of the main
fruit crops (vegetative growth phase), system of irrigation, nature of weed
are the important factors playing significant role to increase the population
dynamics of different weeds in the fruit plantation.
Any unwanted plants, grown simultaneously with the main fruit crops of
the plantation and create completion with the main fruit crops particularly
for different natural resources and other inputs- resulting huge economic loss
for the orchardist is known as weed. Even a crop, planted by the orchardist
for getting extra economic benefits, can also be classified as weed if they
competing with main crop for all those in puts. Among different types,
weeds which are perennial in nature are highly devastating as they create
completion with the main fruit crop both during vegetative growth phase and
fruiting season. However, weed growth particularly during winter season not
create any serious issues for the orchardist as the main fruit crops remain in
dormant condition during that particular time period. However, care should
be taken in such a way so that the weed population is suppressed well before
the completion of dormancy of the main fruit crops. Besides, weed growth
during that time can also minimize the soil erosion from the ground floor
of the plantation. However, before the resumption of active growth of main
crops in the following spring, mowing of the weed population followed by
leveling them over the uncovered surface soil of the plantation is significantly
effective to increase the organic matter content of the orchard soil which in
turn may improve the productivity of quality produce of the plantation.
Among the different techniques to suppress the weed population in a peren-
nial plantation, use of flamer over the weed vegetation on orchard floor, particu-
larly over the grassy weed is a vital and improved technique. Propane burning
Orchard Floor Management 233

technique is commonly adopted for this purpose which includes the use of one
or two metal flame orifices, connected with propane tanks to initiate the heating
process on the ground floor around the trunks of the fruit tree. A safety switch is
attached with the propane tank. Pulling of this switch at moderate speed helps
to burn the emerging weeds before attaining a height of more than 2 inches.
However, the major drawback of this technique involves the chance of injury
on the main crops and the damage of irrigation pipes and trellis materials.
Further, fire hazards may also create from the dry leaves of the weeds.

12.4.2 SOLID GRASS COVER

Solid grass cover is being currently used by the orchardists throughout

the world to manage the orchard floor properly. This technique is highly
effective on erosion prone area specifically on steep slopes. Here grasses
or green vegetation are permitted for their natural growth over the entire
orchard floor as solid vegetation cover and mowing is done when the grasses
attain a certain height. Apart from the conservation of soil moisture and
maintenance of soil temperature, this method can also increase the organic
matter content in the orchard soil significantly.

12.4.3 CLEAN CULTIVATION

This system of floor management is more adaptable in the arid region of

the country. Shallow tillage is the widely adopted technique to make the
entire orchard floor weed free. However, application of herbicides also has
the potentiality to make the ground floor of the plantation clean without any
weed population. This technique of clean cultivation is specifically adopted
in area experiencing with frequent radiative spring frosts as clean floor
radiates significantly higher amount of heat back into the atmosphere than
the cover crops. However, implementation of shallow tillage technique has
certain limitations which include damage on the feeder roots, present at the
sub-surface soil resulting the reduction of tree vigor.

12.4.4 GRASS ALLEYS

Adaptation of grassy alleys in between tree rows with vegetation-free strips

within the row is one of the key techniques to manage the ground floor
234 Sustainable Agriculture

of any perennial plantation. This technique is advantageous over both solid

grass cover and clean cultivation. Under this technique, herbicides are
normally applied to develop vegetation free strips around the tree within
the rows. However, the cultivation of cover crops is followed in the alley
in between tree rows. The vegetation free strips within the tree rows help to
grow the roots of the main fruit crops freely without any competition with
weeds or grass sod for nutrients, water, and other inputs. However, the grass
alley in between tree rows of the orchard prevents the surface soil from its
erosion. Further, it also helps to maintain the moisture content of the soil,
improve the soil fertility status and also provide the necessary space for
different intercultural operations through mechanical aids. Some commonly
used grasses for orchard alleyways are Creeping red fescue, Perennial rye,
Kentucky bluegrass, and Orchard grass.

12.4.5 GROWING A NITROGEN-RICH COVER CROP IN THE

ALLEYWAY

Normally, grasses are allowed to grow on the alleyway of any perennial

plantation because it has the potentiality to prevent the erosion of surface
soil and also maintain the moisture content in the soil significantly. However,
instead of allowing the grasses in the alleyway, the cultivation of leguminous
crops is more beneficial as it can give additional income to the growers along
with the main crops at the same time and also helps to improve the health
of the orchard soil by adding additional nitrogen to the soil. Growing of
leguminous crops followed by mowing and keeping those plants on the same
row will band the extra amount of nitrogen near the root zone of the main
crop. Apart from these, the presence of leguminous crops in the alleyway
of an orchard will significantly increase in arthropod population within the
orchard which ultimately will maintain the ecological balance between the
insects and predators of the orchard.

12.4.6 MULCHING

Besides the retention of moisture content in the soil, mulching prevents weed
population to grow around the tree basin. Effective mulches include straw,
sawdust, dry leaves, pruned materials of fruit trees, shredded new print, etc.,
being an important tool of mulching, paddy straw significantly suppress weed
population to grow on the orchard floor; however, it is advisable to take care
Orchard Floor Management 235

during incorporation of paddy straw as mulching material so that the weed

seeds cannot be introduced the plantation with the straw. Further, wood chip
mulch is another very effective tool that not only prevents the weed growth
but also having positive impact on vegetative and reproductive growth of
standing orchard crop resulting higher return of quality fruit. Shredded new
print or paper prevents the light to transmit underneath. Therefore, when
this Shredded new prints or papers are used for mulching, it prevents the
seedlings growth effectively by avoiding light penetration underneath
(Figure 12.2). However, the major limitation of using paper mulch includes
its frequent application at regular interval. Another useful mulching material
is the weed fabric. It is made up of water permeable woven plastic which
helps to penetrate water to underneath soil; however, prevent the light to
penetrate. The added advantage of using it as mulching material is its longer
durability as can last for more than fifteen years but the initial cost of this
material is relatively high (approx. $3000 acre–1).

FIGURE 12.2 Plantation under clean cultivation (left) and under paper covering (right).

In addition, living mulches can also be used for the management of

orchard floor. Among different living mulch different leguminous crops, turf
grasses, clovers are very promising. However, addition of this type of mulch
236 Sustainable Agriculture

materials are highly beneficial particularly in the orchards which are already
in bearing stage and requirement of different inputs for initial growth and
development of main orchard crops are not too critical.

12.4.7 CULTIVATION OF INTER CROP

Intercropping, an effective approach for orchard floor management has

commonly been practiced by orchardists in the entire world since time imme-
morial. When more than one intercrops are grown together, it is very impor-
tant to make sure the availability of adequate space and other inputs to avoid
any competition among the crops for the required inputs. Cultivation of cover
crops depends on several factors namely: plant density, maturity dates of inter-
crops, plant architecture, spreading of root system of individual crops, etc.

12.5 OBJECTIVES OF INTERCROPPING SYSTEMS

Cultivation of intercrop in between the vacant space of two standing fruit

crops within the orchard was initiated with the idea to earn some extra profit
from those intercrops when the fruit plants are in the juvenile stage. Further, it
also insures the profit of the growers when the main fruit crops fail to produce
economic return due to any natural calamities or any reasons. However, the
cultivation of intercrops in the perennial plantation has the following objectives:

1. Proper utilization of all the natural resources, artificially supplied

inputs.
2. Insurance against the failure of main crop due to any natural calami-
ties or any other factor.
3. Increase the cropping intensity per unit land area.
4. Higher profit gain.

12.5.1 PRE-REQUISITES OF FRUITFUL INTERCROPPING SYSTEM

 The peak nutrient and water demanding period of intercrop and main
fruit would be different from each other.
 Competition for light among intercrop and main crop would be as
minimum as possible.
 The maturity period of intercrop and main crop would be differed by
minimum one month.
Orchard Floor Management 237

12.5.2 SELECTION OF INTERCROPS

 Proper selection of intercrops depends on various factors such as

land availability, soil fertility status, input availability, etc. Under the
availability of heavy inputs, intercrops help to return a higher profit
for growers especially at the early age of the orchard. However, in the
area having very high land and labor cost, this practice of intercrop-
ping within the perennial plantation may not give profitable return.
 For well-established fruit orchard, shade tolerant crops like ginger,
turmeric, yam are advisable to grow while legumes, vegetables are
recommended for young orchards.
 Short statured fruit crops with short juvenile period viz. papaya,
banana, lemon, lime, guava, phalsa, pineapple, and strawberry can
also be cultivated as an intercrop in the vacant space of tall statured
fruit orchard. However, a thorough analysis is requiring selecting a
fruit crop for this purpose, so that root system of such intercrop may
not compete with root system of main crop particularly for space,
water, and nutrients.

The following fruit crops are most suitable as intercrop for different fruit
orchard:
Main Crops Intercrops
Mango Pineapple, guava, papaya, lime, phalsa, custard apple, dragon
fruit, apple ber
Litchi Guava, papaya, lemon
Sapota Papaya, pineapple, guava, custard apple, dragon fruit
Guava Papaya, pineapple, phalsa, apple ber
Mandarin/sweet orange Papaya, pineapple, guava, custard apple
Date palm Mandarin, sweet orange, sapota, guava, mango
Aonla Lime, phalsa, guava, papaya

12.6 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF INTERCROPS

1. The selection of intercrop mainly depends on the edaphic and climatic

suitability of certain regions or areas. For a particular locality, crops
having wide adaptability to the climate and soil condition of that
particular locality should have been selected. Under poor soil condi-
tion, selection of leguminous crop is recommended as intercrop.
238 Sustainable Agriculture

2. Avoid the crops as intercrop which are heavy feeder for water
and nutrient because they create competition with main crops for
water and nutrients which ultimately will reduce the yield poten-
tial of main crop. Therefore, it is advisable to select those crops as
intercrop which has less nutrient and water requirement and critical
requirement period not overlaps with critical requirement period of
main crops.
3. For the orchards having well connectivity with the retail market,
situated in a big city or town, it is beneficial to grow different high
valued vegetable crop as intercrops; however, for distance market,
crops like potato, onion, garlic is preferred to cultivate as they having
longer storage life in comparison to other perishable vegetables.
4. At the early stage of any orchard, vegetable crops that require maximum
sunlight for their growth and development should be selected as
intercrop; while, in old plantation, it is always recommended to keeps
shade loving plant as intercrop. However, the selection of field or
grain crop as an intercrop is not profitable as they cause severe loss of
nutrients and water from the soil of the plantation.
5. Selection of root crops (particularly for seed production) as inter-
crops within the established fruit orchard is not preferable as the
entire seed development period may coincide with the peak period of
fruit growth and development of main orchard crop resulting heavy
exhaustion of resources from the orchard soil by intercrop.
6. Tall and erect statured plants should be avoided as intercrop as they
may affect the growth and developmental process of the main crop.
Further, creeper or vine type vegetables like cucurbits should also be
discouraged as intercrops.
7. Crops which are highly susceptible to different pest and diseases and
particularly those intercrops having the same host range with main
fruit crops for different pest and diseases, should be avoided from
grown together.
8. Considering leguminous crops as cover crops within the fruit orchard
is advisable as they facilitate the process of fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen into the soil of the plantation resulting in improvement of
soil health. Green gram, black gram, cowpea, etc., are recommended
as rainy season cover crops while chickpea, faba bean, pea, and
mustard are suitable as winter season cover crops.
9. If the texture of orchard soil is light in nature, then adaptation of
sunhemp in the form of cover crop is advisable while in heavy textured
soil, growing of Dhaincha is preferable to enrich the fertility status
Orchard Floor Management 239

of orchard soil. Further, it also helps to avoid soil erosion problems.

They are normally sown prior to the start of monsoon and after two
months, they are incorporated in orchard soil through plowing.

12.7 CROP COMBINATION

Lots of research work has been conducted in the entire world regarding the
selection of suitable intercrops in a fruit orchard particularly for the early
phase of orchard growth to exploit the profit of the growers as maximum as
possible. Usually the shot duration legumes such as gram, mung, pea, beans;
field crops viz. potato, maize; vegetables viz. Chilies, carrot, cole crops,
radish, okra, leafy vegetables, onion, etc. are most suitable as intercrop in a
fruit orchard (Figure 12.3) although, their selection ultimately depends on
farmers choice. Besides, turmeric, ginger, and sweet potato also have the
potentiality to give better yield under the condition of partial shade.
Various crop combinations for interspaces of fruit orchard are as follows:

– Cabbage (Oct-Feb.); Cowpea (March-June); Methi (July-Sept.).

– Okra (Sept.-Dec.); French bean (Jan-March); Tomato (April-July).
– Cauliflower (Aug.-Nov.); Potato (Dec.-March); Dolicos (April-July).
– Cabbage (Sept.-Dec.); Brinjal (Jan.-May); Cucumber (June-Aug.).
– Palak (Nov.-Jan.); Cluster bean (Feb.-May); Brinjal (June-Oct.).

12.8 FRUIT CROP BASED CROPPING SYSTEM

Fruit crop based cropping system having three or more different types of
crops with different morpho-phenological features, growing simultaneously
at different tiers of the same land which ultimately increase the use efficiency
of natural resources resulting increased overall productivity. Increasing crop-
ping intensity of a particular fruit orchard is the key objective of fruit crop
based cropping system. To develop such cropping system, growers usually
prefer to plant some short stature, quick-growing fruit trees with very short
juvenile period at middle tier and bigger canopy sized fruit crops as the
main orchard crop of the plantation while legumes, vegetables, flowers or
fodder for ground tier crop. In a widely spaced orchard of mango, litchi or
jackfruit, fruit crops like papaya, guava, citrus, phalsa can be planted as
filler crop in close spacing in between row of main orchard crop (mango,
litchi or jackfruit) (Figure 12.4). From the second year onward, these filler
240 Sustainable Agriculture

trees will start to produce and will give economic yield up to 8–10 years.
But the root system of these filler crops will not occupy the space within
the root zone of main orchard trees. Further, it also includes the adaptation
of different annuals as ground storey crop. Thus, this system comprises the
cultivation of perennial and annual plant species simultaneously as different
components on the same land to facilitates the maximum utilization of space
in four dimensions (length, width, height, and depth) leading to maximum
economic return from the system.

FIGURE 12.3 Intercropping under litchi plantation.

12.8.1 BENEFIT OF FRUIT BASED CROPPING SYSTEM

1. Fruit trees are efficient enough to provide higher economic return

even under stressed growing conditions prevailing under the upland
situations than the other annual crops.
2. It increases the productivity through efficient utilization of air space
which remains unutilized in conventional cropping system.
Orchard Floor Management 241

FIGURE 12.4 Multi-tier cropping system with mango as main crop while guava as filler
crop.

3. This fruit-based cropping system utilize the natural resources like

soil, water, space and environment in more efficient way without any
wastage of natural resources. In case of annual crops, 74% of roots
do not go beyond 50 cm soil depth whereas in perennial crops, top
50 cm depth of soil remains almost devoid of feeder roots. Feeder
roots of most of the perennial fruit crops confined within 50 to 150
cm soil depth with the average spreading of in 2–3 m radius around
the tree base. Further, during the initial 10 years of orchard estab-
lishment, the canopy of the main crop utilizes only 20–30% of land
space. Therefore, only 25–30% of total orchard land is utilized by
the main fruit crops and they draw nutrient only from 50–150 cm
soil depth. Fruit-based multistoried cropping system offers ample
scope for optimum utilization of natural resources above and below
the ground level by different component of the system such as main
crop, filler crop and intercrop. The differential root distribution
pattern of different component crops of the system helps in the effec-
tive exploitation of nutrient, water, light and air as a whole resulting
higher profit gain. Moreover, it increase organic carbon content in
the surface soil by the decomposition of fallen leaves from the fruit
trees resulting increased biological activity in the system leading to
environmental stability in the rhizosphere.
242 Sustainable Agriculture

4. The summation of productivity of the component crops can increase

the total productivity of the land where poor soil fertility coupled
with low water holding capacity of the soil contributes towards low
productivity of any crop in this region.
5. Higher labor requirement per unit area of multitier system contribute
towards creation of job opportunities at site.
6. High return per unit area under upland conditions is the ultimate
result of fruit-based system.

12.8.2 COMPONENTS OF FRUIT BASED CROPPING SYSTEM

The fruit-based cropping system is a system having at least three different

types of crops for different height viz. main crop (upper storey), filler crop
(middle storey) and intercrop (ground storey). By efficient utilization of
natural resources like water light, from different heights below and above the
ground level, respectively, this self-sustainable system can increase the crop-
ping intensity and productivity many folds comparing to conventional farming
system. The three important components under this system are as follows:

 Main Crops: Fruit crops with relatively larger canopy structure,

long juvenile phase with long economic life are mainly considered
as the main crop in fruit-based cropping system. They are planted at
wider spacing as compared to spacing maintained under conventional
system, so that the filler and intercrops can easily be accommodated
in between the main crops. The canopy of this category of plants
utilizes the top most layer of the multitier system during its entire
economic life. However, during the initial 10 years of orchard estab-
lishment, they utilize only 25–30% of total orchard space and the area
coverage by this crop increase thereafter with 100% utilization only
after 20–25 years of planting.
 Filler Crops: Short stature, prolific bearing plants having short juve-
nile phase and relatively shorter economic life are recommended as
filler crop under fruit-based cropping system. The main objective of
planting this category of plant is to gain some income during the early
stage of the plantation until the main crops not overcome their juvenile
phase by optimum utilization of unused land or space. After 8–10 years
of orchard age, when the main crop start to produce economic yield,
this filler crops utilize the middle layer of the multitier system. They
are normally planted at closer spacing within the row of main crops.
Orchard Floor Management 243

 Intercrops: The lower most layer of the multitier system is occupied

by intercrops. Generally, they can be short duration annuals particularly
legumes, old seeds, vegetables or flower crops. They utilize the entire
ground space which remains unutilized after planting the entire main
and filler crops. The main objective of planting this category of plants in
a multitier system is to gain some additional income from the unutilized
land and resources. Moreover, they also help to suppress the weed popu-
lation during the early stage of the plantation and also may improve the
fertility status of orchard soil. However, after 20–25 years plantation,
when the entire orchard space covered with the canopy shade of main
orchard crop, it is too difficult to cultivate intercrops in the ground storey
except some shale loving crops like ginger, turmeric, foot yam, etc.

12.9 THE PROCEDURE FOR LAYING OUT OF FRUIT CROP BASED

CROPPING SYSTEM

While planning for establishing fruit-based cropping system, selection of

proper combination of fruit crops is the key factor. The choice mainly depends
on edaphic factors, climatic condition, availability of different input facili-
ties like irrigation facility, nutrient availability, infra-structure facility and
socio-economic requirements in that area. During planting under fruit-based
orchard, crops having relatively bigger canopy structure like mango, litchi,
aonla, jackfruit, sapota should be consider as the main crop whereas short-
statured crops such banana, guava, lemon, lime, custard apple, papaya, etc.
should be selected as filler. However, for the ground storey, different legumi-
nous crops, oil seeds and fodders are most suitable. Apart from these, high
valued flower and vegetable can also be selected as the suitable ground storey
crops. During the first ten years age of orchard, legumes like pegionpea, horse
gram, black gram, cowpea, French bean; oilseeds like soybean, groundnut
and fodder like guinea grass, hybrid Napier, etc. are desirable for Kharif
planting while vegetables or flowers crops recommended for rabi planting at
the ground storey of fruit-based cropping orchard. After 10 years, cultivation
of shade-tolerant crops like foot yam, turmeric or ginger is preferable.
Selection of suitable varieties of different component crops is the key for
improving productivity under multi-tier cropping system.
Suitable varieties of different fruits crops are as follows:

 Mango: Amrapali, Mallika, Bombay Green, Dashehari, Chausa.

 Litchi: Shahi, Ajhauli, Rose Scented, Swarna Roopa, China.
244 Sustainable Agriculture

 Aonla: Narendra Aonla-7, Kanchan.

 Sapota: PKM-1, Kalipatti, DHS-1, Cricket Ball.
 Jack fruit: SwarnaPoorti, SwarnaManohar.
 Guava: L-49, Allahabad Safeda, ArkaMridula.
 Custard apple: Balanagar, ArkaSahan.
 Papaya: Pusa Dwarf, CO-1, PusaNanha, CO-6.
 Lime: Kagzi.
 Lemon: Assam lemon.
 Banana: Dwarf avendish, Basrai, Grand Nine.

The following steps are followed for laying out of fruit crop-based multi-
tier system:

1. Marking of Pits: Marking of pits is done at 5 × 5 m spacing accom-

modating 400 plants per ha. Different markers are used to mark the
pits for main and filler plants. The pits for main plants are marked at
a spacing of 10 × 10 m whereas the pits of filler plants are marked at
a distance of five meters between the rows and five meters within the
plants of the main crop. Such layout accommodates 100 main plants
and 300 filler plants per ha.
2. Pit Preparation: Summer season is the best time to prepare the
pit. Pit size varies with the canopy structure of the fruit crop.
In general, pit of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m (length × width × depth) is
optimum for the crops having bigger size canopy such as mango,
litchi, apple, pear, etc.; however, pit of 60 × 60 × 60 cm size is
optimum for the crops having smaller canopy size such as citrus,
guava, pomegranate, etc. During pit preparation, surface soil is
kept separately from the soil of lower level and the dug-up pits are
left exposed during entire summer season to minimize the load of
harmful pests in the pit.
3. Pit Filling: Beginning of monsoon is the optimum time to carry out
operation of pit filling. At the time of pit filling, well decomposed,
dry FYM @ 15–20 kg, karanj cake @1 kg, single super phosphate @
300 g is mixed with previously separated surface soil of the pit and
put on the empty pit first.
4. The planting is done after 1–2 rains when the soil gets properly
settled.
5. Intercropping: For intercropping; five-meter wide inter-row spacing
is used. Care should be taken to keep an area of about 4 ft2 around the
fruit trees.
Orchard Floor Management 245

List of recommended intercrops under fruit crop based cropping

system
Crop Sowing/ Planting Fertilizer (kg/ha) Recommended
Planting Time Distance (cm) Cultivars
N P2O5 K2O
Okra June-July 40 × 20 120 80 60 Arka Anamika,
ArkaAbhay,
ParbhaniKranti
Foot yam May 75 × 75 125 50 120 Gajendra, Santragachi
Sweet May-June 60 × 20 75 50 75 Gauri, Sankar, Pusa
potato Safed, Sree Bhadra
Turmeric May-June 40 × 20 80 60 60 Suguna, Sudarshana,
Suvarna, Rajendra
Soniya
Ginger May-June 40 × 20 80 60 60 Suprabha, Suruchi,
Surbhi

Layout of fruit crop based cropping system.

6. Aftercare of Young Fruit Crops: Proper care of young fruit plants

is essential for developing healthy and productive plants. After
planting, soil application of Chloropyriphus (0.3%) is done for
management of white ant. Winter protection is essential for plants up
to 2 years of age to minimize mortality of young plants due to winter
injury particularly in crops like litchi. Covering of young plants with
a thatch prepared by paddy straw or locally available grasses during
the winter months. Besides, mulching by paddy straw or locally
246 Sustainable Agriculture

available grasses is general practice during summer to retain soil

moisture around root zone of young fruit crops. However, irrigation
of these young fruit crops at weekly interval during winter and two
times per week during summer.
7. Canopy Management:
a. Young Fruit Plants: To develop proper framework of main
fruit crop of the plantation, training of young plants should be
done from the first year of planting. All the growing branches
should be headed back above the height of 80 cm from ground
level before the start of rainy season. The shoot emerged out
from the headed back portion should also remove after retaining
only 3–4 well-spaced healthy shoots oriented towards four
direction of the main trunk. These healthy shoots ultimately
develop the initial framework of the plant as primary branches.
In the following year, 3–4 healthy shoots should be selected
as secondary branches after heading back of primary branches
before the onset of monsoon following the same techniques
of previous year. The operation should be repeated on the
secondary branches during third year to develop the tertiary
one. Branches growing inwards or towards the center of main
fruit plants must be removed.
Heading back of filler crops (guava, lemon, lime, custard apple)
to develop proper framework should be done at 30–40 cm above
the ground.
b. Bearing Plants: In the case of bearing plants, the criss-cross
and overcrowding branches, unproductive and dead branches
are removed. Opening the center of the canopy by removal of
the branch covering the center of the canopy at the top from
its origin helps in minimization of pest incidence ingrown up
plants. In case of a fruit which bears on current season growth
like litchi, regular pruning of shoot is done immediately after
harvesting.
8. Fertilizer Application:
¾ Around 30 kg well rotten, dry FYM, 2.0 kg karanj cake, 100 g
urea, 300 g S.S.P. and 80 g MOP per year is optimum for main
crop, up to 2–3 years of age. With respect to micronutrients, each
plant is given 10 g each of zinc sulfate, manganese sulfate, boric
acid per annum per year age. With increasing age, the dose of the
fertilizers is increased at the same ratio till 10 years of age. This
Orchard Floor Management 247

means a 10-year-old fruit tree will require 3–4 kg karanj cake, 10

kg FYM, 1 kg urea, 3 kg SSP, 0.8 kg MOP, 100 g each of zinc
sulfate, manganese sulfate, boric acid, copper sulfate per plant
per annum. After ten years, the dose is applied at a constant rate.
¾ A dose of 1.5–2.0 kg karanj cake, 100 g urea, 300 g S.S.P., 80 g
M.O.P. and 10 g each of micronutrients like zinc sulfate, manga-
nese sulfate, boric acid with 25–30 kg farmyard manure per plant
in every year is optimum for filler crops at the age below 2 years.
With increasing age, the dose of chemical fertilizers is increased
proportionately till 5 years. Thus, the manurial requirement for
a fully developed 5 years old fruit plant will be 30–40 kg farm-
yard manure, 3 kg karanj cake, 500 g urea, 1.5 kg SSP kg S.S.P.,
0.40 kg M.O.P. and 50 g each of zinc sulfate, manganese sulfate,
boric acid per plant per year. After 5 years, the dose is applied at
a constant rate.
¾ Half the dose of fertilizer along with full quantity of manure and
cake may be applied in June. The remaining quantity of fertilizers
can be given in September. Light irrigation is required thereafter.
In the case of fruit like litchi, aonla, the second split is applied
during March. Application of agricultural lime @ 3–4 kg per tree
once in 3 years has been found beneficial in acid soils.
9. Water Management:
9 At early stage of orchard, irrigation at 15–20 days interval in
winter and 8–10 days interval in summer is preferable.
9 Coving the surface soil of the orchard with mulching just after
completion of monsoon help to conserve the soil moisture for
maximum time period.
9 In the bearing orchard of litchi, irrigation is not desirable between
the month of December to fruit set.
9 Mango needs frequent irrigation during fruit development period.
10. Disease and Pest Management: Under clean cultivation, the prob-
ability of disease and pest infestation on main crop remains very low
as the entire floor of the plantation remain in clean condition in such
situation. However, the probability of infestation under cover crop-
ping or intercropping system is too high although they automatically
suppressed weed growth on the floor of the plantation. By increasing
the humidity and preventing proper air circulation, cover cropping or
intercropping system create the micro climate favorable for different
pest and diseases particularly during reproductive phase of main fruit
248 Sustainable Agriculture

crop and also during the monsoon time, resulting heavy loss in fruit
set and ultimately economic loss from the main fruit crop. Therefore,
adaptation of optimum plant-protection measures starting from the
orchard establishment is the urgent need of the hour to avoid the
harmful effect of various pest and disease infestation problem on the
main fruit crops, particularly undercover cropping or intercropping
system. Opening of central leader of main fruit crop during initial
year of orchard establishment is helpful to allow ample amount sun
light to reach to the floor of the plantation, preventing the micro
climate to develop. Further, regular pruning of main fruit crop each
and every year is also essential to avoid the problem of disease and
pest infestation on orchard trees.

12.10 RESEARCH WORK DONE AT BAU, SABOUR

A significant research work was carried out at BAU Sabour for managing the
floor of strawberry plantation. Strawberry plants are generally herbaceous
and smaller in size, so the fruits touch the ground during its growth and devel-
opment. To avoid the direct contact of strawberry fruits with soil and also to
maintain its quality, mulching is very essential tool of strawberry cultiva-
tion. Mulches maintain the soil moisture and soil temperature regime. It also
controls weeds and deters the migration of insect-pests. Different organic and
synthetic mulches are widely used by the growers based on the availability
of raw material and climate condition of that region. Black plastic was found
beneficial as mulch material for improving plant growth especially in winter
season, conserves moisture and keeps the field weed free. Plastic mulch
improves the uptake of minerals and water by increasing soil temperature.
It keeps the fruits clean and protects them from any infections by avoiding
direct contact from soil. For that U-V stabilize black polyethylene mulch of
25 micron thick and 1–1.2 m width was used in the plantation. Thereafter,
well leveled raised bed of 30–35 cm height and 1.0 m width was prepared.
Drip system was installed well before covering the bed with plastic mulch.
Thereafter, surface of bed was covered with that plastic mulch in such a way
that ensures close contact of mulch with surface soil of the bed. Side of those
mulches is covered with the soil to fix it on bed tightly. Thereafter, holes
of small size are made on the mulched plastic according to the spacing of
planting. It was followed by planting of strawberry saplings on those holes.
It was found that the plastic mulch improves plant growth, enhances early
flowering and fruit setting. Further, it was also recorded that the covering of
Orchard Floor Management 249

strawberry beds with plastic mulch significantly increase the yield (380 g/
plant) and TSS of the fruit (11.8°B). The maximum number of marketable
fruits with average berry weight of 14.21 g was also obtained under black
mulch treatment than mulching with straw and without mulch. Plastic mulch
produces clean fruits without the occurrence of grey mold infestation.

In addition, percent of marketable fruits under plastic mulch condition

was about 80% whereas straw mulch produces only 67% marketable fruits.
Further, no weed problem was occurred in the plastic mulched plot. Fertil-
izer and water use efficiency (WUE) was also increased under plastic mulch
besides an increase in overall yield and marketability of fruits.
250 Sustainable Agriculture

Fruits without mulch.

Plants under straw mulch.

Fruits under plastic mulch.

Orchard Floor Management 251

KEYWORDS

 canopy management
 crop combination
 cultivation
 fruit-based cropping system
 intercrops
 pest management
CHAPTER 13

High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops for

Enhancing Fruit Productivity
V. K. TRIPATHI,1 SANJEEV KUMAR,2 VISHAL DUBEY,3 and
MD. ABU NAYYER4
1
Department of Horticulture, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kanpur, U.P., India, E-mail: [email protected]
2
U.P. Council of Agricultural Research, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow, U.P., India
3
Department of Applied Plant Sciences (Horticulture),
B.B.A. University, Lucknow (U.P.), India
4
Department of Agriculture, IIAST, Integral University,
Lucknow (U.P.), India

ABSTRACT

Planting of fruit trees rather at closer spacing than the recommended one
within unit land area, using certain special techniques with the sole objec-
tive of obtaining maximum crop yield per unit area without sacrificing
quality is often referred as “high density planting.” In high density planting
(HDP) trees are planted very close together. Plant density may varies
with the region, species to be grown, crop variety, rootstock used, cost of
planting material, labor charges, assumed return from the orchard and tech-
niques adopted for different horticultural operations for a crop. During last
four decades, the importance of high density planting for higher produc-
tivity of fruit crops have been realized and now it has become one of the
most successful tools of the Hi-Tech horticulture ensuring efficient use of
land, water, nutrients and solar radiation with higher production per unit
area. HDP offers early cropping and higher yields, improved fruit quality,
reduced labor costs, enhanced mechanization in production with efficient
use of different production resources leading to higher income per unit area.
It can be achieved by the use of dwarfing rootstocks and genetically dwarf
254 Sustainable Agriculture

cultivars available in different crops, proper and timely use of growth retar-
dants and mechanical methods for plant size control along with using incom-
patible rootstocks according to the situation. The various researches carried
out in different parts of the country it has been found that under HDP of
mango 1600 plants/ha, in guava 2222 plants/ha, in citrus up to 3000 plants/
ha, in papaya 6400 plants/ha, in banana 4500 to 7000 plants/ha and in ultra-
high density guava 5000 plants/ha were found beneficial for getting higher
yield with good returns.

13.1 INTRODUCTION

Generally, most of the fruit crops are cultivated using a traditional planting
system under which it is difficult to achieve desired level of production,
because large trees provide low production per unit area and need higher labor
inputs. Early height control and tree management are not commercially prac-
ticed in India. Hence, there is over riding need to improve the existing planting
system. With ever-increasing land cost, and the need for early returns on
invested capital, in the recent years, there is worldwide trend towards planting
of fruit plants at closer spacing which leads to high-density planting (HDP) of
plants.
Planting of fruit trees rather at closer spacing than the recommended one
within unit land area, using certain special techniques with the sole objective
of obtaining maximum crop yield per unit area without sacrificing quality is
often referred as “HDP.” HDP with some modifications suited to respective
fruit crop could greatly enhance productivity with enhanced land use effi-
ciency and long-term benefits. First time in records, high-density orchards
were planted in Europe at the end of 1960s. In HDP trees are planted very
close together. The number of trees may ranges from 500 to 1,00,000 per
hectare depending upon the crop, variety, and region. The exact limit of
plant density to be termed as high density is not well defined. On the basis
of number of trees planted in one-hectare area, HDP system may further be
divided into the following three groups:

 Medium-high density: 500–1,500 plants per hectare;

 Optimum-high density: 1,501–10,000 plants per hectare; and
 Ultra-high density: 10,001–1,00,000 plants per hectare.

Plant density may vary with the region, species to be grown, crop variety,
rootstock used, cost of planting material, labor charges, assumed return from
High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops 255

the orchard and techniques adopted for different horticultural operations for
a crop. As the plant population density increases, the cost of plantation in an
unit area increases drastically.
The underlying principle of HDP is to ensure the maximum utilization
of area, labor, and solar radiation to earn maximum possible return per unit
of inputs and resources during the initial years of planting by accommo-
dating more number of plants per unit area. Higher and quality production
is achieved from the densely planted orchard through judicious canopy
management and the adoption of the suitable plant training system. Consid-
ering the soil conditions, plant geometry and manipulation in the spacing
higher production and productivity can also be achieved.
Canopy management for proper light distribution is key factor in
accommodating higher number of productive trees per unit area. However,
unlike temperate fruits, where tree management technologies have been
developed and refined for over a century, the same tools and experiences are
lacking for tropical and subtropical fruits especially mango, guava, aonla,
citrus, etc. However, tree management techniques for few subtropical and
tropical fruit crops have been developed and are being used in different parts
of the country, which can be adopted after certain modifications in different
growing regions.
Advantages: The main advantages of HDP are:
 It resulted early cropping and higher yields per unit area.
 It improve fruit quality.
 It reduced labor costs.
 It reduced cost of production.
 Enhanced mechanization in production.
 Make efficient use of different production resources.
 Make maximum utilization of land and space of orchard.
 Efficient use of nutrients, water, and solar radiation.
 Possible to plant more trees per unit area leading to higher income.
1. Characteristics of HDP System: In HDP, plant canopy designing is
very important. The plant should have:
 Maximum number of fruiting branches and minimum number of
structural branches.
 The plants should be trained in central leader system of training
in which main branch/stem is surrounded by nearly horizontal
fruiting branches.
256 Sustainable Agriculture

 The branches should be arranged and pruned in such a way that

each branch casts a minimum amount of shade on the other/lower
branches.
 The height of plants should be one and half times of its diameter
at the base.
2. Methods of HDP: In HDP, plants are planted at close spacing’s,
which in turn is made possible through control of plant size or by
planting in a system which accommodates more number of plants
per unit area. Manipulation/control of plant size is an important
pre-requisite for success of HDP in any fruit crops. Commonly the
following methods are applied to control the size/vigor of the plants
and to make suitable them for HDP.
A. Use of Dwarfing Rootstocks: Rootstocks play an important
role in controlling plant size. Some rootstocks causes’ vigorous
growth and some dwarfing effects on the scion cultivars. In
temperate fruits, a large number of dwarfing rootstocks are
available, whereas, these are lacking in tropical and subtropical
fruits. Since rootstock trials in fruit trees take 15 to 20 years to
draw conclusions, hence there is an urgent need to develop rapid
screening technique for identifying dwarfing rootstocks. The
dwarfing rootstocks of some of the fruit crops are given below:

Crop Dwarfing Rootstocks

Mango Vellaicolamban, Kurukan, Totapari Red Small, Olour, Moovadan
Citrus Thomasville, Citrangequate, Feronia, Troyer Citrange,
Fortunella spp., Cuban Sheddock and Severinia buxifolia
Ber Zizyphus rotundifolia, Zizyphus nummularia
Guava Psidium pumilum, P. fridrichsthalianum
Apple M9, M26, M27, MM106, MM109, MM111, Bud9, Bud146, P22,
Ottawa 3
Pear Quince A, Quince C, Adam
Peach Siberian C, St Julien X, P. besseyi, Rubira
Plum Pixy
Cherry Colt, Charger, Rubira

B. Use of Genetically Dwarf Cultivars: The availability of genet-

ically dwarf cultivars provides a great scope in the success of
HDP. Such varieties are limited in number which is available
only in few crops which are given below:
High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops 257

Crop Genetically Dwarf Cultivars

Mango Amrapali
Litchi Shahi, Early Bedana, Purbi, Rose Scented
Banana Dwarf Cavendish, Basrai, Williams, Rasthali, Poovan,
Robusta, Lacatan
Papaya Pusa Nanha, Pusa Dwarf
Mandarin Kawano Wase, Satsuma Wase
Sapota PKM-1, PKM-3
Pineapple Kew
Apple All Spur group cvs. (Starcrimson, Redspur, Goldspur,
Wellspur, Hardispur, etc.)
Cherry Compact Lambert, Meteor, North Star
Peach Red Heaven
Citrus Meyer Lemon, Ponderosa Lemon

C. Use of Growth Retardants: Chemical growth retardants are

effectively used in many fruit crops in combination with pruning
to control tree size and inducing the early flowering but there
are many concerns about the future of these treatments due to
quarantine and residue restrictions. Most widely used growth
retardants are SADH or Alar (1000–2000 ppm), CCC or Cycocel
or Chlormequat (1500–3000 ppm), Paclobutrazol or Cultar
(1000–2000 ppm), TIBA (50–100 ppm) and Maleic Hydrazide
(1000–1500 ppm). They also help in the early attainment of
physiological maturity.
D. Use of Mechanical Methods: Among the production packages,
tree canopy management, especially size control, has become
a priority for the orchardist due to the demands imposed by
modern markets in terms of production costs, yield and fruit
quality. An interest in mechanical tree size control (hedging,
topping, training, pruning and tree thinning) has increased
because of the trend to high-density orchards on standard root-
stocks. This may be the only practical method of tree size control
of inherently large trees in HDP. Tree height control is accom-
plished by removal of the multiple central leaders within the
canopy of the young tree. The dominant, up word shoot or shoot
from each growth umbel (whorl of new shoots) is removed and
when there are parallel branches within the canopy, the more
dominant upright shoots are removed. The height management
should begin in the first year. Single stemmed trees are headed
258 Sustainable Agriculture

between 40 and 70 cm depending on the desired height of the

lowest scaffold limbs.
Out of various training systems adopted in apple spindle
bush, dwarf pyramid and espalier; in peach cordon; in grape
head system are found to control the growth and size of the
plants. Different training methods and pruning in any form has
a dwarfing effect in fruit plants. In slow-growing plants, proper
pruning and training respond more favorably in maintaining
a given shape and size of the plant without sacrificing yield.
Plant size control through pruning is limited mostly in crops like
grape, apple, peach, plum, cherry, etc.
Pruning and hedging practices should be based on our knowl-
edge of the factors in tree physiology and development viz.,
length and number of growth flushes, nutrient distribution, light
intensity, bloom characteristics, climatic information, carbohy-
drate and nitrogen metabolism and location and status of stored
food at pruning time.
In absence of a dwarfing rootstock, the practical approach
would be to plant at optimum densities for early production
and to thin the orchard (tree thinning) just prior to crowding. A
care should be taken so that planting distance remains workable
before and after thinning.
Under HDP, plant height should not be greater than twice
the width between the outer perimeters of the tree canopies
between rows for interception of optimum light. In the orchards,
in which spacing between plant in narrow, hand or mechanical
pruning must be practiced to prevent overcrowding of branches
and kept them more exposed to sunlight. For this pruning should
be performed immediately after harvesting of fruits.
E. Use of Incompatible Rootstock: The use of graft incompatible
scion and stock also found to induce dwarfness in the composite
plant, though it is not commercially exploited. In ber, Z. rotun-
difolia and Z. nummulania induce dwarfness in cultivated vari-
eties due to graft incompatibility, which can be utilized for HDP
of fruit crops.
F. Use of Cultural Methods: Cultural methods such as regulated
irrigation, nitrogen supply, root restriction, spacing arrange-
ment, poorly adopted rootstock, and high budding can be used
to a limited extent under special circumstances to control tree
height in HDP.
High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops 259

3. Performance Under HDP: Under HDP increase in yield per unit

area has been reported in many fruit crops (Bose et al., 1999). Perfor-
mances of some subtropical and tropical fruit crops under HDP are
given here as under:
Crop Variety Spacing (m) No. of Plants/ ha Yield (t/ha)
Mango Amrapali 2.5 × 2.5 1,600 22.20
Banana Robusta 1.0 × 1.0 10,000 99.90
Robusta 2.4 × 1.8 2,315 41.40
Basrai 1.5 × 1.5 4,444 78.00
Nendran 1.2 × 1.2 7,000 72.12
Papaya Pusa Nanha 1.25 × 1.25 6,400 103.60
Babaco 1.0 × 1.25 8,000 320.00
Coorge Honey 1.2 × 1.8 4,629 146.00
Dew
Pineapple Kew 0.22 × 0.60 × 0.75 63,758 118.80
Kew 0.25 × 0.35 × 0.75 72,727 106.90
Mandarin Kawano Wase 2.0 × 1.5 3,333 43.33
Satsuma Wase 1.0 × 1.0 10,000 60.00

4. Constraints in High-Density Planting (HDP)

 Lack of standardized production technology in various fruits
crops under HDP.
 High initial establishment cost of orchard.
 Lack of promising dwarfing rootstocks in many fruit crops.
 Incidence of some diseases in HDP, e.g., Sigatoka leaf spot and
Finger tip in banana.

13.2 MEADOW ORCHARDING

This is an ultra-high density or super-intensive system of fruit growing. In

this system, plants are planted at densities of 30,000 to 1,00,000/ha (Sharma
et al., 1998). The term ‘meadow’ stands for a tract of grassland, in which
fruit could be harvested by moving off the treetop mechanically similar to
moving of the grassland. This system is mostly followed in apple production,
where plants are induced to form fruit buds in their first year of planting with
plant bio-regulators treatments. In the second year, plants flower and produce
fruits, after which they are cut back to a stump from which a new shoot is
regenerated to repeat the biennial cycle. It is envisaged that ultimately fruit
260 Sustainable Agriculture

harvesting is carried out by moving off the orchard (hence the term ‘meadow’)
with some form of combined harvester which could separate the fruit from
the shoots.
Apart from the high yields which are theoretically possible, the attrac-
tiveness of such a system lies in the possibility, it offers for the complete
mechanization of both pruning and harvesting, which are the two most
labor-intensive operations in the traditional fruit orchard. Orchard soil is not
cultivated but maintained in weeds free condition by the use of simazine
(1 kg/ha, twice a year). In this system single stem is allowed to bear fruits.

13.2.1 ESTABLISHMENT OF MEADOW ORCHARD

For the quick establishment of a meadow orchard, plant cut back maiden
trees at a spacing of 35 × 40 cm, if planted in autumn, such trees can be
induced to form fruit bud in their first year of growth. In another method,
rootstocks are planted at a spacing of 30 × 45 cm in autumn and bud them
in-situ in the summer of the following year.
In their first year of growth, when the plants are about 60 cm (2 ft) in
height, growth retardant such as SADH (2000–2500 ppm) is sprayed, which
causes a cessation of vegetative growth and encourage the development of
fruit buds in the axils of leaves. In the second year (fruiting year), early in the
season repeated application of SADH 2000–2500 ppm is also done to reduce
vegetative growth and June drop of fruits.
Fruits could be harvested by a machine that would gently comb the
apples off the trees, hopefully with less bruising than is caused by shake-
catch methods of harvesting. At the end of the season, the trees should be
pruned down to centimeters of the graft union by means of a cutter bar
mechanism, and at the same time apply a fungicidal wound dressing to
the cut surface of the stumps. In the next season, the side shoots should be
removed from the stumps.
The meadow orchard system may not be beneficial to those fruits which
are difficult to propagate by cuttings because of high initial cost of establish-
ment as well as the problems of sprouting in rootstocks.

13.3 HIGH-DENSITY PLANTING (HDP) IN MAJOR SUBTROPICAL

AND TROPICAL FRUITS

Generally, planting densities are decided after considering vigor of tree,

prevailing climatic conditions, soil fertility, water availability and market
High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops 261

requirements. Some of the examples, which indicate the superiority over

traditional planting systems with regard to productivity, have been summa-
rized below:
1. Mango: Despite the rich genetic diversity prevailing, the produc-
tivity of mango in India is very low as compared to other mango producing
countries of the world. Among the several reasons, lower plant population
per unit area arising from the crop geometry leading to sub-optimal exploi-
tation of different resources appears to be the key factor contributing to
low mango productivity in the country. The conventional planting adopts
10–12 m apart (100–69 plants/ha) which is proved less efficient for higher
productivity.
For getting higher production and ensure optimum interception of light in
HDP, plant height should also control. It should not be greater than twice the
width between the outer perimeters of the tree canopies between the rows.
For this immediately after harvesting, light pruning should be followed.
HDP makes maximum use of land to achieve high yields from the
orchard areas. Pandey and Majumdar (1988) grafted in-situ rootstock seed-
ling grown at 2.5 × 2.5 m spacing, with Amrapali scion and found fruit yield
of 11.5 tonnes in the fourth year with the density of 1600 plants/ha. The
productivity increased further reaching 24.46 t/ha in the eleventh year with
an average yield of 12.2 t/ha.
Ram and Sirohi (1988) planted Dashehari at 12 × 12 m (69 plants/ha) and
2.5 × 3.0 m (1333 plants/ha) spacing and found that growth of Dashehari
trees in HDP in terms of scion length, main stem diameter and circumference
increased progressively up to the tenth year, when branches started touching
to each other, dehorning of 50% branches after fruit harvest was done in the
eleventh year and another 25% was done in the twelfth year. Dehorning of
touching branches at this stage brought a reduction of 37% in scion length
and 59% in circumferences. The yields also increased progressively, both in
low as well as is HDP of Dashehari and the average yield per tree were also
similar under both the densities up to 10 years. Thus the yield increased in
high-density plantation was because of increase in number of trees per unit
area giving 2.4 t/ha in fifth year, which further increased to 18.6 t/ha at the
end of tenth year as compared to only 0.2 t/ha in the fifth year and 16 t/ha
in tenth year in low density orcharding. Thus for high-density orcharding an
irregular bearing Dashehari and regular bearing Amrapali is highly suitable
with light to heavy pruning followed by fertilization after fruit harvest.
In India, some efforts were made at IARI, New Delhi, GBPUAT, Pant-
nagar and HARP, Ranchi which indicated positive results in Dashehari
262 Sustainable Agriculture

(1333 plants/ha) and Amrapali and highlighted the need of better orchard
management for sustained productivity. Studies at CISH, Lucknow have
indicated that sustained yields of about 14–16 t/ha can be obtained by
adopting medium density of planting in mango with crop geometry of 5 × 5 m
(400 plants/ha) for cv. Dashehari (Mishra, 2013).
2. Guava: It is one of the most suitable crops for HDP as it bears fruits
on current season growth and responds significantly to pruning. HDP along
with pruning have given encouraging results in guava. Guava planted at 6
× 6 m spacing (277 plants/ha) responds very well to pruning. CISH started
HDP at a spacing of 3 × l.5 m (2222 plants/ha), 3 × 3 m (1111 plants/ha) and
3 × 6 m (555 plants/ha) along with pruning for management of tree size and
improving the fruiting potential of guava trees. Eight years after planting,
the highest fruit yield (159.39 kg/plant) was recorded from the trees spaced
at 3 × 6 m followed by 124.12 kg/plant under 6 × 6 m spacing. Trees spaced
at 3 × 6 m had heavier fruit weight. HDP coupled with canopy management
produced 47.1 t/ha at 3 × 6 m as compared to 6 × 6 m spaced trees (28.53
t/ha). This technology has become popular among the farmers across the
country.
In ultra-high-density guava orcharding, production starts from the very
first year of planting and the productivity is higher with superior fruit quality
besides ease of tree management. Ultra-HDP of guava accommodates 5000
plants/ha at 1 × 2 m spacing. The plant canopy is managed judiciously with
regular topping and hedging. Plants are topped 2 months after planting,
i.e., in the month of October, for emergence of new shoots below the cut
end. After appearance of new shoots, 50% of the shoots are pruned again in
December-January for further induction of new shoots. Growth is initiated,
flower differentiates, and well spread plant canopy is attained by the end of
May. Heading back of entire shoots is repeated every year in September,
May and January for dwarf tree canopy and better fruiting. An average yield
of 12.5 t/ha is obtained after first year which reaches up to 55 t/ha after 3
years of planting (Mishra, 2013). The system is high inputs demanding for
sustainability.
3. Citrus: Among the citrus crops, efforts have been made for high-
density orcharding of orange, mandarin and grapefruit with increasing
density. In India citrus (sweet orange, mandarin and grapefruit) is gener-
ally planted with a density of 250 to 350 plants/ha depending upon the
variety, rootstock, soil fertility and the prevailing agro climatic conditions.
In Haryana, a plant density of 375 plants/ha in Kinnow mandarin on Jathi
Khatti rootstock was reported to be quite successful (Chundawat and Arora,
1981). In a study at IARI, New Delhi, Troyer Citrange and Karna Khatta
High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops 263

rootstocks were reported to have the potentiality to increase its density with
1.8 × 1.8 m and 3 × 3 m spacing, respectively, accommodating 3000 and
1088 plants/ha.
In absence of a dwarfing rootstock, the practical approach would be to
plant at optimum densities for early production and to thin the orchard (tree
thinning) just prior to crowding. A care should be taken so that planting
distance remains workable before and after thinning. Most of the progres-
sive growers, plant their citrus orchards at 2.74 × 2.74 m with the intention
of thinning later to make it 5.49 × 5.49 m when crowding occurs.
Plant size in HDP can also be controlled by removal of terminal portion
(50% of its total growth) of branches, destroying apical dominance and stim-
ulating lateral bud growth resulting in the bushy and compact center. Multiple
shoots were allowed to grow just above the bud union on these plants to keep
the terminal growth is check, provided adequate fruiting area and help easy
management. Such Kinnow plants start giving profitable return in three years
on Troyer Citrange and after four years on Karna Khatta rootstock with earlier
fruit maturity, i.e., by the end of November and mid-December, respectively.
4. Banana: It is the most important food ingredient in terms of
their gross value next to rice, wheat and milk products. Plant density had
pronounced effect on crop duration. In wider plant density, more area of leaf
surface is exposed to light, causing increased metabolism of plants, which
leads to early physiological maturity and flowering, while duration of crop
could be extended in closer spacing due to poor interception of light. Several
factors are responsible for productivity of banana. Among these, cultivars,
light interception, soil fertility and climatic conditions and soil moisture may
play vital role.
Under normal spacing of 2.1 × 2.1 m (2267 plants/ha), banana cvs.
Robusta and Dwarf Cavendish yield 50–60 t/ha. Nowadays, HDP in banana
has been standardized for increasing the land, water and fertilizer use effi-
ciency, to obtain maximum profitability with increased productivity. Naik
(1963) suggested a spacing of 1.5 to 2.1 m for Dwarf Cavendish in Maha-
rashtra. HDP at 1.8 × 3.6 m spacing with 3 suckers per pit with 4500 plants/
ha for Robusta and Grand Naine cultivar, producing yield of 80–90 t/ha.
Mustaffa and Pandey (2010) recommended alternatively paired row
planting of 5200 plants/ha at a spacing of 1.2 × 1.2 × 2.0 m for Dwarf Caven-
dish, 3800 plants/ha at a spacing of 1.5 × 1.5 × 2.0 m for tall varieties. This
technology is highly suitable for micro-irrigation system, thereby a saving
30–40% in water, 25–30% in fertilizer and 40–50% increase in yield. With
closer spacing in cultivar Martman (Rasthali), there was no reduction in
bunch weight, number of hands and fingers per bunch (Bhan and Majumdar,
264 Sustainable Agriculture

1961). Closer spacing of 1.2 × 1.2 m to 1.5 × 1.5 in Basrai banana brought a
reduction in bunch weight and finger number per bunch compared to those
in spacing of 1.7 × 1.7 m and 1.8 × 1.8 m. In cultivar Lacatan also, closer
spacing of 1.2 × 1.2 m and 1.3 × 1.3 m accommodating 6044 and 5917
plants/ha, respectively, significantly reduced bunch weight and number of
fingers per bunch in comparison to 4444 plants/ha when spaced at 1.8 × 1.8
m (Chundawat et al., 1982), whereas fruit yield in Nendran was increased
from 43.95 to 72.12 t/ha when plant population was increased from 4500 to
7000 plants/ha (Anon, 1978). Patil et al. (1978) also found an increase in
yield from 32.41 to 79.93 t/ha, when spacing was reduced from 2.0 × 2.0 m
to 1.2 × 1.2 m.
5. Pineapple: It is predominantly grown in Kerala, Karnataka, West
Bengal, Bihar, and North-Eastern regions. Solar radiation requirement for
proper vegetative growth and fruit production is directly related with optimum
plant density and planting system. Double row, three row, and four row
systems have been tried for this crop to maximize solar energy harvesting.
Under well-designed plant orientation by optimizing population,
high yield of acceptable size and quality fruits is achieved. In general
adoption of 53,000 to 63,000 plants/ha has been recommended. Momin
(1975) observed that double row system of planting was more suitable
giving better performance with regards to growth, yield and quality of
fruits under Assam conditions, whereas, in Kerala, most viable method
is two-row bed with the spacing of 25 × 60 × 105 cm (Balakrishnan et
al., 1977). In pineapple, yield largely depends upon average fruit weight
and fruitage (percentage flowering). Significant reduction in fruitage was
noticed when inter-plant and inter-row spacing were reduced to raise the
density from 63,492 to 1,00,000 plants/ha (Anon, 1977), whereas, Chadha
et al. (1973) recorded higher flowering percentage on increasing planting
density to 63,000 plants. Das Biswas et al. (1987) observed an increase in
fruit yield up to a density of 72,945 plants/ha and reduced thereafter. They
also reported that 63,000 to 72,000 plant density is optimum under North
Bengal conditions.
6. Papaya: Normally most of the papaya varieties are planted at
a distance of 2.5 × 3.0 m or 2.5 × 2.5 m (accommodating 1333 or 1600
plants/ha) but with the development of Pusa Nanha variety, now-a-days it
is possible to grow papaya commercially under HDP concept by planting at
a distance of 1.25 × 1.25 m, accommodating 6400 plants/ha (Ram, 1989).
Such orchards give 3–4 times more yield (60–65 t/ha) as compared to the
15–20 t/ha yields in traditional systems.
High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops 265

7. Litchi: Young litchi trees are trained to develop a strong trunk and
a frame of scaffold branches well distributed around the tree which are
sufficiently strong to support heavy load of fruits without limb breakage.
Among the various training methods, modified leader has been reported
superior.
Traditionally planted litchi plants (10 × 10 m) produced higher yield on per
plant basis (82.30 kg/ tree or 82.30 qt /ha) but planting in double hedgerow (5
× 5 × 10 m) accommodating 222 plants/ha, result maximum yield per hectare
(156.73 qt/ha) with reduced fruit cracking (Ray et al., 2008).
Pruning plays an important role in controlling growth and regulation
of flowering and fruiting. Above ground, level pruning is mainly done for
controlling tree shape and size. In new plantation up to 15 cm height, only
one or two branches should be allowed. Pruning in old trees plays an impor-
tant role in regulating and controlling growth, flowering and fruiting. It has
been observed that pruning of bearing shoot 40 cm below the panicle signifi-
cantly increased the fruit yield, fruit weight, and pulp recovery. Soil health
management through orchard floor management, may also be a very effec-
tive means of controlling root development.
8. Apple: Earlier HDP is achieved by manipulation of pruning and
fertilizer dose but nowadays for control in plant size different rootstock
and spur type cultivars are available. A number of training systems such as
spindle bush, dwarf pyramid, espalier, cordon, and polmate were initially
recommended for intensive orchard in the worlds, but in India spindle bush,
dwarf pyramid and cordon are found more suitable as training system to
produce dwarf tree. Sharma (1989) observed that when spindle bushes on
M7 rootstock and modified central leader on MM 106 rootstock, plants
trained on spindle bushes had high tree volume, higher fruit set, high yield
efficiency, firm fruit with higher TSS and anthocyanine pigment contents.

13.4 CONCLUSION

During the last four decades, the importance of HDP for higher productivity
of fruit crops have been realized and now it has become one of the most
successful tools of the Hi-Tech horticulture ensuring efficient use of land,
water, nutrients and solar radiation with higher production per unit area.
In maximizing the tree density along with efficient light distribution, some
factors like canopy, nutrient, water, disease and pest management, etc., should
be considered for better results. In the absence of research results, tentative
decisions can be taken after judging the pattern of plantation and their results
266 Sustainable Agriculture

under field conditions. The results of plants per unit area should be optimum
and no space should be allowed to go to waste. Many farmers in India have
tried higher than recommended densities and achieved encouraging results.

KEYWORDS

 dwarf cultivars
 high-density planting
 meadow orcharding
 pruning time
 rootstocks
 tropical fruits

REFERENCES

Anonymous, (1977). Annual Report (p. 192). IIHR, Bangalore.

Anonymous, (1978). Annual Report (p. 77). Banana Research Station, Kannara, Trichur.
Balakrishnan, S., Veeraraghavan, P. G., & Natarajan, M., (1977). Influence of planting suckers
in level ground and in trenches on fruit yield of pineapple. Agri. Res. J., 15, 190–191.
Bhan, K. C., & Majumdar, P. K., (1961). Spacing trials on banana in West Bengal. Indian J.
Agric. Sci., 31, 149–155.
Bose, T. K., Mitra, S. K., Farooqi, A. A., & Sadhu, M. K., (1999). Tropical Horticulture (p.
29). Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
Chadha, K. L., Milenta, K. R., & Shikhamani, S. D., (1973). Effect of planting density on
growth, yield and quality in Kew pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.). Indian J. Hort.,
30, 461–466.
Chundawat, B. S., & Arora, R. K., (1981). Spacing Trial in Kinnow Mandarin (p. 27).
National Symposium on tropical, subtropical fruit crops, Bangalore (Abstr.).
Chundawat, B. S., Dave, S. K., & Patel, N. L., (1982). High density plantation in relation to
yield and quality in Basrai Banana. South Indian Hort., 30, 175–177.
Das Biswas, S., Mitra, S. K., & Bose, T. K., (1987). Response of Kew pineapple to plant
densities and calcium carbide. Sci. Cult., 53, 120–121.
Mishra, D., (2013). Improving orchard productivity through rejuvenation and canopy
management. In: Singh, V. K., & Ravishankar, H., (eds.), Recent Advances in Subtropical
Fruit Crop Production (pp. 35–39). PFDC, Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture,
Lucknow.
Momin, N. W., (1975). Studies on the effect of different planting patterns and plant population
densities on growth, development and yield of Kew pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.)
Merr.). M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis. A. A. U., Jorhat.
High-Density Planting in Fruit Crops 267

Mustaffa, M. M., & Pandey, V., (2010). Research and developments in banana: A flag bearer
of golden revolution. In: “National Symposium on Conservation Horticulture” Organized
by GBPUAT. Pantnagar, Uttarakhand in collaboration with “Indian Society of Horticultural
Research and Development, Uttarakhand” held on March 21–23, 2010 at Dehradun
(Uttarakhand).
Naik, K. C., (1963). Banana (In) South Indian Fruits and Their Culture (p. 207). P. Varadachary
and Co., Madras.
Pandey, S. N., & Majumdar, P. K., (1988). Research Reports (p. 34). Fruit research workshop,
Subtropical and Temperate fruits, Pusa (Bihar).
Patil, S. K., Patil, D. R., & Amin, H. D., (1978). Studies on manurial investigations on
banana varieties basrai and Harichhal. In: Research Report and Project Proposal on
Banana, Pineapple and Papaya Fruit Research Workshop Held at Univ. of Agric. Sciences,
Bangalore.
Ram, M., (1983). Pusa Nanha-a dwarfing papaya for closure spacing. Indian Horticulture,
28, 17–20.
Ram, S., & Sirohi, S. C., (1988). Studies on high density orcharding in mango cv. Dashehari.
Acta Hort., 231, 339–344.
Ray, P. K., Kumar, R., & Rajan, R., (2008). Studies on high density planting in litchi. National
Seminar on “Production, Processing, Marketing and Export of Litchi for Economic Pros-
perity” Held from 8–11 June. Mushari.
Sharma, D. D., (1989). Effect of different rootstock and training system on growth, cropping,
nutrient status and water relations of apple tree. PhD Thesis. Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry, Solan.
Sharma, R. M., Singh, R. R., Ahmad, M., & Tripathi, V. K., (1998). Meadow Orchards: An
intensive and mechanized system for apple production. Indian Farmers Digest, 31(12),
22–23.
CHAPTER 14

Enriching Vermicompost Using

P-Solubilizing and N-Fixing Biofertilizers
and Eco-Friendly Low-Cost Minerals
ARUN KUMAR JHA
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Solid waste management has become an issue of increasing global concern

as urban populations continue to rise; rapid economic development and
urbanization have led to an increase in the generation of solid waste. In the
majority of Indian cities, only 70–80% of generated Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW) is collected and the remainder 20–30% remains unattended on streets
causing infuriating situations. Numerous human health problems of the citi-
zens are also associated with poor management of MSW. Recycling of MSW
is the practical solution of the problem. Poor nutrient content in recycled
product and higher recommended doses (RD) of these organic sources of
plant nutrients for successful crop production have drawn attention of agri-
cultural scientists, thinkers, planners, administrators, and politicians to enrich
the vermicompost produced by using MSW. Enrichment of vermicompost
using low cost minerals and bio-inoculants may offer a practical solution of
the problem. An effort has been made to review the current status and future
panorama of enriched vermicomposting in the present text.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

Global food as well as nutritional security along with environmental protec-

tion has become primary requirement of the world at present era. It has been
270 Sustainable Agriculture

accepted globally that soil fertility exhaustion due to imbalanced nutrient

mining has degraded the soil. For farming systems to remain productive and
to be sustainable in the long term, it is necessary to replenish the reserves
of nutrients which are removed or lost from the soil especially by using the
eco-friendly source of plant nutrients (Aveyard, 1988; Wani and Lee, 1992;
Wani et al., 1995).
Domastic and farm waste contains huge quantity of plant nutrients
(Anonymous, 2006; Bhiday, 1994). It is estimated that annually about 2,008
million tons of excretions is obtained in India out of which annual outturn
of wet dung from cow and buffalo is 1,003 million tons (Panda and Hota,
2007). Beside this huge amount of excretions, 358 million tons compostable
plant residues are also grown every year. Safe disposal of municipal solid
waste (MSW) has also become a challenge for politicians, administrators,
scientists and thinkers. Presently, the volume of waste generated from urban
centers of the world is around 1,300 million tonnes per year (World Bank,
2012). However, the existing urban MSW production rate in India is 1,
09,598 tonnes per day (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tada, 2012). The Central Pollu-
tion Control Board (CPCB) has reported that 35,401 tonnes MSW is being
generated every day from 59 major cities of the country during 2004–2005.
However, survey report of the Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and
Technology (CIPET) interferes that the MSW generation rate increased by
42% only within the five years and reached to 50,592 tonnes per day during
2010–11. These animal excretions, plant residues and municipal waste are
required to be converted from waste to wealth very urgently especially for
the sake of healthy environment, food security and nutritional security. But,
in the contrary, majority of waste and residues are used for landfill due to
lack of proper recycling.
There are numerous organisms (micro and macro) in nature having
ability to convert waste into wealth. Earthworms are important biological
organisms performing this activity very effectively. The earthworm popu-
lation was found to be 8–10 times in uncultivated area in comparison to
that counted in cultivated land (Anonymous, 2006). It indicates that worm’s
population is closely related to land degradation and owing to the reason, it
may be used as a sensitive indicator of soil degradation. In the present era
of agriculture, rate of land degradation is very high and due to the reason
amalgamation of vermicompost in degraded soils has become very essential
for building up its health. In the present text, effort has been made to suggest
practical solutions of safe disposal of waste and production of enriched
vermicompost.
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 271

14.2 THE EARTH WORM AND ITS ROLE IN AGRICULTURE

The earthworm is regarded as “farmer’s friend” and “natural plowman.”

Aristotle described earthworm as an “intestine of the earth.” However,
Darwin stated that no other creature has contributed for building of earth as
earthworm. Earthworms have potential to convert soil from unproductive to
productive one. Earthworms eat unrecompensed plant residues, waste, and
soil and convert them into valuable wealth containing useful organic acids,
hormones and plant nutrients essentially required for soil health building and
sustainable production of the crops.
But, the population of earthworms has decreased drastically after
adoption of green revolution measures. Now, compost worms are being
reared for vermicompost production, because it is quite easier than that to
increase the population of earthworm in soil. Agricultural scientists and
thinkers have realized that this is very high time to adapt vermiculture at
large scale to combat the ill effects of exhaustive agriculture adopted in
the past. Entre Pinoys (2010) has defined vermiculture as a science dealing
with the breeding and raising compost worms. Earthworm has potential
to reduce C:N ratio of waste and residues (Gandhi et al., 1997; Thompson
and Nogales, 1999). Important role of compost worms in agriculture can be
briefed as under:

 Self-employment to rural youth;

 Pollution free environment;
 Reduction in dependency of agriculture on chemical fertilizers;
 Improvement in soil health;
 Sustainable crop production;
 Strong foundation for organic farming.

14.3 WHAT IS VERMICOMPOSTING?

Conversion of waste and residues into a humus-like substance through the

activities of compost worms is termed as vermicomposting. It is greatly
different from composting (Gandhi et al., 1997), because, composting is
a thermophilic; however, vermicomposting is mesophilic process. Earth-
worms are specialized to live in decaying matter and can degrade it into fine
particulate materials high in available nutrients and considerable potential to
improve soil activities (Sridevi et al., 2016). Thus, earthworm as a potential
272 Sustainable Agriculture

biological tool should be much better understand to make organic farming

and sustainable development with the use of selected species of earthworms
(Kale, 1998). Conclusively, vermicomposting is that process which is
capable of transforming garbage into black gold (Anonymous, 2006). Beside
nutritional and environmental importance of vermicomposting, it also offers
employment to rural youth, which is very important for agriculture prime
developing country like India.

14.4 IMPORTANCE OF VERMICOMPOSTING

Economically viable, environmentally sustainable and socially accept-

able agricultural technologies are need of the time. Vermicomposting
is that technology which combines all these intrinsic worth together
(Karmengham and Rajasekhar, 2012). Vermicompost is superior to
compost because it favors colonization of beneficial micro-organisms
(Edwards, 2004). Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Nitrobacter, Actinomycetes
and phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms proliferates nicely in vermi-
compost (Karmengham and Rajasekhar, 2012). Vermicompost improves
resistance in plants against insect pest and diseases due to higher popu-
lation of actinomycetes in it (Singh, 2009; Kumar and Shweta, 2011).
Higher population of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes has been found in
the gut of earthworms and due to the reason; cast of the worms contains
sufficient number of beneficial micro-organisms (Prakash and Karmegam,
2010). Use of bio-inoculants for enrichment of vermicompost improves
quality of the produce (Kaushik et al., 2008). Interaction of earth-
worms and micro-organisms results very many beneficial enzymes and
hormones which augments growth, and yield of the crops (Karmengam
and Rajsekhar, 2012; Jayashree et al., 2011).
Low-grade rock phosphate is an eco-friendly mineral of but having no
commercial and agricultural value until or unless it is mixed with phos-
phate solubilizing micro-organisms. Phosphorus content of vermicompost
can be increased by mixing of rock phosphate and phosphate solubilizing
micro-organisms into substrate. As more than 40% of Indian soil has become
deficient in sulfur availability, so just to achieve optimum production from
S-deficient soils, sulfur nutrition has become essential. Thus, enrichment of
vermicompost with sulfur-containing minerals, viz. Gypsum or phospho-
gypsum has become important to increase production and productivity of
pulses, oilseeds, and cereals in sulfur deficient soils.
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 273

14.5 INFLUENCE OF VERMICOMPOST ON SOIL HEALTH

Vermicompost supplies all essential nutrients to the soil. It improves physical,

chemical and biological properties of the soil (Maheswarappa et al., 1999;
Mitchell and Edwards, 1997). Incorporation of vermicompost into soils
endows with congenial environment for growth of native micro-organisms.
Vermicompost diminishes nutrient loss and improves use efficiency of chemical
fertilizers. Vermicompost has potential to improve structure, texture, aeration
and water holding capacity and diminishes soil erosion. This material supplies
vitamins, enzymes and hormones viz. auxins and gibberellins to soil-plant system
(Marinari et al., 2000). Sodic soil can also be ameliorated through the application
of vermicompost (Sinha and Sinha, 2008). Biological nitrogen fixation also
improves in vermicompost treated soils (Bhadauria and Ramakrishnan, 1996)

14.6 IMPORTANCE OF ENRICHED VERMICOMPOSTING IN

MODERN AGRICULTURE

It is obvious from numerous experimental findings that there is a scope

for quality improvement in vermicompost to regard it as an organic fertil-
izer (Padmavathiamma et al., 2008). Composting of organic wastes and rock
phosphate mixture causes dissolution of insoluble phosphates and resulting
in increasing the availability of P for plants (Kumar and Narula, 1999). It had
also been observed by Kumar and Narula (1999) that some N2-fixing bacteria
also increase P availability through production of organic acids. Pseudomonas,
Azotobacter, Burkholderia, Agrobacterium, and Erwinia have also showed
their P-solubilizing potential during composting (Scervino et al., 2010; Eivazi
and Tabatabai, 1977; Busato et al., 2012; Mohammady et al., 2010). Introduc-
tion of P-solublizing bacteria in substrate used for vermicomposting and rock
phosphate mixture was found to be more effective to solubilize phosphorus
than that introduced in soil-rock phosphate mixture (Kaushik and Garg, 2004).
It has been reported by Beauchamp et al. (2006) and Hendrikson (1990)
that the population N2-fixing bacteria used for conversion of organic wastes
into vermicompost had not been reduced by earthworms. In contrary, popula-
tion of N2-fifing bacteria in final product got increased (Fischer et al., 1997).
Introduction of N2-fixing micro-organism in substrate used for vermicom-
posting improves N status of product.
In the light of above facts, enrichment of vermicompost is the need of
time to reduce the RD of vermicompost for various crops and to make it
popular among farming community.
274 Sustainable Agriculture

14.7 VERMICOMPOSTING MATERIALS

The material required for vermicompost production should be bio-degrad-

able and these are as under:

¾ Agricultural waste, e.g., crop residue, vegetable waste, sugarcane

trash, etc.
¾ Biogas slurry.
¾ Excretions obtained from livestock and poultry birds.
¾ Waste from agro-industries.
¾ Forest litters.
¾ Biodegradable portion of urban and industrial waste.
¾ Biodegradable portion of hotel refuge.
¾ Aquatic and terrestrial weeds.
¾ Plant products viz. saw dust, pulp, etc.

Crop residues are the remnants of crop plant left after the harvest of crops.
Only about one-third of the total crop residue generated in India is available
for utilization in agricultural production. Only, biologically degradable and
decomposable plant residues are commonly used for vermiculture. The avail-
ability of agricultural waste in India has been presented in Table 14.1. Every
part of agricultural waste and agro-industry waste is not utilizable for vermi-
compost production. The utilizable waste of agricultural and agro-industry
waste has been presented in Table 14.2. The advantages and disadvantages of
common food of vermicompost have been presented in Table 14.3.

TABLE 14.1 Availability of Agricultural Waste in India

Agricultural Waste Approximate Quantity
(Million Tons/Year)
Bagasse and molasses of sugarcane 38.1
Crop residues 196.8
Fiber crop residues 3.3
Food grain residues 14.4
Fruit and vegetable residues 1.2
Oilseeds residues 34.4
Planting residues 17.4
Powder of flour mills 2.0
Pulse residues 5.8
Rice residues 18.0
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 275

TABLE 14.2 List of Wastes Tested and Found Suitable for Vermicompost Production
Source of Waste Generation Utilizable Waste for Vermicomposting
Agricultural Waste
Agricultural fields Stubbles, weeds, husk, and straw.
Plantations and gardens Stems, leaf matter, fruit rinds, stubbles and grass clippings.
Animal waste Dung, urine and biogas slurry.
Urban solid waste Kitchen waste from households, restaurants, biodegradable
waste from market yards and places of worship and sludge
from sewage treatment plants.
Mushroom production unit Waste paddy or wheat straw used for mushroom production.
Agro-Industry Waste
Food processing units Peels, rinds and unused pulp of fruits and vegetable
Vegetable oil refineries Press mud and seed husk.
Sugar factories Press mud, fine bagasse, and boiler ash.
Breweries and distilleries Spent wash, barley waste, and cast sludge.
Seed processing unit Core of seeds, paper, and seeds after expiry date.
Aromatic oil extraction unit Stems, leaves and flowers after extraction of oil.
Coir industry Coir pith
Tissue culture units Paper, agar and wasted plantlets.

Besides, agro-industry wastes like rice husk, coir pith, press mud, cotton
lint, jute stick, and tea waste are also considered very good substrate for
vermicomposting because, these are biodegradable and contain 0.5–1.55
N, 0.5–2.5% P2O5 and 0.5 to 3.0% K2O. Oil cakes can also be used as a
substrate for vermicompost production because of high NPK contents in it
(1.5–5% N, 1.0–1.8% P2O5 and 1.0–1.8% K2O), nutritional value of vermi-
compost produced by using these materials will also be high (Gupta, 2008).
Cattle dung is the main base of vermicomposting and is used in several
combinations of agricultural waste including shed dropping, gram bran,
kitchen waste, rice polish, semi crushed leaves, sludge, vegetable waste,
wheat bran, weeds, etc. It has been reported by Gupta (2008) that the ideal
ratio of cattle dungs: gram bran: wheat bran: vegetable waste for vermicom-
post production is 10:1:1:1. But, the generalized ratio of cattle dung and
plant residues is 3:2. If there is a scarcity of cattle dung than plant residues
or decomposable municipal waste should be wet by 2% aqua slurry of cattle
dung. The annual excretions from livestock and human beings in India have
been presented in Table 14.4. Panda and Hota (2007) calculated the NPK
supplying potentials of excretions available in India and reported that 6.37
million tons N, 1.98 million tons, P2O5 and 2.67 million tons K2O can be
TABLE 14.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Common Food of Vermicompost 276
Food Advantages Disadvantages
Cattle manure Good nutrition, natural food. Weed seeds make pre-composting necessary
Poultry manure High N content results in good nutrition and a High protein levels can be dangerous to worms, so must
high-value product. be used in small quantities, major adaptation required for
worms not used to this feedstock.
Sheep/Goat manure Good nutrition Requires pre-composting (weed seeds), small particle size
can lead to packing, necessitating extra bulking material
Hog manure Good nutrition, produces excellent vermicompost Usually in liquid form, therefore must be dewatered or
used with large quantities of highly absorbent bedding
Rabbit manure High N content, good nutrition, contains very good Must be leached prior to its use because of high urine
mix of vitamins and minerals; ideal content, produces overheat if quantity is too large,
earth-worm feed availability is usually not good.
Fresh food scraps (e.g., Excellent nutrition, good moisture content, Extremely variable (depending on source); high N can
peels, other food prep waste, possibility of revenues from waste tipping fees result in overheating, meat and high-fat wastes can create
leftovers, commercial food anaerobic conditions and odors, and attract pests, can be
processing wastes) included only after pre-composting
Pre-composted food wastes Good nutrition, partial decomposition makes Nutrition less than with fresh food wastes.
digestion by worms easier and faster, can include
meat and other greasy wastes, less tendency to
overheat.
Biosolids (human waste) Excellent nutrition and excellent product; can be Heavy metal and/or chemical contaminations (if from
activated or non-activated sludge, septic sludge, municipal sources); odor during application to beds
possibility of waste management revenues (worms control fairly quickly), possibility of pathogen
survival if process not complete
Seaweed Good nutrition, results in excellent product, high Salt must be rinsed off, as it is detrimental to worms;
in micronutrients and beneficial microbes availability varies from region to region.
Sustainable Agriculture
TABLE 14.3 (Continued)

Food Advantages Disadvantages

Legume hays Higher N content makes these good feed as well as Moisture levels not as high as other feeds, requires more
reasonable bedding. input and monitoring
Corrugated cardboard Excellent nutrition (due to high-protein glue used Must be shredded (waxed variety) and/or soaked
(including waxed) to hold layers together); worms like this material; (non-waxed) prior to feeding
possible revenue source from WM fees
Fish, poultry offal; blood High N content provides good nutrition; Must be pre-composted until past thermophillic stage
wastes; animal mortalities opportunity to turn problematic wastes into
high-quality product
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers
277
278 Sustainable Agriculture

supplied to the soil through recycling of excretions (Table 14.5). However,

the annual manorial potential of only bovine excreta is 2.822, 1.069, and
1.819 million tons N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively. Residue and waste of
onion can also be used as a substrate for vermicomposting (Sobana et al.,
2016). Dry olive cake has been found good substrate for vermicomposting
(Nogales et al., 1999). Maize straw can be used successfully for produc-
tion of vermicompost (Manna et al., 1997). Zajonc and Sidor (1990) got
success to produce vermicompost by using mixture of cotton waste and
cattle dung in the ratio of 1:5. To feed scarps to worms, scarps should be
chopped into small pieces and then used for vermicomposting after keeping
it in a container for few days to increase the microbial population.

TABLE 14.4 Annual Excretion of Dung and Urine of Livestock and Human Beings in India
Animal Type Daily Excretion Annual Excretion Total Percentage
Dung Urine Dung Urine Excretion (%)
(Kg) (Liter) (Kg) (Liter) (Million Ton)
Cow and Buffalo 11.597 7.623 1002.587 658.901 1,661.488 82.71%
Sheep and Goat 0.300 0.200 12.228 7.918 20.146 1.00%
Pigs 2.000 2.000 4.596 3.990 5.586 0.43%
Poultry 0.068 - 3.395 - 3.395 0.20%
Other livestock 5.000 3.300 6.024 4.095 10.119 0.50%
Human beings 0.133 1.200 30.380 274.100 304.480 15.16%
Total 1,059.210 949.004 2,008.214

14.8 WHAT SHOULD NOT BE FED TO COMPOST WORMS?

It is very important to note that metallic foils, plastic, chemicals, oils, patri-
cides, soaps and paints are not fed to the worms. Worms are not allowed to
eat sour fruits and their products/waste, onion and garlic cloves, extremely
hot food, heavily spiced food, oleanders, poisonous plants, meat, chicken,
dairy foods, dog and cat manure and any other acidic foods (Gupta, 2008).

14.9 MATERIALS USED FOR ENRICHMENT OF VERMICOMPOST

Microbial inoculants are mainly used for enrichment of vermicompst

(Alikhani et al., 2016). Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar has explored the possibility of vermicompost enrichment
TABLE 14.5 Manorial Potential of Livestock and Human Excretions
Animal Annual Excretion (m. t.) Chemical Composition (%) NPK Potential
Dung Urine N P2O5 K2O (Million Tons)
Dung Urine Dung Urine Dung Urine N P2O5 K2O
Cow 744.57 480.15 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.01 0.05 0.20 2.03 0.79 1.33
Buffalo 258.02 178.75 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.01 0.05 0.20 0.75 .28 0.49
Sheep and Goat 12.23 7.92 0.65 1.70 0.50 0.02 0.03 0.25 0.21 0.06 0.02
Pigs 4.60 3.99 0.60 0.40 0.50 0.10 0.20 0.50 0.04 0.03 0.03
Poultry 3.40 - 0.80 - 0.60 - 0.30 - 0.03 0.02 0.01
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers

Other livestock 6.02 4.10 0.50 1.20 0.30 - 0.30 1.00 0.08 0.02 0.07
Human beings 30.38 274.10 1.60 1.00 1.20 0.15 0.55 0.20 3.23 0.78 0.72
Total 6.37 1.98 2.67
279
280 Sustainable Agriculture

through rock phosphate, phosphogypsum, Azotobacter, phosphate solubi-

lizing bacteria and Azolla to augment nutritional status and to increase
the population dynamics of beneficial microorganismss in vermicom-
post. These in richment materials are mixed at the time of pre-digestion
@ rock phosphate–5.05 (wt/wt.), phosphogypsum–2.5% (wt./wt.), Azoto-
bacter–50–100 g/t, phosphate solubilising bacteria–50–100 g/t and Azolla–
up to 25% (Wt./Wt.).
In one study conducted at BAU, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India, by
the author, it was found that Azolla is an excellent enrichment material for
vermicomposting and breeding of the worms. 25% replacement of cattle
dung by Azolla increased Eisenia fetida population by 247% in 90 days.
However, population increased only by 142.5% when only cattle dung was
used as a substrate (Figure 14.1).

FIGURE 14.1 Influence of substrate on population of Eisenia fetida after 120 days of rearing.

14.10 DESCRIPTION OF WORMS USED FOR ENRICHED

VERMICOMPOST PRODUCTION

Out of 3, 000 spices of earthworms identified so far, only a small number of

species is useful for vermicompost production. Those species of earth worms
which are used for production of vermicompost are called as “Compost
Worm.” Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavates are used
extensively in India for vermicomposting purposes. The first two are exotic
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 281

and last one is indigenous. These species are most suitable because these are
proliferic breeders with high multiplication rate, have short life cycles with
less mortality and are voracious feeders which give out high quality vermi-
casts. They are easy to handle and survive very well throughout the year
under varying weather conditions and are easily available.
On the basis of adaptability, compost worm can be divided into (1) Pere-
grine and (2) Endemic. Peregrine has wide range of adaptability and due to
the reason; these are found in larger part of the world. Eudrilus eugenae and
Eisenia foetida are important members of this group. However, endemic
compost worms are found only in those areas where climatic variation is very
less. However, On the basis of food habit, earth worms can be divided into (1)
Phytophagus, and (2) Geophagus. Phytophagus worms eat organic matter;
however, geophagus worms eat soil. Considering the ecological strategy,
worms can be divided into (1) Epigeic, (2) Endogeic, and (3) Anecic. Popu-
lation of epigeic worms are restricted to the upper horizon/(s) of the soil
having sufficient amount of decomposed or un-decomposed organic matter.
However, both, endogeic and anecic worms reside at comparatively lower
horizons of soils and due to the reason it is also called “Soil Living Worms.”
Eisenia foetida is commonly used in India in all part of the country, prob-
ably due to its high degree of resistance against climatic and managerial
variation during vermicompost production. Due to its red color, it is also
known as “Red Worm.” Generally, it is 3–15 cm long and 0.3–0.5 cm thick
worm and its weight ranging from 0.4 to 0.6 g. Eisenia foetida matures in
50–55 days and produces one cocoon in every three days.

14.11 AQUATIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENT OF WORMS

1. Water: It is the basic requirement of worms. 85% of body weight

of earthworm is constituted of water. Enormous volume of water
from the worm’s body is lost in the form of urine. Earthworms do
not have any protective body cover and they have to keep the body
surface moist as the body wall serves as respiratory organ. Due to the
reason, they are releasing mucus constantly through the dorsal pores
to keep the body wet. It is essential to maintain 60% moisture in
the medium. Excess moisture or water stagnation creates anaerobic
conditions in the medium and thus deters the growth of earthworms
and also quality of the compost.
2. Temperature: The temperature of the earthworm feed should be in
the range of 20°C to 35°C. Temperature greater than 45°C results into
282 Sustainable Agriculture

desiccation of the body and moisture stress. Very low temperature is

also deleterious to earthworms. Temperature below 0°C brings to a
standstill the activities of earthworms.
3. Requirement of Light: Earthworm prefers dark to remain active.
Light especially ultra-violet radiation causes injury to earthworms.
Excessive exposure to light may prove fatal for earthworms. It is
only why, vermicompost is produced under shade.
4. pH: For effective multiplication of earthworms, pH of the feeding
material should be at neutral level, i.e., 7.0. Earthworm population
is severely affected if the pH of the feed material is less than 4 and
greater than 9. Optimal pH range of feed mixture suitable for the
utmost activities of earthworm is 6.0–8.5. At both the extremes, rate of
vermicompost production falls down. Thus, it is essential for efficient
vermicompost production to maintain pH of the partially digested
substrate used for vermicomposting. To maintain an ideal pH of the
composting material, it is essential to use green matter along with the
dry biomass and regulate the moisture in the medium (Joshi, 2005).

14.12 DIVERSITY IN VERMICOMPOSTING TECHNIQUES

Suitability of the technique depends on the purpose of vermicomposting.

Small-scale vermicomposting is done either in the thermacol boxes or under
straw-thatched shade or in orchard to meet out their personal demand of
farming or kitchen gardening. Sometimes, rural youth also adopt small scale
vermicompost for the sake of their self-employment. However, vermicompost
is produced at large scale either for entrepreneurial purposes or for environ-
mental protection through recycling of MSW. Enriched vermicompost produc-
tion technique is being implemented by various institutions and agro-industries
to solve the fertility-related problems in soils and to promote the application of
vermicompost in agriculture by reducing its RD for various crops.

14.13 METHODS OF VERMICOMPOSTING

There are numerous methods of vermicomposting. Out of them, some impor-

tant methods are as under:

1. Vermicompost production in pits below the ground.

2. Vermicompost production in heaps above the ground.
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 283

3. Vermicompost production in tanks above the ground.

4. Open method of vermicomposting in orchard.
5. In-situ Method of vermicomposting.

14.13.1 VERMICOMPOST PRODUCTION IN PIT

In this method, vermicompost is produced in one meter deep pits. This

method of vermicomposting is facing lot of constraints especially in the area
receiving sufficient rainfall. Probably due to the reason, this method is not
popular among farming community.

14.13.2 VERMICOMPOST PRODUCTION IN HEAPS ABOVE THE

GROUND

This method of vermicomposting is farmer’s friendly. In comparison to the

other methods, higher amount of vermicompost can be produced in equal
span of the time. Heap method of vermicomposting is also suitable for large
scale production of vermicompost because of easy operation of machine
for the purpose. Bob cut loader is generally used for heaping and turning
purposes to reduce the dependency of vermicomposting on manpower.
Heap of pre-digested material is prepared on sloppy floor. Width and
height of the heap should be maintained 6 m and 3 m respectively, however,
length depends on the space available in shade. Sufficient volume of water
is sprinkled over the heap for 5–6 days to make the material cool. Compost
worm are introduced in cool material @ 1000–2000/ton of substrate. Heap
is covered with old gunny bags or paddy straw and water is sprinkled daily
to maintain moisture level more than 60%. After three week, pre-digested
material converts into tea like structure, called vermi-cast. After the forma-
tion of vermi-cast, irrigation is stopped for 3–4 days and cast is collected
from upper surface of the bed. Vermi-cast is sieved and packed in an inner
laminated bags to maintain the moisture between 20 and 25%.

14.13.3 VERMICOMPOST PRODUCTION IN TANKS ABOVE THE

GROUND

In this method, tanks are constructed under shade. Dimension of pit as

recommended by IRISAT is 15’LX5’WX3’H. However, Bihar government
284 Sustainable Agriculture

is popularizing the tank of 10’Lx 3’WX 2’6”H dimension by providing

subsidy on this structure. The basic concept behind reduction of width and
height of tank in Bihar model in comparison to ICRISAT model is to make it
convenient for manual operation. Some farmers and entrepreneurs of Bihar
have hybridized heap and tank method of vermicomposting by reducing
height of the tank to 6”–12 inch.”
Tank is filled with different materials in six layers. Description of the
layers from bottom to top is as under:

1st layer – 7.5 cm thick layer of brick stones and sand followed by its
sufficient moistening.
2nd layer – 7.5 cm thick layer of dry plant residue.
3rd layer – 5.0 cm thick layer of decomposed compost.
4th layer – Introduction of worms @1000–2000/ton pre-digested material.
5th layer – 45 to 60 cm thick layer of pre-digested waste.
6th layer – Mulching with old gunny bags.

Increase in number of tanks depends upon the availability of raw mate-

rial. Composting worms may also be applied @ 1000–2000/t substrate on
the upper portion of the bed. Moisture level of the substrate is maintained
by sprinkling the water at regular interval. When upper portion of the mate-
rial is converts into tea like structure (vermi-cast) then sprinkling of water
is stopped for 2–3 days and cast is collected. Collected cast is sieved at
20–25% moisture and packed in an inner laminated bags to maintain mois-
ture level of the product.

14.13.4 OPEN METHOD OF VERMICOMPOSTING

Though, first method of vermicompost production discussed above also

comes under open method of vermicomposting. But, heap method of vermi-
composting in old mango orchard is more successful than pit method. In
BAU, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar heaping of substrate in old mango orchard
for vermicomposting has been practiced successfully. In this method, soil
between the rows of mango is slightly raised and black polythene sheet is
spread over the raised land. Pre-digested Waste and residue mixture is heaped
over the polythene sheet and irrigated for 4–5 days. Worms are introduced
into the heap @ 1 kg/ton substrate after becoming the substrates cool. During
rainy season, heaps are covered with low height polythene parabola made
with the help of bamboo logs.
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 285

14.13.5 IN-SITU METHOD OF VERMICOMPOSTING

This method is generally practiced in horticultural gardens. To provide

nutrition to the fruit crops, at least 15 cm thick layer of waste/waste-residue
mixture is spread in one-meter radius around the tree, 30 cm apart from the
main trunk. Worms are applied @ 1000/tree. Waste is mulched with paddy
straw after introduction of worms and light irrigation is allowed periodically
till the conversion of waste into vermicompost. But, In-situ Method of vermi-
composting has not been found to be better than vermicompost application
with production point of view.
Out of various methods discussed above heap methods of vermicom-
posting has been found better than rest of the methods. Both, vermicompost
production rate and worm multiplication rate were found to be higher in
heap method of vermicomposting (Sunitha et al., 1997).

14.14 NUTRIENT CONTENT OF ENRICHED VERMICOMPOST

The level of nutrients in enriched vermicompost depends upon the nature of

substrate, species of worm and enrichment materials used for vermicomposting.
Due to the reason, nutrient content of vermicompost produced in the same
unit varies from batch to batch. Nutritional status of enriched vermicompost
has been found higher than normal vermicompost. Nutrient content of
vermicompost and enriched vermicompost (enriched with rock phosphate,
phosphogypsum, Azotobacter, Azolla and phosphate solubilizing bacteria)
prepared from same substrates at BAU, Sabour, Bhagalpur has been presented
in Table 14.6. It is pertinent to mention that Sulfur content and microbial
population dynamics were determined only once.
Quality of vermicompost in India is being controlled under the guidelines
mentioned in fertilizer control order (FCO). This order dictates that vermi-
compost satisfying following quality related guidelines can be permitted for
marketing:

1. Moisture percent (by weight): 15–25.

2. Color: Dark brown to black.
3. Odor: Absence of foul odor.
4. Particle size: 90% material must pass through 4 mm sieve.
5. Bulk density (g/cm3): 0.7–0.9.
6. Total organic carbon (% by weight): 18.0.
7. Total Nitrogen (%): 1.0.
286 Sustainable Agriculture

8. Total P2O5 (%): 0.8.

9. Total K2O (%): 0.8.
10. Maximum heaves metal content.
Cadmium (ppm): 5.0.
Chromium (ppm): 50.0.
Nickel (ppm): 50.00.
Lead (ppm): 100.0.

TABLE 14.6 Nutrient Content and Microbial Count in Vermicompost Produced at BAU,
Sabour, Bhagalpur During 2013
Plant Nutrient/ Microbe Content in Content in Enriched
Vermicompost Vermicompost
Nitrogen (%) 1.2–1.5 1.7–2.1
Phosphorus (%) 0.68–1.48 1.5–3.2
Potassium (%) 0.36–0.72 0.89–1.12
Sulfur (%) 0.80 1.26
Zinc (ppm) 56–100 81–113
Iron (ppm) 2,500–3,000 3,396–4,279
Copper (ppm) 25–50 50–52
Manganese (ppm) 250–429 360–466
Azotobacter (c.f.u./g dry compost) - 2.4 × 109
P.S.B. (c.f.u./g dry compost) - 5.2 × 109
Rhizobium (c.f.u. /g dry compost) - 6.5 × 109

14.15 RECOMMENDED DOSE (RD) OF ENRICHED

VERMICOMPOST FOR VARIOUS CROPS

Soil test values are the scientific basis to manures and fertilizers recom-
mendation to achieve the sustainable yields of the crops. Manurial recom-
mendation for same crop and equally fertile soil may differ in different
agro-climatic zones. A little work has been done regarding recommenda-
tion of enriched vermicompost for various crops in different agro-climatic
zones, probably due to late introduction of the technology. Impact of enrich-
ment techniques on nutritional status of vermicompost is also one of the
constraints behind unavailability of data regarding its recommendations for
various crops. Thus, there is a need of further investigation to search out
the best enrichment technique and to ascertain its dose for various soil-crop
systems in different agro-climatic zones.
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 287

There is a great variation in the recommendations of vermicompost

proposed by researchers. Recommendation of central research institute for
dry land agriculture, Hyderabad is being presented in Table 14.7. ICAR
Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya has generalized
the recommendation of vermicompost, 5–6 t/ha for field crops, 3–5 kg/plant
for fruit plants and 100–200 g/pot for plants grown in pots. However, recom-
mendation of vermicompost for field crops and fruit plants, as prescribed
by ICRISAT are 2–3 t/ha and 5–10 Kg/tree respectively. In vegetable crops,
vermicompost is applied @ 1.0 t/ha in nursery to grow the healthy seedlings,
whereas, at the time of transplanting, vermicompost should be applied @
400–500 g/plant. Application of equal dose of vermicompost after 45 days
of plant growth increases production of vegetable crops.

TABLE 14.7 Recommended Dose of Vermicompost for Various Crops

Name of Crop/(s) Recommended Dose of Vermicompost (t/ha)
Rice 2.5 ton/hectare
Sugar cane 3.75 ton/hectare
Cotton 2.5 ton/hectare
Chili 2.5 ton/hectare
Groundnut 6.25 ton/hectare
Sunflower 3.75 ton/hectare
Maize 2.5 ton/hectare
Turmeric 2.5 ton/hectare
Grape 2.5 ton/hectare
Citrus, Pomegranate, Ber, and Guava 2.0 Kg/tree
Mango and Coconut At planting – 2.0 Kg/tree; 1–5 Year old
plant – 5.0 Kg/tree; 6–9 year old tree – 10 Kg/
tree; ≥ 10 year old tree – 20 Kg/tree
Onion, Garlic, tomato, Potato, Ladies 2.5–3.75 t/ha
finger, Brinjal, Cabbage, and Cauliflower
Teak, Red sandalwood and other forest 3 Kg/tree
trees

14.16 MANIPULATION OF GROWTH AND YIELDS OF THE CROPS

BY VERMICOMPOST APPLICATION

Vermicompost application has potential to increase yield of wheat (Desai

et al., 1999), sorghum (Patil and Sheelavantar, 2000), sunflower (Devi and
288 Sustainable Agriculture

Agarwal, 1998; Devi et al., 1998), pea (Reddy et al., 1998), and cowpea
(Karmegam et al., 1999; Karmegam and Daniel, 2000). It has been reported
by Vadiraj et al. (1998) that yields of coriander in vermicompost and fertil-
izer treated plots were at par. Integrated application of chemical fertilizers
and vermicompost was to be found beneficial to increase flower yield in
ornamental plants (Nethra et al., 1999).

14.16.1 PESTS AND PARASITES

Worms sometimes may also act as an agent for the spread of parasite,
acting as reservoirs or intermediate host for many parasites and pathogens
(Gupta, 2008). A large number of protozoanes, nematodes, rotifers, flat
worms, mites, and dipteran larvae are found in the tissue and body fluids of
compost worms. Among dipterans, a cluster fly parasitizes lumbricides. The
parasitic flies like Onesia suvalipine and mite like Histostoma murchieae are
parasitic on cocoons. Leeches are known to attack vermeries. Nematodes are
found emerging from the cocoons of Endrilus eugeniae which affected their
viability. Incidence of parasitism increased with the age of host. There are
records of different species of parasitic nematodes from the coleomic cavity
of the earthworms (Gupta, 2008). Cilliate and sporozoan parasites have
also been isolated from the body of fluids and tissues of earthworms. The
important pest and management related problems of vermicomposting and
their solutions are as under:

14.16.2 EPILOGUE

Green revolution converted India from subsistence to surplus in food grain

production. But, non-judicious use of agrochemicals for achieving this status
has declined the population of beneficial flora and fauna in soil. Probably
due to the avoidance of organic sources of plant nutrients and uncontrolled
mining of essential plant nutrients from soil in green revolution era, a
big challenge of agricultural sustainability is being faced by agricultural
scientists, thinkers, planners, and administrators. The vital solution of the
problem is large scale adoption of waste and residues recycling and use of
recycled material with bio-inoculants to attain sustainability in agriculture.
The earthworm is said “Farmer’s Friend” and its casting is a good tool to
retrieve soil health. Enrichment of vermicompost may reduce the RD of
vermicompost to various crops and as a consequence this material will become
Problem Cause Solution
Bad smell from Overfeeding/Presence of non-compostable materials/ Stop feeding for two weeks; Remove non-compostable
vermibed/tank Exposed food scraps/over moistening of bed. materials; Bury food completely; Mix in dry vermibed;
Fluff bedding; Drill hole in tank/bed
Bin attracts flies Food scraps exposed/Rotten food/Too much food especially Burry food completely; Avoid putting rotten food in
citrus bin; stop over feeding to worms
Drying of worms Over moistening or over-drying of substrate/Extreme Maintain optimum temperature and moisture through
temperature/ insufficient aeration/Scarcity of food management; Provide food to the worms.
Worms crawling away Conditions of the tank/bed is not good/high temperature in Improve conditions of bin/tank; Manage congenial
bed and cooler environment outside especially in summer/ environment for worms in bed/tank.
More nutritious and desired food is available in nearby area
Mold forming Too acidic condition prevails Reduce acidity of substrate by mixing less acidic
Enriching Vermicompost Using P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers

materials.
Drying of beds Too much ventilation/sprinkling of water on beds in Insuf- Reduce ventilation; sprinkling of water in proper
ficient amount amount
Water stagnation on Watery scarps/Improper drainage facility/Over moistening Improve drainage facility; Avoid over moistening of
bottom of tank bed.
289
290 Sustainable Agriculture

popular among farming community. Besides, this technology offers self-

employment to rural youth, healthy and sustainable environment and food
security to the ever-increasing human population. Adopting the enrichment
technology of vermicomposting, vermicompost can be converted into more
popular and beneficial agro-input. Thus there is a need of intensive scientific
researches and wide-scale adaptation of enriched vermicomposting.

KEYWORDS

 Azolla
 azotobacter
 bioinoculant
 plant nutrient
 pollution control
 soil health
 vermicompost

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CHAPTER 15

Protected Horticulture in India:

An Overview
PARAMVEER SINGH, AJAY BHARDWAJ, and RANDHIR KUMAR
Department of Horticulture (Olericulture and Floriculture),
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Horticulture sector is the most lucrative venture providing vast employment

opportunities and increased earnings to the farmers in India and at global
level. India is at second place in the production of various horticultural crops
in the world. Protected cultivation is the modern approach to cultivate horti-
cultural crops in a manner that it can provide high quality produce with
increased quantity. Greenhouse/poly house/net houses is most commanding
technology under varying climate for round the year and off time vegetable
and flower production. Beside production, this technology can be used for
virus free seedlings and hybrid seed production. This technology needs very
vigilant planning, awareness and information about time-line of production
and moreover, harvest time to coincide with high market prices, choice of
varieties adopted for the off season environments. Greenhouse is an artificial
structure works on the phenomenon which is known as greenhouse effect.
The area coverage reported under protected cultivation in India is 110,000
hectares and global level is 275,000 hectares. Maharashtra and Gujarat covers
5,730.23 hectares and 4,720.72 hectares area under protected cultivation,
respectively. Protected technology has in general two very basic compo-
nents, first one is infrastructure and second one is production technology of
crops. Infrastructure involves various engineering aspects of protected struc-
ture development. The second component production technology of crops
involves scientific studies to develop the varieties suited for protected culti-
vation, choosing the type of crops and standardizing the production proto-
cols. Higher intensity of cropping and intensive management necessitates
296 Sustainable Agriculture

higher labour requirements for these structures. The per unit labour require-
ment of greenhouse cultivated area (10 men/ha) is more than field cultiva-
tion (1 man/ha). Government of India is also providing 50% subsidy on total
expenditure with a maximum cut off limit up to 4000 m2 per beneficiary for
adoption and installing greenhouses under National Horticulture Mission.
For Indian farmers, this technology can help in making lucrative returns
from various high value crops and will impart enough calibres to compete at
International level.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

The horticulture sector has emerged as a powerhouse for overall agricul-

tural advance in India (Mittal, 2007; Abou-Hadid and Ayman, 2005). It
comprises a range of crops covering fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamen-
tals, medicinal and aromatic, tubers, spices and plantation crops (GoI,
2001). Presently it is the most lucrative venture providing vast employment
opportunities and increased earnings to the farmers. For pushing agricul-
tural growth rates beyond the targeted 4% level, this sector has tremen-
dous potentialities (Bahadur, 2010). Considering these potentials, the
government of India has also started giving emphasis on the development
of the horticultural sector and more focus towards its important branch
covering value addition. Since the 75 years plan development initiatives of
this sector were given greater emphasis (Singh et al., 2004; Chand, 1996).
These efforts resulted in the second-ranking of India at global level in the
production field of vegetables and fruits.
India reserves its uniqueness for its agro-climatic diversity which exists
from acute temperate to tremendous tropical areas and helps to grow all
kinds of crops in their favorable environment. When we talk about horticul-
tural crops, we have diverse crops that are in cultivation from acute hot to
highly cool climate conditions. As per the statistics of horticultural crops,
in 2014–15, the production was 280,986 thousand MT out of an area of
23,410 thousand ha. Out of this, the major contribution was from vegetables
and flowers with the production of 166,566 and 2143 thousand MT with
an area of 9417 and 249 thousand ha, respectively (NHB, 2015). As India
is at second place in the production of various horticultural crops in the
world, but while we talk about the pioneer in all crops, India is very far
behind others. Among the fruits, the country receives its largest production
of mango, banana, coconut, cashew, papaya, and pomegranate, and simulta-
neously, exporting the largest quantity of spices. India also holds the second
rank in vegetable production globally, however, it is much behind if we have
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 297

to provide balanced to every Indian. This condition is prevalent because of

the adoption of traditional techniques and practices for cultivation under
open fields which thereby results in lower yields and productivity. There
is also a lack of full proof crop management technologies against biotic
and abiotic stresses. The biotic and abiotic pressure not only decreases the
productivity of crops but are accountable for reduced quality produce too
specifically during adverse climatic conditions. Many of the farmers spray
large amount of different chemicals to mitigate biotic stresses, which not
alone escalates the net cost in cultivation but also enhances left over toxicity
in the fresh produce, which is regarded as unsafe for health. To overcome,
there are different ways. Those can be bringing more area under cultivation,
use of hybrid seeds and use of well-proven agro-techniques, etc.
An additional way could be the cultivation of crops in protected environ-
ment. Population pressure, climate shift, squeezing land holdings, vulner-
ability of natural resources and ever-increasing demand for quality food
are forcing us to make a shift towards protected cultivation. In the current
scenario, the area of protected horticulture is 40,000 ha. The majority of this
area is lying in north India. It can be estimated from this data that the full area
is still not underutilization for protected horticulture, despite its importance
in the creation of massive self-employments and direct correlation with the
growth of national economy. Producing vegetable and flowers in protected
conditions can easily increase the productivity by 3–5 times when compared
with open field cultivation (Sabir and Singh, 2013). This technology is very
potent for urban and peri-urban localities of India which can transform into
fast-growing future markets for fresh produce supply.
Protected cultivation is the modern approach to mainly cultivate horticul-
tural crops in a manner that can provide high-quality products with increased
quantity. This technology has spreaded very fast in the last few decades
at global level. It is precisely envisaged for high production, water, and
land conservation and environment protection (Jensen, 2002). It involves
growing of horticultural crops in a protected environment, where different
plant growth-promoting aspects like temperature, relative humidity, light
incidence, land, water, nutrition, etc. are maneuvered to attain high produc-
tivity in order to have a continuous availability of produce even in off-season
also. Adoption of protected cultivation technology can add to the income of
the farmers with additional remuneration for quality produce. A total of 115
countries at global level are enrolled in commercial protected cultivation
(Sabir and Singh, 2013). The total acreage under protected cultivation is
nearly about 623302 hectares while the protected vegetable cultivation area
298 Sustainable Agriculture

is 402981 hectares. Of this area, the 95,000-hectares area comes under soil-
less/hydroponic culture systems (Hickman, 2011).
In India, protected cultivation technology has its roots since the early
nineties in a commercial manner. The current area under protected cultiva-
tion in India is about 25,000 hectares while protected vegetable production
covers 2000-hectare area. The constraints of decreasing land holdings, rapid
urbanization, declining crop production, declining biodiversity and ever-
increasing population, demand for food, especially vegetables are increased
many times and thus to overcome this, protected technology has given a new
aspect for producing more in per unit area (Sabir and Singh, 2013).
Nowadays, major exhaustive protected farming systems at the global
level are owned by Dutch people who are fetching lofty outputs by employing
most modern technologies (Goncharova, 2004). North Indian conditions are
well suited for vegetable production because of fertile land, these tracts also
face wide mercury range starting from 0° to 48°C during the year and don’t
allow round the year vegetable cultivation in open environment (Singh et al.,
2011). During rainy seasons the crops become susceptible to various biotic
agents. It has also been prevalent that high hill areas experience extreme
cold –5° to –30°C temperatures and consequently creates problems to grow
vegetables during winter months. Thus, protected horticulture, encom-
passing polyhouses, shade net houses, poly-tunnels, poly-mulches, etc.
protects these crops from unexpected divergence in weather and controls the
environment in protected structures and thereby reduce the effects of high or
low temperature regimes as well as various biotic and abiotic factors (Negi
et al., 2013).
Greenhouse/poly house/net houses are most commanding technology
under varying climate for round the year and off-time vegetable and flower
production. Beside production, this technology can be used for virus-free
seedlings and hybrid seed production. The protected cultivation need has
widened since last 10 years because this technology have helped in reducing
various causes such as weed pressure, increasing moisture conservation,
reduction of insect pests, higher production and efficient use of nutrients
(Negi et al., 2013). Protected vegetable and flower cultivation are proven
very successful in changing climatic conditions but also for stabilizing the
unbalanced market prices prevailing almost every year in India. High-value
horticultural crop cultivation is a marvelous and very remunerative venture
in India. Under the new era of FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in retail,
the protected cultivation models have high prospects for increasing income
of the growers who opt for quality and off-season vegetable and flower
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 299

production (Singh et al., 2012). This technology is being profitably used for
producing high value vegetable crops like big fruited tomatoes, cherry toma-
toes, colored capsicums, parthenocarpic cucumbers and virus free seedlings
(Singh et al., 2010). Though it’s various advantages, this technology needs
very vigilant planning, awareness, and information about the timeline of
production and moreover, harvest time to coincide with high market prices,
choice of varieties adopted for the offseason environments.
All types of protected structures may not suit the demand of all groups
of farmers, because of different environments and geographical factors.
They also have more initial costs in fabrication, running costs, etc. (Singh
et al., 2012). Some of the low-cost technologies like low-cost polyhouses,
low-pressure drip irrigation system and low-cost nursery raising technology
are suited in different areas of the country and provide ample scope of
agricultural advancement in the near future.

15.2 PROTECTED CULTIVATION

It is defined as a cropping practice in which the climate neighboring the

plant is restricted to cater to the need for proper growth and development of
the plant (Mishra et al., 2010). Types of protected cultivation technologies
are available according to the widespread climatic conditions. Among them,
polyhouse is a really useful technology for the round-the-year production
of vegetable and flower crops. It is also known as Controlled Environment
Agriculture, which is extremely productive, and protective to the environ-
ment (Jensen, 2002).

15.3 PRINCIPLE OF GREENHOUSE CULTIVATION

Greenhouse is an artificial structure having transparent covering material

like polythene sheet, glass, fiber sheet, that transmits the sun energy inside
it. This sun energy is absorbed by the crops and the objects and thereafter
transmittance of light energy in the form of long-wavelength, which does not
secrete out of non-transparent cladding material. At the end, this light energy
gets trapped inside the structure and increases the surrounding temperature.
This phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect. This temperature rise
leads to the fast-growing of vegetable and flower crops in winter months.
During the summer period, air temperature in polyhouse is brought down
by providing cooling instruments. A commercial greenhouse facilitates to
300 Sustainable Agriculture

produce desired crops without a gap in a year by maintaining inside temper-

ature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, photoperiod, temperature and plant
nutrients that are needed for plants. Controlled climate and soil situation
are given a chance for crops to articulate their yield potentials (Singh et
al., 2011). Cladding materials used in greenhouses acts as choosy radiation
filter. The solar radiations pass through it and trap the thermal energy inside
the greenhouse, which is emitted by the objects that are kept inside.

15.4 WHY PROTECTED CULTIVATION?

Cultivation of vegetable and flower crops in open field conditions face many
problems like high or low temperatures and humidity levels, excessive solar
radiation, heavy rainfall, thunderstorms (Max et al., 2009), high biotic and
abiotic stress pressure (Sringarm et al., 2013; Nguyen et al., 2009). Compar-
atively protected cultivation is the most appropriate approach for vegetable
and flower cultivation. Off time cultivation of crops is possible in protected
structures which otherwise is not possible in open fields. Besides, from
protection to adverse climatic condition, the produce under protected culti-
vation is of high quality in aspects of shape, size, and colors (Sringarm et
al., 2013). The surrounding climate inside polyhouse can be maneuvered
easily utilizing various instruments. Many insects have need of UV light for
their visualization; the UV opaque covering materials restrict the entry of the
insects. Consequently, there is less use of harmful insecticides.

15.4.1 ADVANTAGES OF PROTECTED CULTIVATION

Protected vegetable and flower production judicially uses water and chemi-
cals compared to open field conditions. The comparative benefits are:

1. Ensures the production of any plant at any place and throughout the
year.
2. Overcoming adverse weather for vegetables and flowers production
by opting specific systems.
3. Multi-cropping can be practiced on the same area.
4. Off time production is possible.
5. Quality and healthy seedlings production.
6. More crop productivity per unit of area with judicious use of resources.
7. High quality and clean products.
8. Cultivation is possible in remote areas.
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 301

9. Vertical cultivation using hydroponics, aeroponics techniques.

10. Seed production of expensive vegetables and flowers is possible.
11. Pesticide residue free produces having good nutrition.
12. Early raising of nurseries and protection of valuable germplasm.
13. Easy crop management.
14. Can be used for maintaining stock plants and cultivating grafted
plantlets and micro propagated plants.

15.5 CONSTRAINTS OF PROTECTED/GREENHOUSE CULTIVATION

1. High initial cost investment required for construction and manage-

ment of greenhouses.
2. A very important consideration in greenhouse cultivation is crop
management. The various cultural operations in a greenhouse are
intensive in nature and modified at times.
3. Pollination is restricted inside polyhouse for cross pollinated vegetables.
4. High cost involvement and unavailability of construction material
for polyhouse at every place.
5. Lack of suitable instruments (tools) and machinery for use in
protected cultivation.
6. Quality planting material at reasonable price.
7. Lack of organized marketing of flowers grown under cover has also
become a problem as the middlemen are exploiting the produces by
quoting low prices despite the better quality of the produce.
8. Lack of adequate cold storage facilities.

15.6 STATUS OF PROTECTED CULTIVATION

Environmentally controlled production of plants is in existence since Roman

era. The Roman Emperor in 42 to 37 B.C. used to eat cucumbers daily
produced through methods which are produced through protected systems.
The growers were planting the cucumbers in handcarts and bringing them
in the sun and later bringing them under protection in the homes in the night
to save them from various stress elements. By the 16th century, European
explorers created greenhouses to grow tropical plants in the temperate
climates and the technology progressed from the Italian botanical gardens
to wood made structures and then to structures of cast iron, and finally lead
to glasshouses. After the arrival of plastics during the 2nd World War, a new
302 Sustainable Agriculture

segment in protected technology in the form of polyhouse formed. At present

nearly 90% of the new greenhouses are being constructed by utilizing ultra-
violet (UV) stabilized polythene sheets as the glazing material. Protected
cultivation is being commercially practiced in 55 countries of the world for
growing crops and this technology is replicating at a fast rate. China ranks
first in the use of protected technology. The global scenario of protected
cultivation is depicted in Table 15.1.

TABLE 15.1 Total Area Covered Under Protected Structures at Global Level
S. No. Country Area
1. China 2,760,000 ha
2. Korea 57,444 ha
3. Spain 52,170 ha
4. Japan 49,049 ha
5. Turkey 33,515 ha
6. Italy 26,500 ha
7. Mexico 11,759 ha
8. Netherlands 10,370 ha
9. France 9,620 ha
10. United States 8,425 ha

India’s protected program came into existence by the advent of the

Indo-Israel project which started at IARI, New Delhi in 1998. After the
completion of this project, the Israeli experts went back in 2003, IARI,
New Delhi itself started maintaining this facility and named it as Center
for Protected Cultivation Technology (CPCT). Since then this center
has refined many protected cultivation technologies. The area coverage
reported under protected cultivation in India is 110 thousand hectares
and the global level is 275,000 hectares (Mishra et al., 2010). Since then
area coverage has consistently prolonged in India by 10%, the states
have also come up with area expansion under protected cultivation are
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal.
Maharashtra and Gujarat cover 5,730.23 hectares and 4,720.72 hectares
area under protected cultivation, respectively. In the European continent,
Spain is the leader in protected cultivation covering 51,000 ha area at
world level.
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 303

15.7 COMPONENTS OF PROTECTED HORTICULTURE

Protected technology has in general two very basic components, which are
as follows:
1. Infrastructure; and
2. Production technology of crops.
Infrastructure involves various engineering aspects of protected structure
development, including the type of cladding material to be used, supporting
structural frames, fertigation and irrigation facilities, working tools, temperature
controlling instruments, humidity controlling equipments and ventilation related
accessories, etc. These inputs take care of various growth and development
factors for a successful crop production like temperature, light, water, nutrients,
etc. All these climatic factors can be managed easily with various engineering
or electrical tools. The latest in this category is automated systems comprising
various sensors. In order to regulate air ventilation which causes an increase in
temperature, growth of pathogens inside the protected structures, installation of
ventilation devices or through manual adjustment, ventilation can be regulated.
For trapping light energy in terms of photosynthetic active radiation and
photosynthesis, the choice of cladding material is very important. The availability
of this cladding material, its quality, and its cost also play an important role
in its selection. Another important component in the infrastructure category is
irrigation and fertigation unit. In all these infrastructural aspects continuous
upgradation is coming up with the latest discoveries and scientific inputs.
The second component which is production technology of crops is also
an important factor because it needs scientific studies to develop the vari-
eties suited for protected cultivation, choosing the type of crops which
can give good production and standardizing the production protocols for
harnessing bumper yield whether it involves various intercultural operations
like training and pruning which are totally different which are adopted in
field farming. Various pest and disease problems, weed infestations, nutri-
tion requirements, pollination, harvesting practices, and abiotic stresses are
not similar as in open field conditions. These practices are very specific.
This field needs the utmost care and planning for scientific studies and in our
country, it is still in much-neglected state.

15.8 DESIGN AND ORIENTATION OF PROTECTED STRUCTURES

Various protected structures for cultivation are polyhouse, low tunnel
polyhouse, zero energy polyhouse, glasshouse, insect-proof net house,
304 Sustainable Agriculture

etc. Based on shape also protected structure are classified into lean to
type, even span type, multi-span, slope type, etc. Based on utility, they
may be temperature controlled and humidity controlled types. Based on
construction type they may be of wooden/bamboo, pipe or truss framed and
GI pipe framed, etc. Based on cladding materials they may be of plastic-film
based, fiberglass-based and glass-based, etc. (Montero et al., 2005). Good
agricultural practices require good ventilation and light transmission. In
terms of the roof slope, computer simulations show that during the winter,
increasing the roof slope from 11 to 45° can increase daily light transmission
by nearly 10%. With regard to greenhouse orientation, there are two main
factors that have to be balanced before choosing the best solution: light
transmission and ventilation. For receiving high light transmission and to
have good ventilation, polyhouse should be made in East-West orientation.
But for getting uniform light the polyhouses should be built in North-South
orientation in order to prevent the shadow of gutter and ridge in the daytime
with the movement of the sun.
Higher intensity of cropping and intensive management necessitates
higher labor requirements for these structures. The per-unit labor require-
ment of greenhouse cultivated area (10 men/ha) is more than field cultiva-
tion (1 man/ha). Thus, protected cultivation is like a factory-like approach
with assured input-output relationships. As greenhouse cultivation is capital
intensive, heavy financial investments are necessary in the beginning to
construct and furnish the greenhouse with adequate environmental control
devices. Depending upon the prevalent weather conditions and type of the
crop, the initial investment could be from Rs. 350 to 3500 per square meter
of floor area. It again depends upon construction type and material used.
Covering materials made of plastic film are also divided as acrylic, poly-
carbonate, fiberglass-reinforced polyester, polyethylene film and polyvinyl
chloride films, etc. (Montero et al., 2005). Plastic coverings have many
benefits over glass coverings mainly in terms of cost. Plastics have more
adaptation in various greenhouses designing because of its resistance against
breakage, less weight and easy to install property.

15.9 TYPES OF STRUCTURES

15.9.1 LOW-COST STRUCTURE/GREENHOUSE

Low-cost types are made up of 700 gauge polythene sheet and come under the
category of the zero-energy chamber and framed on bamboos/wooden poles
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 305

with the help of ropes and nails. The size of these structures is dependent on
space availability and purpose such as preventing the crops from rains. These
structures are entirely dependent on the light energy from sun. In this type of
structures mercury level are 6–10° higher than field conditions. If an UV stabi-
lized sheet is being used as cladding material, there may be higher day tempera-
ture but low night temperature. The radiation which passes in inside is 30–40%
lesser than the radiation falling on soils outside (Chakraborty and Sethi, 2015).

15.9.2 MEDIUM COST STRUCTURES

Generally they are quonset shaped polyhouses framed with GI pipes of 15

mm bore size and comes up with slight higher cost than low cost structures.
They have UV stabilized polythene sheet of 800 gauge thickness with single
layer. There is a provision of fan and pad system also for proper ventila-
tion and dehumidification which are thermostatically controlled. They have
a life span of about 20 years for frames and 2–3 years for glazing material
(Chakraborty and Sethi, 2015).

15.9.3 HIGH COST STRUCTURE/GREENHOUSE

In these structures, the frames are built from galvanized iron/aluminum

material with dome shape. Automated systems are installed which control
humidity, temperature, CO2 and light as per the need of plants and growers
with various automated instruments. Floors and some side part are built with
concrete. They have long durability and are about 5 times costlier than other
structures. They require a qualified workforce, proper maintenance, care,
and precautions while operating.

15.9.4 SHADE-NET HOUSES

Shade-net house is made of materials GI pipes, angle iron, wood or bamboo.

It is a covered structure with plastics nets that are made of 100% polyethylene
thread with specialized UV treatment having different shade percentages. It
provides a partially controlled environment by reducing light intensity and heat
during day time. Hence, year-round seasonal and off-time production is possible
under these structures. Shade-nets come up in different shade factors, i.e., 15%,
35%, 40%, 50%, 75%, and 90%. To create optimum conditions for healthy
crop growth, selection of the correct shade factor is an important criteria to
306 Sustainable Agriculture

enhance plant’s productivity. Shade-net structures are generally recommended

for raising horticultural crops in high rainfall areas. Cladding material is used
for roofing. Sides are covered with wire mesh of various sizes. These structures
show usefulness in North-Eastern Hilly areas (Nair and Barche, 2014).

15.10 SITE SELECTION FOR PROTECTED STRUCTURES

Protection is needed against high radiation from the sun in protected struc-
tures. Strong winds, heavy rain, and hail-storm are other important criteria’s
while selecting a site. The soil type, profile of the soil and location should
be of high standards. Structures should be at a safe distance from industrial
areas. Leveled land and high light-receiving areas are also prerequisites. If
they are to be built on a slope area, there must be a provision of surface
runoff. Proper drainage is also necessary. Continuous and enough water
supplies with electrical source are also required near selected site.

15.10.1 IN USE PROTECTED STRUCTURES IN INDIA

1. Polyhouses with natural or modified ventilation.

2. Insect proof net houses.
3. Insect proof net cages.
4. Polyhouses with fan and pad system.
5. Walk-in tunnels (mostly used in dry temperate areas of Himachal
Pradesh).
6. Solar greenhouses or Leh design greenhouses.
7. Poly low tunnels.
8. Underground trenches (mostly used in Leh and Ladakh area).

15.10.2 CAUSES OF GREENHOUSE DAMAGE

1. The profile used for frame, trusses and other places in protected
structure is too light which is deformed by strong winds.
2. Structure not bearing the load of cladding material.
3. Poly film split due to sharp edges.
4. Not sufficiently secured foundation against uplifting forces.
5. Ventilation openings have a start point for damage of polyfilm.
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 307

15.11 PROVISION OF SUBSIDY BY THE GOVERNMENT

Government of India is providing 50% subsidy (Table 15.2) on total expen-

diture with a maximum cut off limit up to 4000 m2 per beneficiary for adop-
tion and installing greenhouses under National Horticulture Mission (NHM)
(Nair and Barche, 2014).

TABLE 15.2 Subsidy by Government for Installing Greenhouses in India

Items Pattern of Assistance (Rs/m2) (Limited to 4000 m2
per Beneficiary)
Tubular Wooden Bamboo
Greenhouse (Fan and Pad cooling 1465 - -
System)
Naturally ventilated polyhouse 935 515 375

15.12 CHOICE OF CROPS FOR PROTECTED HORTICULTURE

The size and economics of crop production determines the selection of crop
to be grown inside polyhouse. That is why high value horticultural crops
are more popular in the greenhouses. Colored capsicums, parthenocarpic
cucumbers, cherry tomatoes, big fruited tomatoes, lettuce, spinach, beans,
roses, gerbera, carnation, orchids, anthurium, chrysanthemum, strawberry,
pot plants, etc. are preferred for protected cultivation in India and many
countries. In addition, nursery seedlings, grafted planting material and hard-
ening of tissue culture plants are other important commercial aspects of
greenhouses technology.

15.13 PLANT CONTAINERS IN PROTECTED HORTICULTURE

The crop duration inside greenhouse is an important factor for making

protected technology profitable. Short duration crops are preferred generally
for protected cultivation. To minimize the pathogen load available in the soil
with continuous cropping, containers are healthy choice.

15.13.1 BENEFITS OF USING PLANT CONTAINERS

1. Uniform and vigorous plant stand.

2. Provide quick and vigorous plant growth with less or without trans-
planting shock.
308 Sustainable Agriculture

3. Easy maintenance of hygiene in greenhouse.

4. Easy to handle and grading.
5. Easy to shift for distant transportation.
6. Provide better drainage and aeration to the plants.
7. Easy monitoring of chemical characteristics of growing media.
8. Easy supply of required plant nutrition is possible.

15.14 IRRIGATION AND NUTRITION SYSTEMS FOR PROTECTED

STRUCTURES

The entire growth and development of plants are dependent on water

and nutrients. The plants with small root systems require high amount of
photosynthates to be produced for getting handsome quantity of flowers
per unit of area employing handy foliar systems. Hence regular and steady
water and nutrient supply is must for steady production inside green-
house system and the best option is to have drip irrigation cum fertigation
system.

15.15 SYSTEMS FOR WATERING AND NUTRIENT SUPPLY

Micro-irrigation system can be used as a perfect choice for irrigating plants

inside protected structure or greenhouse. The major challenge is to prevent
the dispersal of water droplets on the leaves or flowers which otherwise
create problems in the form of diseases and scorching from sunlight. To
cope up with this challenge drip irrigation is best alternative inside protected
structures. In this system of drip irrigation the injection of water is through
nozzles which come out with high pressure with the help of a fitted motor.
Drip irrigation system equipments are pressure pump for creating 2.8 kg/cm2
pressure, Sand or silica or screen water filters and drip lines with mainline,
sublines, dripper and emitters. Various types of drippers include Labyrinth,
Turbo, Pressure compensating (with a membrane of silicon for steady flow
rate), Button (easy to clean, good for pots and orchards) and pot drippers
(long tube cones). The water discharge rate varies with the type of dripper
used, few examples are given below:

1. 16 mm type for 2.8 kg/cm2 pressure discharges and flow rate of 2.65
liters water per hour.
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 309

2. 15 mm type for 1 kg/cm2 pressure discharges and flow rate of 1–4

liters water per hour.

15.15.1 TYPES OF FILTERS

Depending upon the available water source and its quality, different kinds of
filters are used, which are:

1. Gravel filter: Water of open canals and reservoirs having organic

impurities and algae, etc. are filtered through these types of filters
with the help of beads of basalt or quartz.
2. Hydrocyclone: Used for filtration of river water having sand particles.
3. Disc filters: Used to filter fine particles mixed in water.
4. Screen filters: Made up of stainless steel filter having 120 mesh
(0.13 mm) size. Generally used in second stage filtration.

15.16 SYSTEM OF FERTIGATION

An automatic mixing and distribution system is installed in the fertigation

unit, which consists of pump and a mixture supplying device. The fertilizers
are mixed individually in various tanks in a required ratio and then trans-
ported to the plants with the help of installed drippers.

15.17 POLYHOUSE HEATING

During the winter season, the temperature falls below the actual requirements
of the plants, in that case, we need polyhouse heating mechanisms. Normally,
sunlight is enough to maintain the mercury levels but in few cases according
to the need of crop we need to heat the polyhouse for maintaining the optimum
temperature for proper growth and development. Some methods generally
employed for heating the polyhouse are:

1. Provision of underground heating tunnel in the protected structure.

2. Northern wall of polyhouse should be covered with jute cloth.
3. Covering of whole polyhouse with jute cloth in night.
4. Installation of solar panel driven devices in polyhouse.
5. Use of heating blowers.
310 Sustainable Agriculture

15.18 POLYHOUSE COOLING

Cooling is required when mercury rises above 40°C inside the protected
structure at noon in summer months. Side by side the relative humidity can
also be maintained by following various measures which are:

1. Proper ventilation practices such as opening the side curtains in

order to allow fresh air during the day time.
2. Exchanging of inside air with fresh air by the provision of fans.
3. Fitting of cooling system on Eastern or Western wall not only
keeps down temperature but also maintains proper humidity in
polyhouse.
4. Misting and fogging provisions for controlling the relative humidity
and temperature.

15.19 CLADDING MATERIAL FOR PROTECTED STRUCTURES

Polythene is very good alternate option available at cheaper rates. Different

forms of cladding materials are coming up now a day’s which varies on their
strength (heavy duty, unbreakable, light weight), UV stabilization and trans-
parency. Among these new materials few are fiber glasses and polycarbonate
panels. In humid and the areas receiving generally high temperature, plastics
are mostly preferred against fiberglass because of their economical feasi-
bility. Another forms which creates micro-ecosystem inside protected struc-
tures for proper growth conditions for plants in plastic cladding materials are
LDPE (low density polyethylene)/LLDPE (linear low density polyethylene)
which stay in original form up to 3–4 years.

15.20 ADVANTAGES OF GROWING ORNAMENTAL PLANTS UNDER

GREENHOUSE IN INDIAN CONTEXT

 Abundant sunshine is available in the whole year especially in winters.

 The average radiation received at Nairobi is 462 cal/cm2/day, which
is at 1800 m AMSL and regarded as the best center for production of
quality cut flowers, which is at par with radiation received at Banga-
lore (450 cal/cm2/day at 1000 m AMSL).
 Ideal temperature.
 Shorter production cycle.
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 311

 Good production during the main international events when demand

for flowers is high in International market.
 Diverse agro-ecology which helps in growing of any flower in India.

15.21 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AT BIHAR AGRICULTURAL

UNIVERSITY (BAU), SABOUR

Bihar Agricultural University (BAU) started major initiative in establish-

ment of infrastructure for hi-tech horticulture in the main campus at Sabour
during the year 2011. Protected cultivation of vegetables and flowers in
Bhagalpur district is a recent trend in hi-tech horticulture for production
of high value crops, i.e., vegetables like tomato, colored capsicum, parthe-
nocarpic cucumber, cherry tomato and flowers like Anthurium, Orchids,
Carnation, Gerbera, Chrysanthemum, Dutch Roses, etc.

15.22 OBJECTIVES OF THE UNIT

1. To conduct research on different aspects of hi-tech horticulture.

2. To standardize technology for production of protected cultivation of
flowers and vegetables.
3. To teach students about hi-tech horticulture activities.
4. To demonstrate technology to the farmers.
5. To develop human resource in this field of protected cultivation.

Infrastructure Facilities of the Unit

Sl. No Infrastructure Facility No. of Units Total Area
1. Naturally ventilated poly house 07 5140 m2
2. Shade net house cum polyhouse 03 1420 m2

15.23 RESEARCH ACCOMPLISHMENTS

High value vegetable and flower crops and their varieties were evaluated in
protected cultivation/polyhouse. The findings in brief are given hereunder.

 Cultivars Mini Angel, Infinity, RS 03602833, Aviva and KPCH-1 of

parthenocarpic cucumber were evaluated in polyhouse. Cultivar RS
03602833 performed well in terms of fruit length (18.13 cm), fruit
diameter (4.80 cm) and yield per vine (3.63 kg).
312 Sustainable Agriculture

 In Orchid, cultivar D. Sonia produced maximum number of flower

sticks and gave more earnings.
 In Anthurium, the cultivar Xavia followed by Angel performed better
with respect to growth, quality and yield of spikes.
 In gerbera, 10 varieties viz. Laura, Szantal, Delfin, Newada, Olympia,
Kormoran, Partrizia, Rock, Feliks, Samuraj were evaluated. Among
all of these varieties patrizia produced maximum flowers per plant
with longest stalk length (Singh, 2017).
 Various breeding advanced lines of parthenocarpic cucumber have
been developed utilizing male flower induction with the use of silver
thiosulfate solution @300 ppm.

Concluded RKVY Project:

1. Protected cultivation of vegetables and flowers in Bihar.

Ongoing Research Projects:

1. Selection of suitable vegetable and flower cultivars for protected
cultivation in Bihar.
2. Development of parthenocarpic gynoecious lines in cucumber
(Cucumis sativus L.) for protected cultivation.

15.24 CONCLUSION

Protected cultivation technology is a recent and a fast emerging technology.

Seeing the vagaries of climate shift, it will turn a life-saving strategy owing
to its various advantages. Popularizing this technology and doing need-
based research is the need of the hour in order to fetch maximum returns in
the near future utilizing available know-how and proper upkeep methods.
For Indian farmers, this technology can help in making lucrative returns
from various high-value crops and will impart enough calibers to compete
at the International level. Pictorial representation of protected cultivation at
BAU, Sabour is given in Figure 15.1.
Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 313

(a) Polyhouse complex. (b) Practical classes in polyhouse complex.

(c) Orchids in bloom. (d) Dendrobium cultivar of orchid-Sonia.

(e) Anthurium var. Xavia. (f) Farmers training on protected cultivation.

FIGURE 15.1 (Continued)

314 Sustainable Agriculture

(g) Chrysanthemum in full bloom. (h) Parthenocarpic cucumber at flowering.

(i) Bed preparation and transplanting. (j) Ready for sale seedless cucumber.

(k) Carnation cultivar-Luna. (l) Carnation cultivar-Red King.

FIGURE 15.1 (Continued)

Protected Horticulture in India: An Overview 315

(m) Rose cultivar- Sultan. (n) Capsicum variety - Buffalo.

(o) Capsicum crop in polyhouse. (p) Capsicum cultivar-Nikita.

(q) Tomato crop at fruiting stage. (r) Profuse fruiting of tomato.

FIGURE 15.1 Photo gallery.

316 Sustainable Agriculture

KEYWORDS

 Center for Protected Cultivation Technology

 cultivation
 fertigation
 greenhouse
 polyhouse
 ultraviolet

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Asia and North Africa: Trends, Opportunities and Research Priorities. The Global Forum
on Agricultural Research, No. 191, FAO, Vialedelle Termedi Caracalla, Roma (Italy).
Bahadur, S., (2010). Horticulture-Key to India’s Agriculture Growth. Available at: http://www.
commodityonline.com/news/horticulture-key-to-indias-agriculture-growth-34627–3–34628.
html (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Chakraborty, H., & Sethi, L. N., (2015). Prospects of protected cultivation of vegetable crops
in North Eastern hilly region. International Journal of Basic and Applied Biology, 2(5),
284–289.
Chand, R., (1996). Ecological and economic impact of horticultural development in the Hima-
layas: Evidence from Himachal Pradesh. Economic and Political Weekly, 31(26), A93–A99.
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Goncharova, N. A., Vander, V. J. A. A. M., & Verstegen, (2004). Changes in horticulture
sector in the Netherlands. Acta Hort, 655, 319–331.
Hickman, G. W., (2011). A Review of Current Data on International Production of Vegetables
in Greenhouses (p. 73). w.w.w.cuestaroble.com.
Jensen, M. H., (2002). Controlled environment agriculture in deserts tropics and temperate
regions– A world review. Acta Hort, 578, 19–25.
Max, J. F. J., Horst, W. J., Mutwiwa, U. N., & Tantau, H. J., (2009). Effects of greenhouse
cooling method on growth, fruit yield and quality of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in
a tropical climate. Sci. Hortic., 122(2), 179–186.
Mishra, G. P., Singh, N., Kumar, H., & Singh, S. B., (2010). Protected cultivation for food and
nutritional security at Ladakh. Defense Science Journal, 61(2), 219–225.
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New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.
Montero, J. I., Munoz, P., Anton, A., & Iglesias, N., (2005). Computational fluid dynamic
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403–409.
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Nair, R., & Barche, S., (2014). Protected cultivation of vegetables-present status and future
prospects in India. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 4(6), 245–247.
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Germany.
CHAPTER 16

Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture

SANKAR CH. PAUL
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Bihar Agricultural College, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar, India, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Fly ash is a coal combustion byproduct at thermal power plant has been
considered as hazardous solid waste material. Its characteristic depends
on several factors like nature of parent coal, combustion processes, nature
of emission control devices, methods of handling and storage. It is mainly
composed of Si, Al, Fe and Ca oxides with an average of 95 to 99%.
Remaining parts are other macro and micronutrients except nitrogen and
carbon. Therefore, it may be utilized as an important soil amendment or as
a source of cost effective essential plant nutrients material that can improve
various physicochemical and biological characteristics of soil. It minimizes
the use of chemical fertilizers, soil amendments and quantity of irrigation
water for crop production. Its use increases Si, P, K, Ca, B and other nutri-
ents uptake in various crop plants. Several field studies reported that many
crops successfully can be grown in waste land soil by using fly ash and
edible parts of the crops are having within the safe limit of toxic elements
along with good consumer acceptability by satisfying standards of food
quality. Therefore, fly ash has immense potential in improving soil fertility
and crop productivity in agriculture.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Fly ash is a by-product of coal combustion at thermal power plants has been
considered as challenging hazardous solid waste over the globe. Indian coal
belongs to sub-bituminous, bituminous and lignite quality. Combustion of
320 Sustainable Agriculture

coals like bituminous, sub-bituminous and lignite for production of elec-

tricity in thermal plants generates this solid fly ash. Particles fly ashes are
very small and get easily suspended in the atmosphere. Frequent exposure to
ash causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat skin, and respiratory tract. Hence,
careful assessment of immense quantity of fly ash needs for safe removal
and utilization from thermal power generating plants. Therefore, fly ash
management would remain a gigantic alarm of the coming years. It is not
fully burnt and consists of mineral constituents in the coal. It requires large
dimension of land, water, and energy for deposit. The physicochemical char-
acteristics of fly ash differ with the nature of parent coal, the process of
combustion, nature of emission control devices, methods of handling and
storage. As a result, ash formed by burning of different coals has different
compositions. Utilization of high ash containing (30–50%) coal in thermal
plants leads to indiscriminate dumping of this hazardous industrial solid
waste over the years (Basu et al., 2009). The coal ash has been recognized
as a Green List waste under the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) rather a waste material. However, this industrial
byproduct has been utilized inappropriately in many countries rather ignored
like a waste material. About 112 million tons of dry coal fly ash produced
annually in India from coal-burning for electric power generation. So, coal
ash management becomes a serious environmental and human problem for
India and it needs a mission mode approach. A large number of appropriate
technologies and confidence-building programs have been developed across
the country for the removal and utilization prospects of fly ash. At present,
fly ash is being used in dike construction, landfilling and in other construc-
tion industries. It is used for the manufacturing of bricks, concrete blocks,
ceramics, landfill application, road construction, insulating bricks, agricul-
ture, recovery of metals and dam construction in several countries. Many
investigations under field and pot culture on the potentiality of fly ash as
an amendment in agricultural applications have been conducted by various
research agencies, institutes at different places over the world. Here, utiliza-
tion of coal fly ash in crop production and soil health is highlighted with the
aim of serving opening up the usage of ash and reducing the hazardous effect
of disposal on environment and economy.
It consists of Si, Al, Fe, Ca oxides with an average of 95–99%. Remaining
part of is consists of macronutrients like P, K, Ca, Mg, S, and micronutrients
like Cu, Fe, Zn, Mo, Mn, B, etc. except nitrogen and carbon.
The significant amount of coal fly ash is used in agriculture and develop-
ment of wasteland that receives a potential to increase in yield of crops. Large
Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture 321

amount of fly ash can be used for regeneration of wasteland soil/forestry

plantations. Fly ash may be utilized as important soil amendments in the
cultivation of Jatropa which is being cultivated on large scale in the country
for production of bio-diesel.
With incorporation of fly ash as soil ameliorant or as a source cost effective
essential plant nutrients with fertilizers and decomposed organic substances
relating to the soil health and yield of crops, shows the followings:

 It facilitates to improve soil texture and decreases bulk density of

sandy soil.
 It enhances soil permeability status and can conserve soil moisture
content.
 It improves amount of pore space and water holding capacity of light
textured soil, thereby improves aeration of soil.
 It optimizes soil reaction status.
 It decreases crust formation in soil.
 It improves soil fertility status and crop yield.
 It adds macronutrients and micronutrients in soil.
 It acts as a liming material for the reclamation of acidic soils and
also can perform as the alternate of gypsum for reclamation of saline
alkali soil.
 It lowers pest incidence.
 Crops produced on soil incorporated with fly ash are safely consum-
able for human beings and groundwater quality remains safe.

Considering these indispensable findings, fly ash is considered for agri-

cultural crops, forestry crops, management of problem soils and/or wasteland
soil management at 100 to 200 tons per hectare on one-time basis coupled
with optimal dose of manures and fertilizers. The repeat application of ash
in a same piece of land for long time would have considerable residual effect
on succeeding crops.
Fly ash was applied successfully in many agricultural projects in several
countries, like Australia, Germany, India, Japan, South Africa, UK, and
USA. As a result, it minimizes use of fertilizer, soil amendment, and quantity
of irrigation water. Combination of coal ash and organic substance produces
significant effect in soil towards more fertile and helps to grow plant more
easefully. Study has also revealed that combined application of fly ash and
organic additives can be highly effective. Earthworm composted fly ash
not only increase the crop production but also reduces the application of
322 Sustainable Agriculture

chemical fertilizers thereby minimizes the cost of cultivation. It can be used

as pesticide in agriculture because of its fineness.
The fly ash application increases the uptake of Si, P, and K by the rice plants,
but did not result in an excessive uptake of heavy metals in the submerged paddy
soil. It is healthy substitute to other inorganic soil amendments to enhance the
important nutrient balance in rice soils. Fly ash in combination with gypsum
reclaims saline-alkali soils, resulting in saving of gypsum (50–75%). Various
workers reported that low dose (2–4%) of fly ash has shown an enhancement
of average plant height, root length, yield and biomass of wheat (Triticum
vulgare), pea (Pisum sativum), gram (Cicer arientinum) and mustard (Bras-
sica junceca), etc. Many crops were successfully grown in wasteland soil
treated with fly ash, such as, paddy, wheat, maize, sunflower, tomato, potato,
sugarcane, cabbage, onion, pea, carrot, okra, berseem, medicinal. Edible parts
were assessed to verify quality, consumer acceptability, uptake of toxic heavy
metals and it was found to be the uptake of toxic elements within the safe
limits and satisfy the food quality standards. Many field experiments and pot
culture studies on the potentiality of fly ash use as an amendment in agricul-
tural applications have been performed by various agencies, research institutes
all over the world. Therefore, the introduction of fly ash in agriculture is high-
lighted with the aim of helping opening up the usage of fly ash and reducing
the environmental and economic impacts of disposal.

16.2 FLY ASH UTILIZATION AND DISPOSAL

Numerous technologies have been developed for beneficial use of fly ash and
its safe management through research projects funded by Fly Ash Unit under
the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, since 1994.
Propagation of these technologies would facilitate and encourage the fly ash
utilization in the country by creating ‘Self-sustaining technology demonstra-
tion centers’ (CEA, 2015–16). The use of fly ash has increased from 6.64
million tons in 1996–97 (Tiwari et al., 2016) to the extent of 102.54 million
tons in 2014–15. The highest quantity of fly ash utilization was achieved to
62.6% in the year 2009–10 and it was about 58.48% in the year 2011–12,
about 61.37% in the year 2012–13, 57.63% in the year 2013–14 and 55.69%
in 2014–15. During the 1st half of 2015–16, fly ash utilization of was 56.04%
which is behind the fixed target (CEA, 2015–16).
Fly ash utilization data received from Thermal Power Stations/Power
Utilities for the 1st half of the year 2015–16 has been compiled to determine
the modes in which fly ash was utilized and the amount utilized in each
Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture 323

mode. During the 1st half of 2015–16, the use of fly ash was maximum to
the level of 41.97% of total fly ash utilized in the Cement sector, followed
by 12.85% in bricks and tiles making, 11.21% in low lying area reclama-
tion, 10.91% in mine filling, 7.67% in ash dyke raising, 4.87% in roads and
embankments, 2.15% in agriculture, 1% in concrete and 7.32% in others etc.

16.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FLY ASH

Type of coal is one important factor that has the greatest effect on the char-
acteristics of fly ash. The rank wise coals were arranges in order of carbon
contents is: Peat < Lignite < sub-bituminous coal < bituminous coal <
anthracite. Indian coal is of mostly sub-bituminous type followed by the
rank of bituminous and lignite. The ash content in Indian coal ranges from
35% to 50%.
Fly ash has been categorized into two classes, class-F, and class-C based
on the content of silica, alumina and iron oxide in it. Burning of older and
harder anthracite, bituminous coal typically produces class F type fly ash.
But younger lignite and sub-bituminous coals produces class C type ash
which usually contains a significant amount of calcium hydroxide (CaO),
also known as lime (Upadhyay and Kamal, 2007). Wang and Wu (2006)
grouped fly ashes into two classes, i.e., class F that developed from anthra-
cite, bituminous and sub-bituminous types of coals containing less than 7.0%
calcium oxide, and class C formed by burning of lignite coal containing a
considerable amount of liming material, up to 30%.

16.4 EFFECTS ON AGRICULTURE

According to Basu et al. (2009), fly ash has immense potentiality in growing
crops because of its effectiveness in modification of entire soil character-
istics for better crop performance. The considerable amount of essential
plant nutrient elements like P, K, Na, Zn, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, B, etc. in
fly ash enhances growth and yield of numerous of agricultural crops. But
compared with other sectors, very limited quantity of the fly ash is used in
agriculture. Going through various important research articles, researchers
also expected that substitute of lime with fly ash in agriculture can lessen
net CO2 release in acid soil, thus reducing global warming. They reported
further that fly ash has low bulk density (1.01–1.43 g cm–3), hydraulic
conductivity and specific gravity (1.6–3.1 g cm–3) (Roy et al., 1981; Tolle et
al., 1982; Mattigod et al., 1990).
324 Sustainable Agriculture

Bhattacharya and Chattapadhyaya (2004) studied the possibility of

augmenting the nitrogen status in the mixtures of fly ash and organic substances
by implementing vermicompost technology. The used different ratios of fly
ash and cow dung viz. fly ash alone, cow dung alone and fly ash + cow dung
at 1:1, 1:3 and 3:1 ratios which were nurture with and without epigeic earth-
worm (Eisenia foetida) for 50 days. Among the three combinations, highest
availability of N was recorded in 1:1 mixture of vermicomposted fly ash and
cow dung.
Vimal Kumar et al. (2005) studied on fly ash utilization in varying agro-
climatic conditions along with different soil-crop combinations and reported
significant increase in the production of edible plant biomass without
undesirable consequence on soil health and crop quality since the reasons
including occurrence of negligible toxic heavy metal elements and radioac-
tive elements in fly ash. They also inked that fly ash application to agricul-
tural field supplements the crop produce with calcium and iron which are
excellent for development of human beings with respect to nutritional point
of view.
Yavarzadeh and Shamsadini (2012) reported on wheat crop that the fly
ash application @ 100 t ha–1 along with optimum dose of NPK was better
over optimum dose of NPK fertilizer alone and important soil properties also
altered in the similar way. It was noticed that fly ash is beneficial for soil and
crop when fly ash applied on soil more than 10% by weight (Adriano et al.,
1980; Matsi and Keramidas, 1999; Scotti et al., 1999; Asokan et al., 2005).
According to Adriano et al. (1980), wheat grain yield decreased at fly ash
treatment @ 300 t ha–1 as compared to the normal farmers practice and also
it was undesirable for soil health.
Aggarwal et al. (2009) studied on the effect of fly ash and nitrogen on
germination, growth parameters and yield of wheat as well as sorghum crops
and reported that germination percentage and early growth was adversely
affected in wheat but increasing amount of fly ash did not cause any harmful
effect in sorghum. But grain yield of both was slightly increased at higher
levels of nitrogen and ash, i.e., 20 t ha–1 fly ash + 120 kg ha–1 N (wheat) or
40 kg ha–1 N (sorghum).
Many researchers (Garg et al., 2005; Page et al., 1979; Grewal et al., 2001;
Hill and lamp, 1980; Martens, 1971; Basu et al., 2006; Sridhar et al., 2006;
Thetwar et al., 2007) demonstrated that fly ash improved crop yield of wheat,
alfalfa, barley, Bermuda grass, sabai grass, mungbean, white clover, etc. and
improved the physicochemical characteristics of soil. Furr et al. (1978) demon-
strated that field corn, alfalfa, sorghum, millet, carrots, onion, beans, cabbage,
potatoes, and tomatoes grew well on slightly acidic soil, treated with unweath-
ered fly ash @ 125 MT ha–1 and these crops tested higher concentration of As,
Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture 325

Se, Mg and B. Higher rate seed germination and root length of lettuce was
found at application of weathered coal ash @ 5% (Lau and Wang, 2001).
Fly ash has immense potential in improving production of agricultural
crops and fertility status of soil. The Indian fly ash is generally alkaline in
nature and having macro and micronutrients in it and thus, improves soil
quality. In fact, fly ash composed of all essential plant nutrient elements as
present in soil except nitrogen and organic carbon. Central Power Research
Institute, Bengaluru has developed some hollow and porous type globules
from fly ash. If these globules are placed around crop, it absorbs lots of
the moisture and retains it for longer period of time in the soil by resisting
evaporation loss. This application facilitates to expand the gap between
two irrigation cycles. It may also be considered as an insecticide and if it is
incorporated with organic waste, it markedly supplements the efficiency of
chemical fertilizers. The fly ash application in forestry crops and agriculture
production is suitable because of its encouraging physicochemical properties
including appreciable amounts of essential plant nutrient elements (Page et
al., 1979). Coal fly ash has wonderful influence on soil physicochemical and
biological properties and soil processes which have good effect on plants
growth and development (Ukwattage et al., 2013).
Pandey et al. (2009) found different translocation system and accumula-
tion of hazardous metals into edible parts of Cajanus cajan when grown on
fly ash amended soil. Amendment with fly ash at ratios ranged between 25
and 100% increased soil pH from 3.47% to 26.39%, particle density from
3.98% to 26.14%, porosity of soil from 37.50% to 147.92% and maximum
water holding capacity 163.16% to 318.42% in comparison to control. This
amendment also decreased bulk density from 8.94 to 48.89% in the fly as
amended soil as compared to non-ash amended soil.
Arivazhagan (2004) conducted research project on fly ash application on
the cultivation of rice, wheat, maize, mustard, ragi, red gram, potato sugar-
cane, and banana crops and found to be increase in yield of all crops at fly
ash level 50 ton per hectare over control.
Singh et al. (2012) found to be decrease in the content NH4+ -N, NO3–-N,
total N, organic carbon, organic matter, available phosphorus, and cation
exchange capacity of soil in the post-harvest of rice that had been amended
with fly ash (0–20%). Reduced content of NH4+-N and NO3-N at different
rates of fly ash application was also reported by Singh and Agrawal (2010).
Lee et al. (2006) reported increased content soil pH and increased the avail-
ability of phosphorus, silicon, and other mineralogical components, in a
paddy soil that was amended with fly ash. They concluded that fly ash can
improve the nutritional balance in soils of the paddy field (Lee et al., 2006).
326 Sustainable Agriculture

Addition of fly ash stimulates activity of soil enzymes viz., urease, phos-
phatases, and dehydrogenase, etc. (Pati and Sahu, 2004). Amending fly ash
in soil adds many essential elements (e.g., P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn,
and B), which may alter the physico-chemical and biological characteris-
tics of soil (Yeledhalli et al., 2007). Fly ash utilization in soil has become
popular worldwide in the past few decades (Singh and Agrawal, 2008). More
recently, researchers have investigated on the impact of fly ash on soil health
and quality, especially on soil-microbial interactions and transformation of
soil nutrients (Sarkar et al., 2012).
Generally, the addition of fly ash declines bulk density of soil, thus
reducing soil porosity and increases water-holding capacity (Page et al.,
1979; Pandey and Singh, 2010). Fly ash amended with sandy and silty soil
increased water holding capacity by 8% as it does not able to retain water
well (Chang et al., 1977). Singh and Agrawal (2010) observed when fly ash
was used to modify soil, the level of soil available nutrients like potassium,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, etc. improved significantly. But Aitken
and Bell (1985) reported the restricted use of fly ash in agriculture due to its
high boron content. However, this problem with higher boron content in fly
ash can be overcome if it is properly weathered. The mobility of calcium,
magnesium and hydroxide ion in soil increased due to its of liming charac-
teristics, which sequentially boosts bacterial growth (Surridge et al., 2009).
However, high levels of toxic elements that may be deposited to the soil
through addition of fly ash (Page et al., 1979) can hamper normal microbial
metabolic processes (Pandey and Singh, 2010).
Padhy et al. (2016) studied paddy cultivation with varying levels of
fly ash viz. 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, 10.0 kg m–2 and reported to increase in
different growth parameters and yield of paddy grain up to 8.0 kg fly ash
per meter square area. Pigment contents of leaf and enzymes activity found
to be enhanced by fly ash application, and attained maximum at 10.0 kg
fly ash per meter square area. Maximum protein content was found in rice
seeds at 4.0 kg fly ash per meter square area. Important soil properties viz.
soil pH, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, water holding
capacity, silt and clay percent and content of organic carbon improved
with fly ash application. Combined application of fly ash and N2-fixing
cyanobacteria resulted further significant increase in most soil character-
istics, different plant growth parameters and yield attributes. Combination
of fly ash at 4.0 kg per meter square area and cyanobacteria. 1000 rice
grain weight was maximum at fly ash level 4.0 kg m–2 combined with
cyanobacteria addition. Soils and plants accumulate of phosphorus, potas-
sium, iron and several micronutrients viz. Mn, Ni, Zn, Cu, Co and toxic
Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture 327

elements like Pb, Cd, Cr, etc. as a result of fly ash addition, but the content
Na remained almost same in soil and grain. Addition of cyanobacteria
showed an ameliorating action on the content of toxic metals in soil and
various plant parts. Cyanobacteria supplementation of 1.0 kg m–2 with fly
ash 4.0 kg m–2 may be the best combination, since soil would be recharged
with essential nutrients and toxic chemicals relative to lesser content, and
cyanobacteria would cause minimizing toxic chemical loads in soil and
plant parts with N2-fixation.
Tripathi et al. (2009) conducted a field experiment on the yield and
nutrition of wheat, maize, and eggplant in a sequence to see the effect of
fly ash and reported that yield of grain and straw of first crop (wheat) was
increased by 29.4% and 26.6% respectively over control. The residual effect
of fly ash was also observed with yield increase of maize grain by 33.1%
– (2nd crop) and eggplant by 18.4% (3rd crop). Thus, it clearly exhibits that
appropriate amount of fly ash as soil amendment can help to enhance and
sustain agricultural crop productivity. Likewise, Singh and Agrawal (2010)
evaluated the effect of fly ash on growth various growth parameters of three
important leguminous cultivars, mungbean and recorded significantly posi-
tive response of all growth parameters at 10% fly ash treatment for each
cultivar tested.
Sinha and Gupta (2005) studied on the influence of various levels of fly
ash at 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100%, (w/w) on growth of Sesbania cannabina.
After 90 days, they recorded length of shoot and biomass yield increased up
to the 25% fly ash level as compared to untreated soil. Other hands, Singh
et al. (2008) studied the effects of fly ash (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%)
on Beta vulgaris and showed higher dose of fly ash (15 and 20%) caused
considerable reductions in growth and biomass yield. Tsadilas et al. (2009)
reported on a field experiment with an Alfisol incorporated with two fly ash
rates (5.5 t ha–1 and 11 t ha–1) and wheat (Triticum vulgare) crop that fly ash
application increased the grain and biomass yield of wheat and the yield was
increasing with the application rates.
A laboratory experiment on column leaching demonstrated that rela-
tively small amount of fly ash addition to contaminated waste soils signifi-
cantly reduced the toxic elements content in the effluent (Ciccu et al., 2003).
Similarly, Dermatas and Meng (2003) found that fly ash addition to metal-
contaminated soils efficiently reduced metals leaching well below their
safe regulatory limits. Thus, use of fly ash appears to offer important metal
immobilization potential.
Ipshita and Tarar (2014) worked on fly ash based pesticide in cotton
together with soil application of ash and manure and stated that fly ash can
328 Sustainable Agriculture

be used effectively as biopesticide and enhanced the various soil physico-

chemical characteristics. Fly ash based pesticide formulation augmented
the productivity of cotton. Cotton boll weight and cotton yield was signifi-
cantly increased by fly ash application at different rates. It can be effec-
tively utilized as a low cost input and economically viable biopesticide by
poor farmers.
Thakare et al. (2013) studied on growth and yield of Chili (Capsicum
annum) using fly ash at 0, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% levels. Plant growth
was regularly monitored every month from the date of sowing. It was found
that soil blended with fly ash at 5% to 10% concentration improved soil
physical properties as well as different growth parameters and yield of Chili.
A possible option for safe disposal of fly ash without serious harmful effects
may be managed by using in agricultural field which may curtail the cost
of fertilizer inputs and encourage the farmers’ economy if incorporated in
proper combination.
Buddhe et al. (2014) carried out field experiments on rice using magne-
tized fly ash (Biosil) as soil conditioner together with recommended dose
(RD) of fertilizer, maintaining RD and vermicompost. An interesting result
was observed on rice plant growth, crop productivity and post-harvest soil
fertility at very low fly ash concentrations (150 to 900 kg ha–1) which indi-
cating the enhanced inherent soil-enriching power of fly ash. Biosil at 900 kg
ha–1 was found to be the most favorable dose for rice crop growth and yield
attributes as well as soil characteristics. The progress for rice crop growth
was in the order of Biosil + RDF > VC > RDF and for soil characteristics
was Biosil + RDF > RDF > VC. Hence, they suggested that fly ash applica-
tion in an integrated manner would be the most advantageous for attaining
maximum benefits from Biosil.
Patel et al. (2016) conducted an experiment on the effect of integrated
application of organic and inorganic inputs together with fly ash on heavy
metal accumulation in acid soils of Northern Hills zone (Chhattisgarh) and
they observed that the maximum yield of grain and straw was documented
by using of 75% RD + 60 t fly ash ha–1 + 5 t FYM ha–1, which was not
significantly different with 75% RD + 40 t fly ash ha–1 + 5 t FYM ha–1 and
75% RD + 20 t fly ash ha–1 + 5 t FYM ha–1 and control recorded lowest yield.
Grain and straw yield increased with increased dose of fly ash combined
with and without FYM. The content of DTPA extractable available heavy
metals were significantly increased in increasing levels of fly ash treatments
as compared to untreated control. Fly ash application at 20, 40, 60 t ha–1
integrated with chemical fertilizer and FYM significantly increased in heavy
toxic metals load as compared to RD. The highest content of available Co,
Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture 329

Cr, Ni, Pb were observed in application of 75% RD + 60 t fly ash ha–1 +

5 t FYM ha–1, while control showed lowest. Thus, integration of fly ash,
chemical fertilizer, FYM in acid soil was useful in yield increasing of rice
grain as compared to chemical fertilizer use only and heavy metal load in
soil gradually increased with gradual increase in the levels of fly ash in due
course.

16.5 RESEARCH UNDER BIHAR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

(BAU)

1. One externally funded ad-hoc research project entitled: “Potential

use of fly ash as a source of nutrient for sustainable agriculture” was
started in 2007 with the following objectives:
i. To work out physicochemical and biological characters of fly
ash.
ii. Impact of fly ash on physical, chemical and biological characters
of soils of Bhagalpur.
iii. To evaluate fly ash as a supplier of plant nutrients, soil conditioner,
and amendment.
iv. To work out the fertilizer value of fly ash customized by mixture
with compost.
v. To evaluate the continuous application of fly ash with manure
on yield of rice-wheat crops and soil properties.
This research project carried out in the department of Soil
Science and was funded by National Thermal Power Corporation
(NTPC), Kahalgaon.
2. Another university-funded research project was run in the same
department since 2013 entitled: “Impact of Fly Ash on Physico-
chemical Properties of Light Textured Soils of Koshi Region of Bihar
in Relation to Crop Productivity” and the experiment was conducted
at flood-affected sand deposited waste field at Supaul district of
Bihar. Under this, the following experiments have been carried out:
Experiment No. 1: An incubation study to observe the behavior of changes
of fine sandy waste soil under the combined application of fly ash and cow
dung manure.
The study was carried out with doses of fly ash treatments viz. 0.5, 1, 5,
10, 25, 50% by weight basis in sandy soil and fly ash- soil mixture (total 10
kg per pot) along with only fly ash (control 1) and only sandy soil (control 2)
330 Sustainable Agriculture

under two (2) different cow dung manure doses, i.e., 50 t ha–1 and 100 t ha–1
for six month. Soil sampling was made on a monthly basis. From data, it is
opined that fly ash can play a significant role to modify uncultivable sandy soil
to a favorable condition for plant growth by altering its key characteristics.

Experiment No. 2: To grow awareness and interest to farmer about fly ash
use in agriculture
Farmers hesitated to apply fly ash at high quantity to the soil for growing
crops as they know that ash has a burning action to the plant root and leaf.
So, a fly ash introduction trial has been taken for growing awareness to the
farmers about fly ash use in agriculture at the farmers’ field at small scale.
Fly ash was applied in forestry plantation directly (Young plant, Acacia)
in sandy soil at Basantpur block of Supaul with fly ash treatments of 0, 2.5,
5, 10 kg per plant with vermicompost (5 kg) and without vermicompost.
Results showed that plants were healthy having no bad effect on root
systems and above ground parts. Consequently, farmers showed their
interest on its further utilization in agricultural crops. It has been seen that
plant growth better at higher dose of fly ash.

Experiment No. 3 Impact of fly ash on sand deposited waste soil in relation
to growing of Elephant foot yam.
A field study was carried out on elephant foot yam at flood-affected area of
Basantpur block of Supaul district of Bihar by using fly ash at five different
levels combined with three levels of vermicompost in 2014 in randomized
block design. Same experiment was repeated in 2015 at the same place. Fly
ash levels were 0, 5, 10, 20, 30 tons/ha along with 0, 1.0, 2.0 ton vermicom-
post per hectare. It resulted that yield of elephant foot yam increased with
increased levels of fly ash. Edible part of elephant foot yam was tested for
heavy toxic metals results below detection level for all the elements by the
instrument. Later, it has been suggested to use fly ash in non-edible crops in
research council meeting. It was also suggested to apply fly ash to forestry
crop plant only. Therefore, experiment was taken on Forestry plantation
which is described below:

Experiment No. 4 Study on role of fly ash on growth of poplar tree plantation
(Forestry plantation) along with metal content in leaf
Poplar tree saplings were planted in sand deposited waste soil with various
levels fly ash. 3| × 3| × 3| sized pits were made and fly ash was incorporated
in the pits by v/v basis. Fly ash levels were 0, 25, 50, 75% per plant with
replicated thrice. No other external fertilizers and composts were applied, but
Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture 331

water was applied to the pit to provide initial establishment of sapling. Initial
soil sample was collected and initial data regarding saplings size like height
from ground level, girth at ground level and girth at 1 m height were recorded.
In conclusion, nutrient contained in the fly ash might be massive source of
nutrient for growing plants in light-textured soil along with the condition of
soil also gets modified by altering its physicochemical properties.

Experiment No.5 Effect of fly ash on Tal land (Heavy textured soil)
An experiment was conducted to observe the problems connected with tal
soil which is heavy in texture. Due to occurrence of high percentage of
clay particle soil become very hard when dry. Considering this problem,
the experiment was formulated in tal soil with different fly ash doses. It
was observed that, fly ash application to heavy textured soil resulted in
upgrading of soil physicochemical characteristics like bulk density, water
holding capacity and soil texture.

16.6 CONCLUSION

Fly ash may be a good source of essential plant nutrients elements and may
keep the soil healthy. It may be used as soil conditioner. However, there is
required to generate in depth knowledge for its scientific management and
the best use for crop production. Keeping in view, this study appears to be
very practical in research. Fly ash has immense potential in agriculture for
its effectiveness in changing of soil health/quality and crop growth. On the
other hand, since there is possibility to damage the atmosphere and human
health directly or indirectly, long term conformity research programme is
necessary to the best use of fly ash prior to planning agriculture.

KEYWORDS

 calcium hydroxide
 fly ash
 National Thermal Power Corporation
 organization for economic cooperation and development
 recommended dose
 thermal power plants
332 Sustainable Agriculture

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Ukwattage, N. L., Ranjith, P. G., & Bouazza, M., (2013). The use of coal combustion fly ash
as a soil amendment in agricultural lands (with comments on its potential to improve food
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Upadhyay, A., & Kamal, M., (2007). Characterization and Utilization of Fly Ash, B.Tech
Thesis. National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Odisha.
Vimal, K., Gulab, S., & Rajendra, R., (2005). Fly Ash: A Material for Another Green
Revolution. Fly Ash India, New Delhi.
Wang, S., & Wu, H., (2006). Environmental-benign utilization of fly ash as low-cost
adsorbents. J. Hazard. Matter., 136, 482–501.
Yavarzadeh, M. R., & Shamsadini, H., (2012). Safe environment by using fly ash and
vermicompost on wheat. International Conference on Transport, Environment and Civil
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Yeledhalli, N. A., Prakash, S. S., Gurumurthy, S. B., & Ravi, M. V., (2007). Coal fly ash as
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531–534.
CHAPTER 17

Natural Resource Management and

Land Use Planning
C. D. CHOUDHARY, B. K. VIMAL, SHWETA SHAMBHAVI, and
RAJKISHORE KUMAR
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected] (B. K. Vimal)

ABSTRACT

At present quo, the impact of green revolution will be more visible become
discernible in agriculture with incorporation of modern tools of Remote
Sensing and GIS for characterization of natural resource and land use
planning (LUP). The physiographic, climate, rainfall and potential water
(surplus/deficit) for agricultural demarcated into eight agro-ecological
regions with imposed some limitations. Data collected from 160 meteo-
rological stations across the country and imply the concept of moisture
adequacy index (MAI), and dominant soil group’s proposed 29 agro-
ecological zones adopted by FAO/UNESCO. Micro-morphology and
landform of alluvial settings as happened in Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP)
for Bihar. Hitherto, diverse types of geomorphic features viz., Tal, Chour,
and Kewal (Heavy-clay vertisols, medium-clay chromosols) and regular
encounters of flood threat as well, and drain off the fertile soil. Southern
portion of Ganga, there are vast stretches of backwater (one lakh ha) known
as Tal area located in the districts of Patna, Nalanda, Lakhisarai, Munger,
and Bhagalpur having limited option for rabi season. Whereas, vast
stretches of land occupying (1.8 lakh ha) Diara land. Soils of eastern parts
contain large volumes of fresh to weakly altered plagioclase and smectitic
types of mineralogical composition. The major soils Entisols, Inceptisols,
Alfisols, Mollisols, Aridisols, and Vertisols located in IGP and geological
information’s are sketched under the digital geological environment. The
336 Sustainable Agriculture

technology for the management of salt-affected soils developed mainly

due to dominance of magnesium, needs refinement especially observed in
Aridisols.
Agro-climatic Zone-I, II, and III comprise Alluvial Plains North of River
Ganges and Chhotanagpur Plateau Regions formed natural levee. Zone-I
has rich alluvial soils and a good scope of groundwater exploitation with
vagarious fruit crops offers in this region viz., mango, litchi, and banana. In
light of field crops (rice, wheat, and maize), oilseed (rapeseed and mustard),
spices-turmeric, ginger, dhania, Chilies, garlic, methi, sonfand mangaraila,
tubers (sweet potato), tobacco, sugarcane, etc. taken as major high-value
crops predominate in these areas. Whereas, Zone-II (North-East Alluvial
Plain) comprises highly flood-prone areas affected mostly by Kosi and
Mahananda rivers. The soils having low in nitrogen, low to medium in avail-
able phosphorus and potash. Whereas, zinc and boron observed low status
and toxicity of manganese has been reported in these some patches. Heavy
leaching results in soil acidification resulting in micro-nutrient deficiency
and nonsetting of seeds in cereals and pulses was prevalent in these regions.
Rice, jute, maize, summer pulses (moong), summer millets and sugarcane
are important crops. There is a tremendous scope for exploiting water-
logged area by growing winter (Boro) rice. Maize is very high performing
crop of this zone like Zone-I. In N-E portion of the zone, pineapple is an
important crop and in the southern portion banana is predominant crops.
This zone alike Zone-I, there is good scope for promotion of fisheries and
honey production.

17.1 INTRODUCTION

The soils are valuable natural resources which are directly or indirectly
associated with agricultural economics. Generally, clay soils appear near
low land ecology of river basins and locally known as Tal, Chour and
Kewal in Bihar, India. Tillage problem, tree less ecology and single crop-
ping system are the geospatial features that may be observed in heavy clay
soils. Soil types include a heavy-clay vertisol, both black and grey types,
as well as medium-clay chromosols. In this context, soil survey towards
agricultural LUP is an important part for the sustainability of agriculture
practices. It provides adequate information in terms of landform; natural
vegetation as well as characteristics of soils that can be utilized for land
resources management and development (Manchanda et al., 2002).
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 337

17.1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF SOIL SURVEY AND L.U.P. SCHEME,

SABOUR

Prior to the implementation of the First Five Year Plan, information of soils
of Bihar was meager especially on soil mapping towards their genesis, char-
acterization, classification and suitable land-use plan. In order to bridge the
gap, a high powered committee was constituted and on recommendation, the
Soil Survey Scheme under the Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Bihar
was created and established in 1954 with headquarter at Sabour with the
following objectives to accomplish:

1. To identify and determine the important characteristics of soils of the

state;
2. To classify into a defined system and other classification units;
3. To establish and delineate boundaries of different soils on map;
4. To correlate and predict the adaptability of soils to various crops,
fodders and trees; their behavior and productivity under different
management systems and the yields of adapted crops under desired
sets of management practices;
5. To find out soil classification system most suited to the conditions
and needs of the state.

During the period of First Five Year Plan to Third Five Year Plan, recon-
naissance soil survey of Saharsa district was initiated and later on gradu-
ally started the survey work for the entire undivided Bihar including the
Jharkhand and completed by 1965–66 and the laboratory analysis were
accomplished accordingly in later dates. In this process, Topo sheets (Scale-
1:63, 360) of different locations were used (Tables 17.4 and 17.5)
During the reconnaissance soil survey, nearly 17,000 soil profiles were
exposed, their morphological and other visual features were studied and some
relevant soil characteristics were determined in situ. General features like
slope, topography, relief, vegetations, existing crops and cropping pattern,
drainage conditions and water table were recorded. Altogether 80,000 soil
samples from 17,000 profiles were collected and analyzed in laboratories
subsequently.
Over 500 soil series were identified for the whole undivided Bihar based
on the first-hand district wise exhaustic correlation with the properties were
recorded. All these soils were further grouped into 24 Broad Soil Associa-
tions and mapped (Broad Soil Association Map of Bihar (Scale 1:10,00,000)
338 Sustainable Agriculture

was formed with well defined cartographic procedures (Figure 17.1). based
on different pedological and associated features and called as in the second
phase, Gov. of Bihar has initiated to enlarge the extensive program of irriga-
tion potentials in the state and different irrigation commands, i.e., Gandak,
Kosi, Mahananda, Sone, Kiul-Barua, Swarnrekha River commands were
constituted and transferred the administrative control of Soil Survey Scheme,
Sabour to Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa and its man powers were
engaged in different irrigation command agencies for conducting ‘Detailed
Soil Survey Work for the preparation of land use plans. There were alto-
gether about 6 lakh hectares of land were covered and more than 100 detailed
survey reports were published and submitted to the respective user agencies.
During the third phase, Soil Survey and LUP Scheme (R.A.U. Pusa) entered
into an agreement with the National Bureau of Soil Survey and LUP, Nagpur
(ICAR) in the year 1986 which marked the beginning of phase-III. Under this
agreement, our Scientists have been trained to use False Color Composite
imageries of the satellite for preparing soil inventories and land use plans of
Bihar. As a result, the Soil Resource Atlas was published in May, 1992. All
these soil resource data may be computerized which might form the basis for
future scientific investigations and LUP of the soils of Bihar.

FIGURE 17.1 Map represents the progress of soil survey work.

Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 339

Keeping the importance of digital Soil Surveying, the advanced carto-

graphic systems were introduced by RAU, Pusa and well developed Remote
Sensing and Image processing laboratory was established in 2010. Three
Research Projects on preparing Soil Inventory with Soil Health Management
for Khagaria, Bhagalpur, Munger, Jamui, Sheikhpura and Nalanda districts
were covered successfully under the remote sensing and GIS techniques.

17.2 GEOGRAPHICAL SET-UP OF UNDIVIDED BIHAR

The State of Undivided Bihar, covering an area of 173,866 sq. km. and
stretching between 21º 58’ and 27º 23’ North latitude and 83º 20’ to 88º 00’
east longitudes, is divided into three physiographic regions. They are (i) allu-
vial plains north of Ganges River receiving sediments from rivers originating
in the Himalayas; (ii) alluvial plains south of the Ganges River receiving
sediments from rivers originating in Chhotanagpur plateau; and (iii) Chho-
tanagpur plateau. The parent materials, topography, age, and vegetation of
these physiographic region differ appreciably, there being also noted differ-
ences in climate especially in the moisture regime. These differences have
resulted in the formation of many soil types in the state which differ signifi-
cantly between different regions as well as within the region itself. Later
on the undivided Bihar was divided into the southern most part known as
Jharkhand and the northern part was called Bihar.
Jharkhand state lies between 21° 58’2” to 25° 8’32” North latitude and
83° 19’05” to 87° 55’03” East longitude covering an area of nearly 7.97
m.ha. and accounted for nearly 2.4% of total geographical area (TGA) of
the country. It is bounded on the east by West Bengal, on the west by Chhat-
tisgarh, on the north by Bihar and on the south by Orissa. Summary of
geographical distribution of Land is given in Table 17.1.
Granite and Gneissic plateau surface predominantly cover the red soils
patches which act as parent material in predominant areas in Jharkhand state
(Tables 17.2 and 17.3). These soils are frequently observed in a catenary
sequence and demarcated in upland, shallow to medium depth, well to
excessively drained, prone to erosion, low water holding capacity, high
permeability, low base exchange capacity (BEC) having low fertility status
(Figure 17.2). In light of soil texture, heavier texture moving downwards
of soil profile, reddish yellow to yellow and yellowish grey color is the
typical characteristics of these vulnerable zones. With the incorporation
with advance technology of remote sensing and GIS for red soils patches,
model developed (Vimal et al., 2016) for spectral response to demarcate the
340 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 17.1 Distribution of Geographical Land in Different Units of Old Bihar

Area (%) Area in (Lakh ha)
1. Total geographical area 79.71
2. Total cultivable land 38.00
3. Net area sown 28.08% 25.75
4. Current fallow land 11.12% 8.87
5. Other fallow land 08.46% 6.75
6. Forest 29.20% 23.28
7. Barren land 7.20% 5.74
8. Non-agricultural Uses 8.60% 6.86
9. Pasture and other grazing land 2.48% 1.97
10. Cultivable wasteland 3.44% 2.74
11. Irrigated land 12.73% 3.007
12. Cropping Intensity 116%

TABLE 17.2 Distribution of Different Soil Order Predominating in Jharkhand State

District Alfisols Inceptisols Entisols Miscellaneous Vertisols
Bokaro 62 21.4 12.9 4.0
Deogarh 50 42 06.3 1.7
Dumka 44 44 10 2.3
Pakur 80 17 00 2.0 0.6
Palamu 54 20 22 4.5
Ranchi 71 17 10 2.0
East Singhbhum 71 13 13 2.5
West Singhbhum 31 33 35 1.0
Simdega 27 38 34 1.0
Saraikela 54 27 16 2.3
Sahebganj 41 37 10 12
Chatra 52 13 34 1.0
Dhanbad 70 8 18 4.5
Garhwa 54 15 30 1.0
Giridih 63 18 17 1.1
Godda 43 39 16 2.0
Gumla 43 40 16 0.7
Hazaribagh 72 8 18 2.2
Jamtara 51 39 6.7 3.3
Koderma 41 35 23 1.1
Latehar 64 7.2 28 1.0
Lohardagga 53 25 21 1.0
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 341

red soil patches in Bihar soils and it will be validate for all over the country
and they were validate the soil pH (Vinay et al., 2013) having acidic (5.0
to 5.6) in reaction by digital image processing (DIP). Lithic Haplustalfs,
Rhodustalfs are typical characteristics up to soil series level for upland
soils and Haplustalfs and Typic paleustalfs for medium sloped soils in hilly
region of Jharkhand state. Soils with grey color indicated neutral in reaction
along with high clay content and high fertility status for lowland patches
(Don Soils).

TABLE 17.3 Rocks and Minerals

Sr. No Districts Rocks and Minerals
1. Santhal Pargana Dolerit Basalt, Granite, Quarzite, Amphibolite, Dolerite,
Rajmahal Trap Pegmatite, Marble Schist, Mica and Hornblende Schist.
2. Hazaribagh Mica And Granite Gneiss, Hornblende Gneiss And Calcschist
Pegmatite, Gabro, Granite and Gondwana Rocks.
3. Singhbhum Garnet, Granite-Mica-Schist, Phyllite, Dalma Lava, Quartzite,
Arkasani Granophyr, Titanium, Copper, Manganese and
Dolerite.
4. Dhanbad Granite, Granite Gneiss, Mica Schist, Quartzite, Gondwana
Rock, Coal and Sand Etc.
5. Palamau Mica And Hornblende Schist, Granite Geniss, Calc-Schist,
Granite, Gabrovindhyan Rocks, Sand Stone, Limestone, etc.
6. Ranchi Granite, Granite Gneiss, Hornblende and Biotit Gneiss, Mica
Schist, Quartzite, Amphibolites and Pegmatite.

17.2.1 GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

The present state of Bihar is endowed with best soils (Terai, recent and old
alluvium) along with subtropical climate, consisting of moderate rainfall,
hot and desiccating summer and frost-free cold winter. It is located between
240 17’ 10” N to 270 31’ 15” N Latitude and 830 19’ 15 E to 880 17’ 40” E
Longitude. Geographical area of Bihar state (94,154 lakh hectares), having
total human population of 10.41 crores as per 2011 census of which male
was 54,278,157 and female 49,821,295. The population density is 880
persons per square kilometer out of which 89.56% are rural population and
10.44% are urban. On account of major population being rural, agriculture
constitutes the main livelihood and was 79.2% as per 1981 estimates. The
annual growth rate of population is 2.84% (2001) as against 2.34% per
annum (1991).
342 Sustainable Agriculture

As per the present quo, Bihar stands the largest producer of vegetables
after the second-largest producer of fruits. About 80% of the state’s popula-
tion, employed in agriculture, highest in agricultural production as compared
to the national average. Among the fruit crops, Litchi, guava, mango, and
pineapple are the major crops, whereas, brinjal, lady’s finger, cauliflower,
cabbage, rice, wheat, maize, and sugarcane are the main agricultural produce
contributing by Bihar state and play a pivotal role in the Indian economy.
Bihar having diversity of climate, plenty of rainfall and good heterogeneity
towards soils texture and structure, provide ideal habitat for agriculture. It
encounters flood threat as well, and drains off the fertile soil. Hence, our
major challenge to conserve properly and prepare proper LUP for diversity
of the crops. Southern part of state faces droughts almost every year affecting
production of crops mainly paddy crops and due to severe flood situation,
farmers face distress and unable to deploy his strength in agriculture.

17.3 SOILS, AGRO-CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, RAINFALL, AND LAND

USE PATTERNS IN BIHAR

17.3.1 SOILS OF BIHAR

Due to differences in physiographic, lithological impact, parent materials,

climate, topography, and age have resulted in the formation of different kind
of soil which varies from sandy to very heavy clay in texture, red to dark
grey in color, recent alluvium to old alluvium and Tal land in their makeup
and highly fertile to practically unfertile wasteland.
Based on the Soil Survey data developed by the Scientists of Soil Survey
and LUP Scheme, Sabour, the following information’s have been compiled
and mapped with advanced cartographic techniques (Figure 17.2).

17.3.2 GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Micro morphology and landform studies particularly in alluvial settings as

happened in IGP for Bihar. Geomorphic surfaces influence the pedogenesis
factor for Bihar plains accompying middle part of IGP with regular insisting
the intense mineral weathering. Soils of eastern parts contain large volumes
of fresh to weakly altered plagioclase and smectitic clay types of mineralog-
ical composition. Vertic types of features with clay pedo-features in southern
parts of Bihar remarked illuviation of fine clay which governs the pedogenic
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 343

process. Expansive types of characteristics as seen in the old alluvium which

become a part of Tal lands.

FIGURE 17.2 Soil reaction (pH) map of Jharkhand.

The major soil-forming processes as evidenced from the field (as seen in
the Soil profile) as well as the laboratory records suggested about the infor-
mation’s of calcification, leaching, lessivage, salinization are the pedogenetic
features, alkalinization and gleization govern by alkali soils and homogeni-
zation, and argilliturbation are typical characterizes of Tal land with vertices
types of character accompanying major portion in soils of Bihar. Entisols,
Inceptisols, Alfisols, Mollisols, Aridisols, and Vertisols located in IGP (Shan-
karnarayana and Sarma, 1982; Bhattacharyya et al., 1993; Ray et al., 2006)
and geological information’s for Bihar soils developed are sketched under the
digital geological environment (Figure 17.3). Indian sub-continent exhibits
a diversity of landscapes and climatic conditions demarcated by soils and
vegetation and show a significant relationship between climate, soils, and
vegetation. While preparing the land use plan or a suitable cropping pattern
keep keen interest in mind, the combined effect of climate, soil, land forms,
topography and vegetation of the state of Bihar (Tables 17.4 and 17.5).
344 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 17.3 Mineral map of Bihar.

TABLE 17.4 Different Land Use Plan in Bihar

Total Geographical Area Area (in lakh ha.) 93.60
1. Forests 6.16
2. Barren and uncultivable land 4.37
3. land put to non-agricultural uses 16.38
4. Culturable wasteland 0.46
5. Pasture and grazing land 0.18
6. Miscellaneous trees and groves 2.31
7. Other fallow 1.39
8. Current fallow 5.67
9. Net area sown 56.68
10. Total cropped area 79.95
11. Area sown more than once 23.27
12. Cropping intensity 1.41

In the year 1954, Carter divided into six climatic regions, varies from
arid to per humid demarcated to Indian condition. According to the Thornth-
waite system (climatic classification), Murthy and Pandey (1978) correlate
(physiography, climate, rainfall, and potential water surplus/deficit) agricul-
tural regions demarcated into eight agro-ecological regions. Though, this
system of classification imposed some limitations. Data collected from 160
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 345

meteorological stations across the country and imply the concept of MAI,
and dominant soil group’s proposed 29 agro-ecological zones (Subrama-
niam, 1983) with the possible 36 combinations pattern adopted by FAO/
UNESCO. The delineated of 40 soil-climatic zones based on major soil
types and moisture index (Krishnaft, 1988).

TABLE 17.5 Area, Production and Productivity for Major and Minor Crops in Bihar
Crops Area Production Productivity (q/ha)
(Lakh ha.) (Lakh Tones) Bihar India
Rice 35.96 57.11 15.88 19.9
Wheat 20.81 48.54 22.03 26.2
Maize 6.39 13.90 21.75 16.6
Barley 0.28 0.38 13.57 18.6
Ragi 0.24 0.25 15.83 14.0
Other millets 0.11 0.05 22.73 -
Tur 0.43 0.53 12.33 7.6
Gram 0.79 0.79 10.00 7.8
Lentil 1.79 0.70 9.97 -
Khesari 1.61 1.60 9.94 -
Peas 0.25 0.18 7.15 -
Moong 1.81 1.77 9.77 -
Other pulses 1.52 0.39 7.31 4.7
Rape and Mustard 0.89 0.70 7.87 8.7
Linseed 0.44 0.25 5.68 3.4
Til 0.04 0.02 5.00 3.1
Castor - - - -
Others 0.20 0.18 8.92 -
Sugarcane 0.94 39.89 422.20 719.9
Potato 1.44 13.78 84.98 -
Onion 0.18 1.91 107.32 -
Chilies 0.05 0.06 10.57 -
Other spices 0.10 0.10 10.28 -
Jute 1.49 10.95 13.26 19.5
Mesta 0.25 1.78 12.22 10.6
Tobacco 0.17 0.18 10.13 -
The irrigation potentiality has been created for 26.17 lakh ha in Bihar. The consumption of
this irrigation potential is only 16.36 lakh hectare.
346 Sustainable Agriculture

Sehgal et al. (1987) prepared a bio-climatic map of northwest India, with

reference to dry month (more than moisture deficit of 40% in a month or more
PET). The fifteen broad agro-climatic zones in the pattern of physiography
and climate demarcated by the Planning Commission as part of the mid-term
appraisal of the planning targets of the VII Plan (1985–1990). If we review
the whole situation in the State of Bihar, it appears to be more applicable
which requires the immediate attention of the planners and the Scientists
together. Factually the knowledge about natural resources is very poor and
scattered. Therefore, it is high time that an earnest effort is made to organize
the knowledge and put them in an order that can be gainfully utilized.
Earlier Bihar State has been divided into six Agro-climatic situations,
crop adaptability and cropping pattern (NARP, 1982):

1. North-west alluvial plains;

2. North-east alluvial plains;
3. South-Bihar alluvial plains;
4. Central and north-eastern plateau;
5. Western plateau;
6. South-eastern plateau.

Later on, NBSS, Nagpur recognized five Agro-Ecological Zones in Bihar.

They are:

1. Hot sub-humid (North Bihar Plains – Moist).

2. Hot sub-humid (South Bihar Plains – Dry).
3. Hot sub-humid (South-west high land – Dry).
4. Hot sub-humid (Eastern Chotanagpur Plateau – Dry).
5. Hot humid (Mahananda Plain – Moist).

However, such divisions of agro-climatic zones and agro-ecological zones

serve the purpose of planning at a broader scale of the national level. When
we consider such divisions on State level, we find that this requires further
subdivisions for the preparation of the Land Use Plan and its execution at
district levels.

17.3.3 GROWING PERIOD

The concept of the growing period is essential to AEZ, and provides seasonal
land resource appraisal. In tropical areas exist too dry during part of the year
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 347

for crop growth to ensure crop stands without irrigation, whereas, temperate
climatic regimes in winter season exert by cold temperatures. The growing
period offers moisture and temperature conditions are suitable for crop
production. Therefore, the Bihar state has been broadly delineated into the
following three Agro-climatic zones based on rainfall, temperature, terrain,
and soil characteristics.

 Zone I – North West alluvial plains.

 Zone II – North East alluvial plains.
 Zone III – South Bihar alluvial plains (Which are further subdivided
into zone III A and III B?)

17.4 GENERAL FEATURES OF AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONE-I, II AND III

17.4.1 ALLUVIAL PLAINS NORTH OF RIVER GANGES

West and East Champaran, Gopalganj, Siwan, Saran, Sitamarhi, Muzaffarpur,

Vaishali, Madhubani, Darbhanga, Begusarai and Samastipur comprises with
an area of 32,665 km2. This zone comprises of 18.77% of State area and
31–51% of State population. Average population density is 673 person/km2.
The parent materials for the soils of this region have been deposited by
the following rivers and their tributaries, i.e., (i) Kosi and Mahananda in
the east, (ii) the Adhwara river system of the central North, (iii) Gandak,
Burhi Gandak and Sarju in the West, and (iv) the Ganges in the south all
originating in the Himalayas. As in the steep highlands of the Himalayas
the physical disintegration of rocks and minerals predominance over
chemical weathering, as well as due to frequent high floods in these rivers,
the sediments deposited by them are richer in coarser fragments like sands
and silts over clay. The Kosi, Mahananda and Adhwara system of rivers
on one hand and the Gandak, BurhiGandak and Sarju on the other show
tendencies to deposit sodium salts and calcium carbonate in their sediments
respectively. This is directly related to the mineralogy of their catchment
area in the Himalayas.
The rainfall in this region shows a gradual decrease both in the South
and Western directions, for example, the North-Eastern part of Purnea and
Kishanganj districts receive a rainfall of more than 2000 mm which gradu-
ally decreases to 1500 mm in the Northern part of Champaran. In the south,
it shows a gradual decrease from 1500 mm in the southern part of Purnea to
1000 mm in the Western part of Saran district.
348 Sustainable Agriculture

17.4.2 ALLUVIAL PLAINS SOUTH OF RIVER GANGA

The parent materials for soils of this region, in the most part except a strip in
the North along river Ganga, have been deposited as sediments brought by
rivers originating in the uplands of Chhotanagpur plateau where chemical
decomposition of rocks and minerals predominate over their physical
disintegration. Thus the parent material (alluvium) of this region, enrich with
finer fragments like clays and poorer in silt as compared to the sediments of
the north. Moreover, the sediments become heavier as we move away from
the plateau or from the mainstream of the rivers.
The rainfall in this region shows a gradual decrease in the Western
direction. It decreases from about 1,500 mm in the alluvial North-Western
part of Santhal Parganas which adjoins Bhagalpur to about 875 mm in the
Western part of Shahabad district.

17.4.3 CHHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU REGIONS

The parent materials of the soils of Chhotanagpur plateau have been derived
on the various kinds of rocks found in this region. The rocks of Chhotana-
gpur plateau are of various kinds and ages.
Rocks found in major parts of the districts of Ranchi, Hazaribagh,
Western part of Santhal Parganas, Southern part of Palamau, Northern part
of Singhbhum, South Bhagalpur, South Munger, and South Gaya are various
kinds of Archean gneiss and schists. Of these, the rocks occurring in the
Northern parts of Hazaribagh and continuous areas in Munger and Gaya as
well as around the township of Mandu in Hazaribagh are highly micaceous.
The Gondwana and Archean country rocks of eastern Santhal Parganas are
covered by trap-rocks known as Rajmahal traps. Rocks of Dhanbad, South-
Eastern part of Hazaribagh and some parts of Palamau districts are coal-
bearing Gondwana and Dharmars. The rocks of Adhowra hills of Shahabad
district are Vindhyan sandstone, shales, and limestones. The country rocks
of the central part of Palamau and Singhbhum districts are highly intersected
with numerous dikes and sills of basic and ultrabasic rocks. The southern
part of Singhbhum district has rich iron ore rocks of the Dharwar system.
High-level laterites are found as cappings on the Naterhat plateau regions of
Ranchi, Palamau districts and also in the Rajmahal hills of Santhal Parganas.
Low-level laterites are found both over the ground or buried under the soil in
the south-eastern part of Singhbhum district (Figure 17.4).
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 349

The average height of the plateau being 1,500 m above M.S.L. the
average mean annual temperature is lower than that of the alluvial regions.
The rainfall is highest in the East and South 1500 to 2000 mm which gradu-
ally decreases in the West and North. A part of the Palamau district in the
North West of the plateau and its adjoining areas in the Gaya district are
subjected to frequent droughts though rainfall is about 875 to 1000 mm only.

FIGURE 17.4 Available primary mineral in rocks.

17.4.4 CLIMATE

The climate is characterized by having tropical humid to sub-humid type.

The rainfall in the zone decreases from North to South as a result of which
district of Vaishali in the South and southwest area of Siwan receive on an
average only 1000 mm rainfall per annum. The highest rainfall received by
West Champaran is 1548 mm. Southwest monsoon rains usually start in
the 2nd week of June and continue up to Ist week of Oct, Maximum rainfall
occurs in July and August. This zone offers alluvial plains are slopy towards
the southeast direction with very low gradient as evident by the direction is
which rivers flow except the north-west areas of West Champaran. However,
the Rivers move eastward direction with the natural levee, finally drain into
the Ganga. As a result, there are vast waterlogged areas in the districts of
Saran, Vaishali, and Samastipur. These areas are near flatness of the land-
scape, gets flooded during rains.
350 Sustainable Agriculture

17.4.5 RIVER BASINS IN BIHAR

LUP’s and cropping systems in Bihar are badly affected by these river basins.
The entire north Bihar is flood-prone. Crops, as well as populations, suffered
badly regularly. Soil erosion and sand deposition in cultivated lands always
change the situations (Figure 17.7 and Table 17.6).
There are three major river basins in north Bihar.

1. Gandak Basin: It comprises of the basins of Gandak, BurhiGandak

and Bagmati river valley. This valley covers the districts of Saran,
East and West Champaran, Gopalganj, Siwan, Muzaffarpur, Vaishali,
Samastipur, Khagaria, and Darbhanga.
2. Adhwara Basin: It comprises of the basins of the Bagmati, Kamla
Balan and BurhiGandak and covers the major part of Darbhanga,
Madhubani, Samastipur and Begusarai districts.
3. Kosi and Mahananda Basins: It comprises the basins of Kosi
and Mahananda which covers part of Darbhanga, the whole of
Saharsa, supaul, Purnia Kishanganj, and Katihar districts. The Kosi
and Ganga have been marked by numerous changes in its course
during historical time. This has far-reaching effect on the geomor-
phological and geo-hydrological status of the terrain. The effects
are noticeable in the flood plains and waterlogged regions found in
the tract.

TABLE 17.6 Basin Wise Flood Prone and Protected Area of Bihar
Sl. Basin Catchment Length Flood Prone Protected Embankment
No. Area (km2) of River Area (km2) Area (km2) Constructed
(km)
1. Ganga 19322 445 12920 4300 537.81
2. Kosi 11410 260 10150 9300 797.90
3. BurhiGandak 9601 320 8210 4010 656
4. Kiul-Harohar 17225 — 6340 — 7.00
5. Punpun 9026 235 6130 260 40.60
6. Mahananda 6150 376 5150 1210 51.69
7. Sone 15820 202 3700 210 51.69
8. Bagmati 6500 394 4440 3170 313.73
9. Kamla Balan 4488 120 3700 2810 155.50
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 351

17.5 SOILS UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The area south of the Ganga River can be divided into two distinct geograph-
ical units, the alluvial plains alongside of the Ganga River and hard rock
terrain mostly hills or sub-plateau to its south and east. It includes the districts
of Rohtas, Bhojpur, Kaimur, Patna, Gaya, Nalanda, Nawada, Aurangabad,
Munger, Jamui, Bhagalpur and Banka. The plains of South Bihar are widest
towards the west and middle but gradually taper towards east. The south
Gangetic plains are stable and not subjected to floods except in certain local-
ized areas. The soils of South Bihar plains have shaped by the sediments of
Ganges and rivers like Karmnasa, Sone, Sakri, Panchane, Kiul, Harohar,
Badua, Chandan, Falgu, Barnar and many small rivers originating from
Jharkhand (Table 17.8). The sub-plateau and plain regions of South Bihar
are drained in the river Ganga through karmnasa, Sone, Punpun, Kiul, Falgu,
Sakari and other small rivers.
Nowadays, remote sensing and GIS are known as space-based tech-
nology for natural resource management and agricultural LUP. Many orga-
nizations are interested to adopt this technology for enhancement their busi-
ness or research work and lots of funds are being invested on these fields.
Remote sensing and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) technology
provide important tool for the assessment and monitoring of the natural
resources whereas optical remote sensing makes use images of the earth’s
surface by detecting the solar radiation reflected from targets on the ground
by visible, near-infrared and short-wave infrared sensors. In continuation
of this technology, Hyper-spectral, thermal and microwave remote sensing
have also been incorporated. Different materials viz. soil, water and vegeta-
tion of earth surface, reflect and absorb at different wavelengths and they
are categorized as targets by differentiated by spectral reflectance signatures
towards remotely sensed images (Table 17.7).

TABLE 17.7 Source Wise Irrigated Area in Bihar

Source Gross Irrigated Area Net Irrigated Area
(Lakh ha) (Lakh ha)
Canals 12.93 10.11
Tanks 1.46 1.17
Tube wells 24.33 18.34
Well’s 0.25 0.23
Other sources 6.54 5.35
Total 45.50 35.20
352 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 17.8 Geological Information of Different Districts of Bihar and Jharkhand

Sl. Districts Rocks from Which the Soil Formed
No.
1. Bhagalpur Mica, Horblende schist, Quartzite, Amphibolite.
2. Munger, Patna, Rajgir, Quartzite, Conglomerate, Jasper Quartzite, Slate, Phyllite,
Kharagpur and Sheikhpura Mica-Schist, Intrusive granite and converted gneiss.
3. Gaya Mica, Hornblende schist, Granite, Hornblende gneiss,
Quartzite Amphibolite, Syenite, Dolerite and Pegmatite.
4. Shahabad Vindhyan Rocks, Sand Stone, Slate, etc.
5. Santhal Pargana, Dolerite Basalt, Granite, Quarzite, Amphibolite, Dolerite,
Rajmahal Trap Pegmatite, Marble Schist, Mica, and Hornblende Schist.
6. Hazaribagh Mica and Granite gneiss, Hornblende gneiss and Calc-
schist, Pegmatite, Gabro, Granite and Gondwana rocks.
7. Singhbhum Garnet, Kyanite-Mica-Schist, Phyllite, Dalma lava,
Quartzite, Arkasani Granophyr, Titanium, Copper,
Manganese and Dolerite.
8. Dhanbad Granite, Granite gneiss, Mica schist, Quartzite, Gondwana
rocks, i.e., Coal and sand etc.
9. Palamau Mica and Hornblende schist, Granite gneiss, Calc-
schist, Granite, Gabro Vindhyan rocks, i.e., Sand stone,
limestone etc.
10. Ranchi Granite, Granite gneiss, Hornblende and Biotite gneiss,
Mica schist, Quartzite, Amphibolite and Pegmatite.

17.6 SOIL EROSION MAP

In north Bihar, recurrence floods boost up unstable crop production exerting

the area about 17 lakh ha. Vast area (1.6 lakh ha) accompanying low lands
with 1 to 5-meters depth of water which makes agricultural management
difficult, the result being poor harvest. Despite large surface and groundwater
resource is low lands with 1 to 5-meters depth of water which makes
agricultural management difficult, the result being poor harvest.
The State of Bihar suffered from erosion of soil by water. The problem of
markable wind erosion is being felt in West and East Champaran, Araria and
Kisanganj districts of North Bihar. Much larger area of the state is under the
influence of water erosion due to high intensity of rainfall, undulating land
topography, over exploitation of forest area and great pressure of human and
animal on the agricultural land. The river Ganga is the main drainage channel
flows from west to east and distinctly passes through different soil types and
climatic conditions. The erosion of soil by water is more pronounced in the
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 353

southern part of the state away from the river Ganga comprising sub-plateau
regions of state. The districts covered are Munger, Jamui, Banka, Kaimur,
Rohtas, Aurangabad, Gaya and Nawada. 5.43 lakh ha. land is under severe
soil erosion in these districts. North Bihar experiences almost every year
the worst effect of soil erosion in the form of flood. To minimize the flood,
soil conservation measures such as afforestation and plantations, etc., are
required to be done at a large scale.

17.7 RIVER BASIN MAP OF BIHAR

Uplands in general, to the extent of 3.2 lakh ha are high in P- fixation capacity.
Both area and intensity of soil salinity is on increase leading to low crop
productivity and lowered nutrient efficiency. There is a need to bridge the
gap by adopting suitable reclamation measures and farming technology for
such large areas. Widespread deficiency of zinc is prevalent. Crops have been
found to differ in their response to Zn-application. Similarly, a deficiency of
B at places has been observed. Soils are becoming poor in organic matter.
Despite large surface and groundwater resources, the gross cropped area
brought under irrigation is only a little over 27% in north Bihar. The exploi-
tation of water resources is also low and in-efficient. Conjunctive use of
surface and groundwater could have helped in controlling drainage prob-
lems, has been so far neglected. Drainage has not received adequate atten-
tion due to obsessions with the creation of new irrigation potential. Little
research priority has been attached to these potent aspects.

 High water table in Gandak Command area: Priority needs to be

attached in order to save the land going under waterlogging and
salinity hazards.
 The progress of groundwater exploitation is seriously hampered due
to inadequate and erratic supply of electric power.

17.7.1 SOIL HEALTH STATUS OF AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONE-II AND III

Healthy soil offers healthy sound environment with profitable foundation,

productive and endeavor with agricultural systems. Understanding the
formation of soil process and mechanism for support plant growth and
regulate environmental quality remarked by management practices, convey
crop and soil management system, improves and maintains soil health. At
354 Sustainable Agriculture

present quo, status of soil health of 25 districts of Bihar was conducted. There
were about 20,000 soil samples from different physiographic levels collected,
processed and analyzed in the laboratory. Organic carbon, Av. phosphate,
and Av. potash were determined and estimated in terms of Nutrient Index for
all the districts superlatively and these data were mounted on the GIS maps
(Figure 17.7). Based on these studies, recently soil site suitability model has
developed by Jayanti et al. (2015) by considering the soil health indicator
for Katihar district and validate the model in representative five selected
soil series by pedological study. Now a day, deficiency of micronutrients
is burning issue as per concern of human health. Hence for keen interest of
different workers, macronutrients and micronutrient mapping (Choudhary et
al., 2016a, 2016b) and have been done for Tal land areas in Patna district for
sustained the soil health.

17.8 SOIL ASSOCIATION MAP OF OLD BIHAR

The planning of systematic farming system should be laid down by keeping

in mind about the responsible crops.
Suitable cropping and finally the farming systems for specific situations
viz. flood prone, water-logged and saline soils need to be developed perfected
and extended. Animal and other allied components need to be incorporated.

 High weed population: weed-control problem is intensifying.

17.8.1 ALLIED SECTORS

 Complete absence of suitable agro-processing units and lack of suitable

storage facilities within the socio-economic preview of the farmers.
 Lack of agro-industries particularly for fruit and vegetable preserva-
tion. Family-based systems and techniques need to be developed.
 Agro-forestry and social forestry programs have not got proper attention.

17.8.2 INFRA-STRUCTURE

 Limited supply of improved quality seed of grain and horticultural

crops.
 Problem of proper communication, marketing facilities, and suitable
modern amenities in villages.
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 355

 Very low use of improved implements/machines.

The zone has rich alluvial soils and a good scope of groundwater exploi-
tation. It is rich in fruits like mango, litchi, and banana. The important
field crops are rice, wheat, maize, oilseed (rapeseed and mustard), spices-
turmeric, ginger, dhania, Chilies, garlic, methi, sonf and mangaraila, tubers
(sweet potato), tobacco, sugarcane, etc.

 Sugarcane industry is fairly well developed. There is a scope for

its modernization. The productivity of sugarcane could easily be
increased by about 50% in the next decade provided adequate help
and support (rural roads, irrigation, required inputs and electricity) to
the farmers are provided.
 Fruit and vegetable processing industries need strengthening. The
causes of sickness of one at Hajipur may be looked into and required
measures for research and development could be strengthened.
 The area can export spices. The spices curing/processing and pack-
aging industry can be developed. Tobacco is an important cash crop.
Tobacco processing industry has a scope.
 Maize and sweet potato-based industry has immense scope. The value
of maize may be increased if starch, corn oil and other industries are
established.

17.9 ZONE-II (NORTH-EAST ALLUVIAL PLAIN)

North-East Alluvial Plains comprises the district of Saharsa, Madhepura,

Purnea, Araria, Katihar, Naugachhia sub-division of Bhagalpur and Khagaria.
The zone is fairly densely populated (530 persons/km2). It has an area of
11.69% of the state and shares 13.9% population.

17.9.1 SOIL MANAGEMENT

 Highly flood-prone areas affected mostly by Kosi and Mahananda

rivers which are responsible for silt depositions in cultivated fields
creating major problems for sustainable crop productions.
 Sandy to loamy soils, very highly permeable and strongly acidic non-
calcareous soils of light texture especially in the North-Eastern part
of Purnea.
356 Sustainable Agriculture

 In respect of primary nutrients, soils very poor in nitrogen, very

poor to medium in available phosphorus and potash in very light-
textured soils. Whereas, deficiency of zinc and boron was observed
in this region. But, toxicity of manganese has been reported in
these areas.
 Heavy leaching of the soil has increased soil acidity and caused nutri-
tional problems resulting in mico-nutrient deficiency and perhaps
in nonsetting of seeds in cereals and pulses. Hence, delineation of
micro-nutrient deficiencies and their amelioration is necessary.

17.9.2 WATER MANAGEMENT

 Recurrence of floods in large areas and consequently waterlogged

areas to the extent of 1.6 lakh ha.
 Poor irrigation facility- Irrigation is available to the tune of only 21%
of cropped area.
 Lack of suitable irrigation and water management practices for light
textured soils.

17.9.3 FARMING SYSTEM

 Lack of suitable farming system for different geomorphologic situa-

tions viz.
i. Flooded area between the embankments.
ii. Sandy uplands having little irrigation facilities.
 Lack of information on causes for poor seed setting in gram and wheat
and evolving suitable varieties and agro-technique for the crops of
this region.
 Lack of work on varietal improvement of plantation and fruit crops
and suitable agro-technique.
 No sufficient program on fish culture and agroforestry, etc.
 Non-availability of the relevant packages of practices for crops of
these regions and lack of information on the post-harvest technology.
 Hot humid climate of this zone causes heavy insect pest damage.
Considerable damage is caused to Jute crop due to root-rot. Nature,
extent, and damage due to insects and pests and development of
control measures need to be undertaken.
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 357

Rice, jute, maize, summer pulses (moong), summer millets and sugarcane
are important crops. There is a tremendous scope for exploiting the water-
logged area by growing winter (Boro) rice. Maize is very high performing
crop of this zone like Zone-I. In N-E portion of the zone pine-apple is an
important crop and in the southern portion banana. Problems facing these
two fruit crops need to be looked into. Side by side some fruit preservation/
canning industry may be developed. The zone has along with Zone-I good
scope for fisheries development honey productions.

17.10 ZONE-III (SOUTH BIHAR ALLUVIAL PLAINS)

Since this zone comprises of the entire South Bihar Plains, which vary a
great deal in soil, climate, irrigation facilities and even nature of crops and
cropping. The zone has been divided into: III (A) comprising the districts of
Bhagalpur, Banka, Jamui, Seikhpura, Lakhisarai and Munger and III (B) with
districts of Patna, Bhojpur, Rohtas, Aurangabad, Gaya, Jahanabad, Arwal,
Nawadah, and Nalanda. The density of population is about 465 persons/km2.
It has 25.75% of the state’s area and supports 29.8% of the population.

17.10.1 GEO-MORPHOLOGY

Through 72.7% of the cultivated area is under irrigation, yet the substantial
area in Aurangabad, Rohtas, and Kaimur districts are drought-prone. In the
south of Ganga, there is vast stretches of backwater (one lakh ha) known as
Tal area located in the districts of Patna, Nalanda, Lakhisarai, Munger and
Bhagalpur which remain inundated in the Kharif season facilitating only
one crop during the rabi season. Vast stretches of land under Diara areas
are (1.8 lakh ha). The technology for the management of salt-affected soils
developed mainly due to the dominance of Magnesium needs refinement.
Erosion map and drainage map was laid out by SS and LUP, BAC, Sabour
(Figures 17.5–17.8).

17.10.2 WATER MANAGEMENT

 Heavy to very heavy textured soils having pressure phases or slicken

sides below causing them to have poor to very poor internal drainage.
 Lack of adequate irrigation facilities for Tal and Diara areas.
358 Sustainable Agriculture

 Low-water-use-efficiency in Sone command areas. There is a need to

train the farmers for the efficient use of irrigation water to check in
rise of water table.

FIGURE 17.5 Drainage map of Bihar.

FIGURE 17.6 Bihar erosion map.

Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 359

FIGURE 17.7 Soil fertility map of Bihar.

FIGURE 17.8 Soil texture and calcareousness of soils.

17.10.3 FARMING SYSTEMS

 Low and uncertain productivity due to floods monsoon (Kharif)

season and due to soil moisture stress and drought during pre and
360 Sustainable Agriculture

post-flood period (Winter and Summer months). Mono-cropping,

thus, is a common practice in such areas.
 Suitable soil management technology and cropping patterns for the
rapidly hardening heavy textured soils is yet to be identified.
 Research on rainfed agriculture for upland conditions of this zone
requires special attention for development of this zone IIIA.
 Non-availability of high yielding varieties of pulses crops suitable for
Tal areas.
 Pisciculture programs should also be undertaken in this zone as an
enterprise.

17.10.4 ALLIED SECTOR/INFRASTRUCTURE

 Food processing industries should be developed.

 Storage and marketing facilities especially in Tal and Diara areas
require special attention.

17.11 CROP PLANNINGS

With anticipated better soil and water resource management, new innovation
in agricultural production systems, improved infrastructure and input supply
facilities and accelerated pace of information dissemination, both produc-
tivity and total production from a unit land area will increase appreciably.
The impact of green revolution will be more widely visible in such areas,
which so far have remained neglected.

1. Tal Areas: This area will remain to be efficient zone for pulses, viz.
gram and lentil as pure and mixed with wheat during rabi. In irri-
gated Tal areas, rabi maize or wheat can also be grown. Moisture
conservations and timely cultural practices are the very important
management tools.
2. Diara Lands: Early maize-wheat/gram/linseed/forage crops/potato/
sweet potato/fallow/vegetable particularly parwal, tomato, green pea
and other cucurbits in rainfed condition. Early maize: Rabi maize/
wheat/rai/potato in irrigated areas.

In the above background of anticipated improvement in various produc-

tion components, following cropping systems have been proposed, which
need to be popularized and adopted situation-wise (Table 17.9).
TABLE 17.9 Proposed Cropping Systems of Different Agro-Ecological Zones in Bihar
Agro-Ecological Zones Proposed Cropping Systems Based on Soils Plantation Crops
Zone-I (North-Western Gangetic Plains)
District covered- East and West Kharif Rabi Summer Litchi, Mango, Guava,
Champaran, Sheohar, Sitamarhi, Early Paddy Maize ---- Forestry Plantations
Darbhanga, Siwan, Madhubani, Maize Potato Moong should be given importance
Saran Muzaffarpur, Vaishali Maize/Early Mustard Moong particularly in foothills
Gopalpur. Samastipur, Begusarai Paddy Wheat Moong as well on the bank
GM Sugarcane Sugarcane of Canals, ridges and
Groundnut Wheat Moong roadsides.
Paddy Sugarcane Sugarcane
Maize Potato Onion
Maize Sweet Potato Moong/Berseem
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning

Agro-Ecological Zone-II (North-Eastern Plains)

Paddy Wheat Jute Litchi, Mango, Guava,
Jute Mustard Maize Forestry plants in
Early Paddy Potato Groundnut northern parts should
District Covered- Supaul, Banana Vegetables Vegetables/Chilies, be promoted. Makhana,
Madhepura, Saharsa, Purnia, Jute Maize Pulses Singhara should
Katihar, Kishanganj, Araria, Paddy Potato Onion/Ananas also be promoted in
Khagaria Jute Black Gram Vegetables waterlogged areas.
Rice Wheat Rice
361
TABLE 17.9 (Continued) 362

Agro-Ecological Zone-III A and B: South Gangetic Plains and Plateau Regions

District Covered Maize Arhar Vegetables Plantation Crops
Bhagalpur, Banka, Munger, Paddy Maize/Onion Paddy Mango, Litchi, Guava,
Jamui, Lakhisarai, Sheikhpura, Paddy Wheat Vegetables Banana, Caster,
Nawada, Gaya, Aurangabad, Paddy Potato Onion Shisham, Shal, and other
Kaimur, Rohtas, Buxar, Bhojpur, Paddy Sugarcane Sugarcane forestry crops.
Jehanabad, Patna, Nalanda Paddy Vegetables Maize
Paddy Potato Moong
Early Paddy Vegetables Vegetables
Paddy Tori Moong
Sustainable Agriculture
Natural Resource Management and Land Use Planning 363

FIGURE 17.9

FIGURE 17.10
364 Sustainable Agriculture

KEYWORDS

 base exchange capacity

 Chour land
 Daira land
 land use planning
 remote sensing and GIS
 Tal land

REFERENCES
Bhattacharyya, T., Pal, D. K., & Deshpande, S. B., (1993). Genesis and transformation of
minerals in the formation of red (Alfisols) and black (Inceptisols and Vertisols) soils on
Deccan basalt in Western Ghats, India. J. Soil Sci., 90, 263–276.
Binod, K. V., Rajkishore, K., Choudhary, C. D., Sunil, K., Rakesh, K., Singh, Y. K., & Ragni,
K., (2016). Spectral signature of red soil patches and their acidity: A case study of Banka
district, Bihar, India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 8(2), 874–878.
Choudhary, C. D., Singh, Y. K., Ragni, K., Shewta, S., Kumar, J., & Rajkishore, K., (2016a).
Soil mapping of some selected soil series and micronutrient status of Tal land areas in Patna
districts using remote sensing and GIS. Progressive Research: An International Journal,
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Choudhary, C. D., Singh, Y. K., Shewta, S., Ragni, K., & Rajkishore, K., (2016b). Soil
characterization and macronutrient status of Tal land areas in Patna districts using remote
sensing and GIS. Eco and Env. Cons., 22, S357–S362.
Jayanti, P., Ghanshyam, C. D., Choudhary, B. K., Vimal, S. K., & Rajkishore, K., (2015). Eco
and Env. Cons., 21, S103–S108.
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Commission V, 11th Congress of the Int. Soc. Soil Sci. Edmonton, Canada.
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Maurya, U. K., & Pal, D. K., (2006). On the formation of cracking clay soils (Vertisols) in
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Sehgal, J. L., (1987). Soil site suitability evaluation for cotton. Agropedology, 1, 49–63.
Shankarnarayana, H. S., & Sarma, V. A. K. (1982). Soils of India. Benchmark Soils of India,
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Subramaniam, A. R., (1983). Agro-ecological zones of India. Archives for Metrology and
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 PART III
Crop Protection
CHAPTER 18

Plant Disease Management Through

Application of Nanoscience
ABHIJEET GHATAK
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Over application of fungicides and other pesticides in the agricultural field

lead to cause an environmental hazard. The introduction of biocontrol agents
and different cultural methods in the crop fields has not been rendered prom-
ising results in disease management. Therefore, the utmost need for another
option in managing plant diseases may provide a satisfactory solution. The
advent of nanoscience in the field of agriculture is playing a vivid role
in supplying nutrition and managing diseases. This chapter discusses the
different activities of nanoscience conducted at BAU Sabour for uplifting
and unveiling the scope of nanoparticles in controlling plant diseases. Apart
from various attempts, the primary efforts were made to manage soil-borne
pathogens using biodegradable nanochitosan which is generating encour-
aging results for sustainable or long-term effect under soil ecology system.
This chapter covers a few preliminary works on the management of fungal
phytopathosystem using nanoparticles of different categories.

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Photosynthetic plants are the major source of carbon to the non-photosyn-

thetic organisms. It is well known that over thirty thousand plant species are
invaded by a large number of harmful organisms. The phytopathogens and
insects share a huge volume of this detrimental group (Pieterse and Dicke,
2007). These harmful creatures influence the plant growth and deteriorate
368 Sustainable Agriculture

the production (yield) drastically. Therefore, managing plant diseases and

insect infestation is a challenging task, which is directly associated with the
improvement of human welfare.
There are various approaches can be applied to cope-up against the biotic
problems in different phytopathosystems. In nature, plants are being exposed
to a wide array of microorganisms and insects. All such organisms, get in
exposure to plants, are not injurious. A large fraction of these minute creatures
are beneficial to plants and to the ecosystem. A well-balanced interaction
of plants with beneficial and detrimental microorganisms and insects for
aboveground and belowground environments retains the ecology sustainable
(Pineda et al., 2010). Therefore, a sustainable approach is believed paramount
among the series of plant disease management approaches. Sustainable
management is a full-proof tool to enhance plant growth by achieving the
increased crop yield or by reducing the quantum of loss.
In the modern era of commercial agriculture, to get a quick remedy, the
growers rely more on chemical pesticides rather to follow a sustainable
approach. The chemical pesticides not only imply damage to the ecology
but also its effects could be observed to the next generation. Apart from
these problems of chemical pesticides the resistance development is again
an issue with agro-chemicals. This imparts to develop a novel strategy for
plant disease management. In the era of ‘smart management technology,’ the
application of nanotechnology in plant disease management has a tremendous
scope. Nanotechnology supports the precise utilization of individual atoms or
molecules for their application to physical, chemical, and biological systems,
and sometimes, involving action by forming a complex (by integration) system.
A particle size is considered nanometer when it ranges between 1 and 100 nm.
Chemically, the nanoparticles should have alterable physical properties, target
specificity, rigidity with structure (non-changing ability), and delayed particle
aggregation. The surface property of a nanoparticle may also include the
photoemission, increased electrical and heat conductivity along with advanced
surface catalytic activity (Garg et al., 2008; Shrestha et al., 2007).
Exploitation of nanoparticles for management of plant diseases is a
‘bottom-up’ approach where the foremost reaction participates into the
action is reduction/oxidation. This could relate to the microbial enzymes,
with reducing or antioxidant properties, in general responsible for reduction
of metal compounds into their respective nanoparticles (Mohanpuria et al.,
2007). In the applied part, researchers are attempting several ways to unveil
the fungal inhibitory capability of different nanoparticles. So far, effect of
silver nanoparticles has drawn the attention of researchers for inhibiting the
Plant Disease Management Through Application 369

phytopathogenic fungal growth under controlled condition (Min et al., 2009;

Kim et al., 2009, 2012). However, only a few workers presented the signifi-
cant effect of silver nanoparticles under in-planta interaction (Jo et al., 2009;
Lamsal et al., 2011). Similarly, Fateixa et al. (2009) observed the inhibi-
tory effect of silver nanoparticles on postharvest pathogen Aspergillus niger.
Various authors also explained the mechanism of silver nanoparticles using
electron microscope. Ouda (2014) found the antifungal property of silver
nanoparticles on different cell wall components of two fungal pathogens,
Alternaria alternata and Botrytis cinerea. The author observed deterioration
of sugar, protein, n-acetyl glucosamine and lipid content in both of the fungi
under treatments of silver nanoparticle. Application of nanoparticles for
disease management is rather more developed in veterinary science and in
the medical science. Many works have been presented for the animal bacte-
rial inhibition by application of nanoparticles (Feng et al., 2000; Pal et al.,
2007; Salem et al., 2015; Smekalova et al., 2016).
Nearly 60 countries have launched many-a-few national programs in
nanotechnology supported by research and development grants. The Indian
programs on nanotechnology are also shouldered by the Ministry of Science
and Technology, Government of India. The program is launched under ‘Mission
on Nano Science and Technology’ (nanomission.gov.in). Only a few centers
in India are focusing on this discipline of research; work on nanoparticles is
devoted to dig-out the significant opportunities for high proficient chemicals
with the less hazardous trait (Li et al., 2007). Achievements of research on
nanoscience in India can be estimated with a fact of publication; India ranked
6th in 2009, whereas previously, its rank verified with 17th rank in 2000 (Beumer
and Bhattacharya, 2013). However, India’s contribution in the field of patenting
is very meager. Indian institutes granted a less than 3.5% patenting (based on
nanotechnological research) filed in the Indian Patent Office.
Contribution of nanotechnological research is largely supported by ‘research
institutes,’ which was assessed with merit and number of scientific publication
(Parvathamma and Gobbur, 2011). Being a state agricultural university (SAU),
Bihar Agricultural University (BAU) has taken a vital step by establishing the
nanoscience and nanotechnology unit in July, 2015. The team at BAU Sabour
is working to achieve the goal of phytopathogen management using applica-
tion of nanoparticles. At preliminary stage, we evaluated different laboratory
synthesized nanoparticles to various phytopathogenic fungi. Biological char-
acterization of different phytopathogenic fungi to a series of nanoparticles is
under process. This chapter will also furnish a few works on fungal phytopa-
thosystem management conducted at BAU Sabour.
370 Sustainable Agriculture

18.2 APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE: AN

OVERVIEW

Nanotechnology has great scope in agriculture, although it has not been fully
explored for agricultural systems. The technology is exploiting for many
facets of agricultural system (Figure 18.1).

FIGURE 18.1 Application of nanotechnology in agricultural system.

Improvement in seed germination and seedling vigor is observed in

nanoparticle treated seeds. Germination rate along with root length and
aboveground dry biomass were found greater for monocot and dicot wetland
plants with exposure to silver nanoparticle (Yin et al., 2012). Similarly,
Maity et al. (2016) observed that metal nanoparticles also influenced the
germination and yield of fodder crops, oat (Avena sativa) and berseem
(Trifolium alexandrinum). Nanoparticle treatments resulted in better seedling
emergence rate, tiller number and seed yield. However, Lin and Xing (2007)
found phytotoxic effect of nanoparticles supported with reduced germination
and root growth.
Plant Disease Management Through Application 371

Fertilizers occupy for pivotal function in agricultural production

nearly 35–40% of the productivity. It is well noted that approximately
40–70% N, 80–90% P, and 50–90% K from the fertilizer are lost, and
do not reach to its targeted site due to various reasons like leaching of
chemicals, drift, evaporation, hydrolysis by soil moisture, and photolytic
and microbial degradation in the soil (Ombodi and Saigusa, 2000). This
ultimately resulted in economic and environmental loss in terms of pollu-
tion. Scientists are now paying attention to mitigate the hazardous impact
from residual fertilizers. Therefore, application of nanoparticles in the
form of fertilizer is getting hike in agricultural field. The slow-release
ability from such compound is an additional feature that sustain for whole
of the cropping season (Solanki et al., 2015). Nanostructured fertilizers
have the ability to increase the nutrient use efficiency. The mechanism of
such fertilizers is delivery at targeted site with slow and controlled release
of nutrient compounds.
Nanotechnological knowledge is also applying for the management of
weeds. However, not much work has been observed under this category of
crop management. Lim et al. (2012a) successfully developed a nano-emul-
sion formulation incorporating with herbicide glyphosate, which ultimately
resulted in well-dispersed nanoparticles. The developed optimum entrapped
glyphosate with the nano-emulsion improved the physicochemical charac-
teristics of the nanoformulation indicating such nano-emulsion system could
ameliorate in the improvement of herbicide by reorganizing the bioactivity
and bioavailability. Significantly lower surface tension can be observed in
the herbicide developed through nano-emulsion than a commercial formula-
tion (Lim et al., 2012b). The narrow-leaved weed (Eleusineindica) managed
at a lower dose of nano-emulsion of herbicide glyphosate (Roundup®; ED50
was 0.40 kg a.e./ha) compared to the commercial formulation of this herbi-
cide that took a higher dose (ED500.48 kg a.e./ha) when applied as such.
Therefore, the nano-emulsion herbicide ensures the increased penetration
and uptake of herbicide glyphosate.
Sustainability remains the central idea of modern agriculture, particu-
larly when the world is desperate for a ‘second green revolution.’ Under this
circumstance there is need of a significant and effective strategy ensuring
fruitful results in plant disease management. The present scenario of agri-
cultural systems discourages the non-judicious use of chemical pesticides.
At the same time the growers are eagerly looking for the replacement of
such hazardous chemicals. Nanotechnology ensures the reduction in rate of
chemical (pesticide) amount with enhanced time of its active phase (Nair et
al., 2010; Ghormade et al., 2011). Among the metal nanoparticles used as
372 Sustainable Agriculture

pesticides; silver has drawn special attention of researchers. Several workers

have found great inhibitory property of silver nanoparticle to various phyto-
pathogenic fungi (Kasprowicz et al., 2010; Min et al., 2009; Jo et al., 2009;
Park et al., 2006).

18.3 GLIMPSES OF NANOPARTICLE APPLICATION FOR

DIFFERENT FUNGAL PATHOSYSTEMS
18.3.1 PHYTOPATHOGENIC FUNGI TO METALLIC NANOPARTICLES

Various phytopathogenic fungi were evaluated for its response to metallic

nanoparticles (Figure 18.2). Two foliar fungi and a root-infecting fungus
were tested for this study. The foliar fungi included Bipolaris sorokin-
iana causing spot blotch of wheat and Alternaria spp. causing blight of
mustard; similarly, Fusarium oxysporum causing lentil wilt disease was
involved in this study. Mycelia growth was assessed on different concen-
trations of copper and silver nanoparticles. Fungal growth was assessed
in nanoparticle amended medium and comparison was made with the
growth assessed on non-amended medium. Our result strongly supported
the previously discussed results (Min et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2009, 2012);
greater mycelia growth inhibition obtained for silver nanoparticle for all
the tested fungi. The similar result obtained in a pot experiment for collar
rot disease with different formulations of copper and silver nanoparticles.
No diseased seedling was detected for the treatment of silver nanopar-
ticles; however, 8–17% infected seedlings were observed in copper
nanoparticle treatment. This experiment was conducted under artificially
created heavy disease pressure; the control pots found with nearly 80%
infected seedlings. We got a clue from the series of nanoparticle-amend-
ment experiments that deep-colored spores are more susceptible to metal
nanoparticle. F. oxysporum with white to grayish mycelium was least
affected with either nanoparticles used. Our results further invite deep
investigation on impact of nanoparticle on melanin synthesis in phyto-
pathogenic fungi.

18.3.2 PHYTOPATHOGENIC FUNGI TO BIODEGRADING

NANOPARTICLES

The sclerotia-producing phytopathogenic fungus, Sclerotium rolfsii

causing collar rot of chickpea, was evaluated for sclerotia germination
Plant Disease Management Through Application 373

(Figure 18.3). Harvested sclerotia were dipped in the colloidal suspension

of chitosan-based nanoformulation for the presented period. The assess-
ment was made on day 6 when no further germination was detected. Even
a 4-h dipping in the nanochitosan colloid significantly reduced sclerotial
germination. One day (24-h) dipping resulted in less than 40% sclerotial
germination. Complete inhibition in germination of sclerotia was recog-
nized for a dipping period of one and one-third day (32-h). No variation
in germination of sclerotia was detected for 0-h dipping in nanochitosan
colloid and in water. Min et al. (2009) also found effectiveness of colloidal
formulation with silver nanoparticle in reducing the sclerotial germination
of different sclerotia-producing fungi. Similarly, Mendes et al. (2014) also
observed the great inhibition property of silver colloid nanoparticles to
the soybean seed fungus (Phomopsis sp.). One of the pot experiments also
revealed with significant reduction in chickpea collar rot disease by using
the biodegrading nanoparticle of chitosan origin. Considerable disease
appeared in control pots but the nanochitosan rendered 69–74% disease
inhibition. These results indicate for great potentiality of chitosan-based
(biodegrading) nanoformulation for application of soil-borne phytopatho-
genic fungus, S. rolfsii. This primary information could be useful to develop
a novel fungicide for soil-borne disease management.

FIGURE 18.2 Response of three phytopathogenic fungi to copper and silver nanoparticles.
374 Sustainable Agriculture

18.3.3 EXPLOITING NANOCLAY AS FUNGICIDE

Application of nanoclay was tested for lentil collar rot disease (Sclerotium
rolfsii). Plants (7-days-old) were grown in pot-mix and sclerotia of the
fungus were inoculated near the collar zone of the plant. Scheduling of
nanoclay application was tested for 3 hours before, and 3, 6, and 24 hours
after inoculation. Within a treatment 280–325 plants were assessed for
disease development. A trend of increased disease percent was observed
with delaying the nanoclay application. Approximately, 50% low
disease incidence was recorded in nanoclay application after 24 hours of
inoculation compared to inoculated control without nanoclay application.
The result strongly suggests the more early nanoclay application the less
disease appearance. However, this result should be reinvestigated for other
phytopathosystems.

FIGURE 18.3 Dipping effect of sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii in nanochitosan colloid.

18.4 CONCLUSION

The advent of new technologies in modern agriculture definitely increased

production. However, the progress involving plant disease management in a
parallel direction is now advocating to hunt some other options or to find a
sustainable way. In this connection, the reduction of harmful chemicals is
a mandatory target although the growers do not rely on the significant impact
of biopesticides, because this method requires a comparably long time to
perform. Therefore, the other way as a replacement of chemical pesticide
would be introducing the nanoparticle for plant disease management. The
nanochemicals used in a meager quantity, therefore, reducing chemical
load on the ecosystem, and they are very much effective in a persistent
way to act. Many authors found the considerable inhibitory impact of silver
Plant Disease Management Through Application 375

nanoparticles on several phytopathogenic fungi. Our study also supports this

fact. Additionally, the study discussed in this chapter recommends exploring
for chitosan-based nanoformulation because of its biodegrading nature.

KEYWORDS

 disease management
 fungal pathosystems
 nanoclay
 nanoparticles
 phytopathogenic fungi

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CHAPTER 19

Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India

and Their Management
ANIL, TARAK NATH GOSWAMI, and SANJAY KUMAR SHARMA
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India.
E-mail: [email protected] (Anil)

ABSTRACT

Cereals occupy the important place in area, production and diet compo-
sition across the world. These crops suffer due to ravages of insect pests
which are considered as an important limiting factor in their production.
Global warming, aberrant weather, changing cropping patterns and adoption
of technologies alter the insect abundance, distribution and pest associated
losses over the time and space. This chapter focuses on the status of insect
pests of important cereals crops like, rice, wheat, maize, sorghum and pearl
millet in India. Besides, the emerging insect pests of cereals in India and
work done by the university on insect pests management in cereals are also
highlighted. Management practices of important insect pests of cereal crops
are also summarized in the chapter.

19.1 INTRODUCTION

Globally, the cereals constitute a major proportion of the human diet and
India is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, and other cereals. During
2013–14, India produced 106.54, 95.85, 24.26 and 5.39 million tonnes of
rice, wheat, maize and sorghum over the acreages of 43.95, 31.19, 9.43 and
5.82 million hectares, respectively (Anonymous, 2014a). These crops suffer
due to the ravages of various insect pests besides other biotic stresses. Addi-
tionally, global warming, aberrant weather, and changing cropping patterns
380 Sustainable Agriculture

are playing important roles in emerging insect pest problems. The insect
pests associated crop losses in India are around 15.7% which account for
the annual losses of US$ 36 billion (Dhaliwal et al., 2015). After the green
revolution in the country, the pest associated losses in cereal crops are 21.3%
which increased by 15.9% compared with the losses during the pre-green
revolution period. The crop-wise details of such a shift in pest-associated
losses are presented in Table 19.1. The pest associated losses in rice, wheat,
maize, and both sorghum and millets are 25.0, 5.0, 25.0 and 30.0%, respec-
tively. This indicates the respective increase in such losses by 15.0, 2.0, 20.0
and 26.5% after the green revolution.

TABLE 19.1 Changes in Pest Associated Losses (%) in Cereals During Pre- and Post-
Green Revolution in India (Adapted from Dhaliwal et al., 2007)
Crop Pre-Green Revolution Post-Green Revolution Changes in Pest
(the Early 1960s) (the Early 2000s) Associated Losses
Rice 10.0 25.0 + 15.0
Wheat 3.0 5.0 + 2.0
Maize 5.0 25.0 + 20.0
Sorghum and 3.5 30.0 + 26.5
millets
Average 5.4 21.3 + 15.9

19.2 INSECT PESTS OF CEREALS

The summarized status of insect pests of cereals including rice, wheat,

maize, sorghum, and pearl millet in India is mentioned hereunder.

19.2.1 RICE

More than 100 species of insects and mites are associated with rice and
only 20 of these are considered economically important in India. The details
of important insect and mite pests are given in Table 19.2. Insects namely,
yellow stem borer, brown planthopper (BPH), white-backed planthopper,
leaf folder, gundhi bug, and gall midge are having national significance.
Except for these insects, few other insects and mites are having regional
significance and their distribution is limited to specific areas within the
country. For instance, the infestation of caseworm is observed in low-lying
and waterlogged areas of eastern India. Similarly, the white grubs infesting
TABLE 19.2 Insect and Mite Pests of Rice in India and Their Distribution (Prakash et al., 2014)
Insect Pest Scientific Name Order Family Distribution
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) Lepidoptera Crambidae Throughout the country
Brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stal.) Hemiptera Delphacidae
White-backed plant Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) Hemiptera Delphacidae
hopper
Leaf folder Cnaphalocrosis medinalis Lepidoptera Crambidae
(Guenee)
Gundhi bug Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg) Hemiptera Coreidae
Gall midge Orseolia oryzae (Wood-Mason) Diptera Cecidomyiidae
Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India

Termite Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) Isoptera Termitidae Rainfed upland areas irrigated rice-wheat system
Swarming Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval) Lepidoptera Noctuidae Low lying areas in Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal,
caterpillar Assam, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Punjab
Green leafhopper Nephotettix nigropictus (Stal.), N. Hemiptera Cicadellidae Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
virescens (Distant) Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu
Rice hispa Dicladispa armigera (Oliver) Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Tripura, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, and Uttarakhand
Climbing cutworm Mythimna separata (Walker) Lepidoptera Noctuidae Coastal areas, Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh
Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis Guenee Lepidoptera Pyralidae Low lying and waterlogged areas in eastern India
Thrips Stenchaetothrips biformis Thysanoptera Thripidae Upland areas in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
(Bagnall) Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Assam, and Tamil Nadu
Mealybug Brevennia rehi (Lindinger) Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Upland areas in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondi-
381

cherry and Karnataka

TABLE 19.2 (Continued) 382

Insect Pest Scientific Name Order Family Distribution

Panicle mite Steneotarsonemus spinki Smiley Acari Tarsonemidae Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Gujarat, and
western Uttar Pradesh
Leaf mite Oligonychus oryzae (Hirst) Acari Tetranychidae Eastern India and Andhra Pradesh
Root weevil Echinocnemus oryzae (Marshall) Coleoptera Curculionidae Haryana, Punjab and Tamil Nadu
White grub Holotrichia spp. Coleoptera Melolonthidae Hilly areas
Black bug Scotinophara coarctata Hemiptera Pentatomidae Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala
(Fabricius)
Blue beetle Leptisma pygmaea Baly Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu
Sustainable Agriculture
Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India 383

rice are limited to hilly areas. In Bihar, the insects like swarming caterpillar,
green leafhopper, rice hispa, and mealybug are important regional insect
pests of rice.

19.2.2 WHEAT

This crop is relatively less attacked by the insect pests and around 8 insect
pests are considered economically important in wheat (Table 19.3). Insects
like termite, wheat aphid, armyworm, American pod borer, pink stem borer,
and shoot fly are of national significance. However, wheat thrips and ghujia
weevil are limited to the few areas. For instance, the infestation of ghujia
weevil in wheat is found in Uttar Pradesh.

TABLE 19.3 Insect Pests of Wheat in India and Their National/Regional Importance
(Satyagopal et al., 2014)
Insect Pest Scientific Name Order Family Importance
Termite Odontotermes obesus Isoptera Termitidae National
(Rambur), Microtermes obesi
Holmgren
Wheat aphid Sitobion avenae (F.), S. Hemiptera Aphididae
miscanthi (Takahashi)
Armyworm Mythimna separata (Walker) Lepidoptera Noctuidae
American pod Helicoverpa armigera Lepidoptera Noctuidae
borer (Hübner)
Pink stem borer Sesamia inferens (Walker) Lepidoptera Noctuidae
Shoot fly Atherigona naqvii Steyskal, Diptera Muscidae
A. oryzae Mall
Wheat thrips Anaphothrips favicinctus, Thysanoptera Thripidae Regional
Haplothrips tritici
(Kurdjumov)
Ghujhia weevil Tanymecus indicus Faust Coleoptera Curculionidae

19.2.3 MAIZE

More than 130 insect species are associated with maize and 12 of which
are considered economically important insect pests of maize in India. The
384 Sustainable Agriculture

details of these insect pests are given in Table 19.4. Maize stem borer, pink
stem borer, and shoot fly are considered important pests at the national
level. Other insects like white grub, cutworm, hairy caterpillar, aphid,
armyworm, pyrilla, thrips, termite and chafer beetle are limited to specific
areas of the country.

TABLE 19.4 Insect Pests of Maize in India and Their National/Regional Importance
(Kumar et al., 2014)
Insect Pest Scientific Name Order Family Importance
Maize stem borer Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) Lepidoptera Crambidae National
Pink stem borer Sesamia inferens (Walker) Lepiodptera Noctuidae
Shoot fly Atherigona spp. Diptera Muscidae
White grub Holotrichia consanguinea Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Regional
Blanchard
Cutworm Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagal) Lepidoptera Noctuidae
A. segetum (Denis and
Schiffermuller)
Hairy caterpillar Amsacta albistriga Walker Lepidoptera Arctiidae
Aphid Rhopalosiphum maidis Hemiptera Aphididae
(Fitch)
Army worm Mythimna separata (Walker) Lepidoptera Noctuidae
Pyrilla Pyrilla purpusilla Walker Hemiptera Lophopidae
Thrips Anaphothrips sudanensis Thysanoptera Thripidae
Trybom
Termite Microtermes obesi Holmgren Isoptera Termitidae
Chafer beetle Chiloloba acuta (Wiedmann) Coleoptera Scarabaeidae

19.2.4 SORGHUM

Out of 150 insect pests, only 20 insect and mite species are considered
economically important pests of sorghum in India (Table 19.5). Shoot fly, stem
borer, midge, white grub are distributed throughout the country and therefore,
these pests are of national significance. Insects like armyworm, cutworm,
grasshopper, pyrilla, earhead caterpillars, shoot bug, earhead bug and aphid
are limited to few specific areas. Similarly, the distribution of spider mite is
limited to specific areas like Karnataka, Punjab, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
TABLE 19.5 Important Insect and Mite Pests of Sorghum in India and Their Distribution (Anonymous, 2014b)
Insect Pest Scientific Name Order Family Distribution
Shoot fly Atherigona soccata (Rondani) Diptera Muscidae Throughout the country
Stem borer Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) Lepidoptera Crambidae
Midge Stenodiplosis sorghicola (Coquillett) Diptera Cecidomyiidae
White grub Holotrichia consanguinea Blanchard Coleoptera Scarabaeidiae
Armyworm Mythimna separata (Walker) Lepidoptera Noctuidae Karnataka, Maharashtra
Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India

Cutworm Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagal) Lepidoptera Noctuidae —

Grasshopper Hieroglyphus spp. Orthoptera Acrididae Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi
Pyrilla Pyrilla perpusilla (Linnaeus) Hemiptera Lophopidae Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
Earhead Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), Lepidoptera Noctuidae Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana,
caterpillars Eublemma spp. Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra
Cryptoblabes spp. Lepidoptera Pyralidae
Shoot bug Peregrinus maidis (Ashmead) Hemiptera Delphacidae Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, South
India, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Maharashtra
Earhead bug Calocoris angustatus Hemiptera Miridae Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh
Aphid Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) Hemiptera Aphididae Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Maharashtra
Spider mite Oligonychus indicus Hirst Acari Tetranychidae Karnataka, Punjab, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu
385
386 Sustainable Agriculture

19.2.5 PEARL MILLET

Out of various insect pests associated with pearl millet, around 12 insect
species are considered important and details of those are presented in Table
19.6. White grub and cutworm are considered important insect pests at the
national level. Other insects like shoot fly, grasshopper, white ants, grey
weevil, stem borer, earhead bug, hairy caterpillar, earhead worm, blister
beetle, and chaffer beetle are limited to few areas within the country.

TABLE 19.6 Important Insect Pests of Pearl Millet in India and Their National/Regional
Importance (Anonymous, 2014c)
Insect Pest Scientific Name Order Family Importance
White grub Holotrichia consanguinea Coleoptera Scarabaeidiae National
Blanchard
Cutworm Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagal) Lepidoptera Noctuidae
Shoot fly Atherigona soccata Diptera Muscidae Regional
(Rondani)
Grasshopper Hieroglyphus spp. Orthoptera Acrididae
White ants Chrotogonu sp. Isoptera Termitidae
Grey weevil Myllocerus sp. Coleoptera Curculionidae
Stem borer Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) Lepidoptera Crambidae
Earhead bug Calocoris angustatus Hemiptera Miridae
Lethierry
Hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua Walker Lepidoptera Arctiidae
Earhead worm Cryptoblabes gnidiella Lepidoptera Pyralidae
Milliere
Blister beetle Mylabris pustulata Thun. Coleoptera Meloidae
Chaffer beetle Rhizotrogus majalis Coleoptera Scarabaeidae
(Razoumowsky)

19.3 EMERGING INSECT PEST OF CEREALS

The crop plants are damaged by more than 10,000 species of insect and
the level of infestation has been changing due to various factors like global
warming, aberrant weather conditions, changing cropping patterns, adop-
tion of technologies and modification in farming practices. Additionally,
various pesticides associated problems like pesticide resistance, resurgence,
and environmental contamination are also accountable for the problem of
emerging insect pests in specific regions. Various insects that have become
Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India 387

or expected to become serious pests on cereal crops are summarized in Table

19.7. Insects like BPH, green leafhopper, and gall midge have become the
serious pests of rice. The outbreaks of BPH occurred in various states like
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu
during the 1970s and 1980s. New biotypes of gall midge have been reported
since the cultivation of gall midge resistance varieties in the country. The
problem of aphids in wheat has recently emerged and now it has gained
national significance. Additionally, the shoot fly has emerged as an impor-
tant and regular pest of the late sown wheat crop since the adoption of
semi-dwarf varieties. The infestation of pink stem borer is increased in
wheat, maize, and sorghum. The problem of maize stem borer and midge
has become more prominent in sorghum. Additionally, several polyphagous
insects like termites, white grubs, hairy caterpillars, etc., are also becoming
prominent in specific areas.

TABLE 19.7 Insect Pests That Have Become or Are Expected to Become Serious Pests on
Cereal Crops in India (Sharma et al.,1999, 2005; Sharma, 2010; Dhaliwal et al., 2010)
Insect Pest Scientific Name Crop(s)
Brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stal.) Rice
Green leafhopper Nephotettix spp. Rice
Gall midge Orseolia oryzae (Wood-Mason) Rice
Wheat aphid Sitibion miscanthi (Takahashi) Wheat
Shoot fly Atherigona naqvii Steyskal Wheat
Pink stem borer Sesamia inferens (Walk.) Maize, sorghum, wheat
Aphid Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) Maize
Midge Stenodiplosis sorghicola (Coquillett) Sorghum
Maize stem borer Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) Sorghum
Polyphagous insects Several species Many crops
(termite, white grubs, etc.)

19.4 WORK DONE IN THE UNIVERSITY

The Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour has conducted work on

the management of insect pest of cereals in the form of projects and student’s
thesis. Kumari et al. (2015) conducted work on the management of BPH
infesting rice, stem borer infesting maize and for the development of inte-
grated pest management (IPM) modules for pest complex in rice and maize.
The work on biological control of insect pests was initiated and Goswami
388 Sustainable Agriculture

et al. (2015) conducted the quantitative estimation of spider fauna in rice

ecosystem from zone IIIA in Bihar. Similarly, Yadav et al. (2016) studied
the species composition of spider-fauna in paddy ecosystem throughout the
cropping period. The effect of chemical and non-chemical pest management
modules on predatory spiders in paddy-ecosystem was studied by Goswami
et al. (2016). Keeping in view the higher infestation of insects in aromatic
rice, Patel (2016) studied the population dynamics of yellow stem borer on
aromatic rice and evaluated newer chemical for its management. Besides,
the university has also initiated research work on ecological pest manage-
ment of rice.

19.5 MANAGEMENT OF IMPORTANT INSECT PESTS OF CEREALS

The management practices including cultural, physical, biological, chem-

ical, etc., for important insect pests of cereals are discussed.

19.5.1 YELLOW STEM BORER, SCIRPOPHAGA INCERTULAS

 Removal and destruction of rice stubbles at the time of first plowing

after harvesting the crop decrease the carry-over of the hibernating
population if insect to the next crop.
 Since the eggs of stem borer are laid near the tip of the leaf, clipping
off the tips of seedlings before transplanting can reduce the carry-
over to the main field.
 Seedlings root dip treatment for 12 or 14 hours before transplanting
with chlorpyriphos (0.02%) can provide protection up to 30 days
against stem borer.
 Conserve and augment the natural enemies like spiders, dragonflies,
and damselflies.
 Install pheromone trap @ 5 traps ha–1 for monitoring and @ 20 traps
ha–1 for mass trapping of the male. Besides, light traps @ 1 trap ha–1
can also be used for mass trapping of the adult male and females.
 Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum @ 50,000 ha–1
from 30 days after transplanting at weekly intervals.
 If the field shows 2 egg masses/m2 or >10% dead heart or > 5% white
ear:
○ Apply granular insecticides like cartap hydrochloride 4G @
20–25 kg or fipronil 0.3GR @ 15 kg or phorate 10G @10 kg ha–1
in irrigated conditions.
Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India 389

○ Spray cartap hydrochloride 50SP @ 600 g or triazophos 40EC @

875 ml or monocrotophos 36SL @ 1100 ml ha–1 in non-irrigated
conditions.

19.5.2 BROWN PLANTHOPPER, NILAPARVATA LUGENS

 Closer spacing of 15×10 cm creates a favorable microclimate in

the field for the rapid development of hopper population. Hence, a
spacing of 20×15 cm should be followed.
 Alternate drying and wetting the field during peak infestation of the
hopper and draining out of standing water from the field 2–3 times
check the population to a large extent.
 Alleys (30 cm wide) after every 3 meters of rice planting provide
proper aeration to the crop which ultimately restricts the multiplica-
tion of pest and it is also helpful in the insecticidal spray.
 Grow resistant varieties like IR-8, Yijaya, IR-20, Mudgo, TKM-6,
Parijat, Shakti, Triveni, Rajendra masuri-1, Pant dhan-2, Raj Shree,
Bhudev, Suraksha, Kunti, Shaktiman, etc.
 High doses of nitrogenous fertilizers should be avoided as it favors
the fast multiplication of planthoppers.
 Release Cyrtorhinus lividipennis @ 50–75 eggs/m2 at 10 days intervals.
 If the population of BPH is >5–10 insects hill–1:
○ Spray imidacloprid 17.8SL @125 ml or thiamethoxam 25 WG @
100 g or buprofezin 25SC @ 400 ml or monocrotophos 36 SL @
1500 ml ha–1.
○ Repeat the application of insecticide if hopper population persists
beyond a week after first application and while spraying the
nozzle should be directed at the basal portion of the plants.
○ The same group of chemical should not be repeated.

19.5.3 GALL MIDGE, ORSEOLIA ORYZAE

 Plough the ratoons of an earlier crop to reduce the infestation.

 Clean grassy weeds and wild rice from surrounding areas as they
serve as alternate host.
 Careful timing of planting can avoid damage; once the crop passes
the tillering stage, the plant is not suitable for infestation.
 A considerable build-up of midge population on grasses near the rice
crop can be avoided by removing the grasses.
390 Sustainable Agriculture

 Seedling root dip in 0.02% chlorpyriphos for 12 hours before trans-

planting protects the crop for 25–30 days.
 Release larval parasitoid like Platygaster oryzae, if possible.
 If the damage is more than 5%:
○ Spray the crop with chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 625 ml or quinalphos
25EC @ 500 ml ha–1.
○ Alternatively, apply cartap hydrochloride 4G @ 25 kg or fipronil 0.3G
@ 15 kg or phorate @ 12.5 kg ha–1 in the standing water in the field.
○ The same chemical should not be used repeatedly.

19.5.4 WHEAT APHID, SITOBION SPP.

 Grow 4 rows of maize/sorghum/pearl millet around the field as a

barrier crop.
 Properly monitor the population of aphids through yellow pan.
 If the population is >5 aphids/earhead:
○ Spray thiamethoxam 25WG @ 50 g or quinalphos 25EC @ 250
ml or dimethoate 30 EC @ 375 ml ha–1.

19.5.5 PINK STEM BORER, SESAMIA INFERENS

 Installation of pheromone traps for monitoring is useful.

 Release of Trichogramma japonicum @ 50,000/ha at weekly intervals.
 Spray triazophos 40EC @ 875 ml or monocrotophos 36SL @ 1.4
liters or chlorpyriphos 20EC @ 2.5 liters ha–1.

19.5.6 MAIZE STEM BORER, CHILO PARTELLUS

 Destruction of stubble, weeds and other alternate hosts.

 Installation of pheromone traps is useful in monitoring.
 Removal and destruction of the dead heart are useful.
 Release Trichogramma chilonis @ 1,00,000 per ha at weekly intervals.
 Spray the crop after 2–3 weeks of sowing as soon as borer injury to
the leaves is noticed with fenvalerate 20EC @ 100 ml or cyperme-
thrin 10EC @ 100 ml or deltamethrin 2.8EC @ 200 ml ha–1.
 Alternatively, apply carbofuran 3G or phorate 10G @ 0.5–1.5 kg in
the whorls of the plants.
Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India 391

19.5.7 SHOOT FLY, ATHERIGONA SOCCATA

 The crop sown from early June to the second week of July normally
escapes the attack of shoot fly.
 Grow resistant varieties like CHS-7, CHS-8, Indian Sorghum types
IS-5566, 5285 and 5613.
 Install fish meal traps @ 12 traps ha–1 for mass trapping of shoot flies.
 Apply carbofuran 3G @ 12.5 kg or phorate 10G @ 10 kg ha–1 in furrows
before sowing.
 Alternatively, spray malathion 50EC @ 1.25 liters ha–1.

19.5.8 MIDGE, STENODIPLOSIS SORGHICOLA

 Both early and late maturing varieties should not be grown in the same
area as it would provide the pest with a continuous supply of flowers.
Further, the varieties having the same flowering and maturity time
would reduce midge damage considerably.
 Since the damaged and aborted seeds are the main sources of carryover
of the pest from one season to another, collect and burn the panicle and
post-harvest trashes.
 Spray malathion 50EC @ 1.0 liter ha–1. Only earhead should be treated
at 90% panicle emergence followed by the second spray after 4–5 days.

19.6 CONCLUSION

The cereal crops have experienced changing trends of insect infestations

since the advent of green revolution in the country. Few of the minor pests
have emerged as important pests and caused significant yield losses at
regional and national levels. Various factors like global warming, aberrant
weather, changing cropping patterns and adoption of technologies alter the
insect abundance, distribution, and pest associated losses. Work-related to
survey and surveillance of insect pests across the country should be regu-
larly conducted for getting proper information on changing trends of insect
pests and associated losses in different crops including cereals. Additionally,
the management practices for emerging insect pests of crops are needed to
be devised or modified accordingly well in advance.
392 Sustainable Agriculture

KEYWORDS

 brown planthopper
 cereals
 Chilo partellus
 emerging pests
 management practices
 Scirpophaga incertulas

REFERENCES

Anonymous, (2014a). Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. Directorate of economics and

statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
Anonymous, (2014b). AESA Based IPM-Sorghum (p. 64). Department of agriculture and
cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
Anonymous, (2014c). AESA Based IPM-Pearl Millet (p. 51). Department of agriculture and
cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
Dhaliwal, G. S., Dhawan, A. K., & Singh, R., (2007). Biodiversity and ecological agriculture:
Issues and perspectives. Indian Journal of Ecology, 34(2), 100–109.
Dhaliwal, G. S., Jindal, V., & Mohindru, B., (2015). Crop losses due to insect pests: Global
and Indian scenario. Indian Journal of Entomology, 77(2), 165–168.
Goswami, T. N., Kumari, K., Anil, & Kole, B., (2015). Quantitative estimation of spider
fauna in rice ecosystem of Zone IIIA in Bihar. Environment and Ecology, 33(2), 783–785.
Goswami, T. N., Yadav, M., Anil, & Ray, S. N., (2016). Effect of chemical vis-à-vis non-chemical
pest management on predatory spiders in paddy-ecosystem. Journal of Applied and Natural
Science, 8(1), 437–440.
Kumari, K., Bhagat, A. P., & Panwar, G. S., (2015). Development of integrated pest
management in key crops of Bihar. Final Report (RPF III). Directorate of Research, Bihar
Agricultural University, Sabour (Bhagalpur) 813210, India.
Patel, V. K., (2016). Population dynamics and management of yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga
incertulas (Walker) in aromatic rice. M.Sc. Thesis (p. 41). Department of Entomology, Bihar
Agricultural University, Sabour.
Prakash, A., Bentur, J. S., Prasad, M. S., Tanwar, R. K., Sharma, O. P., Bhagat, S., et al.,
(2014). Integrated Pest Management for Rice, p. 43.
Satyagopal, K., Sushil, S. N., Jeyakumar, P., Shankar, G., Sharma, O. P., Sain, S. K., et al.,
(2014). AESA Based IPM Package for Wheat, p. 58.
Sharma, H. C., (2010). Global warming and climate change: Impact on arthropod biodiversity,
pest management, and food security. In: Thakur, R. K., Gupta, P. R., & Verma, A. K.,
(eds.), Souvenir, National Symposium on Perspectives and Challenges of Integrated Pest
Management for Sustainable Agriculture (pp. 1–14). Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India.
Status of Insect Pests of Cereals in India 393

Sharma, H. C., Dhillon, M. K., Kibuka, J., & Mukuru, S. Z., (2005). Plant defense responses
to sorghum spotted stem borer, Chilo partellus under irrigated and drought conditions.
International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter, 46, 49–52.
Sharma, H. C., Mukuru, S. Z., Manyasa, E., & Were, J., (1999). Breakdown of resistance to
sorghum midge, Stenodipiosis sorghicola. Euphytica, 109, 131–140.
Yadav, M., Goswami, T. N., Anil, & Ray, S. N., (2016). Species composition of spider-fauna
in paddy ecosystem throughout the cropping period at Sabour, Bihar, India. Ecology,
Environment and Conservation, 22(2), 719–722.
CHAPTER 20

Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in

Bihar and Their Management
TAMOGHNA SAHA,1 NITHYA CHANDRAN,2 and B. C. ANU1
1
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected] (T. Saha)
Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
2

New Delhi–110012, India

ABSTRACT

Vegetables are the major ingredients of the Indian diet. Although, numerous
strands are present which demarcate it’s effectively, mainly insects and
diseases. Various insects and mites result in damage to vegetable crops
at diverse periods of growth namely aphid, thrips, whitefly, leafhopper,
two-spotted spider mite, pumpkin beetles, hadda or epilachna beetles,
brinjal shoot and fruit borer, tomato fruit borer, tobacco caterpillar and
fruit fly. An amalgamation of insect pest control program is of foremost
and usually works well to suppress damage and maintain the insects
population below the level it can cause any economic loss to yield, i.e.,
EIL. The precise way to recognize the insect damage is the beginning of a
successful pest control program. The pest management program includes
use of strategies that involve different mechanical and cultural practices,
use of tolerant plant varieties, growing insect pest and disease-free healthy
seedlings, performing appropriate field sanitation particularly confiscating
the fallen leaves, debris, undertaking weekly field monitoring to observe
whether insects are present, conservation of farmers friendly insect
(natural enemies) and biological control agents, application of need-based
insecticides and safeguarding of society approach for all the recommended
strategies to maximize benefits.
396 Sustainable Agriculture

20.1 INTRODUCTION

Among the countries after China, India stands second in vegetable produc-
tion, about 1,62,897 thousand metric tons. The present area in India
is around 9396 thousand ha under vegetable cultivation (NHB, 2015).
Majority of Indian population are vegetarian, and a per capita consumption
135 g per day as against the endorsed 300 g per day. Thus is still very less
than suggested diet level. In nearby expectations, there is a requirement of
around 5–6 million tons of food may be feed our 1.3 billion population of
Indian supposed by the year 2020 (Paroda, 1999). Vegetable export of India
is going down due to grown domestic need and other limitations in crop
production. The major restraining factor, comprise the extensive crop devas-
tations due to rising of pest menace. In many situations, there is 100% yield
failure for viral diseases vectored by insects (Shivalingswami et al., 2002).
Among them Insect pests play a major role in vegetable crops and yield loss
are given (Table 20.1).

TABLE 20.1 Percent Yield Losses Due to Major Insect Pests in Vegetable Crops in India
Crop/Pest Yield Loss (%) Crop/Pest Yield Loss (%)
Tomato Cabbage
Fruit borer (Helicoverpa 24–73 Diamondback moth 17–99
armigera) (Plutella xylostella)
Brinjal Cabbage caterpillar 69
(Pieris brassicae)
Fruit and shoot borer 11–93 Cabbage leaf webber 28–51
(Leucinodes orbonalis) (Crocidolomia binotalis)
Chilies Cabbage borer 30–58
(Hellulaundalis)
Thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis) 12–90 Cucurbits
Mites (Polyphagotarsonemus 34 Fruit fly (Bactrocera
latus) cucurbitae)
Okra Bitter gourd 60–80
Fruit borer (H. armigera) 22 Cucumber 20–39
Leafhopper (Amrasca bigut- 54–66 Ivy gourd 63
tula biguttula)
Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) 54 Musk melon 76–100
Shoot and fruit borer 23–54 Snake gourd 63
(Earias vittella)
Sponge gourd 50
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 397

Recently changes in the cropping pattern and climate, and initiation

of various high yielding varieties/hybrids which are input-intensive, a
change in insect status has been noticed. This has resulted in dramatic
changes in pest scenario leading to minor pests assuming major status,
like serpentine leaf miner Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess), become a chal-
lenging problem in tomato hybrid growing pockets. Vegetable growers
are mainly relying on chemical pesticides to face the insect’s problem. It
accounts for 13–14% of total pesticides consumption, as against 2.6% of
cropped area (Sardana, 2001). Because of indiscriminating exploitation
of synthetic pesticides there has been serious ecological consequences
such as effect on nontarget organisms, shattering of fauna natural enemy,
remnants in edible commodities including mineral water that are packed
and pure, eventually resistance to the synthetic pesticides, to which we
totally depend. In the Indian farm management system, bio-intensive pest
management (BIPM) is the latest tendency that is attracting more and more
farmers to enhance their produce’s income. This consequence is because
of increasing awareness among the end-users and concerned to the dete-
rioration of ecological conditions between the eco-campaigners. Hence,
it must be kept in our minds that it is not possible 100% alternatives to
chemical pesticides and they are must when situations are demanding.
Thus pest management the BIPM practices for major vegetable crops
evolved by scientific approaches are discussed (Dhandapani et al., 2003).
The major objective of this chapter is improvement in vegetables produc-
tion per unit area by solving insect pest’s problems through management
practices. Among all the strategies the chief tactics to deal with the insects
is to know insects’ life cycle, behaviors, their natural environment, and
feeding habits, and to identify between the harmful insect pests and the
one that are actually helping hand in biological control. Pest identification
is the most important step because misidentification is a common cause
of control failure and knowing the correct pest is the key to select control
measures that work effectually.

20.2 RECENT CHANGES IN INSECT PESTS’ SITUATION IN

VEGETABLE CROPS

A number of the pests under vegetable crops are slowly achieving the
major pest status in diverse provinces of the country due to alteration
in the ecosystem and habitats (Table 20.2). Helicoverpa armigera in
tomato, whitefly Bemisia tabaci, leaf miner Liriomyza trifolii on tomato
398 Sustainable Agriculture

and cucurbitaceous crops, fruit fly on fruits and vegetables, mealybugs

on several horticultural crops, gall midge on brinjal, okra stem fly and
bitter gourd leafhopper, red spider mite on okra, brinjal, cowpea, Indian
bean, and nematodes on several vegetable crops are few examples (Rai
et al., 2014). In current times, the pests that are minor one and had less
occurrence like gall midge (Asphondylia capparis), slowly becoming a
serious trouble in capsicum and brinjal and Chili in the states of Karna-
taka and Andhra Pradesh and in brinjal in Chhattisgarh. Diverse species
of mealybugs in papaya and vegetables have strengthened their severity
of incidence in different parts of India due to gradual changes in weather
in the past one decade. A number of national and global pests like white
grub, termite, gram pod borer and Spodoptera litura that are polyphagus
are becoming a severe problem and increasing their host-horizon. This
visualizes that there is a requirement to reassess the cropping system for
reversion and values should be given to vegetables with sufficient pest
management strategies. In this background, the pest management system
was extended for a sustainable crop protection strategy against the back-
ground of escalating pesticide use and deleterious effect of residues in the
environment (Rai et al., 2014).

TABLE 20.2 Shifting Insect Pests Scenario in Vegetable Crops in India

Insect Pest Major Host Currently Infesting References
Crops
Serpentine leaf miner, Tomato Brinjal, Cowpea, Srinivasan et al.,
Liriomyzatrifolii French bean, Leafy 1995
(Burgress) vegetables, Cucurbits
Mealybug, Phenacoccus Cotton Brinjal, Tomato, Chili, Chaudhary, 2006;
solenopsis Tinsley Okra, Cucumber, Halder et al., 2013
Pumpkin
Hadda beetle, Brinjal Bitter gourd, Cowpea Rajapaske et al.,
Henosepilachna 2005
vigintioctopunctata Fab.
Fruitborer, Helicoverpa Gram, Cotton, Peas, Chili, Brinjal, Puri et al., 2000
armigera (Hubner) Tomato, Cabbage Okra
Cabbage butterfly, Cabbage, Knol-Khol, Radish Puri et al., 2000
Pierisbrassicae Linn Cauliflower, Mustard
Red spider mite, Okra, Brinjal Cucumber, Cowpea, Mahto and Yadav,
Tetranychus urticae Indian bean 2009
Koch.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 399

20.3 MAJOR INSECT PESTS PROBLEM IN VEGETABLE CROPS

20.3.1 A. SOLANACEOUS CROPS

Brinjal shoot and fruit borer; Leucinodes orbonalis (Crambidae: Lepidoptera).

20.3.1.1 HOST RANGE

L. orbonalis Guenee is monophagous pest, feeding mainly on brinjal

(eggplant); however, several other Solanaceous plants are reported to be
hosts of this insect. In globally brinjal cultivation, L. orbonalisals occur
on diverse host plants. The majority are Solanum melongena Linnaeus
(eggplant), and Solanum tuberosum Linnaeus (potato), but there are several
minor host, like Ipomoea batatas Linnaeus (sweet potato), Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill (tomato), Pisumsativum var. arvense Linnaeus (Austrian
winter pea) Solanum indicum Linnaeus, Solanum myriacanthum Dunal,
and wild host Solanum gilo Raddi (gilo), Solanum nigrum Linnaeus (black
nightshade) (CABI, 2007). In addition, Solanum anomalum Thonn (Singh
et al., 2009), and Solanum macrocarpon Linnaeus (Kumar and Sadashiva,
1996) are uncultivated hosts of L. orbonalis.

20.3.1.2 DISTRIBUTION

The pest is reported from areas of brinjal cultivation in Africa, in the south
portion of Sahara and Southern-Eastern region of Asia, including China
and the Philippines (CABI, 2007). This pest attains most vital and the first
categories pest of Nepal, Thailand, Srilanka, India, Cambodia, Bangladesh,
Philippines, Laos and Vietnam (AVRDC, 1994). The pest is serious in those
regions having humid and warm climate (Srinivasan, 2009).

20.3.1.3 LIFE CYCLE

In Lepidoptera, L. orbonalis undergoes four stages of development: egg

stage, larval stage, pupal stage, and adult. The longest growth period is larval
period, afterwards pupal period and incubation period.

1. Egg: During the night egg-laying (oviposition) takes place and eggs
are laid singly lying on the abaxial plane of the tender leaves, green
400 Sustainable Agriculture

stems, flower buds, or fruits and number of eggs laid by L. orbonalis

varies from 80 to 253 (Alpuerto, 1994), however, as per report it lays
up to 260 (FAO, 2003). Mostly they laid eggs in the early morning
hours either singly or in the groups on the lower surface of the leaves
(CABI, 2007). The eggs are flattened, oval with 0.5 mm in diameter
and the color of the egg is creamy-white but before hatching the
color changes to red (Alam et al., 2006).
2. Larva: The larval stage completed 12–15 days during summer and
14–22 days in the winter season (Rahman et al., 2006). Five instars
have to be crossed from larval to the pupal stage.
3. Pupa: The mature larvae emerge from the infested shoots and fruits
and further gone for pupation in the dried shoots and leaves or in
plant remains fallen on the ground within tough silken cocoons.
There were confirmations of the existence of cocoons at soil depths
of 1 to 3 cm (Alam et al., 2003). They pupate on the plane they
finger first (FAO, 2003). The pupal period completes 6 to 17 days
depending upon heat (Alam et al., 2003).
4. Adult: The adult moth is tiny white with 40-segmented antennae
(Sexena, 1965) and having marks on their forewings of 20 to 22 mm
widen. The full maturity gained by adult in 10 to 14 calendar days.
Longevity of adults lasts 1.5 to 2.4 calendar days for males and 2.0 to
3.9 days for females. The oviposition period ranges from 1.4 to 2.9
days, respectively.

20.3.1.4 NATURE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE

L. orbonalis attacks mostly in fruits/pods that are vegetative stage, flowering

and fruiting stage, they even attack on growing points and inflorescence
(CABI, 2007). The larval percent is higher on fruits followed by shoots,
flowers, buds of flower and leaf midribs. Within an hour of hatching, L.
orbonalis larva bores into the nearest young shoot, blossom, or fruit. Soon
after boring into shoots or fruits, they block the entrance hole (feeding tunnel)
with excreta (Alam et al., 2006). Larval feeding inside the fruit results in
destruction of fruit tissue. In harsh cases, decaying was common (Neupane,
2001). Fruits damage particularly in autumn is extremely severe and the
entire crop can be ruined (Atwal, 1976). The pest is active throughout the
year at several places having modest climate but its action is badly affected
by severe cold.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 401

20.3.1.5 MANAGEMENT

1. Resistant Varieties: It is used as the farmer’s first line of protec-

tion against insect pests and most safest and compatible technique
with other management approaches (Lit, 2009). Numerous attempts
have been taken in South Asia to develop varieties resistant to L.
orbonalis, but past 40 years of efforts, development of commercial
cultivars with considerable level of resistance has not been done.
But, it requirements the further exercise in future due to its apparent
effectiveness (Srinivasan, 2008).
2. Sex Pheromones: These are chief constituent of IPM programs
and are mostly utilized to observe as well as mass-trap the male
insects. The pest management approach based on sex pheromone for
managing the L. orbonalis has minimized pesticide use and enhanced
the performance of natural enemies in Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP)
of South Asia (Srinivasan, 2012). Zhu et al. (1987) recognized
(E)-11-hexadecenyl acetate as the chief chemical constituent of L.
orbonalis sex pheromone in China.
3. Cultural Methods: It includes cutting and removing of infested
twigs and branches that prevent the spread of L. orbonalis. Likewise,
the periodic pruning of damaged shoot, their collection and flaming
help in reduction in pest infestation. Pruning will not unfavorably
distress the plant growth with yield (Talekar, 2002). It is mostly
imperative in the initial stages of the crop development and it must
be carried on until the final harvest. Additionally, timely destruction
of pest damaged eggplant shoots as well as fruits at normal intervals,
reduced the pest (Srinivasan, 2008). Weekly exclusion of infested
fruits and shoots resulted in the utmost load of strong fruits and least
incidence of infested fruits among the treatments (Duca et al., 2004).
4. Bio-Pesticides and Other Bio-Control Agents: Chatterjee and
Mondal (2012) revealed that Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) (Berliner)
worked well in reducing the infestation and increasing yield. Bt
formulation Biolep was most effective than chemical insecticide
(Sharma, 2002) and efficacy increased in consecutive days of spray.
Among the parasitoid, the egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis
Ishii have been demonstrated to be most effective (Krishnamoorthy,
2012) and it was slightly more efficient than Trichogramma evane-
scens Westwood in parasitizing the egg in test tube and in confined
conditions.
402 Sustainable Agriculture

5. Botanical Pesticides: Muregesam and Murugesh, (2009) confirmed

the efficiency of Nimbecidine. Neem cake extract @ 5% and Calot-
ropis gigantean (Linnaeus) @ 5% were also quite effective in Kharif
crop suppressing fruit damage by more than 50%. The oil produce
of plant based products was found to be effective for L. orbonalis
management. Both Rabi (59.91%) and Kharif (60.20%) neem oil @
2% was the most effective treatment both followed by Nimbecidine
@ 2 ml/l (57.42%) (Murugesam and Murugesh, 2009).
6. Chemical Methods:
ƒ Spraying of rynaxypyr (Coragen 20 SC) 0.006%, flubendiamide
(Fame 480 SC) 0.01%, spinosad (Spintor 45 SC) 0.0135% and
emamectin benzoate (Proclaim 5 WG) 0.0025% (Table 20.3)
provided superior control of Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee on
eggplant (Saha et al., 2014).
ƒ Spraying of spinosad 45 SC @ 0.5 ml/l at 60 DAT followed
by indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 0.5 ml/l at 75 DAT and followed by
emamectin benzoate 25 WG @ 0.4 g/l at 90 DAT gave (Table 20.4)
superior control of shoot and fruit borer (Saha et al., 2014)

20.3.2 EPILACHNA BEETLE OR HADDA BEETLE

 Henosepilachna vigitioctopunctata (Curculionidae: Coleoptera):

Henosepilachna vigitioctopunctata Fab. and Epilachna dodecastigma
(Wied.) (Curculionidae: Coleoptera) is a popular pest of brinjal and
potato. But in recent years, its severe prevalence was reported in
cowpea as plants feeder in various parts of the country particularly
eastern U.P. and Bihar. In excess of 80%, cowpea leaves were damaged
by the adults and grubs of this beetle during the summer season (Halder
et al. 2011). Likewise, its severe prevalence was also recorded from
bitter gourd, Momordica charantia in Jammu (Jamwal et al., 2013),
Allahabad in U.P. (Maurice and Ramteke, 2012) wild bitter gourd,
Momordica dioicain Maharashtra (Deshmukh et al., 2012) and Ivy
gourd, Coccinia grandis Maurice and Ramteke, 2012) in Allahabad.

20.3.2.1 LIFE CYCLE

Adult lives for one month to more than two months. The yellow elliptical
eggs are placed generally ventral surface of the leaves in batches of hundreds,
TABLE 20.3 Effect on Different Insecticides on Shoot and Fruit Infestation by Leucinodes orbonalis
Treatments % Damage by Shoot and Fruit Borer Mean No. No. of Mean Yield
(Concentration) % Shoots Infestation % Reduction % Fruits Infestation % Reduction of Holes/ Larvae (q/ha)
(Pooled Data Over in Shoots (Pooled Data Over in Fruits Fruit Observed/ (Pooled Data
Three Years and Infestation Three Years and Infestation Plot Over Three
Three Sprays) Over Control Three Sprays) Over Control Years)

Spinosad 45 SC 7.60 (15.97) 51.99 16.48 (23.94) 57.36 0.75 (1.11) 3.73 (2.05) 317.88
(0.0135%)
Indoxacarb 15.5 SC 9.73 (18.17) 38.53 22.04 (27.99) 42.98 1.23 (1.30) 5.10 (2.36) 289.82
(0.007%)
Emamectin benzoate 8.57 (17.02) 45.86 19.13 (25.92) 50.50 0.87 (1.17) 4.35 (2.18) 305.50
5 WG (0.0025%)
Rynaxypyr 20 SC 5.67 (13.73) 64.18 12.59 (20.78) 67.42 0.40 (0.94) 2.36 (1.65) 346.69
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar

(0.006%)
Flubendiamide 480 6.73 (15.01) 57.49 14.35 (22.25) 62.87 0.56 (1.03) 3.17 (1.91) 326.13
SC (0.01%)
Deltamethrin 1EC 10.80 (19.17) 31.78 26.62 (31.04) 31.12 1.87 (1.54) 7.13 (2.75) 281.33
+ Triazophos 35EC
(0.036%)
Cypermethrin 20EC 10.65 (19.04) 32.72 23.86 (29.23) 38.27 2.20 (1.63) 8.40 (2.98) 274.99
(0.04%)
Untreated check 15.83 (23.41) - 38.65 (38.43) - 3.73 (2.05) 18.37 (4.33) 185.50
S. Em. (±) 0.67 - 0.69 - 0.11 0.18 3.22
CD (p=0.05) 2.05 - 2.10 - 0.35 0.54 9.78
Figures in parentheses are arcsine √ p transformations,
403
 404

TABLE 20.4 Effect of Different Pest Management Modules on the Infestation and Damage by Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee

Modules Mean of Shoot Percent Reduction Mean of Fruit Percent Reduction in Mean No. of Mean No. of
Infestation (%) in Shoot Infestation Infestation (%) Fruit Infestation Over Holes/ Fruit Larvae/Fruit
Over Control (%) Control (%)
M1 8.88 (17.32) 37.46 19.80 (26.41) 47.28 2.32 (8.58) 1.74 (7.52)
M2 7.28 (15.65) 48.73 18.94 (25.79) 49.57 1.84 (7.61) 1.38 (6.68)
M3 5.10 (13.04) 64.08 15.18 (22.92) 59.58 1.32 (6.52) 0.90 (5.40)
M4 14.20 (22.12) - 37.56 (37.78) - 4.96 (12.84) 4.34 (11.98)
S.Em (±) 0.40 - 0.68 - 0.67 0.50
CD (p=0.05) 1.22 - 2.11 - 2.07 1.53

(M3= Spraying of spinosad 45 SC @ 0.5 ml/l at 60 DAT followed by indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 0.5 ml/l at 75 DAT and followed by emamectin
benzoate 25 WG @ 0.4 g/l at 90 DAT)
Sustainable Agriculture
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 405

glued to the surface of the leaves in a vertical position. The hatching acquires
place in 3–4 days. The freshly hatched grub is yellowish and turns to cream
yellow white, when full grown. The grub is broad in front and narrows poste-
riorly and is covered with spiny structures all over (http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/
crop_protection/brinjal/ brinjal_4.html).

20.3.2.2 NATURE OF DAMAGE

The minute grubs on hatching start damaging by feeding on the fresh matter
of the leaf surface leaving veins and veinlets. The grown up grubs become
voracious feeders, found in batches. Both the grubs and adults confine their
feeding activities generally to the lower surface of leaves. The infestation of
the hadda beetle is more on the lower surface of leaves resulting in:

 Damaged leaves show a lace-like appearance as the greenish matter

in connecting the veins is eaten away (skeletonization of leaves).
 Affected leaves, depending upon the area damaged, drying up and in
severe infestation, presenting sickly appearance.

20.3.2.3 MANAGEMENT

 Maintenance of larval-pupal endoparasitoid, Pediobius foveolatus

(Eulophidae: Hymenoptera) which results up to 36.6% suppression in
beetle population within and around Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh (Halder
et al., 2011).
 Islam et al. (2011) found that Ricinus communis leaf extract had
maximum larvicidal toxicity (LC50 = 18.40%) besides significant
reduction in both oviposition and egg-hatch, prolonged larval dura-
tion (P<0.001), and restrained pupae formation and emergence of
adult.
 Black muscardine fungi Metarhizium anisopliae@ 5 g/l gave good
management against epilachna beetle (Anonymous, 2014).
 Vishwakarma et al. (2011) was also found that, Epilachna beetle
(74.91%) was significantly control by Beauveria bassiana, when used
@ 3.0 g/l of water.
 In chemical pesticide malathion @ 1 kg a.i. /ha or cypermethrin @
0.4 ml/l gave good management against this polyphagous pest (Rai
et al., 2014).
406 Sustainable Agriculture

20.3.3 SOLENOPSIS MEALY BUG

¾ Phenacoccus solenopsis (Pseudococcidae: Homoptera)

This pest earlier known as a cotton pest but now is a recent menace to
a number of cultivated crop plants. Amongst 84 host plants of about
28 families documented at the Central cotton growing zone of India
up to 2009, sixty plant species as of twenty families belonged to weeds
(Vennila et al., 2010). At present, they nourish on the host plants
including oil seeds, pulses, cereals, vegetables, fruits, ornamental
crops in addition to many weeds including Parthenium. In vegetable
crops, they mostly attack the plants belonging tomalvaceae (okra),
solanaceae (brinjal, tomato, chilly, potato), cucurbitaceae (cucumber,
all melons, pointed gourd and gourds) (Halder et al., 2013).

20.3.3.1 NATURE OF DAMAGE

Moreover sucking the plant sap, they also secret the profuse quantities of
honey dew which kept on the plants and make black sooty mold and thereby
reducing the photosynthetic movement of the plants.

20.3.3.2 MANAGEMENT

 Exclusion of alternate hosts and unwanted weeds like Parthenium,

Vernonia from the field helps in pest incidence reduction.
 Ants play major role in spread the mealy bug along with giving
protection to them against natural enemies. So, destroying of ant’s
colonies during preparation of land is recommended.
 Removal and flaming the infested plants helps in reduction of pest
from the crop field.
 Apply fish oil resin soap (FORS) @ 20 g/lit of water (Kumar et al.,
2011) or entomopathogenic fungi Verticillium lecanii (2 × 108 cfu/ml)
@ 5 g/lit of water provide better management (Halder et al., 2013).
 In severe infestation, apply Buprofezin 25% SC @ 1 ml/l or Acephate
75 SP @ 1 gm/l of water is suggested (Rai et al., 2014).
 In another study Arif et al., 2008 reported that profenofos is most
effective against mealybug and gave maximum mortality within 24
hours.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 407

20.3.4 TOMATO

Fruit Borer
¾ Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

20.3.4.1 HOST RANGE

The tomato fruit borer has an extensive array of host plants but among the
vegetable crops, the pest prefers tomato and corn. Among the other vegeta-
bles that are mostly attacked by fruit borer are the solanaceous, cruciferous
and also cucurbitaceous vegetables. Many common weeds act as larval hosts
(Capinera, 2000).

20.3.4.2 LIFE CYCLE

Adult female lays oval and heavily ridged eggs singley on leaves, mostly
just below the topmost flowers of the upper canopy. Hatched larvae like to
bore small green fruits but sometimes if the fruits are not present they feed
on buds, flowers or stems. Larvae either complete their development inside
an individual fruit or shift to another fruit. Mature larvae are present in the
soil and form a cell 2–4 inches deep and pupate inside. The egg to adult
development completes about 30 days (Capinera, 2000).

1. Eggs: They are carved and whitish cream in color, laid singly.
2. Larva: The neonate larvae may nurture up to 7 mm long, with
yellowish white to reddish brown in color. The dark spot on the body
owing to the dark colored spiracles and tuberculation bases.
3. Pupa: Body brownish in color, pupation mostly in soil, leaf surface
and crop rubble.
4. Adult: Females are pale with light brown yellow heavy moth, Male-
Fair greenish moth with V formed speck.
5. Forewing: Emerald green to light brown with a dark brown round
spot in the middle.
6. Hind wing: It is light smoky white with a broad black external margin
(http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/tomato/tomato_1.html)
408 Sustainable Agriculture

20.3.4.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

Larvae generally bore into the fruit generally at or near calyx. Infested fruit
are considered unmarketable and generally rot due to attack of secondary
microorganisms (Capinera, 2000).

 Adolescent larvae feed on young foliage.

 Fully grown larvae bore into fruits and form circular holes.
 Penetrate only a fraction of its body inside fruit and feed on inner part
of plant (http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/tomato/tomato_1.
html).

20.3.4.4 MANAGEMENT

 Cultural Method:
1. Deep plowing before transplanting helps to kill the pupae hiding
in the soil.
2. Grow pest-resistant varieties.
3. Early transplanted crop escapes the damage of this pest.
4. Intercropping of yellow marigold as a trap crop in a row after
every 6–9 rows of tomato helps in checking this pest. Raising of
the nursery should be 15 days prior to tomato nursery, so that both
of these may be transplanted at the same time. There will high
egg-laying by this pest on marigold as compared to tomato plants.
The eggs and neonate larvae might be collected or the marigold
plants have to be drenched with Bt insecticide to kill the larvae.
5. Trimming of field bunds to destroy the existing rodent burrows.

 Mechanical Control:
1. Pick up the caterpillars and kill them.
2. Provide perching places for birds in the ground so that they may
pick up the larvae from the crop.

 Use of Traps:
1. Use pheromone and light traps to supervise and collect male
moth population.

 Bio-Logical Control:
1. Grow cowpea or pulses on the bunds to build up natural enemy
fauna.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 409

2. Release Trichogramma chilonis parasitoids twice after mid-

March at 2–5 day interval @ 500,000 parasitized per hectare.
3. Spray bio-pesticides like Bt formulations viz., Biolep, Bioasp,
Delfin, Dipel (@ 400 gm per acre) or NPV preparations @ 300
LE per acre.

 Botanical Insecticides:
1. Spray nimbecidine @2.5 liter per hectare 12 days after release of
Trichogramma.

 Chemical Control:
1. Spray indoxacarb 14.5% SC @ 8 ml/10 L or flubendiamide 20
WG @ 5 g/10 l of water (http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protec-
tion/tomato/tomato_1.html)

20.3.5 SERPENTINE LEAF MINER

¾ Liriomyza trifolii (Agromyzidae: Lepidoptera)

This leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii Burgess (Agromyzidae: Lepidoptera)
which is a native of the Southern part of the United States of America
and Central America has extended to other countryside’s in the
seventies alongside with Chrysanthemum flowers (Puri and Mote,
2004). It is suspected that this group has gone to Karnataka along with
planting materials during 1990–91 (Viraktamath et al., 1993) and then
disseminated numerous parts of the country like Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal,
Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh. Srinivasan et al. (1995) described 78
host plants covering fiber crops, pulses, vegetable crops, ornamentals
and flowers, fodder crops, green manuring, and weeds comes under
16 families. In vegetables, three species of this insect reported and
they recorded in infesting tomato, Cowpea, French bean, cluster bean,
cucumber, summer squash, all kind of melons, etc. Extent of loss in
French bean with 15–70%, cucumber and 35% in tomato has been so
far reported by Krishna Kumar (1998) from Karnataka.

20.3.5.1 NATURE OF DAMAGE

Larvae mine into the foliages and in severe damage, leaves dry up.
 Drying and dropping of leaves.
410 Sustainable Agriculture

20.3.5.2 MANAGEMENT

 It has been observed that higher dose of nitrogen favors the population
build-up of this insect. Thereby sensible application of nitrogenous
(N2) fertilizer results in suppression in the pest infestation in prevalent
areas.
 Periodically infested leaves should be collected, confiscated and wiped
out, i.e., buried or burnt.
 The insect can also be managed by utilizing yellow sticky traps in
the ground for monitoring the incidence (Lopez, 2010) and mass
trapping of adults and utilizing the natural enemies. Recently, a new
parasitoid Neochrysocharis farmosa (Eulophidae: Hymenoptera) has
been notified from this leaf miner. During February-March, 37.5%
was parasitized at the Varanasi region, Uttar Pradesh, India. In Hawai,
Gyaana, and Senegal this insect was managed by inundative release of
parasitoids viz., Hemiptarsenus, Chrysocaris and Chrysonomyia sp.
(Puri and Mote, 2004).
 In another study, it was also recorded that marigold (Tagetes erecta)
act as an attractant for this leaf miner alongside it also attract huge
amount of parasitoid N. farmosa.
 Application of Neem seed kernel seed extract (NSKE) 4% along
with a sticker are observed to be effectious to suppress the leaf
miner.
 In case of havoc infestation, foliar spray with imidacloprid 17.8 SL @
0.3 ml/l of water prior to flowering at initial stages of crop develop-
ment is effective (Nadagouda et al., 2010)
 Rai et al. (2014) reported that foliar spray with imidacloprid 17.8
SL @ 0.35 ml/l of water during the initial stage of the crops prior to
flowering and application of dichlorvos 76EC @ 0.5 ml/l of water
in severe damage throughout the reproductive stage of the crop is
beneficial.

20.3.6 CHILI

1. Chili thrips
¾ Scirtothripsdorsalis (Thripidae, Thysanoptera)
Thrips are minute insects and having fringed wings, serious
during dry periods of high temperature.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 411

20.3.6.1 APPEARANCE

Adults are slender, yellowish-brown, having apically pointed wings about

1 mm in length. The female has long narrow wings with the fore margin
fringed with long hairs. Nymphs are like adults in figure and straw yellow in
color and are smaller in size.

20.3.6.2 LIFE CYCLE

Adult female lay minute dirty white eggs under the leaf tissues and young
shoots. The fecundity rate is 30–40. Egg hatching was completed within 4–7
days; larval stage within 5–10 days; prepupal stage within 1–2 days; pupal
stage was completed within 2–3 days, and Egg to adult stage of the Chili thrips
is of about 15–35 days (http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/ content/Chili-thrips).

20.3.6.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

Both adult and lacerate the leaf and suck the oozing sap from young devel-
oping leaves. Affected leaves show upward curling along the margin and get
crinkled and reduced in size. They also feed on floral parts and fruits. Fruit
damage results in rough brown patches affecting their quality and drastically
reducing the market price (NHM, 2012).

20.3.6.4 MANAGEMENT

 Intercropping with agathi Sesbania grandiflora to give shades that

control the thrips infestation.
 Continuous cropping of Chili after a sorghum-more infestation to
thrips.
 Avoid mixed cropping of Chili and onion—both the crops are highly
infested by thrips.
 Shower of water over the seedlings to manage the population of thrips.
 Seedling was treated with imidacloprid 70% WS @ 12 g /kg of seed.
 Foliar spray of the following insecticide viz., Thiacloprid 21.7% SC
@6.0 ml/10 lit.; Dimethoate 30% EC @1.0 ml/lit.; Oxydemeton-
Methyl 25% EC @1.0 ml/lit (http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/
management-strategies-Chili-thrips-scirtothrips dorsalis).
412 Sustainable Agriculture

20.3.7 CHILI MITE

¾ Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Tarsonemidae: Acarina)

20.3.7.1 APPEARANCE

Adults are larger in size, elliptical, broad and the body color is yellow and
also has four pairs of legs. Nymphs are minute with white transparent color
and a semi-transparent band on dorsal surface while inactive larva is stretched
at both sides and sedentary (immovable).

20.3.7.2 LIFE CYCLE

Eggs are lying over the ventral side of the leaf. Oviposition period exists for
1–3 days. Total larvae period were completed within 1–2 days. Pupal period
was completed within 24 h or a day. Adult life exists from 3–5 days. The
total life cycle is finished within 6.5–10 days (http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/
content/Chili-mite).

20.3.7.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

Mite affected leaves of the Chili plant turn towards underside and look like
an inverted boat. As young and adult mites attack the tender leaves, almost
all new leaves curled downward and lower surface appears silvery whereas,
the upper surface of leaves look more dark green as compared to healthy
ones. Further, the plant growth is checked and the internodes become shorter
(Shankar and Raju, 2012).

20.3.7.4 MANAGEMENT

 Cultural Practice:
‚ Planting or growing of tolerant cultivars like Guntur types.
‚ Nutrient and water management also suppress the mite population.

 Biological Control:
Conservation of potential predators like Amblyseius ovalis in Chili
crop.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 413

 Chemical Management:
1. Karnataka: Foliar spray of vertimec 1.9 EC @ 0.2 ml/lit or
fenazaquin 10 EC @ 2 ml/lit or dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5 ml/lit for
controlling of mites.
2. Tamil Nadu and Spice Board: Foliar application acaricide viz.
wettable sulfur 50WP @ 5 g m/lit or dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5 ml/
lit of water and monocrotophos spray should be avoided.
3. National Horticulture Board: Spray Phasalone 3 ml/l (Serious
infestation) or dicofol 5 ml/lit of water (http://agropedia.iitk.
ac.in/content/Chili-mite).

20.4 B. MALVACEOUS CROPS

20.4.1 OKRA

Okra shoot and fruit Borer

¾ Earias vitella, E. Insulana (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Okra fruit borer are active throughout the year reaching peaks during
March-May and August-October. Female lays green colored eggs
with longitudinal ridges on buds, flowers, and fruits. Like brinjal
shoot and fruit borer, the infestation comes first in shoots and after
blossoming, feed exclusively on fruits (NHM, 2012).

20.4.1.1 APPEARANCE

1. Earias Vittella: Adult Moths are medium-sized (13–15 mm) with

pale brownish white thorax. Hind wing are silvery-creamy white.
While in forewings in E. vittella are light white with a thick wedge-
shaped horizontal green band in the center. Larva is brownish-white
with number of brown and creamy white markings. Eggs are round,
single and light bluish-green color with longitudinal ridges.
2. Earias Insulana: Adult -Forewing identically silvery green. Larva-
Brownish with dorsum showing a white standard longitudinal line.
Pupa-Brown and boat formed.

20.4.1.2 LIFE CYCLE

Adult female laying eggs on flower buds, inflorescence, and fruits. Maximum
eggs are lying on top of the apical bud. The incubation period is 4–5 days,
414 Sustainable Agriculture

the larval stage and pupal stage ranges from 15–21 and 7–8 days respec-
tively. Pupation takes place in turn upside down boat-shaped glossy cocoons.
The life cycle lasts about 30–40 days (http://uasr.agropedias.iitk.ac.in/sites/
default/files/Okra%20Shoot%20and%20fruit%20borer%20pdf.pdf).

20.4.1.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

During the initial stage of the crop, larvae bore into tender shoots and tunnel
downward. The growing point is killed; drooping of shoots downwards and
side shoots emerge. Later on, when fruiting bodies appear caterpillars bore
in the buds and fruits. The damaged buds drop down and the fruits turn
from the point of injury. The larva penetrates inside the fruit and feeds on
the developing seeds. The damaged fruits are not suitable for consumption
purposes. As a result heavy loss in seed manufactures (Sharma, 2014).

20.4.1.4 MANAGEMENT (SHARMA, 2014)

 Cultural Control:
1. Removal of unwanted weeds.
2. Avoid ratoon crop.
3. Summer and early sown crop can escape from this pest.
4. Use balanced fertilizers as high nitrogen attracts more insects.
5. Develop resistant varieties.
6. Avoid cultivation of or growing of okra in the proximity of
cotton fields.
 Mechanical Control:
1. Collect damaged shoots as well as fruits and burn or bury them
deep in soil.
2. Remove crop debris and weeds, which harbor this insect.
3. Installation of Pheromone traps @ 5 traps per hectare.
 Biological Control: Conserve the parasitoids and predators by border
or intercropping with sesame or cowpea or sorghum. If available the
parasitoids or predators can be released in crop.
 Chemical Control:
1. Spray 400–500 ml Malathion 50 EC or 400–500 g carbaryl 50WP
in 250–300 liters water per acre.
2. Crop grown exclusively for seed purpose may be protected
from this pest by spraying 400 ml cypermethrin 10EC or 200 ml
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 415

decamethrin 2.8 EC in 250-liters water or 75 ml fenvalerate 20

EC per acre. Use only recommended insecticides with its proper
dose and water.
3. Spray of emamectin benzoate 5% SG @ 4g/10 l of water.

20.4.2 WHITEFLY

¾ Bemesia tabaci (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera)

It acts as a vector transmitting yellow vein mosaic (YVM) disease
and also polyphagous in nature. They are laying eggs on the ventral
surface of leaves.

20.4.2.1 APPEARANCE

Adults are 1.0–1.5 mm long and the color of the body is yellowish and
somewhat dusted with white waxy dust-like substances. Both the wings are
whitish in color and have prominent long hind wings.

20.4.2.2 LIFE HISTORY

The adult females are laying eggs singly under the surface of the leaves,
eggs laid on an average 80–110 egg. Eggs are stalked and hatch within
3–5 and 5–33 days during summer and winter. The nymphs suck cell sap
and have three nymphal stages to form the pupae within 9–14 and 17–81
days during summer and winter. Afterwards, pupae convert into whiteflies
within 2–8 days. Lifecycle lasts up to 14–100 days based on environmental
conditions (http://www.krishisewa.com/articles/disease-management/233-
okra-ipm.html).

20.4.2.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

Both the adult and the nymph feed by sucking leaf sap. They excrete honeydew,
which results in a sooty mold. At present many varieties and hybrids resistant
to YVM are existing in market and hence, disease management is very easy.

 Chlorotic spots on the foliages which further coalesce appearance

uneven yellowing of leaf tissue.
416 Sustainable Agriculture

 Severe infestation leading to early or early defoliation.

 Sooty mold appearance.
 Vector of YVM virus.

20.4.2.4 MANAGEMENT

 Collection and exclusion of unwanted weed like Abutilon indicum

(Thuthi), Chrozophorerottlari (Purapirakkai), Solanum nigrum
(Manathakali/Milaguthakali, Chukkittikeerai) and Hibiscus ficulensus
from the ground and nearby fields and maintenance of field cleanliness.
 Sowing should be done on time with suggested spacing, usually
broader spacing and sensible use of proposed dose of fertil-
izers, mainly nitrogenous and water management or managing
of irrigation water is necessary to stop the excessive vegetative
development and insect establishment. Delay sowing might be
avoided and the development of the crop must not be extended
beyond its usual period.
 Filed sanitation is very important to get a pest-free crop. Alternate
hosts like eggplant, tomato, sunflower, and tobacco may be stayed
away from the main crop. In case there is an unavoidable cultivation,
crop protection method should be taken to these crops also.
 Watching the movements of the adult whiteflies by installing yellow
sticky and pan traps at 1 foot long above the crop canopy and also in
situ counts.
 Foliar spray of plant products either singly or in combination with the
suggested dose of insecticide (at 2 ml/l of water)
 The extract neem seed kernel 5% and neem oil at 5 ml/l of water.
 Fish oil rosin soap 25 kg at 1 kg in 40 lit of water.

20.4.2.5 CHEMICAL CONTROL

 Acetamiprid 20% SP 100 g/ha.

 Chlorpyrifos 20% EC 1.25 l/ha.
Synthetic pyrethroids should be avoided in cotton to overcome the
problem of whitefly.
 Cypermethrin and deltamethrin cause outbreak of whiteflies (http://agri-
tech. tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/cotton/crop_prot_crop_insectpest%20_
cotton_13.html)
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 417

20.5 C. CRUCIFEROUS CROPS

20.5.1 CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER

Diamond Back Moths (DBM)

¾ Plutella xylostella L. (Plutellidae: Lepidoptera)

P. xylostella, is considered one of the most serious insect of cruciferous
vegetable crops globally. Major epidemics of P. xylostella are mostly in
the grounds that are often sprayed with insecticides. Therefore, lack of
useful natural enemies and establishment of insecticide resistance are
supposed to be the key reasons of rising pest incidence of P. xylostella
in many parts of the country. This insect causes 50 to 80% failure in
marketable yield and resistance to many insecticides. This pest outbreak
was recorded on cauliflower in Aligarh for the period of September to
first fortnight of October 2006 (Uthamasamy et al., 2011).

20.5.1.1 HOST RANGE

It infests essential cruciferous crops viz., broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, radish,

Chinese cabbage, knol-khol, turnip, Brussels sprout, rabi mustard, collard, rape
seed, saishin, patchouli, watercress and kale (Uthamasamy et al., 2011).

20.5.1.2 LIFE CYCLE

The bionomics of this insect has been observed in the laboratory and natural
conditions in relation to ecological factors (Kalyanasundaram, 1995). Eggs
are laying in clusters generally on the adaxial side of leaves close to veins and
sometimes on both the sides. The eggs are tiny, whitish yellow and 0.5 mm in
length and each female can lay 164 eggs in field conditions. Egg period lasts
from two and six days. Newly emerged larvae are fair white with dull brown
head as matured caterpillars are light green in color assessing 10 mm in long.
Small hairs become noticeable on green grown-up larvae which wriggle
aggressively on smallest stroke. The larvae nourish for different stage of time
ranging between 14 and 21 days ahead of pupation. The larvae of first instars
mine into leaves up to the first molting, after which they nourish exteriorly
and generally attain four caterpillar instars. Male larvae can be differentiated
from the female owing to the occurrence of white prominent gonads on the
418 Sustainable Agriculture

fifth abdominal segment of final instars. Pupation occurs near the midrib on
the ventral side of the leaf in a thin apparent glossy cocoon loosely spun by
the caterpillar. Pupal length is 6 mm with light brown in shade. Pupal period
exists for four days in summer and five days in rainy season.
Moths are minute grayish and size of the wing is 14 mm when expanded.
Male moth wings are folded externally and rising towards their tops appearing
a row of three diamond formed yellow marks along the center of the back.
The longevity of adults varies from 6–13 days, females survive shorter than
males. Mating of adults occurs at evening on the similar day of appearance;
mating exists for one to two hours and females were mating only once.
Females are laying eggs after mating and oviposition maintain for 10 days
with a summit on the first day of emergence (Uthamasamy et al., 2011).

20.5.1.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

The newly hatched caterpillar feeds by scrapping the epidermis leaving

behind typical white patches. Later instar caterpillars make holes in leaves
and when the newly emerged seedlings are bothered, the growing tip is eaten
away and the curd is not formed (Sharma, 2014).

 Young and immature larvae or caterpillar cause small yellow mines

on leaves.
 Scrapping of epidermal leaf tissues producing typical whitish patches
on leaves.
 Full-grown mature larvae create openings in the foliages and feeds
on curd.

20.5.1.4 MANAGEMENT

 Exclusion and damage of all crop wreckages and stubbles after

harvesting of crop.
 Use trap crop as mustard in 2:1 ratio (cabbage: mustard) to attract
P. xylostella for laying eggs at least ten days before transplanting of
major crop.
 Install Pheromone traps @12/ha.
 Larval parasitoid: Diadegma semiclausm @100,000/ha (Hills-below
25–27°C) Cotesi aplutellae (plains) at 20,000 release from twenty
days after transplanting.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 419

 Bt var kurstaki @ 2 g/lit.

 Extract of Neem seed kernel @ 5%.
 Cartap hydrochloride 0.5% at 10, 20, and 30 days after sowing (nursery)
and primitive stage.
 Spraying mustard crop with DDVP76 WSC 0.076% to avoid dispersal
of the caterpillar.
 Foliar application of chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC or chlorfenapyr
10% SC or flubendiamide 20% WG @ 0.1 ml per litre of water (http://
agritech.tnau.ac.in /crop_protection/colecrop/cole_1.html).

20.5.2 TOBACCO CATERPILLAR

¾ Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

20.5.2.1 APPEARANCE

The length of the moths is about 22 mm and their body is pale brown in
color as the forewings are darkish brown with white spots and hind wings
are white with a brown margin.

20.5.2.2 LIFE-CYCLE

Eggs are lying in clusters about 300 eggs and their masse enclosed with buff-
colored hairs acquired from the mother’s body. Egg period is about 3–6 days.
The caterpillar feed in groups in cluster for the initial few days and then
disseminated to feed individually. They are going through 6 stages and are
fully grown within 16–30 days. The mature caterpillar enters the soil where
pupation happened. The pupal stage exists about 7–14 days and the moth, on
emergence, live for 7–10 days. The life cycle is ended within 30–50 days and
the insect finished eight generations in a year (Kumaranag et al., 2014).

20.5.2.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

The caterpillar scrapping the greenish matter of the tender leaves and
defoliate the plant. Mainly they are nocturnal and cause heavy damage, to
the leaves and heads of cabbage and cauliflower (Kumaranag et al., 2014).
420 Sustainable Agriculture

20.5.2.4 MANAGEMENT

¾ Proper sanitation in field and plowing helps to kill the pupae in the soil
¾ Castor maybe used as border and trap crop.
¾ Manually collection and damage of grown-up larvae.
¾ Light trap has to be installed @1/ha.
¾ Pheromone traps have to be installed (Pherodin SL) @ 15/ha to attract
adult male moths.
¾ Foliar application of Sl NPV @ 1.5 × 1012 POBs/ha + 2.5 kg crude
sugar + 0.1% teepol.
¾ Foliar application of chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2 lit/ha or DDVP 76 WSC
1 lit/ha.

20.5.3 CABBAGE APHID

¾ Brevicorynebrassicae, Lipaphiserysimi, Myzuspersicae (Hemiptera:

Aphididae)

20.5.3.1 APPEARANCE

The body of nymphs is yellowish-green and adults suck plant sap and weak-
ening plants. These are tiny (2–2.5 mm) fine, pear-shaped, wings are yellow
or green or wingless insects (Kumaranag et al., 2014).

20.5.3.2 LIFE-CYCLE

The birth capacity of an adult female is up to 20–130 nymphs. Their devel-

opment is very fast and complete fed within 7–10 days. In a year about 45
generations can take place. In autumn and spring, wings forms are emerged
and spring and they move from one field to another and one locality to another
(Kumaranag et al., 2014).

20.5.3.3 NATURE OF DAMAGE

Adults and nymph suck the plant sap and result in weakening of plants.
Infested portions become faded and malformed. High humidity supports the
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 421

fast growth of this pest. The aphids are mostly found on the ventral part of
the leaves and terminal surface of the plant.

20.5.3.4 MANAGEMENT (KUMARANAG ET AL., 2014)

 In case of rape-seed mustard, early sowing should be taken.

 Install yellow sticky trap to check aphid population.
 Foliar application of dimethoate @ 2 ml and acetamiprid 20% SP @
0.2 gm per liter of water.

20.6 D. CUCURBITACEOUS CROPS

20.6.1 BITTER GOURD, POINTED GOURD, CUCUMBER,

MUSKMELON, ETC.

Fruit fly
Bactrocera cucurbitae (Tephritidae: Diptera)

20.6.1.1 APPEARANCE AND NATURE OF DAMAGE

Usually, the females are laying eggs in delicate, young fruit tissues by
piercing them with the help of ovipositor. Immediately after hatching, the
larvae feed into the soft tissue and form galleries. The fruit further decays
or becomes deformed. Newly emerged larvae leave the dead necrotic region
and shift to newly emerged tissue, where they usually introduce various
pathogens and hasten fruit decomposition (Dhillon et al., 2005). The full-
grown mature larva goes out from the fruit by creating one or two exit open-
ings for pupation in the soil. The pupation occurs in the soil at a deepness
of 0.5–15 cm. It also lays eggs inside the corolla of the cucurbits flower, tap
root, leaf stalk, and stem. The larvae successfully grew up in these plant parts
and feed inside (Weems et al., 2001). The fruits infested in the initial stages
not succeed to grow properly and drop down from the plant. As the maggots
spoils the fruits inside, it quite hard to manage this insect with insecticides.
Hence, there is a requirement to use different alternative methods to control
or formulate an integrated pest management (IPM) approach for successful
management of this insect.
422 Sustainable Agriculture

20.6.1.2 MANAGEMENT (SHARMA, 2014)

 Cultural Control:
1. Grow one line of maize after every 10 meters of cucurbit crops to
provide shelter for files during the dark period. Such rows should
be sprayed with insecticides like quinalphos 25EC @ 1 ml/l to
kill such flies.
2. Frequent raking of soil helps to kill pupae in soil.

 Mechanical Control:
1. Before start ripening, fruits should be harvested.
2. Damaged fruits have to be collected and buried deep in soil (at
least 3 feet).
3. Use pheromone/lure traps (Cuelure) to collected and kill flies.
4. Use vinegar + Sugar syrup in a pot or in a pumpkin as a bait to
control fruit flies.

 Chemical Control:
1. Use poison bait or/and bah spray, prepared as given below:
○ Poison Bait: Mix 20 ml malathion 50 EC and 500 g molasses
or Gur/jiggery and 20 g yeast hydrolysate, Put small amount
of poison bait at different places in field to attract flies for
egg laying.
○ Bait Spray: Spray 400 ml malathion 50 EC mixed with 250
l water and 1 kg molasses/gur per acre. Repeat at 10 days
period if required.

20.6.2 RED PUMPKIN BEETLE

¾ Aulacophora foveicollis (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)

It is a regular and major insect of a broad range of cucurbitaceous
crops, especially bottle gourd, sweet gourd, watermelon, bitter gourd
and muskmelon. This insect is polyphagous in character (Doharey,
1983). Both adult and larva damage the crop and reason heavy loss
to plantlets and tender foliage and blossoms (Rahaman and Prodhan,
2007; Rahaman et al., 2008). The pest is broadly dispersed in diverse
parts of the globe, particularly in Africa, Asia, Australia, and south
Europe. In India, it occurs all over the state but is more familiar in the
north-western parts.
Major Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops in Bihar 423

20.6.2.1 APPEARANCE AND NATURE OF DAMAGE

The dorsal portion of the mature beetle is deep orange, while the ventral
portion is black (plain beetle). The beetle seems to be oblong about 5–8 mm
in long and 3.5–3.75 mm in girth, with six legs. The posterior portion of the
abdomen possesses delicate white hairs. They are laying cluster eggs of 8–9
in the damp soil close to the bottom of the host plant or dead leaves. From
eggs to larvae it took 6–15 days. The eggs are extended and brown in shade.
Caterpillar is creamy white in shade with brown color heads and is about
10–12 mm long. Beetles start laying eggs after about 7 days of emergence
and complete five generations starting from March to October. Another beetle
which is identified as the banded pumpkin beetle is also orange colored but
has four very distinct large black markings on its back (one on every angle
of the wing cover up). Creamy, yellow-colored larvae nourish on the roots,
shoots and fruits touching the soil. The infested roots and underground stems
might decay due to infection caused by the saprophytic fungi. Adult beetles
are voracious feeder and feed the leaf lamina and making irregular holes on
leaves with netlike appearance. The maximum infestation occurs during the
cotyledon stage. The damaged plants might be shriveling, and resowing/
planting may become essential under severe case of infestation. The young
and immature fruits of the damaged plants may be dried up, whereas the fully
grown fruits become inappropriate for human eating (Kamal et al., 2014).
They are strong fliers, very active in hot weather, and take quick flight
when disturbed. Sometimes, damage becomes very severe if it is not taken
measures in time. Losses due to infestation are quite visible, which can goes
up to 35%–75% at the plantlet stage (Yamaguchi, 1983). In some cases,
the damage due to this insect has been recorded up to 30%–100% in the
ground (Khan et al., 2012). During spring, the grubs defoliate the seedlings
of cucurbits to such an extent that the crop has to be sown repeatedly three
to four times (Mahmood et al., 2005). It results in delay of the produce for
marketing of different cucurbits and therefore reduction in grower’s income.

20.6.2.2 MANAGEMENT

 Cultural Method:
1. Since adult beetles hibernate among plant debris, clean cultiva-
tion helps in reducing its attack.
2. Grow a few scattered cucurbit plants in January and collect
beetles from them and kill them. Frequent raking of soil.
424 Sustainable Agriculture

 Biological Control: Vishwakarma et al. (2011) observed that treat-

ment with entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana resulted in
maximum reduction.
Khan and Wasim (2001) observed maximum repellency against
beetles in treatment comprising of neem extracts mixed with benzene.
The plant extract of Parthenium spp. was found to be very effective in
managing the red pumpkin beetle (Ali et al., 2011).
 Chemical Control: During initial infestation, applications of carbaryl
(0.1%) or malathion (0.5%) suppress the damage successfully (Hasan
et al., 2011).

20.7 CONCLUSION

Vegetables insect pests can be successfully controlled by incorporating proper

field selection, growing insect-free transplants, planting early, controlling
weeds and diseases, using insect traps, monitoring fields regularly, timing and
foliar application of insecticides correctly, and immediate damage of crop on
completion of harvest to ensure success in pest management. Insecticides can
control insect pests effectively when used judiciously. Implementing of IPM
practices can enhance the environmental benefits, and improve the vigor of
vegetables and the farm.

KEYWORDS

 brinjal shoot and fruit borer

 chilli thrips
 diamond back moth
 fruit fly
 management
 vegetable crops

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CHAPTER 21

Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable

Crops: An Outline and Sustainable
Management
MOHAMMAD ANSAR, A. SRINIVASARAGHAVAN, MONIKA KARN, and
ANIRUDDHA KUMAR AGNIHOTRI
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected] (M. Ansar)

ABSTRACT

Vegetable production is challenged by various pest and diseases, among them

viruses are emerging as major limiting factor for cultivation of vegetables
crops across the world. A diverse range of viral population have been inves-
tigated which encircles solanaceous, leguminous, cucurbitaceous and cruci-
ferous hosts. Insect-vectors are recognized as major virus dispersal mediator
in vegetable hosts providing epidemiological edge to the plant viruses. On
of probable cause of emergence of plant viruses in vegetable ecosystem may
be attributed to host-shifting behavior of insect vectors. Whitefly transmitted
Geminiviruses (Genus Begomovirus) are emerging as major viruses infecting
cucurbitaceous crops in the recent past. Potyvirus persuade serious threat to
vegetable cropping system which are mostly transmitted by aphids and few
are by seed. Reports suggests that, more than 14 vegetable hosts are being
suffered due to Potyvirus in Indian sub-continent. Cucumber mosaic virus
having the wider host range (>1,000 plant species), besides the cucurbits it
affects major vegetable like pepper, spinach, lettuce, tomato and bean. It has
been considered as emerging potential virus in vegetable pathosystem. Off
late thrips transmitted Tospoviruses are also emerging as a limiting factor for
the vegetable cultivation in India. Among the five species, four members are
known to be considerably affecting vegetable cultivation in India. Peanut/
432 Sustainable Agriculture

Groundnut bud necrosis virus is known to infect wide host including sola-
naceous crops. Emergence of new viruses and their adaptability in various
hosts is major challenge towards sustaining vegetable production to meet
the demand of burgeoning population. Moreover, most of viruses are trans-
mitted by insect vectors which makes it more challenging to understand
their epidemiology. Long practicing of conventional approaches will lead
to economic loss, therefore integrated and eco-friendly tactics are essential
to develop sustainable management strategies. In order to control the insect
vector, alternative application of various insecticides with integrated cultural
operations are found effective. There is need to focus on accelerating the
development of resistant cultivar/variety in the cropping complex to reduce
the economic loss without harming the environment.

21.1 INTRODUCTION

There has been a considerable increase in the food production since the
last decade across the globe. Keeping in view of burgeoning population
and shrinking resources, it is important to maintain the rate of food produc-
tion without compromising the nutritional standards. Food and nutritional
security can be achieved by increasing production of vegetables which
will help to resolve issue of food as yield of vegetable crops is 4 to 10
times more than food grains. Therefore, vegetables play a crucial role on
food front as they are cheapest source of natural foods and can worthily
complement the main cereals of the diet. Vegetables are prosperous and
reasonably cheaper and rich sources of protein, vitamins, minerals and
essential amino acids. They play a vital part in up keeping of the digestion
process by counter balancing the acidic environment created during diges-
tion of pretentious and fatty foods. The daily recommendation vegetables
for a healthy diet include 75–125 g of green leafy vegetables, 85 g of other
vegetables and 85 g of roots and tubers with other food. India is the second
largest producer of vegetables in world with an annual production of 87.53
million tonnes from 5.86 million hectares instead of 14.4% production
globally (FAO statistics, 2009). A range of vegetables are grown under
field conditions in the diverse agro-climatic zones of the country facili-
tating it to grow almost fresh vegetables year-round to fulfill the increased
demand for nutritional requirements in both rural and urban areas. Tomato,
potato, chili pepper, okra, leafy vegetable, and onion are economically
important and occupy almost 50% of the total area under production in
India. Looking at the potentiality of yield and importance it contributes
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 433

significantly to India’s agricultural exports. Vegetable crops bare a wide

range of potential pests, consequently, are more prone to various biotic and
abiotic stresses. Among biotic stresses, repeated occurrences of fungal,
bacterial and viral diseases are the major causes of reduced productivity.
Viruses by inducing mosaics, curling, stunting and wilting in vegetable
crops cause a significant loss in the quality and quantity of the produce.
The viruses infecting plants are classified into 73 genera and 49 families.
Though, data represents only the viruses infecting cultivated host which
corresponded to only a small portion of the total plant species (Roossinck,
2011). Viruses infecting wild hosts have not given much emphasis, but
exist studies showed tremendously such relations between wild hosts and
their viruses do not interact to cause disease in the host plants. Plant viruses
have developed different strategies for their transmission in various plant
species. The involvement of vector is more prominent in the case of virus
transmission due lack of mobility in Plants. The virus genus belonging to
various families are interacting by various means like insect-vector which
played a significant role in dissemination. Among virus groups, whitefly
transmitted geminiviruses, aphid transmitted Potyviruses and thrips trans-
mitted Tospoviruses covered a wide range of solanaceous, cucurbitaceous
and leguminous hosts.

21.2 THE VIRUSES: A MIGHTY PATHOGEN OF VEGETABLE

PATHOSYSTEM

21.2.1 WHITEFLY TRANSMITTED GEMINI VIRUSES

Begomoviruses are the leading and most important genus under the family
Geminiviridae having single-stranded DNA as their genome and character-
ized by, incomplete icosahedral geminate particle structure. Begomoviruses
(type species: Bean golden mosaic virus) are transmitted by whiteflies and
encompass either a monopartite (DNA-A) associated with beta satellite or
a bipartite (DNA-A and DNA-B) genome organization, infecting dicotyle-
donous plants (Gutierrez, 1999, 2000; Mansoor et al., 2003; Jeske, 2009).
The DNA-A of bipartite and the single component of monopartite begomo-
viruses contain five open reading frames (ORFs), but occasionally it may
be six, one (AV1) or two (AV1 and AV2) in the viral sense strand and four
(AC1 to AC4) in the complementary sense. Both the DNA-A and DNA-B
are approximately 2.7 kb in size. The DNA-B having two ORFs e.g., BV1
and BC1 in V-sense and C-sense, respectively. In India so far begomoviruses
TABLE 21.1 Molecular Studies of Important Begomoviruses Associated with Vegetable in India 434
Name of the Virus Crop Infected Mono- Association of Symptoms Produced References
Bipartite Satellite(s)
Bhendi yellow vein, mosaic Bhendi/ Okra Monopartite Betasatellite Vein clearing, yellowing Jose and Usha, 2003;
virus Reduced size of leaves Kulkarni, 1924
and fruits
Okra enation leaf curl virus Bhendi/ Okra Monopartite Alp/ha satellite Vein clearing, yellowing Chandra et al., 2013
Bitter gourd yellow, mosaic Bittergourd - Leaf yellowing and Raj et al., 2005a
virus mosaic
Chili leaf curl virus Chili Monopartite Betasatellite Yellowing, leaf curling, Shih et al., 2006; Chattopadhyay
stunting, and blistering, et al., 2008
shortening of internodes
Cucumis yellow, mosaic Cucumis Bipartite – Leaf yellowing and Raj and Singh, 1996
disease, associated virus (suspected) mosaic
Dolichos yellow, mosaic French bean, cowpea, Bipartite - Leaf yellowing Varma and Malathi, 2003; Balaji
virus dolichos bean et al., 2004; Girish et al., 2005
French Leaf curl virus French bean, Monopartite Betasatellite Severe leaf curling Naimuddin et al., 2014
Chili Leaf curl virus Chili Monopartite Betasatellite Curling and chlorosis Bhatt et al., 2016
Tomato leaf curl, New Wide range of Bipartite Rare Curling, mosaic, Moriones et al., 2017; Pratap et
Delhi virus, vegetables betasatellite Puckering al., 2011; Agnihotri et al., 2018
Tomato leaf curl, Gujarat Tomato, Beans Bipartite - Curling, mosaic Chakraborty, 2003;
virus, Naimuddin et al., 2014
Tomato leaf curl, Karnataka Tomato Betasatellite Curling mosaic, stunting Chatchawankanphanich et al.,
virus 1993
Tomato leaf curl Joydebpur Tomato, chili, Egg monopartite Betasatellite Curling, mosaic, Venkataravanappa et al., 2014;
virus plant stunting Shih et al., 2007; Tiwari et al.,
Sustainable Agriculture

2013; Ansar et al., 2018

Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 435

have been documented relatively 16 different groups of crop. A comprehen-

sive study has been explored on these viruses on their genetic diversity,
functions of viral proteins, host interactions, virus-derived transgenic resis-
tance, and linked alp/ha or betasatellites. In vegetable pathosystem, both
mono and bipartite begomoviruses played a significant role by inducing
severe mosaic, curling and stunted growth symptom in diverse families
(Table 21.1).

21.2.1.1 CUCURBIT INFECTING BEGOMOVIRUSES

Whitefly transmitted viruses causing severe curling and mosaic has been
reported form several parts of India, which was suspected to be caused by
begomoviruses. The PCR assay has been conducted using a degenerate
primer of whitefly transmitted geminivirus (Deng 541F and 540R) for their
confirmation. The diverse symptom has been reported from mild to severe
mosaic in different cucurbits. Major cucurbits like sponge gourd, bitter
gourd, pumpkin, and ridge gourd are severely affected by mosaic along with
the shortening of internodes, mottling, stunting, puckering of leaf lamina
and fruit deformities (Figures 21.1 and 21.2).

FIGURE 21.1 Severe mosaic in cucurbits, (A) ridge gourd (B) pumpkin (C) sponge gourd
(D) cucumber.
436 Sustainable Agriculture

FIGURE 21.2 PCR mediated amplification CP gene of whitefly transmitted geminivirus

using Deng 541F/540R primer (A) sponge gourd and bitter gourd (B) pumpkin and cucumber.

In summer and Kharif season cucurbits covered a major part among vegeta-
bles. Moreover, under protected cultivation several cucurbits are included with
capsicum and tomato. Due to prevalence of tropical conditions and the survival
of whitefly throughout the year, number of begomoviruses has been reported
from cucurbits. The incidence of mosaic varied according to their host, in
sponge guard 34%, ridge guard (47%), bitter guard (27.6%), pumpkin (16.3%)
and cucumber (56.3%) observed at Vegetable farm in Bihar Agricultural
University (BAU) (Figure 21.3). Cucumber crop severely affected by mosaic
at earlier growth stage, resulting less and rudimentary fruit formation noticed.

FIGURE 21.3 Disease incidence in cucurbit hosts caused by begomoviruses.

Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 437

21.2.1.2 FRENCH BEAN MOSAIC

Rajma (French bean) crop is affected by several viruses, among them yellow
mosaic is one of the emerging disease. The disease is observing since the last
two years which affects whole crop. Prominent symptom includes severe
mosaic, stunted growth and malformed buds. Infected plants showed several
abnormalities like crinkled leaves, which failed to attain normal pod size.
The DNA samples were tested with whitefly transmitted geminivirus specific
primer which showed positive results. Subsequently, the sample were tested
with four specific primers targeting CP gene of Dolichos yellow mosaic
virus, Horsegram yellow mosaic virus, Mungbean yellow mosaic India virus
and Tomato leaf curl Gujrat virus. Among them, Mungbean yellow mosaic
India virus found positive in four out of six samples by producing ~800 bp
band. The disease is highly influenced due to shifting of viruliferous white-
flies from other leguminous hosts (Figure 21.4).

FIGURE 21.4 (A) Positive amplification of CP gene in PCR assay of MYMIV infected rajma
plants, (B) Field view of MYMIV Infection in Rajma (C) severe mosaic.

21.2.2 POTYVIRUS: A SERIOUS THREAT OF VEGETABLE CROPPING

SYSTEM
The genus Potyvirus (named as type member, Potato virus Y) is the largest
genus of the family Potyviridae. It contains at least 200 definite and tentative
species (Berger et al., 2005) which cause significant losses in agricultural,
horticultural crops (Ward and Shukla, 1991). They affect a wide range of
mono and dicotyledonous plant species and have been found in all parts of
the world (Gibbs and Ohshima, 2010). Potyviruses are reported to transmit
438 Sustainable Agriculture

through mechanical and aphids in a nonpersistent manner (Gibbs et al.,

2003; Poutaraud et al., 2004; Fauquet et al., 2005). Fewer in number they
may also be transmitted through the seeds of their hosts (Johansen et al.,
1994). Furthermore, they are transmitted through infected planting materials
such as cuttings and tubers (Shukla et al., 1994). Even though Potyvirus
distribution is worldwide, they are most common in tropical and sub-tropical
countries (Shukla et al., 1998).
The virion size of potyviruses ranges from 700 to 900 nm containing a
monopartite, single-stranded RNA genome (10 kb). Potyviruses are known
for the induction of characteristic pinwheel or scroll-shaped inclusion bodies
in the cytoplasm of the infected cells. Inclusion bodies are cylindrical, formed
by a virus-encoded protein and can be considered as the most important
phenotypic key factor for assigning viruses to the Potyvirus genus (Milne,
1988; Shukla et al., 1989). Many Potyviruses also induce cytoplasmic as
well as nuclear inclusion bodies which are generally amorphous in nature.
The virion RNA is infectious and provides both the genome and viral
messenger RNA. The genomic RNA is encoded into polyproteins which are
subsequently processed by the action of three viral-encoded proteinases into
functional products. Approximately, more than 4000 potyvirus sequences
available in database of gene bank.
The NCBI database suggests that there are over 55 potyviruses are
reported from India and of which 40 are economically important. These
potyviruses infect a range of economically important crops, including
potato, brinjal, capsicum, papaya, cowpea, common bean, tuber crops,
cucurbits (Table 21.2) which causes considerable economic losses (Mali
and Kulthe, 1980; Bhat et al., 1999; Srinivasulu and Gopal, 2010; Babu et
al., 2012). Chili causing dark green mottling and distortion symptoms on
leaves in major growing areas of the eastern region of India. The disease
distributed throughout the area and the mottle incidence ranged up to 75%.
A severe mosaic disease of gherkin (Cucumis anguria L.) in south India was
identified (Srinivasulu et al., 2010) which is an important cucurbitaceous
vegetable crop grown in the southern states of India like Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for slicing and pickling. Pepper veinal mottle
virus (PVMV) affecting Capsicum annuum L. in India (Nagaraju and Reddy,
1980) which severely hampered the chili production.

21.2.2.1 ZUCCHINI YELLOW MOSAIC VIRUS (ZYMV)

Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) is the member of genus Potyvirus

has particles which are flexuous filaments with a modal length of 750–800
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 439

nm, containing a single-stranded positive-sense RNA. The virus also known

as Muskmelon yellow stunt virus was first reported on zucchini in Italy
(Lisa et al., 1981; Lecoq et al., 1981). Huge variability has been reported
in ZYMV, for instance, 22 isolates have been grouped into three pathotypes
according to their reaction on muskmelon line PI 414723 (Pitrat and Lecoq,
1984). ZYMV is geographically distributed in many areas of the world where
cucurbits crops are grown. In India it was reported in Pune, Maharashtra
(Verma et al., 2004) However, ZYMV has been recorded in several countries
like Algeria, Egypt, Mauritius, Morocco (Brunt et al., 1990).

TABLE 21.2 Potyviruses Associated with Vegetable Crops in India

Sl. No. Virus Species Host
1 Amaranthus mosaic virus Red Amaranth
2 Bean common mosaic virus Bean, Tomato
3 Blackeye cowpea mosaic virus Cowpea
4 Chili veinal mottle virus Pepper
5 Dasheen streak mosaic virus Taro, Elephant food yam
6 Lettuce mosaic virus Lettuce
7 Onion yellow dwarf virus Allium, Garlic
8 Papaya ringspot virus Cucurbits
9 Potato virus A Potato
10 Potato virus Y Potato, Tomato
11 Sweet potato feathery mottle virus Sweet potato
12 Turnip mosaic virus Radish
13 Yam mild mosaic virus Yam
14 Zucchini yellow mosaic virus Gherkin

ZYMV causes severe symptoms inducing huge damage to marrow

or zucchini squash (Cucurbita maxima), muskmelon (Cucumis melo),
cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Further,
symptoms on foliage include mosaic, yellowing, shoe-string, and stunting.
Fruits are also deformed, twisted, and covered with protuberances.

1. Host Range: The host range of ZYMV is narrow which includes

mainly cucurbit species.
2. Transmission: The virus is transmitted by different species of aphid
in a non-persistent manner. Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii, and
Macrosiphum euphorbia are most common. The virus is seed and
mechanically transmitted at a low rate (Greber et al., 1989).
440 Sustainable Agriculture

21.2.2.2 PEPPER VEINAL MOTTLE VIRUS (PVMV)

PVMV belongs to genus Potyvirus consisting of 770 nm long and 12 nm

wide particles. PVMV was first accepted as a distinct member of a virus
group which was initially designated the Potato virus Y group. Though,
afterward renamed the Potyvirus group (Harrison et al., 1971). The
occurrence of PVMV mainly in African countries, it also affects Capsicum
annuum L. crops in the Indian subcontinent (Nagaraju et al., 1980; Singh and
Lal, 1988). Different strains of the virus experimentally transmissible to 35
species of Solanaceous family and other nine species belongs to five others
families e.g., Aizoaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Chenopodiaceae,
and Rutaceae (Brunt et al., 1978; Igwegbe and Waterworth, 1982; Ladipo
and Roberts, 1977; Prasada Rao, and Yaraguntaiah, 1979). The nature
and severity of symptoms are dependent on type of host, virus strain, and
environmental conditions. PVMV causes mottle, leaf distortion, veinal
chlorosis and vein banding in pepper, and mosaic in tomato. Severe strains
may cause leaf and stem necrosis in tomato.

1. Host Range: The primary hosts of PVMV are hot and sweet pepper,
tomato and eggplant.
2. Transmission: As similar ZYMV, in nature, PVMV is also trans-
mitted by non-persistently by several aphid species like Aphis gossypii,
A. crassivora, A. spiraecola, Myzus persicae and Toxoptera citridus.
Mechanically virus may transmit by artificial inoculation. Moreover,
the virus is not seed-borne in nature.

21.2.3 ASSOCIATION OF CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS (CMV) WITH

DIVERSE VEGETABLE CROPS
In the family Bromoviridae, the Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is an impor-
tant member which belongs to the genus Cucumovirus. Owing its wide host
range (>1,000 plant species) and economic impact, it has been considered
as key virus in vegetable pathosyatem. The virus genome is organized into
three single-stranded messenger sense genomic RNAs (RNAs 1, 2, and 3).
RNAs 1 and 2 codes for components of the replicase complex, and RNAs
2 also codes for the 2b protein which played the role in suppression of gene
silencing. The 3a protein encoded by RNAs 3 required for virus movement
and the coat protein (CP), which is expressed from subgenomic RNAs 4.
The CP has provides the shape of the viral particles and movement, vectors
transmission and symptom expression (Crescenzy, 1993 and Palukaitis et al.,
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 441

1992). An associated satellite RNA molecules with some CMV strains which
are small, linear, noncoding and single-stranded RNA molecules that depend
on the helper virus (CMV) for their replication, encapsidation, and transmis-
sion. However, no sequence similarity has been found with the helper virus
genome. CMV strains can be divided into two subgroups, I, and II, the previ-
ously it divided into subgroups IA and IB based on their biological, sero-
logical and molecular properties. Asian strain considered in sub-group IB,
whereas other individuals of sub-group I fall under subgroup IA. The nucleo-
tide sequence identity between CMV sub-group II and I strains ranges from
69 to 77%, whereas > 90% identity within subgroup (Palukaitis et al., 2003).
CMV is mainly transmitted by different aphids species. It can also be
spread mechanically by agricultural operations. However, the stability if
CMV found low than other viruses like Tobacco mosaic virus resulting no
easily transmission by human. CMV is quickly acquired by all instars of
aphids, usually less than one minute of feeding (nonpersistent). However,
the ability of transmission declines and lots of virus particles in few hours.
Several aphid species (60–80) are involved in transmission of CMV and it
also transmitted by seeds. CMV may overwinter in perennial weeds, flowers
and often roots of crop plants (Zitter and Murphy, 2009). During the spring
season, the virus emerges with plants and comes out with new leaves, where
the aphids acquired carried to other healthy hosts.

21.2.3.1 IMPORTANT VEGETABLE CROPS TARGETED BY CMV

1. Cucurbits: Majority of cucurbits are susceptible to CMV, with
varying range of symptom. Severe epinasty, downward twisting of
the petiole and leaf surface reduction is frequently appears in early
season of infection in summer squash. Plants infected at premature
stage are severely stunted and leaves are malformed. Fruits are often
unmarketable because of distinct roughness on the surface (zucchini
plant and fruits). Infection of vining crops, like muskmelon, showing
severely stunted growing tips, and even though fruit may not show
symptoms but renders poor quality.
2. Pepper: Depending upon infection stage, foliar symptoms of pepper
plants may vary. The initial flush of symptoms includes a chlorosis
of newly emerged leaves that may occur basal portion and finally
whole leaf. Subsequently, chlorotic mosaic developed on leaves of
varied degrees of deformation including sunken interveinal lamina
with protruding primary veins. These leaves also have a dull light
442 Sustainable Agriculture

green looks as contrasting to the dark green, rather shiny leaves of

healthy pepper plants.
3. Spinach: CMV infection in spinach is often referred as blight. The
symptoms can vary depending upon the variety, plant age, tempera-
ture, and virus strain. Characteristic symptom includes leaf chlorosis,
which can increases to cause severe blighting of the growing point and
ultimate plant death. In addition mottling, leaves can shows narrowing,
wrinkling with vein distortion and inward leaf roll appearance.
4. Lettuce: Symptoms of CMV infection in lettuce having leaf
mottling, severe bumpiness and occasional necrosis within the leaf
tissue. Usually, stunted growth observed if infection taking place at
an early stage of plant growth.
5. Tomato: Infection of CMV in tomato plants at an early stage is
yellow, bushy and considerably stunted. The leaves may show a mottle
which resembles to tomato mosaic disease. The most characteristic
symptom of CMV is filiformity or shoestring-like leaf blades. The
symptoms may be temporary, bottom or newly developed top leaves
showing severe symptoms, while the middle leaves appears normal.
Severely affected plants produce few numbers of fruits, which are
usually small, often mottled or necrotic, with delayed maturity.
6. Bean: Viral infection in beans consisted of leaf curl, green mottle, and
blistering, roughness along the main veins involving only a few leaves.
Foliar symptoms are most clear, moreover, pod infection and loss
are maximum when plants are infected before bloom. Early infected
plants may yield fewer pods because flower abortion and abnormal
development. The pods are mostly coiled, mottled and reduced in size.

21.2.4 ROLE OF ORHOTOSPOVIRUSES IN VEGETABLE

PATHOSYSTEM
The genus Orthotospovirus (Tospovirus) of the family Tospoviridae is a serious
threat for vegetable cultivation globally (Pappu et al., 2009; Kunkalikar et
al., 2011). The genus name resulting from its first member Tomato spotted
wilt virus (TSWV) observed in Australia in 1915. Later it was recognized
as thrips transmitted spotted wilt disease of tomato. The virus is identified
in 85 different families having 1090 different plant species (Sherwood et al.,
2000; Parrella et al., 2003). So far, the genus is known to have more than
20 different viruses from all over the world (Pappu et al., 2009). In India,
symptoms similar to TSWV were first observed in Nilgiri hills on tomato
cultivar ‘Marglobe’ during 1964 (Todd et al., 1975). Later, the disease was
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 443

reported from several crops like peanut (Ghanekar et al., 1979), tomato
(Prasada Rao et al., 1980), peas (Rao et al., 1984), cowpea, chili, egg plants
and cluster bean (Krishnareddy and Verma, 1990). Later, based on serological
relationships the virus was found to be different from TSWV and designated
as Peanut bud necrosis virus (Reddy et al., 1992). In plant parasitic viruses,
orthotospoviruses have distinct particle morphology, genomic arrangement,
and expression strategies. The virus particles are pleomorphic and 80–120 nm
in diameter with surface projections possess two glycoproteins. The genome
includes three RNAs referred to as large (L), medium (M) and small (S). The
L RNA is in negative-sense while the M and S RNAs are ambisense. The L
RNA codes for the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) while the M
RNA for the precursor of two glycoproteins (GN and GC) and a non-structural
protein (NSm). The N protein and another non-structural protein (NSs)
coded by the S RNA. NSm and NSs were shown to function as movement
protein and silencing suppressor, respectively (Tsompana and Moyer, 2008).
The NSm of TSWV was recently shown to act as an avirulence determinant
during the interaction between TSWV and resistant pepper containing the
Tsw gene. The three genomic RNAs are tightly linked with the N protein to
form ribonucleoproteins (RNPs). The lipid envelope consisting of two virus-
coded glycoproteins and a host-derived membrane enclosed these RNPs.
Tospoviruses are transmitted in circulative and propagative manner by
several species of thrips in (Whitfield et al., 2005). Thrips are minute insects
found in a variety of habitats across the world. Several species are known
to transmit the virus among them Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower
thrips), F. fusca (tobacco thrips), Thrips tabaci (onion thrips), and T. palmi
(melon thrips) are important. The thrips-tospovirus relationship is very
specific, only a few viruses are known to acquire and transmit by known
thrips species. At least 10 species of thrips have been reported to transmit the
virus (Pappu et al., 2009) and their mode of transmission is very unique e.g.,
only larval stages can acquire the virus and transmitted by adults.

21.2.4.1 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Tospoviruses are emerging as a limiting factor for the vegetable production in

India (Kunkalikar et al., 2011). Four out of five tospoviruses reported in India
which are known to be seriously affecting vegetable cultivation (Table 21.1).
Peanut/Groundnut bud necrosis virus (PBNV/GBNV) is known to infect
wide host including solanaceous crop. The virus infecting major vegetables
like tomato (Lycopersicum eculentum), chili (Capsicum annuum), potato
(Solanum tuberosum), brinjal (Solanum melongena), pea (Pisum sativum),
444 Sustainable Agriculture

Amaranthus (Amarnthus sp.) (Mondal et al., 2012; Sharma and Kulshrestha,

2014). Few viruses emerged earlier in India like iris yellow spot virus (IYSV)
on onion (Ravi et al., 2006), garlic (Allium sativum) (Gawande et al., 2010),
Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV) on tomato (Kunkalikar et al., 2007) and chili
(Krishnareddy et al., 2008). Cucurbitaceous crops especially watermelon is
being seriously affected by Watermelon bud necrosis virus (WBNV) (Jain et
al., 1998). Among four tospoviruses infecting vegetables, GBNV and WBNV
are distributed throughout the subcontinent. In recent reports, increasing
natural infection of GBNV on new crops and its geographical expansion are
alarming. The occurrence of GBNV and WBNV in an epidemics propor-
tion in different parts of India is well documented. Tospovirus infections in
chili ranges 90–100% have significant concern in Khammam and Warangal
districts of Andhra Pradesh (Gopal et al., 2010). Besides groundnut and
tomato, severe loss has been recorded in early grown potato crop due to stem
necrosis disease caused by GBNV in northern India (Singh et al., 1997; Ansar
et al., 2015). Cultivation of watermelon seriously affected due to an outbreak
of WBNV in southern part of India, forcing farmers to crop shifting due to
total crop loss (Singh and Krishnareddy, 1996) (Table 21.3).

TABLE 21.3 Important Tospoviruses Affecting Vegetable Crops in India

S. Tospovirus Acronym Vegetable Host Major Symptoms on Vegetable
No. Crops
1. Groundnut bud PBNV/ Tomato, Chili, Pea, Chlorotic and necrotic ring spot
necrosis virus GBNV Brinjal, Cucurbits, chlorotic apical bud necrosis
Potato and Stem necrosis
2. Irish yellow IYSV Onion, Garlic Yellow stripes, spindle-shaped
spot virus chlorotic lesions/rings
3. Watermelon WBNV Cucurbits, Tomato chlorotic mottling, yellow spots/
bud necrosis patches, mild crinkling, Bud
virus necrosis, dieback vines
4. Capsicum CaCV Capsicum, Amaranthus Chlorotic ring spot, necrotic ring
chlorosis virus sp. chili, watermelon spot and apical bud necrosis

21.3 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF VIRAL DISEASES IN

VEGETABLE CROP

In vegetable pathosystem, viruses play an important role which affects the

productivity throughout the world. Adaptation of one or two methods is not
sufficient to combat against the diseases. A sole dependency on insecticidal
application promotes the development of resistance in insect vectors which
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 445

affects the subsequent population. Execution of conventional practices leads

to encourage the infestation of insect and other biological entities which have
direct or indirect role in virus transmission. Moreover, a popular cultivar not
always stable, a period of time the resistance may breakdown which leads to
develop the epidemic/endemic. Therefore, a combined approach is helpful
in formulation of sustainable control strategies.

21.3.1 INSECTICIDE APPLICATION

Vector management is one of the important and effective strategies of viral

disease management. Systemic insecticides with different mode of action
are available for the effective control of insect vectors. For the management
of thrips transmitted tospoviruses, insecticides constitute an important tactic.
An integrated approach of seed treatment with Imidacloprid followed by
spraying control the thrips vector resulting effective management of WBNV
disease in watermelon recorded (Kamanna et al., 2010). Application of high
and frequent doses (400 g a.i.//ha at 3- or 5-day intervals) of Dimethoate
resulted in reduction of bud necrosis in groundnut, whereas low rates with
longer intervals application (100 g a.i./ /ha at 7- or 10-day intervals) showed
higher incidence (Mandal et al., 2012). Application of systemic insecticides,
Thiamethoxam 25WG (0.03%) reduces the population leafhoppers (2.83/3
leaves) and whiteflies (0.93/3 leaves) on okra whereas spray of imidaclo-
prid 70WG (0.04%) suppress the population 3.49 and 1.30 per 3 leaves,
respectively (Sa/ha et al., 2016). Foliar application reduced the population of
whiteflies resulting lowest incidence of yellow vein mosaic (YVM) disease
observed. Effect of six different insecticides including Cyazypyr, Flupyra-
difurone, Pyrafluquinazon and Sulfoxaflor on transmission of Tomato
yellow leaf curl virus by the whiteflies biotype B to compare them with two
established insecticides like Pymetrozine and Zeta-cypermethrin/bifenthrin
combination. Percentage of virus infected tomato seedlings symptom tended
to be lowest in treated with Flupyradifurone (Smith and Giurcanu, 2014).

21.3.2 CULTURAL OPERATIONS

Disease management through cultural practices includes the action undertaken

by human beings in order to avoid and control the disease by influencing or
interfering the cropping system. Cultural disease management might be the
only a strategy which is viable in some cases. This may include reducing the
446 Sustainable Agriculture

rate of spread/transmission of an established disease or planting a crop at a site

where neither virus and nor vector is present. Practices that lowering down the
initial level of inoculums contain selection of appropriate planting materials,
destruction of crop residues, elimination of viral affected plants that act as
source of inoculums. For the removal of infected plants, early or fields level
diagnosis play an important role e.g., Potato virus X and A can be diagnosed
under field condition using immuno-dipsticks in potato (Ansar and Singh,
2016). This will be helpful to eliminate infected plants resulting formation of
infected tubers and further dissemination may prevent. Selection of suitable
planting materials or using certified seeds making assurance that disease is
not carry forwarded. Continuous growing of a single variety/cultivar with
genetic homogeneity and emergence of virulent strain of viruses will leads
to rapid development of epidemics. Therefore, incorporation and rotation
of various varieties may be the suitable option for management of disease.
Adjustment in planting/sowing time is one of the safest way to escape the
several viral disease, e.g., tomato leaf curl, potato stem necrosis and okra
enation mosaic.

21.3.2.1 EFFECT OF PLANTING TIME ON VIRAL INCIDENCE

Modification in planting time/period plays a key role to escape the vector

or viral infection in vegetable pathosystem. An experiment was conducted
for controlling whitefly transmitted leaf curl disease in tomato and chili
crops at BAU research field. The trial was designed to transplant the seed-
lings at different intervals. The firs transplanted (last week of October)
crop expressed more disease in comparison to subsequent planting at 15
days interval. There was slight reduction of tomato leaf curl incidence in
second planting (middle November). However, chili leaf curl was found
low in early planting (last week of March), but disease was much increased
in delayed planted crop with 43.7% in 2013–14 cropping season (Figure
21.5a and b).

21.3.2.2 BORDER/BARRIER CROP

Growing of border crops for management of vector-borne viral disease given

the satisfactory results. Whitefly transmitted geminiviruses like tomato leaf
curl virus (TLCV), cucurbit mosaic viruses and okra enation leaf curl virus
can be minimized using two-row maize plantings. Moreover, the aphid
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 447

vector can be trapped on maize plants which are responsible for transmis-
sion of several potyviruses (Figure 21.6).

FIGURE 21.5 (a) Effect of staggered planting on Tomato leaf curl disease, (b) effect of
staggered planting on chili leaf curl disease.

FIGURE 21.6 (a) Maize border in tomato crop to prevent the entry of insect vectors, (b)
Severe infestation of aphids on maize leaf.

21.3.2.3 APPLICATION OF INSECTICIDES INTEGRATED WITH BORDER

CROP

A field experiment for management of okra YVM disease, integrated

application of insecticide along with border cropping with maize showed
good results in order to minimize the disease. A treatment consisting of
seed treatment and spray with imidacloprid and neem oil spray found
448 Sustainable Agriculture

effective to reduce the vector population (1.73/plant). However, sequen-

tial sprays of different insecticides reduced the whitefly population e in
comparison to control. Treatment details along with whitefly and disease
data presented in Table 21.4 (Ansar et al., 2014). Lowest incidence of
mosaic (16.18%) was found in treatment having sequential application of
various insecticides.

TABLE 21.4 Effect of Different Combination Insecticides Against Yellow Vein Mosaic of
Okra
Treatments Vector Disease
Population Incidence
T0: Seed treatment with Goucho @ 0.5 g/l and sowing of border 4.73 34.37
two rows with maize
T1:T0 + Spraying of Acephate @ 1.5 g/l + Neem oil @ 2.0 ml/l 4.10 21.78
T2:T0 + Spraying of Imidacloprid @ 0.5 ml/l + Neem oil @ 0.2 ml/l 1.73 15.47
T3:T0 + Spraying of Admire @ 2 g/15 l + Neem oil @ 2.0 ml/l 2.37 21.41
T4:T0 + Spraying of Hostathion @ 10 ml/l + Neem oil @ 2.0 ml/l 3.03 23.39
T5:T0 + First spraying of T1, 2 spraying of T2, 3 spraying of T3,
nd rd
1.37 16.18
4th spraying of T4
T6:T0 + Neem oil spray @ 2.0 ml/l 4.83 27.38
T0 + Water spray 7.20 38.01
Source: Trends in Biosciences 7(24): 4157–4160, 2014 (modified).

21.3.3 RESISTANCE BREEDING

Improvement of virus resistant cultivars has been a part of the plant breeder’s
tool since long time. Incorporation of resistant or tolerant cultivars in vegetable
is one of the best options to minimize the losses due to viruses. Particularly
at the stage, when there is growing public issues about the environmental
pollution and residual effects on produce due to the arbitrary use of hazardous
chemicals and emergence of new species and races. For the development
of resistant cultivars and pre-breed lines, sources of resistance are the
precondition and backbone of breeding program. Such sources may occur in
the native cultivars, landraces, folk cultivars, semi-wild relatives and related
species of the vegetable crops. For the resistant sources of viruses (Table 21.5)
in different vegetable crops against major diseases and insect vector are useful
for the vegetable breeders for the impending breeding program.
TABLE 21.5 Vegetable Varieties Resistant/Tolerant to Viruses and Insect-Vectors
Crop Virus Disease Resistance Source
Tomato Tomato leaf curl virus (TLCV) H-88-78-1, L. hirsutum f. Glabratum, L. peruvianum (LA 385), L pimpinellifolium and
L. hirsutum, HS 101 L. hirsutum (LA 386, LA 1777, PI 390513, L. glandulosum (EC 68003)
and L. peruvianum, PI 127830 and PI 127831, H-88-78-1, H-88-78-2, H-88-87
Tomato yellow leaf curl UPVTY 1, 3, 6, 9, 17, 53
Orthotospoviruses EC8630 and EC5888
Chili Pepper leaf curl Virus EC-497636, CM-334, IC-383072, IC-364063, BS-35, GKC-29, Pant C-1, Pusa SadaBahar,
Tripura Collection, CO-309, NMCA-40008, BhutJolokia, Taiwan-2 and VR-339
Thrips NP46A, × 1068, × 743, × 1047,
BG-4, × 226, × 230, × 233,
EC119475B, Caleapin Red, Chamatkar,
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops

Pumpkin Zucchini yellow mosaic virus, C. lundelliana, C. martenezii Bohn and Whitaker, 1964, C. ecuadorensis, C. faetidistima,
Watermelon Mosaic Virus C. martenezii
Musk melon Cucumber green mottle mosaic VRM 5-10 (DVRM-1), VRM 29-1, VRM 31-1 (DVRM-2), VRM 42-4 and VRM 43-6C.
virus africanus, C. ficifolius, C. Anguria, Chang Bougi, Hannah’s Choice (Potyviruses) Phoot and
Kachri (var. momordica)
Watermelon Watermelon mosaic PI 595203 (Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus), WM-1, WM-2, WM-3, WM-4,
Watermelon bud necrosis virus Durgapur selection, RHRWH-2 and EC-393243
Pumpkin Zucchini yellow mosaic virus, C. lundelliana, C. martenezii C. ecuadorensis, C. faetidistima, C. martenezii
Watermelon Mosaic Virus
Cucurbita Cucumber mosaic virus PI438699
pepo Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus C. moschata
Pea Pea Seed Borne mosaic virus PI 193586, PI 193835, X78123, X78126, X78127
Pea Enation mosaic virus OSU-547-29, OSU-559-6, OSU-546-3, OSU-584-16
449
TABLE 21.5 (Continued) 450
Crop Virus Disease Resistance Source
Cowpea Yellow mosaic virus IC 97767, IC 97829, IC 97787, IC 259084, IC 523658, IC 546883, IC 546884, Cowpea
263, NDCP 8, KLS 10, BC 244002, Arka Garima, Kashi Unnati and Kashi Kanchan
Cowpea aphid borne virus Purple Knuckle Hull-55, MNC-03-731C-21 and CNCx284-66E
Leaf hoppers TVu59, 123, 662, VITA 3
Aphids IT84S-2246-4, TVu 36, TVu 62, TVu 1889, TVu 2896
Thrips TVu 1509, IT84S-2246-4
French Bean Bean common mosaic virus Phaseolus coccineus, Morena, Monvisa, Niveo Oregon 54, SP6C, SP17B
Potato Groundnut bud necrosis virus CHIP-I, EX/A-680-16, J/95-221, JX-214, JX-24, JX-371, MP/97-621, MP/97-644,
MS/92-2505, MS/95-117
Okra Yellow vein mosaic virus NIC-9303A, NIC-6308, NIC-3322, NIC-9408, NIC-3325, EC-329375, K-4409,
A. crinitus, A. angulosus, A. manihot, A. pungens, and A. tetraphyllus
Okra enation leaf curl virus BRO-1
Sustainable Agriculture
Emerging Viral Diseases of Vegetable Crops 451

21.4 CONCLUSION

Vegetables are being the essential part that fulfills the nutritional demands of
increasing population. These crops are severely hampered by various biotic
factors, among them viruses playing a significant role. Since last decade
diverse population of viruses have been explored, encompassing legumes,
root crops and vegetables. Present investigation emphasized on the molecular
interactions between viruses and their hosts. It is well clear that majority of
viruses are transmitted by insect vectors which are making more challenging
to the management task. Considering the emerging viruses belonging to the
genus begomovirus, orthotospovirus, potyvirus and cucumovirus in vegetable
pathosystem, possible efforts should be channeled to manage more effec-
tively. Integrated approaches are essential to justify the sustainable manage-
ment program. Preventive application of insecticides is routine approach to
controlling insect-vectors. However, prolonged application single insecticide
leads to develop resistance. An alternative application of different molecules
with integrated cultural operations will helpful in managing vectors effi-
ciently. Integration of resistant cultivar in the cropping system is the safest
way to minimize the loss in an eco-friendly manner. For the development of
resistant varieties against the viruses, sources of resistance are the prerequi-
site. Therefore, local cultivars, landraces, wild relatives and allied species of
the vegetable should be undertaken in improving suitable cultivar.

KEYWORDS

 capsicum chlorosis virus

 coat protein
 cucumber mosaic virus
 insecticides
 iris yellow spot virus
 open reading frames

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CHAPTER 22

Advancement of Agrochemical Research

and Regulation
PRITAM GANGULY
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Agrochemicals play crucial role in agriculture to increase productivity

and quality of produce as well. Pesticides, one of the key farm input, has
increased production drastically by protecting crops from dangerous pests
and diseases. Another important input is plant growth regulator which is
used to control different growth behavior of crop plants. But, continuous use
of agrochemicals is detrimental to natural environmental processes and may
impose health risk to the humans. Researches have been advanced to bring
agrochemicals with new mode of action to ascertain safety to the non-target
organisms and also to reduce environmental load. Simultaneously, several
countries, including India, have been coming up with more restricted regula-
tion related to pesticide application.

22.1 INTRODUCTION

Agrochemicals are very important inputs for improved crop production

technology. Agrochemicals are broadly classified as insecticides, fungicides,
herbicides, rodenticides, and nematicides. It does also include synthetic
fertilizers, manures, and plant growth hormones. Agrochemicals can benefit
crop production if applied at the right time, through the right method and
with the right dose. The balanced use of agrochemicals shall not cause any
significant damage to the environment. Rather improves livelihood. Nature
458 Sustainable Agriculture

of soils, types of crop plant and weather condition is the crucial factors for
pesticide and fertilizer applications.
Pesticides can kill, manage, eradicate, attract, repel or control pests those
who can incur loss at any time of cultivation, storage, transportation and food
processing. Pesticides are the substances which not only protect the crops
from pest incidence but can enhance production both in terms of quantity
and quality. These are subdivided based on the target organisms (e.g.,
insecticides, acaricides, fungicides, herbicides, molluscicides, rodenticides,
etc.), chemical composition (e.g., organic, inorganic, synthetic, biopesticides,
etc.), as well as physical properties (e.g., liquid, solid, gaseous, etc.).

22.2 GENERATION OF PESTICIDES

1. First Generation: These pesticides were generally composed of

inorganic and organic compounds and primarily used before 1940.
Minerals like arsenic, mercury, and lead were mainly used as inor-
ganic compounds. But their use created a serious issue as they were
not easily metabolized or degraded in the environment. As a result,
these pesticides began to persist and being accumulated in the soil
which caused the land to be unfertile.
Organic pesticidal compounds in this generation were produced
from plants, and through their use, the plants developed resistance
to certain insects. These organic pesticidal compounds are called as
botanicals. Pesticides such as pyrethrin come from chrysanthemum
flowers. Rotenone is isolated from jewel vine and nicotine is found
in tobacco. Botanicals are easily degradable in the environment
as compared to inorganic compound and do not persist. However,
these botanicals are highly toxic to non-target organisms like fish
and bees.
Synthetic botanicals were also produced as first-generation pesti-
cides. They are created chemically to mimic the structure of plant
produced botanicals. Pyrethoid, almost identical to the botanical
pyrethrin, was an important synthetic botanical because it was less
persistent in the environment.
2. Second Generation: These pesticides differ from earlier pesticides
as these are produced synthetically. These are started to be applied in
the field in the 1940s after DDT was invented in 1939 by Paul Müller.
The most commonly used groups of this generation pesticides are
Chlorinated hydrocarbons (OCs ), Organophosphates (OPs), and
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation 459

Carbamates. Insecticides are prevalently found in these. Each group

acts differently to produce any effect in the target organism. Majority
of these insecticides are persistent while some compounds are easily
degradable and thus, cannot be accumulated in nature. The degree of
toxicity of these substances to mammals depends upon the proper-
ties of the substances.
3. Third Generation: It includes insect pheromones such as:
 Insect Growth Regulators (IGR): It causes disruption in
normal processes of hormonal activity of insects, which in turn
inhibiting the growth and development of the target insect.
 Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors (CSI): CSI targets exoskeleton of
insects.
 Juvenile Hormones (JH): These compounds mimic hormones
and as a result insect stays in juvenile phase only.
 Bt: In this case, toxins are secreted followed by ingestion.
4. Fourth Generation: It includes plants’ derived chemicals and other
bio-pesticides. A resurgent interest in plant-derived compounds to
manage insect pests is developed due to the fact that these pesticide
products have less negative impacts in nature and human health than
the highly effective synthetic insecticides mostly have. Azadirachtin,
precocene, phytoecdysone, etc. belong to this generation.

In India, the second generation insecticides are generally used indiscrim-

inately by the farmers as these are quite cheap in nature and to some extent
effective also. But, nowadays, the application of new generation molecules
is also increasing due to excellent efficacy against the target pest.

22.3 HISTORY OF AGROCHEMICAL RESEARCH

Prior to 1940, inorganic compounds, for example, sodium chlorate, and

arsenic-based compounds, and botanical compounds like pyrethrin were
usually applied in fields to manage pest attack. Moreover, some pesticides
were produced as by-products of natural gas or similar industrial processes.
Consequently, compounds like nitrophenols, chlorophenols, naphthalene,
and petroleum oils were commonly applied in the farms for having both
fungicidal and insecticidal properties. Along with these, sodium arsenate
and ammonium sulfate were primarily used as weedicide. High dose rates,
non-selectivity, and phytotoxicity were observed as major drawbacks for
range of these compounds (A History of Crop Protection and Pest Control
460 Sustainable Agriculture

in Our Society, Crop Life Canada, 2002). With the simultaneous discovery
of DDT molecule (and its analogs), lindane, endrine, chlordane, dieldrin,
aldrin, endosulfan, parathion, captan, 2,4-D, use of chemical pesticides
got accelerated. These products had shown broad-spectrum activity and
were effective at comparatively lower dose and cost as well (The History
of Pesticides, 2008; Delaplane, 2000). DDT was most preferred among
these compounds as it helped to control insect-borne diseases, like malaria,
typhus, dengue, yellow fever, etc., and was apparently considered to be less
toxic to mammals. For this achievement, Dr. Paul Muller, inventor of DDT’s
insecticidal property, was awarded with Nobel Prize in the arena of Medi-
cine in 1949. However, in 1946, as per reports, house flies got resistant to
DDT and, due to its widespread use, the compound was found to be harmful
on non-target organisms (The History of Pesticides, 2008; Delaplane, 2000).
The negative impact of pesticidal compounds in non-target organisms
was still not investigated and remained unexplored up to 1950s. There was
no documented evidence of pesticide injury being recorded as the food
price got decreased with their “normal” use (Wessels Living History Farm,
Farming in the 1950s and 60s). Some cases were reported where misuse of
the chemicals caused harm. But, still, the new pesticides were considered
safer, than arsenic compounds which caused death of humans in the 1920s
and 1930s (Wessels Living History Farm, Farming in the 1930s). After a long
period, problems started arising through the improper usage of pesticides
and in 1962 these were mentioned by Rachel Carson in her book Silent
Spring (Silent Spring, 2002). Potential health risk caused by the excess use
of existing pesticides were investigated which was resulted in synthesis of
safer and more eco-friendly compounds.
Pesticide related research work continued thereafter and in 1970s and
1980s, major important developments were happened like discovery of
world’s largest selling herbicide, glyphosate, the low dose rate sulfonylurea,
imidazolinone (imi), dinitroanilines aryloxyphenoxypropionate (fop) and
cyclohexanediones (dim) groups. As insecticide is concerned, researchers
synthesized 3rd generation of pyrethroids, introduced avermectins, benzo-
ylureas, and Bt as a spray application. In the case of fungicide, this era also
witnessed the discovery of the triazole, morpholine, imidazole, pyrimidine
and dicarboxamide groups. The special feature of these compounds was
mostly single mode of action, which led to increase selectivity. Hence resis-
tance was built up with their continuous use and scientists introduced new
management strategies to fight against these adverse effects (http://agro-
chemicals.iupac.org/index.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details
&catid=3&sobi2Id=31).
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation 461

In 1990s, new molecules of existing groups have been invented to bring

higher selectivity, more eco-friendliness and lower toxicity to the non-
target organisms. Moreover, new groups of compounds have been identi-
fied like chloronicotinyl, spinosyn, fiprole, and diacylhydrazine insecti-
cides, strobilurin and azolone fungicides and triazolopyrimidine, triketone
and isoxazole herbicides. The dose rate also got reduced from kilograms
per hectare to grams per hectare (http://agrochemicals.iupac.org/index.php?
option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details&catid=3&sobi2Id=31).
New insecticide (New Insecticide Modes of Action: Whence Selectivity?)
and fungicide (Morton and Staub, 2008) chemistry-based compounds have
helped in better resistance management and enhanced selectivity. In this period,
some old molecules had come out with new eco-friendly safer formulations
so as their shelf-life got extended (A History of Crop Protection and Pest
Control in Our Society, 2002). Integrated pest management (IPM) approach,
which adopts all available pest control measures to manage or control the pest
populations and reduce the dependency on the use of synthetic pesticides, has
been encouraged. This IPM strategy was not only found eco-friendly, economic
but was the factor to reduce pesticide use (OECD Series on Pesticides, 1999).
Recently, the major advancements have been achieved by introducing
genetically modified crops with a self-defense mechanism or showing
resistance to non-selective broad-spectrum herbicide products or pests. These
strategies were found successful in crops like soybeans, corn, canola and
cotton where varieties of corn and cotton resistant to corn borer and bollworm
respectively (A History of Crop Protection and Pest Control in Our Society,
2002). This technique has also become popular along with the adoption of
IPM. These changes have opened up the new arena of pest control and played
the role as game changer in agrochemicals research (http://agrochemicals.
iupac.org/index.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details&
catid=3&sobi2Id=31).
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are the substances which can encourage
or restrict plant growth when added in small quantity. They have high
potential to enhance the global food supply. Since 1940s, PGRs have been
successfully used to alter crop biology by modifying their usual behavioral
responses. This phenomenon led to bring in positive effects on growth and
development of crops passing through different stages. Use of PGRs in crops
controls plant metabolism, flowering, fruit set, aging, and their strength to
sustain in adverse conditions.
PGRs were applied in ancient times when people in the Middle East used
to apply olive oil on plants for better growth. The basic reason behind this
application is ethylene which is produced due to the decomposition of oil
462 Sustainable Agriculture

by heat. By the time 1930s, ethylene was found to promote flowering in

crops like pineapple and after that use of acetylene in Hawaii was observed
to initiate flowering. During 1940s, another compound called auxins, which
found to be reported to produce the same result. Naphthalene acetic acid
(NAA), similar product of auxin, was successively used as growth regulator
in pineapple. Some commonly used PGRs are: abscisic acid, cycloheximide,
alachlor, atrazine, barban, benzyladenine, chlormequat, etc. PGRs have been
reported for significant uses in agriculture mostly in germination of seeds,
fruit production, prevention of lodging in cereals and in tissue culture.
The primitive use for PGRs was to stimulate and/or encourage the
rooting of plant cutting. Indole-3-acetic acid is most probably the best and
most commonly used chemical for this stimulation. A substantial research
work has been carried out on initiation of rooting, and subsequently being
published more than thousands in number in reputed journals and books.
Maleic hydrazide has been applied recognizably for sprouting suppres-
sion of potatoes and onions. This molecule had been widely used as an
inhibitor of grassy growth on golf courses, in residential lawns, in amuse-
ment parks and in roadways. Then comes the extensive use of chlormequat/
cycocel (CCC), that retarded the plant height in cereals especially wheat
without altering quantitative as well as qualitative yield. This dwarfingness
in wheat enables plant to prevent lodging after rainfall and heavy wind in
even the case where nitrogen is applied at higher dose.
Another important PGR, the ethephon, (2-chloroethylphosponic acid) an
ethylene-producing compound, is used to induce the latex yield in rubber
trees. This compound has the potency to enhance the duration of latex flow
between tapings so that the production of dry rubber at commercial scale can
be increased up to 100%. Application of ethephon preserves the tree life by
preventing random cutting of bark.
Recently, ripening of sugar cane is an important subject of research
for commercial developments of PGR. Several chemical compounds have
been produced promising results to elevate the amount of sucrose in cane at
harvest. Etephon is applied at commercial level as a ripener on sugar cane
in Zimbabwe and South Africa. The ripeners are mostly used @ 5–25%
which depends upon the cane variety, nature of soil and weather condition
to increase sugar yield is.
Gibberellic acid (GA) has been found as the potent growth regulator to
enhance fruit set in citrus. Aqueous solution of GA was applied in entire
citrus trees at full bloom increased the production of seedless fruit of five
self-incompatible citrus cultivars. But, however, they were more subjected
to dropping after preliminary fruit set compared to seedy fruits developed
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation 463

by cross-pollination. Abscission is a process of dropping of a plant leaf,

flower, fruit or stem itself from the plant. This process ensures the effec-
tive crop growth for better production (http://www.dawn.com/news/125197/
plant-growth-regulators).

22.4 RECENT ADVANCEMENT IN PESTICIDE CHEMISTRY

RNAi-based insecticides (interference RNA) are the latest area of discussion

as it is coming out as an interesting subject of research for next-generation
pesticide. A protein is produced in a living cell when a specific gene got
activated in that cell. The reverse process is absolutely the same, i.e.,
protein synthesis in that cell got interrupted by turning off that particular
gene. Switching off that particular gene is made possible by sending a small
fragment of RNA which suppresses the gene’s expression into a protein.
This process is known as RNA interference, or RNAi. The importance
of RNAi is undoubtedly huge. All that scientists need to know the DNA
sequence of a gene so that they can develop the specific RNA molecule
and send it into the living cell to inhibit protein synthesis by the gene in
the cell— eventually switching the gene off. This path-breaking idea has
opened up a new scope of research in pest control. Now, researchers are
planning to inculcate this process in insect pests to prevent their damage to
the crops. Seed companies are playing a major role to harvest this concept
and take benefit out of it. They have come out with genetically modified
corn plant which can control western corn rootworm, the most harmful pest
in the world, by producing small RNAs that silences a gene in that insect.
Efforts are already being directed to create RNAi sprays for managing field,
households as well as storage pests that will turn off pest genes (The Next
Generation of Pesticides, 2013).

22.5 PESTICIDES IN ENVIRONMENT

Fate of plant protection compounds in- a crop eco-system depends upon

nature of physical, chemical and biological processes which ultimately
decides persistence of the compound. Very little amount of applied pesticides
reach target areas, but the rest bigger portion is exposed to several processes
like drift, surface runoff, volatilization, microbial degradation as well as by
plants and animals, adsorption in soil, bioaccumulation and biomagnifica-
tions and photodecomposition (Wilkinson, 1976). Sunlight plays a major role
464 Sustainable Agriculture

in photodecomposition that may result to various photo-metabolites which

are chemically and toxicologically different from the parent compounds.
Pesticide molecule adsorbs solar energy and got excited to make or break
chemical bonds. The process of photolysis of pesticides is being sensitized
by different photo-sensitizers found in environment such as riboflavin, humic
acid, etc. They absorb photons and then donate it to acceptor causing decom-
position of pesticides. Photochemistry of OPs such as phosphorothioate and
phosphorodithiotate compounds was studied vastly. Although not highly
susceptible to photodegradation by UV light, Malathion is degraded by UV
light to different photo-metabolites such as malathion diacid, o,o-dimethyl
phosphorothioic acid, malaoxon, o,o-dimethyl phosphorodithioic acid, and
phosphoric acid (Zabik, 1985; Chukudebe, Othman, and Fukuto, 1989).
Among these, malaoxon is more toxic compared to its parent compound.
Non-target organisms may be unintendedly exposed to insecticides at sub-
lethal level but that can damage significantly their population (Haynes,
1988). Sub-lethal dosage of pesticide may show long term chronic effect and
that could be expressed at advanced growth stages of the insect (Kariappa and
Narasimhanna, 1978; Troitskaya and Chichigina, 1980). But, it may happen
that the particular pest can develop resistance within it against the pesticide
when exposed to sub-lethal dosages for longer period of time. Troitskaya and
Chichigina (Bora, 1998) have found that bacterial and chemical insecticides
can pose serious toxicity threat to Bombyx mori in silk-producing areas when
used in combination.

22.6 PESTICIDE REGULATION

Pesticide residues in environment are now area of serious concern as the

application of these xenobiotics is almost inevitable. Pesticide residue is the
leftover amount of certain pesticide after application. Although, these plant
protection compounds are intended to act as target-specific, but practically,
pesticide residues are not confined in their target site. These are generally
found in various components of environment such as soil, air, water bodies
like pond, lake, river etc., and more importantly getting accumulated in
food chain even after good agriculture practice (GAP) is followed. Being
toxic in nature, pesticides can pose toxicity threat to the non-target organism
including human being if not properly handled. Moreover, the parent
compound undergoes several transformations in the surrounding environ-
ment and yields highly toxic metabolites.
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation 465

Thus, pesticide regulation is highly important so as to avoid toxicity

risk to the non-target organism associated with its use. Pesticides must be
handled with proper care at each step starting from manufacturing, to trans-
port, storage, application and till their disposal in the surrounding environ-
ment. Several countries have formed their own regulation standard and
follow it strictly. In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
regulates pesticides and related compounds under the acts, i.e., the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Food Quality
Protection Act (FQPA). The main moto of EPA in regulating pesticides is to
make sure that these toxic compounds do not create adverse effects in human
beings or the environment. European Commission is held responsible for the
evaluation of every active substance for safety prior to introduction in the
market of the Europe Union (EU).
In India, the first major instance of pesticide poisoning was reported in
1958. The Government of India formed a Commission of Enquiry to recom-
mend remedial action against the casualties that occurred in Kerala and
Chennai (Tamil Nadu) by pesticide poisoning contaminated in imported
wheat. A committee empanelled with experts of the Indian Council of Agri-
cultural Research, chaired by Prof. M.S. Thacker was appointed in 1964–67
to suggest the way forward related to pesticide legislation. Based on their
reports, Insecticides Act was formed and passed in 1968 by Government of
India to regulate insecticide (i.e., pesticide) at every stage of import, manu-
facture, transport, sale, distribution, storage and application of insecticide
so as to protect non-target organisms including human beings from risks
associated with it. In 1970, the Ministry of Agriculture took the respon-
sibility from the Ministry of Health and family Planning to enforce the
Act. The Department of Agriculture of this Ministry had taken immediate
steps to frame the Rules related to the Act and formed Central Insecticides
Board (CIB) and registration committee (RC). The different states of the
country appointed all functionaries as mentioned in the Act. After all such
formalities completed, the Insecticides Act were brought into force with
effect from 1st August, 1971. As per the Act, pesticide registration has to
be dealt at the Central level (by CIBRC) for its manufacture and/or import
and for sales and marketing, that would be carried out with at respective
State level. With the implementation of the Insecticides Act, pesticides are,
at regular basis, thoroughly examined before getting registration and made
available in the market after meeting all the criteria as laid down in the Act.
After registration, an user guideline is being issued for the pesticides to
be applied against agricultural pests, pests of house-hold and storage and
466 Sustainable Agriculture

the pests of public health that cause human diseases and nuisance in order
to minimize the possible health hazards (Central Insecticides Board and
Registration Committee).
After several amendments, now the pesticides regulations are governed
under the following Acts/Rules:

1. The Insecticides Act 1968 and Rules 1971.

2. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954.
3. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
4. The Factories Act 1948.
5. Bureau of Indian Standards Act.
6. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981.
7. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974.
8. Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1989.

Role of Central Insecticides Board (CIB)

1. As and when necessary, guides the Central Government on the
manufacturing of insecticides under the Industries (Development and
Regulation) Act, 1951 (65 of 1951).
2. Classifies and specifies the application of insecticide on the basis of
its toxicity as well as suitability for aerial application.
3. Suggests tolerance limits for residues of insecticide in different
crops and determines minimum intervals, i.e., Pre-Harvest Interval
(PHI) between final insecticide application and harvesting in respect
of different commodities.
4. Determines the shelf-life period of insecticide.
5. Suggests on colorization, including coloring matter which may be
thoroughly mixed with insecticide’s active ingredients, specifically
those having high toxicity.
6. Performs any other duties which may be found necessary for strict
following of the Act or the Rules (Central Insecticides Board and
Registration Committee).

22.7 BAU INITIATIVES ON AGROCHEMICAL RESEARCH [21]

Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour has very strong dedicated

team involved in both fundamental and applied research of agrochemicals.
Different experiments have been conducted to determine the bioefficacy of
new generation molecules to mitigate the crop loss incurred by major pests.
Experiment Salient Finding
Herbicides
Weed management The treatment consists weed free condition in rice plots, have been observed with the highest grain yield of
in aerobic rice (direct 52.6 q/ha. Solitary spray of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence (PE) produced lowest grain
seeded) yield (35.6 q/ha) among herbicidal treatments. Pendimethalin applied @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha as PE followed by (fb)
bispyribac-sodium @ 25 g a.i./ha as post-emergence (PoE) fb one hand weeding found to be the second best
yielder (52.2 q/ha) next to weed free condition. Pendimethalin application fb bispyribac sodium with one manual
weeding showed lowest weed count, weed dry matter content and higher weed control efficiency (WCE) fb
application of (penoxulam + cyhalofop) combination as PoE. Application of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha as
PE fb bispyribac-sodium @ 25 g a.i./ha as PoE fb one manual weeding showed maximum gross income and net
return fb pendimethalin fb (pyrazosulfuron + bispyribac sodium) combination. Maximum benefit: cost (B:C)
ratio was found as 2.61 with pendimethalin fb (pyrazosulfuron + bispyribac sodium) combination and (pinoxulam
+ cyhalofop) combination. However, treatment composed of pendimethalin was realized an effective strategy for
weed management in any recommendation because it inhibits germination of various weeds.
Integrated weed As per the results found in the experiment, fiber yield was enhanced in all treatments as compared to unweeded
management in jute check. The treatment comprised with PoE application of quizalofop ethyl @ 60 g a.i./ha at 15 DAE plus one
manual weeding at 15–20 days after application of herbicide was found best. Treatment with two manual weeding
showed highest values in fiber yield but the cultivation cost is high. The B:C ratio was highest in treatment
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation

comprised with two manual weeding, fb quizalofop ethyl application.

Effect of chemical weed Azimsulfuron application @ 12.5 g a.i./ha with bispyribac sodium @ 15 g a.i./ha as PoE was at par with other
management on growth, weed control treatments. Weed control efficiency was highest (89.6%) in case of azimsulfuron @ 12.5 g a.i./ha
yield and weed dynamics plus bispyribac sodium @ 15 g a.i./ha as PoE. The maximum gross return was found in weed free plots but B:C
in transplanted rice ratio was highest in treatment comprised of azimsulfuron @ 12.5 g a.i./ha plus bispyribac sodium @ 15 g a.i./ha
as PoE. Based on the findings of present study, the combination of azimsulfuron @ 12.5 g a.i./ha and bispyribac
sodium @ 15 g a.i./ha as PoE need further evaluation through on farm trials in the ensuing Kharif season.
Evaluation of comparative The weed-free condition produces the highest grain yield (5.22 t/ha) and weedy condition showed the lowest
bio-efficacy of herbicides grain yield (3.3 t/ha). Highest WCE (78.6%) was recorded with (glyphosate 40% SL + 2,4-D ethyl ester) applied
in Kharif maize @ (900 + 300) ml as pre-planting (PP) fb topramezone @ 40 ml as PoE. Among the different herbicides,
(glyphosate 40% SL + 2,4-D ethyl ester) combination applied @ (900 + 300) ml as Pre-planting (PP) fb toprame-
467

zone 40 ml PoE showed highest grain yield (5.05 t/ha) of maize in Kharif season.
(Continued) 468
Experiment Salient Finding
Effect of chemical weed Weed-free situation and spraying of (imazamox + imazethapyr) combination @ 30 g/ha 30 DAS showed highest and
management on growth, lowest seed yield of lentil, respectively. Among the different chemical control options, both spraying of pendimethalin
yield and weed dynamics alone and with quizalofop-ethyl were found equally effective in managing the weeds in lentil. Pendimethalin
in lentil application fb quizalofop ethyl @ 750 g and 50 g/ha as PE and PoE respectively showed significant low weed index
with high seed yield of lentil. Application of (imazamox + imezathpyr) combination caused maximum phytotoxicity
among different weed control treatments and crop suffered due to poor growth and lower crop biomass. However,
maximum B:C ratio of 3.83 was found in treatment comprised of pendimethalin @ 750 g/ha as PE.
Bio-efficacy of The maximum WCE (96.6%) was observed for isoproturon @ 1 kg a.i./ha fb manual weeding twice (96%),
imazethapyr alone and (pendimethalin 30EC + imazethapyr 2EC) @ 1 kg a.i./ha (95.4%) and (pendimethalin 30EC + imazethapyr
its combination with 2EC) @ 0.75 kg a.i./ha (94.7%), applied as PE. The maximum grain yield (1225 kg/ha) was observed in manual
pendimethalin for weed weeding twice fb PoE spraying of isoproturon @ 1 kg a.i./ha (1106 kg/ha), imazethapyr @ 60 g.a.i./ha (1074 kg/
control in irrigated ha) and PE spraying of pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i./ha. But the highest NMR and B:C ratio was observed for PoE
linseed application of isoproturon @ 1 kg a.i./ha fb imazethapyr @ 60 g a.i/.ha and pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i./ha.
Among the herbicides, (pendimethalin + imazethapyr) @ 1 kg a.i./ha and 0.75 kg a.i./ha applied as PE effectively
controlled broad spectrum of weeds but were found to be highly phytotoxic to linseed crop, thereby reducing
linseed plant population drastically.
Comparative bio-efficacy Comparing all the treatments, highest WCE was found in manual weeding twice (92.9%) fb isoproturon
of post-emergence @ 1 kg a.i./ha (89.2%) and imazethapyr @ 60 g a.i./ha as PoE (87.7%), whereas the maximum grain yield
herbicides against weed (855 kg/ha) was observed for manual weeding twice which was found at par with isoproturon @ 1 kg a.i./ha
complex in utera linseed (820 kg/ha), imazethapyr @ 50 g a.i./ha (783 kg/ha) and imazethapyr @ 60 g a.i./ha (780 kg/ha).
Integrated weed Combination of seven herbicides (pendimethalin, bispyribac sodium, 2,4-D Na salt, (chlorimuron + metsulfuron
management in aerobic methyl), butachlor) along with straw mulching, mechanical weeding, need-based manual weeding (NBMW)
rice and unwedded control were judged in aerobic rice at BRC Islampur Farm. Spraying of pendimethalin @ 1.00 kg
a.i./ha (3-4DAS) plus bispyribac sodium @ 35 g a.i./ha (15–20 DAS) resulted at par to NBMW and effectively
reduced weed leading to gain maximum grain yield.
Sustainable Agriculture
(Continued)
Experiment Salient Finding
Bio-efficacy of “Platform-385” sprayed at high dose of 6.0 l/ha as PE or as early PoE resulted in getting statistically at par yield
Platform-385 on wheat with the manual weeded plots, still it was observed to be on the lower side for producing stunting effect on crop
vigor without having any visible phyto-toxicity symptoms. Stunting effect was observed to be more prominent
with early PoE application.
Effect of pre and post Pendimethalin (PE) @ 1.5 l a.i./ha + imazethapyr (PoE) @ 60 g a.i./ha. produced considerably higher grain yield,
emergence herbicides for WCE and weed index (WI) comparing all the treatments except pendimethalin (PE) @ 1.5 liters a.i./ha plus
control of smell melon imazethapyr (POE) 40 g a. i./ha which was showing at par result with it.
(ghurmi) in summer green
gram for koshi region of
Bihar
Minimizing weeds in The highest production (250 q/ha) and the maximum B:C ratio (3.01) were achieved by spraying of glyphosate
onion @ 1 kg a.i./ha at 15 days before transplanting plus PE application of pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i./ha at 3 DAT plus
PoE application of oxyfluorfen 250 @ g a.i./ha at 20 DAT compared to the manually weed-free treatment which
yielded (254.00 q/ha) and B:C ratio of 2.25.
Fungicides
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation

Evaluate the efficacy of The experiment showed that the least infection of panicle (5.48%) and spikelet (2.51%) have been observed in
fungicides against false the plots spraying with kresoxim-methyl @ 0.1% fb the plots spraying with propiconazole @ 0.1% to the extent
smut disease of rice of 10.43% and 2.96% respectively. Performance of copper oxychloride @ 0.03% efficiently good in decreasing
the panicle and spikelet infection in comparison to the check plot. Similarly, the highest yield (49.60 q/ha) was
observed with kresoxim-methyl @ 0.1% fb propiconazole @ 0.1% (46.00 q/ha), which was again followed by
copper oxychloride @ 0.03% (43.60 q/ha) whereas the uncontrolled check plot yielded 40.40 q/ha.
Evaluation of efficacy The in-vitro experiments revealed that the combinations of antibiotics and chemicals effectively inhibit the growth
of antibiotics, chemicals of bacterium comparatively than sole application of antibiotics or botanicals. Maximum inhibition zone (15 mm)
and botanicals causing was found in the treatment, i.e., streptomycin (200 ppm) pluscopper hydroxide 77% WP (0.25%) fb 13.38 mm
bacterial leaf blight observed in treatment with streptomycin 200 ppm. However, 13 mm of inhibition zone was observed in treatment
(BLB) of rice with combination of streptocycline (100 ppm) plus copper oxychloride (0.25%). No inhibition zone observed in
treatments with botanicals (1 to 5% concentrations).
469
(Continued) 470
Experiment Salient Finding
The lowest BLB severity (60%) along with max. mean yield (36.12 q/ha) and 1000 grain wt. (28.33 g) was
obtained in treatment streptocycline (300 ppm) plus carbendazim (0.15%) fb 61.48% BLB severity along with
yield of 35.14 q/ha and 1000 grain wt. of 27.39 g noticed in Streptocycline (300 ppm) plus copper hydroxide
(0.25%) in field.
Management of stem rot Lowest stem rot and root rot incidence were recorded with late sown crop coupled with fertilizer doses of
of jute under integrated 80:40:40 and protection modules, i.e., seed treatment plus butachlor along with spraying of carbendazim @ 0.1%
crop management system plus spraying of endosulphan @ 0.15% at 15 days gap. Interaction of D2F2P2 gives maximum yield, i.e., 23.25 q/
ha. D2 (date of sowing) = 30th March, F2 (Fertilizer dose) = 80:40:40 (NPK) and P2 (Protection Module) = seed
treatment plus butachlor along with spraying of carbendazim @ 0.1% plus spraying of endosulphan @ 0.15% at
15 days gap.
In the trial ‘evaluation of new fungicide molecule against Macrophomina phaseolina,’ seed treated with carben-
dazim @ 2 g/kg, tebuconazole @ 1.5 ml/kg and with (azoxystrobin plus difenoconazole) @ 1.0 ml/kg of seed
and their respective spraying at 45 days effectively controlled the disease. In the experiment disease free seed
production, seed sowing in the mid July was found suitable for jute seed production. Spraying of fungicide
(carbendazim) at pod setting stage has been shown more beneficial in enhancing seed yield compared to fungicide
application at pod maturation stage and untreated plot.
Chemical management of Recommendation for Phytophthora leaf rot control:
two diseases phytopthora Spraying of fungicide group (metalaxyl 8% + mancozeb 64%) WP (0.2%) at 15 day of interval (two spray) or
leaf rot and anthracnose application of bordeaux mixture (0.5%) at 15 day of interval (two spray)
leaf spot of betelvine
Recommendation for Anthracnose leaf spot control:
Spraying of fungicide group (carbendazim 12% + mancozeb 63%) WP (0.4%) at 15 days of interval (two sprays)
or application of tebuconazole 25 EC (0.2%) at 15 days of interval (two sprays).
Development of a module To control fungal diseases such as foot-rot, leaf rot, sclerotium wilt and bacterial diseases like bacterial leaf spot
for integrated disease in betelvine, soil treatment with bordeaux mixture (1%) and planting material with bordeaux mixture (1%) +
Management of fungal streptocycline sulphate (1000 ppm) has been shown most effective as compared with control.
and bacterial diseases of
Sustainable Agriculture

betelvine
(Continued)
Experiment Salient Finding
Efficacy of bio-control The treatment combined of soil drench and foliar spraying of (metalaxyl + mancozeb) had shown highest
agents and chemical initial plant establishment. Minimum disease incidence of root wilt infestation (17.5%) was also observed in
treatments on minimizing this treatment. Minimum disease severity (10%) was observed with soil and foliar spraying of Trichoderma.
disease incidence in The maximum yield recorded as 205.35 g/plant was in integrated system, i.e., root dip of carbendazim + soil
strawberry application of Trichoderma + foliar application of (metalaxyl + mancozeb) + mulch (black polythene).
Management of foliar Three foliar applications of dithane M 45 @ 0.25% at boot leaf or at disease initiation on flag leaf fb second and
blight of wheat though third spraying at 10 days gap each was found superior among the treatments.
chemicals
AICRP (STF)  0.1% of carbendazim spray three times at interval gap of 10 days effectively controlled anthracnose disease of
mango.
 0.2% of mancozeb sprayed twice at interval gap of 10 days at panicle emergence effectively controlled
alternaria blossom blight of mango.
 Cost effective management of post-harvest anthracnose of mango by pre and post-harvest treatments
indicated that two pre-harvest sprays of carbendazim along with hot water treatment (52°C for 10 min)
supplemented with carbendazim (0.05%) was best treatment for control of post-harvest anthracnose in mango.
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation

But alone hot water treatment was most effective with high B:C ratio.
Management of Blossom In this experiment, it was found that spraying twice with mancozeb (0.2%), or chlorothalonil (0.2%) or
Blight in Mango (Carbendazim + mancozeb) (0.2%) at a gap of 10 days at flowering reduced the occurrence of blossom
blight in mango.
Management of wilt Maximum control was found in treating the seed with carbendazim @ 1 g/kg seed plus Trichoderma viride @
complex in lentil 5 g/kg seed with highest yield.
Impact of nanopar- Chitosan-based nanoparticle tested against different sclerotial fungi (Sclerotium rolfsii and Macrophomina
ticles on different fungal phaseolina), and a post-harvest pathogen (Aspergillus niger). Silver-based nanoparticles were shown promising
pathosystems result to control various fungi under a laboratory assay. In a pot experiment, silver-based nanoparticle treated
seedlings were freed from infection by Sclerotum rolfsii.
471
(Continued) 472
Experiment Salient Finding
Management of blight Spraying of (metalaxyl + mancozeb) @ 0.2% shown better in decreasing the late blight severity (15.29%)
diseases of tomato followed by (dimethomorph + mancozeb) @ (0.1 + 0.2%) (19.32%).
Management of guava Three sprays of (carbendazim + mancozeb) @ 0.2% at a gap of 15 days starting at bud initiation stage were most
anthracnose affective in managing anthracnose in guava.
Insecticides
Management of stem Application of deltamethrin 20EC was found most effective in reducing no. of eggs (1.92/10 plants) and less no.
borer in maize of damaged leaves with highest yield (56.94 q/ha).
Status and management of Minimum percent pod damage (4.01%) was recorded in the treatment spraying with profenophos which was
important pests of lentil, found at par with the treatment spraying with spinosad (4.98%). Profenophos effectively reduced the population
chick pea and pigeon pea of leaf webber. Population of spiders was observed highest in the untreated control plot which was found at par
with special reference to with treatment spraying with pongamia oil, neem oil and (NSKE + cow urine). Population of coccinelids were
pod borers observed highest in the untreated control was and found at par with treatment spraying with pongamia oil, neem
oil, emamectin benzoate, HaNPV and (NSKE + Cow urine). The yield was recorded maximum in the treatment
profenophos (22.11 q/ha).
Integrated management Module consisting seed treatment with imidacloprid @ 0.5 ml/l fb spraying of imidacloprid @ 0.5 ml/l as well as
of yellow vein mosaic neem oil @ 2.0 ml 4–5 times until fruit formation at 10 days gap showed significant results in reducing diseases
diseases of okra and vector population and maximize yield.
Evaluation of new insec- The experiment was set up to judge new promising compounds against sucking pests of okra under field
ticide molecules against conditions. Thiacloprid @ 0.5 ml/l and thiomethoxam @ 0.35 gm/l most effective controlled whitefly and
sucking pests of okra leafhoppers. The least percent fruit damage was observed in thiacloprid @ 0.5 ml/l leading to achieve maximum
good fruit yield (95.11 q/ha).
In another study, different treatments evaluated under field condition of which flonicamid 50 WG @ 0.4 ml/l
and flonicamid 50 WG @ 0.3 ml/l most effectively reduced whitefly and leafhopper population. It was fb
flupyrifurone 200 SL @ 2.5 ml/l and flupyrifurone 200 SL @ 2.0 ml/l. The maximum yield was achieved in the
treatment, i.e., flonicamid 50 WG @ 0.4 ml/l (98 q/ha) which was found at par with flonicamid 50
WG @ 0.3 ml/l (95 q/ha). However, all the newer molecules were found safer to coccinellids.
Sustainable Agriculture
(Continued)
Experiment Salient Finding
Management of fruit fly Wooden block (5 × 5 × 1 cm) that hanged in plastic bottle and soaked in solution ratio 6:4:1 (alcohal: methyl
through traps in mango eugenol: DDVP) @ 10 traps/ha (replacement of wooden block at 2 months interval) was found superior as it had
and guava shown highest fruit fly catch/trap/week and lowest fruit damage.
Management module The module comprising first spray of thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 1 g/3l water at panicle emergence, second spray
against mango hoppers of profenofos 50EC @ 2 ml/l water at pea size fruit stage and third need based spray of carbaryl 50 WP @ 3 g/l
water resulted in highest (309.67 kg/tree) fruit yield and reduced hopper population.
Development of pest Bio-rational module composed of seedling root dip in imidacloprid 200 SL @ 1 ml/l for 3 hours before trans-
management modules planting, then first foliar spray of thiomethoxam 75 WG @ 0.5 g/l at 40 DAT, after that second foliar spray of
for insect pest complex in spinosad 45 SC @ 0.5 ml/l at 60 DAT, fb third foliar application of indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 0.5 ml/l at 75 DAT
brinjal and fourth foliar application of emmamectin benzoate 25 WG @ 0.4 g/l at 90 DAT had shown to be best module
to decrease the shoot and fruit damage.
Validation of vermiwash Application of 10% vermiwash alone significantly reduced (45.45%) the Tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) and all
against viral disease of the treatment of vermiwash (2%, 3%, 5% and 10%) with imidacloprid (0.03%) significantly managed the ToLCV.
Tomato 10% vermiwash with imidacloprid (0.03%) significantly reduced the ToLCV incidence by 81.81%, whereas use
of imidacloprid (0.03%) reduced incidence by 54.54%.
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation

Management of Brown The treatment containing spraying of imidacloprid 17.8 SL effectively reduced BPH population which was found
plant hopper in rice at par with acephate 75 SP. Maximum yield was obtained (60.63 q/ha) in the treatment containing spraying of
imidacloprid 17.8 SL followed by acephate 75 SP (56.29 q/ha).
Bio-efficacy of cassava- Whitefly and leafhopper population was lowest in the plot applied with Quinolphos 25EC @ 3 ml/l which was fb
based bio-pesticides on dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l.
insect pest complex of
brinjal
Management of litchi fruit Flubendiamide, spinosad and novaluron were found statistically at par as compared with other insecticides.
borer Flubendiamide fb spinosad and novaluron effectively reduced pest infestation 6.4% resulted in higher yield 84.3
kg/tree than other insecticides.
473
(Continued) 474
Experiment Salient Finding
Studies on Insect and The experiment recorded that the highest yield (35.84 and 35.37 q/ha), avoidable loss (23.72 and 22.70%) and
Gastropod Pest complex B:C ratio (6.27 and 5.78:1) were achieved when seed treatment and root dip treatment have been done with
and their management in imidacloprid 70 WS or thiomethoxam 25 WG @ 5 gm/kg along with foliar spray of NSKE @ 5%.
Makhana Ecosystem
Field evaluation of The results in terms of yield (no. basis and wt. basis) and shoot damage indicated that treatment comprised
different insecticide userotational strategy (rynaxipyr 20 SC @ 0.4 ml/l followed by emmamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 0.5 g/l, spinosad 45
strategies as resistance SC @ 0.5 ml/l, chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2 ml/l, cypermethrin 25 EC @ 0.5 ml/l) significantly reduced shoot and
management and control fruit damage (6.37% and 9.40%) and showed maximum (350 q/ha) yield. As per findings of mean population of
coccinellids, it was clear that all the newer molecules were safer to the predator and they were found statistically
tactics for shoot and fruit
borer in brinjal at par with untreated check.
All India Co-ordinated The results revealed that all the modules were found significantly superior over untreated control. Among the
Research Project (AICRP) modules evaluated under field condition, the best module comprised erection of yellow sticky traps (1–2 traps @
on Vegetable Crops (Ento-50–100 m2) + foliar spray of imidacloprid 200 SL @ 0.5 ml/l at 20 and 30 DAT + spray (mixture of malathion
mology Component) 50 EC @ 2 ml/l and 10 g jaggery or gur in 1 l at flowering) + spray of rynaxypyr 20 SC @ 0.5 ml/ l at 15 days
interval at the initiation of flowering + spray fenzaquin 10 EC @ 0.25 ml/l at the appearance of mite was found
as best treatment to reduce whitefly and jassid population. Minimum percent of fruit damage by Helicoverpa was
found in this treatment. The incidence of leaf curl virus disease in these treated plots was found significantly less
as compared with other plots. Highest marketable yield was also achieved in this module (301 q/ha).
Plant Growth Regulator (PGR)
Mitigation of high Foliar spray of KNO3 @ 0.5% both at booting and anthesis stage significantly enhanced the grain yield of late
temperature stress in sown wheat (42.99 q/ha) as compared with no foliar spray (34.74 q/ha) and was found statistically at par with the
late sown wheat through treatments such as foliar spraying of KNO3 @ 1% was done only at anthesis stage and the foliar application of
exogenous application of CaCl2 @ 0.1% was done at both booting and anthesis stage. The yield was found to be increased around 20–23%
synthetic compounds on average as a result of foliar application of synthetic compounds (KNO3 and CaCl2). The treatments significantly
increased higher yield and caused significant reduction in electrolytic leaf leakage and proline content as well in
flag leaf, both at anthesis and grain filling stage. higher level of chlorophyll content was also being maintained.
Thus, these treatments significantly improved high temperature stress characteristics of late sown wheat. K salts
Sustainable Agriculture
(Continued)
Experiment Salient Finding
having Nitrate (NO3–) counterpart / Ca salts are having direct beneficial effect under field condition to enhance
yield (20–23%) of late sown wheat· Anthesis stage is the most responsive stage for spray· Spray of these inorganic
salts at lower concentration improves high temperature stress tolerance of late sown wheat.
Effect of pre-harvest Comparing all the different treatments of salicylic acid and calcium chloride, pre-harvest application of salicylic
treatments on postharvest acid (1 mM) effectively reduced (9.85%) and weight loss (14.27%) of fruit compared with control, 15 days after
life of strawberry fruits storage at 2°C. Fruits sprayed with salicylic acid (1 mM) maintained highest anthocyanins (27.17 mg/100 g), total
phenolics (2.074 μg GAE/g) and total antioxidant capacity (20.73 μmol TE/g) than control and other treatments.
TSS content was not different among the treated and control fruits.
Management of lodging The recommended wheat variety, HD2967, for timely sown irrigated conditions of this zone was evaluated for
and yield maximization lodging and yield maximization using nutrient expert and two applications of chlormequat @ 0.2% of commer-
using nutrient expert cial product at first node stage (45DAS) and at flag leaf stage (80DAS) along with two combined sprayings of
(SPL-2) chlormequat @ 0.2% and tebuconazole at node and flag leaf stage, with recommended dose of fertilizer and
NE targeted yield of 6 t/ha and 7 t/ha. Maximum mean grain yield (47.6 q/ha) was found in the plots where NE
targeted yield 7 t/ha (140 kg N/ha: 68 kg P2O5/ha: 101 kg K2O/ha) and two spray of chlormequat chloride @ 0.2%
and tebuconazole that applied at first node stage (45DAS) and at flag leaf stage (80DAS) respectively. This was
observed statistically at par with mean grain yield (46.3 q/ha) achieved from the plots where NE targeted yield 6
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation

t/ha (120 kg N/ha: 63 kg P2O5: 82 kg K2O/ha) and two spray of chlormequat chloride @ 0.2% and tebuconazole
that applied at first node stage (45DAS) and at flag leaf stage (80DAS) respectively. Both these treatments were
observed significantly superior than other treatments in mean grain yield. Plants of chlormequat applied plots
were found comparatively shorter in height than all other treatments.
Pruning for rejuvenation In this experiment, maximum fruit yield (8.31 t/ha) was observed in treatment heading back up to the crowded
of overcrowded orchards branchlet and center opening along with spraying of paclobutrazol (3.5 ml/sq.m) during off season of fruiting.
in mango However, the maximum average fruit weight (307.00 g) was observed in treatment of heading back up to
secondary branchlet without application of paclobutrazol.
Evaluation of PGR and The results revealed that different PGRs had profound effect on the early flowering and fruiting in litchi. Foliar
promising chemicals for spray of ethrel 400 ppm resulted in 5 days advancement of flowering (anthesis). The treatment K2HPO4 (1%) +
early flowering in litchi KNO3 (1%) gave maximum fruits/panicle (21.67) with highest fruit weight (21.54 g), yield (93.33 kg/tree) and
475

TSS (21.54°B).
(Continued) 476
Experiment Salient Finding
Light annual pruning and  Significant effect has not been observed in newly emerged shoot length but significantly highest girth diameter
chemical treatment for (5.26 cm) was recorded under the treatment consists of 25% pruning + 3 g a.i. paclobutazol + 3% KNO3.
improving fruit yield and  Date of flower bud initiation was varied from 05.02.2016 to 10.02.2016 and fruit setting varied from
quality of mango 09.03.2016 to 11.03.2016.
 Significantly highest yield (713.33 fruits/plant) was observed under the treatment consists of 25% pruning
+ 3 g a.i. paclobutazol + 3% KNO3 followed by the treatment consists of under 25% pruning along with
paclobutrazol (615 fruits/plant) and the treatment, i.e., 25% pruning along with 3% KNO3 (506.33 fruit/plant).
Enhancement of fruit The minimum fruit drop, and higher fruit yield per plant (117.29 kg) was found maximum in treatment calcium
set and reduction in nitrate (0.06%) + boric Acid (0.02%) closely followed by calcium nitrate (0.06%). This technology is beneficial
fruit drop through foliar for minimizing the fruit drop and inducing the fruit set as well as enhancing the fruit yield.
application of calcium,
boron and sorbitol in
mango cv. langra
Sustainable Agriculture
Advancement of Agrochemical Research and Regulation 477

Several generic and advanced herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, plant

growth regulator, etc. are being tested regularly in different crops to improve
production and also quality of harvest. Some of the experiments are listed
below:

KEYWORDS

 Bacillus thuringiensis
 bacterial leaf blight
 Bihar Agricultural University
 Central Insecticides Board
 chitin synthesis inhibitors
 chlormequat/cycocel

REFERENCES

A History of Crop Protection and Pest Control in Our Society, Crop Life Canada, (2002). http://
www.croplife.ca/english/pdf/Analyzing2003/T1History.pdf (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Agenda Notes. Research Council Meeting, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur.
Bora, D. S., (1998). Effect of environmental stress with special reference to photoperiod
and insecticide on muga worms. Antheraea assama Westwood. PhD Thesis. Dibrugarh
University, Dibrugarh, Assam, India.
Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee. http://cibrc.nic.in/about_us.htm
(Accessed on 25 November 2019 ).
Chukudebe, R. B., Othman, M., & Fukuto, T. R., (1989). Formation of trialkyl phosphorothioate
esters from organophosphorus insecticides after exposure to either ultraviolet light or
sunlight. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 37, 539–545.
Delaplane, K. S., (2000). Pesticide Usage in the United States: History, Benefits, Risks, and
Trends. Bulletin 1121, Cooperative Extension Service, The University of Georgia College
of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/
B1121.pdf (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Haynes, K. F., (1988). Sublethal effects of neurotoxic insecticides on insect behavior. Annu
Rev Entomol., 33, 149–168.
http://agrochemicals.iupac.org/index.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details&cati
d=3&sobi2Id=31 (Accessed on 25 November 2019 ).
http://www.dawn.com/news/125197/plant-growth-regulators (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Kariappa, B. K., & Narasimhanna, M. N., (1978). Effect of insecticides in controlling the
mulberry thrips and their effect on rearing silkworm, Bombyx mori. Indian J. Seric., 17, 7–14.
478 Sustainable Agriculture

Morton, V., & Staub, T., (2008). A Short History of Fungicides. APSnet, http://www.apsnet.
org/online/feature/fungi/ (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
New Insecticide Modes of Action: Whence Selectivity? J. Coats, Iowa State University.
Ames, Iowa, USA http://www.slideworld.org/viewslides.aspx/New-Insecticide-Modes-of-
Action-Whence-Selectivity-ppt-42841 (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
OECD Series on Pesticides, (1999). Number 8, Report of the OECD/FAO Workshop on Inte-
grated Pest Management and Pesticide Risk Reduction. http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/1999doc.
nsf/LinkTo/NT00000FBE/$FILE/04E94320.PDF (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Silent Spring, (2002). 40th Anniversary Edition. Rachel Carson, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
ISBN: 0618249060,9780618249060. http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&id=HeR1l0
V0r54C&dq=silent + spring&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=1r4bWmlR2G&sig
=RFBfJr0UBxYcFAS7Y6YdVWkSwwQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result#
PPP1,M1 (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
The History of Pesticides, Organic Pesticides, September 19th, (2008). http://blog.ecosmart.
com/index.php/2008/09/19/the-history-of-pesticides/ (Accessed on 25 November 2019 ).
The Next Generation of Pesticides, (2013). Jonathan Lundgren, https://igrow.org/agronomy/
corn/the-next-generation-of-pesticides/ (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Troitskaya, E. N., & Chichigina, I. P., (1980). The effect of combined insecticidal preparations
on silkworm larvae. Uzbekshii Biologicheskii Zhurnal. 3, 50–53.
Wessels Living History Farm. York, Nebraska, Farming in the 1930s. http://www.livinghisto-
ryfarm.org/farminginthe30s/pests_04.html (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Wessels Living History Farm. York, Nebraska, Farming in the 1950s & 1960s. http://www.
livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/pests_08.html (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Wilkinson, C. F., (1976). Insecticide Biochemistry and Physiology. Plenum Press. New York.
Zabik, M. J., (1985). Photochemistry of pesticides. In: Gilbert, L. I., & Kerkut, G. A., (eds.),
Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology. Pergamon Press,
Oxford. 12776801.
 PART IV
Product Development and Extension
Education
CHAPTER 23

Institutional Outreach Through

Innovative Approaches
ADITYA SINHA and R. K. SOHANE
Department of Extension Education, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected] (Aditya)

ABSTRACT

The new age innovative approaches including information and commu-

nication technologies (ICTs) have the potential to provide varied solu-
tions to the farming community like improving their capacity building
towards high-value crops along with proper access to credit and markets,
promoting better collaboration between the functioning agencies and so
on. India is on a track to embark upon a “Cyber revolution” with effec-
tive extension advisory services (EAS) ICTs. Of late, the government is
investing heavily on the Digital India program which helps leverage the
potential of connectivity to enhance the services delivery mechanism in
the country. Along with it, it can be an enabler in bridging the digital
divide between urban and rural India along with an effective skill devel-
opment program on a sustained basis for self-employment of the masses.
It also has an ambitious initiative to include everyone digitally by 2019.
The present paper deals with the innovative approaches of Bihar Agri-
cultural University (BAU), Sabour in reaching the farmers with ease in
the quickest possible time. The review is based on advancements after
the year 2000. It discusses the role of Kisan Chaupal, Video confer-
encing, community radio services, farmers’ helpline and related avenues
in generating interest and promoting better extension among the farmers.
The impact of these innovative experiments offered through ICTs is
much more what could be attributed due to traditional means along with
lowering of expenses incurred.
482 Sustainable Agriculture

23.1 INTRODUCTION

The use of ICTs in agriculture is no more a new area of study particu-

larly in the case of developing countries. Digital developments such as
the Internet and mobile phone has capability to empower communities
in rural areas along with harnessing and capturing local farmer knowl-
edge and using participatory approaches to provide extension and advi-
sory services. Technology per se does not solve economic problems, but
availability of ICT will have a significant impact on rural development
in developing countries (Makuleke project, 2009). Beyond connectivity
ICT offers security and mobility to owners, and requires that users have
basic literacy. It has been reported that the new ways of managing knowl-
edge have emerged across developing countries beyond the traditional
farmer-extension systems (Ferrández-Villena, M., and Ruiz-Canales, A.,
2017). There are changing demands of farmer's in the current time and
complex decisions need to be made to effectively manage their farming
and businesses. The range of services for farmers is continuing to grow
so as to better meet their needs and help them be more productive and
remunerative. It is often debated that the future of extension services is
in establishing a central community-focused organization with efficient
e-based services of the current times that can help manage these services
for farmers. The essence of the current e-extension services lies in shifting
to maintain as a personal secretary for the farmers. Agriculture remains
the principal activity for sustainability in rural Asia and Africa. The work
on providing access to web-linked information on crop prices, quality of
agricultural products, various methods of growing seeds and livestock,
quality of soil, effective fertilization and up to date weather information
via Internet and mobile phones is on the rise. Several mobile applica-
tions are developed regularly which are providing localized services to
the farmers. The use of participatory approaches can empower groups of
farmers collectively, thereby leaving the decision-making in the hands
of the farmers helping contribute to the better understanding of farmers’
needs. In order to leverage the benefits of ICT enabled extension services,
BAU, Sabour has rolled out e-initiatives in a comprehensive manner for
the benefit to the farmers. The current paper deals with the application
of mobile-based services, community radio and video-conferencing for
effective EAS for the farmers.
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 483

23.2 NEED FOR ICTS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND RURAL

DEVELOPMENT

Different empirical studies over the years have shown that knowledge cannot
easily reach farmers through traditional extension systems and development
projects. This has called for the ways to implement new systems along with
various potentialities to figure out the scalable methodologies. Developing
countries have implemented several models to bridge the divide among
the urban and rural and also to mitigate the challenges faced because of
low extension worker to farmer ratio. The use of ICTs for small holder and
family farmers in India is no longer constrained by access or ownership to
basic ICT tools, such as the mobile phone, at the household level the way it
was ten years ago. Studies further indicate that the success or sustainability
of ICT based models is associated with a variety of factors such as good
management, minimum level of infrastructure, strong local demand, new and
relevant content development, availability of innovative and locally relevant
services, and external linkages and networking (Benjamin, 2001; Ali, 2012;
Etta and Parvyn-Wamahiu, 2003; Herold, 2010; Manda, 2002; Roman
and Colle, 2003). There is increasing evidence that infrastructure such as
telecommunications network and ICTs help to reduce poverty and provide
opportunities to people in developing countries (Torero and Chowdhury,
2005). It is imperative to make information readily and cheaply available
which can enhance production, increase bargaining power and incomes, and
ultimately, lead to poverty reduction and economic development. In addition,
making information readily and cheaply available can enhance production
by enabling farmers to plant and harvest at appropriate times (weather
information), improve the functioning of credit markets (by facilitating social
capital as through increased communications farmers develop and gain trust
and reputations), facilitate access to more efficient technologies (through
finances obtained through increased credit ratings/worthiness), and in the
long run, transform production processes through more rapid and diffuse
spread of technological innovations amongst a broader range of interacting
agents-consumers (with different tastes and preferences leading to product
differentiation or new product development), sellers (of inputs products and
services), traders, and processors (Eggleston et al., 2002). The benefits to
an organization after managing all extension services for farmers through
e-based services can be understood as:
484 Sustainable Agriculture

 Constant two-way dialogue between scientists and farmers and the

ability to negotiate and adapt services to better meet local farmer's
needs.
 Greater ability to aggregate farmers and meet market requirements as
per specific crop of the location.
 Regular feedback and increased information about farmers that allows
for better matching with available services for enhanced extension
services.

23.3 METHODOLOGY

This inventory is limited to documenting innovative farmer information

services enabled through innovative means including ICTs. It is focused
on projects/services that provide agricultural training and information to
farmers directly, in BAU, Sabour; rather than documenting services that
facilitate the exchange of information among researchers and policymakers.
We have provided an overview of various innovative approaches through
which the University is reaching the farmers effectively.

23.4 KISAN CHAUPAL

Kisan Chaupal is an innovative extension program launched in the year 2012

by BAU, Sabour to connect the farmers with the scientists directly at their
own place. This program was implemented by all Krishi Vigyan Kendras
(KVK) and colleges under the jurisdiction of the university. The modus
operandi of the program is that a group of scientists belonging to different
branches of agriculture and veterinary sciences visit the pre-decided villages
where the farmers already gather on a common meeting ground for getting
their queries answered by the scientists instantly. The villages are identified
with the participation of farmers' representatives and the scientists of the
KVK. The program is conducted each week, particularly on Saturday. Over
the past years, this program has also focused on creating awareness among
farmers regarding various central and state-sponsored schemes in agricul-
ture and allied sectors. Over 3 lakh farmers have been benefitted through this
program over a period of three years.
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 485

23.4.1 OBJECTIVES OF KISAN CHOUPAL

The specific objective of the Kisan Chaupal is to strengthen the linkages

between scientists and farmers with instant problem-solving at their door-
steps along with a collection of feedback for the development of research
priorities of the university. It also helps in necessary convergence with
different agencies working for extension work at the grass root level.

23.4.2 NEW INITIATIVES/INNOVATIONS IN KISANCHAUPAL

The scientists have recognized several new innovations and have incorpo-
rated it in the “Kisan Chaupal” to make it more lively and interesting for the
farmers so as to fulfill the needs and requirement of maximum farmers in its
jurisdiction. Some of the new initiatives are discussed below:

1. Krishak Sandhya: It is an innovative attempt made in this initia-

tive to teach the basics of agriculture through entertainment. It was
generally observed that farmers were mainly interested in their
works in fields and other family work during day time. Hence, they
were reluctant to undergo training and avail of service of scientists,
who are available only during office hours. The concept of starting
a program named as “Krishak Sandhya” (An evening with farmers)
was felt in which farmers could be enlightened via entertainment.
Folk artists are explained techniques of modern and remunera-
tive farming and are asked to prepare folk songs. The farmers are
educated by the scientists in the middle of the program. The main
benefit of the program was that it enabled better rapport building
with the farmers as they became familiar with the scientists through
486 Sustainable Agriculture

“Krishak Sandhya” and started to consider them as their friends.

Local women also participated actively. The farmers’ enthusiasm is
a positive sign which was recognized through this initiative.
2. Mahila Chaupal: It was experienced in the “Kisan Chaupal” initia-
tive that women farmers were normally hesitant to ask questions on
agricultural practices in a gathering dominated by men. The scientists
of the university planned to implement a separate forum exclusively
for the women farmers in which the participation of women scientists
will be ascertained. The “Mahila Chaupal” has proved to be a popular
initiative that has created lots of success stories in such a small span
of time in the form of women agri-entrepreneur with expertise on
mushroom cultivation, vegetable cultivation among a few.

23.5 TECHNOLOGY WEEK

With the aim to fulfill the fourth mandate of KVK to act as Knowledge and
Resource Center, technology week has been started in all the KVKs of BAU.
Technology Week has provided a platform to bring a number of stakeholders
like farmer, extension workers, input dealers, scientists and other stakeholders
under a single umbrella. It is celebrated on Public-Private Partnership model
(PPP) to make farmers aware about advance scientific know-how. The
following steps are adopted in the celebration of technology week.

 Planning and pre-inception meeting with all the stakeholders.

 Mobilization/publicity of technology week before the celebration.
 Display of different scientific know-how through suitable exhibition
materials viz.; posters, objects, charts, models, live demonstration, etc.
 Interaction between scientists, farmers and other stakeholders.
 Brainstorming of farmers for solving their problems.
 Media management: media backstopping, sensitization of media
about KVK work.

In addition to it, for further enrichment and boosting up of knowledge,

the KVKs have organized film shows for the farmers during the technology
week. Regularly kisangoshthi were organized in different topics like crop
production, horticulture, women empowerment, animal husbandry and agri-
entrepreneurship development.
The unique feature of technology week is the focus on the best-fit approach
rather than the best technology approach, convergence of different stakeholders
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 487

and PPP mode. It is indeed a great learning experience for farmers who get
relevant scientific understanding and scientist as well through farmers' feed-
back. It has also helped in formulating the research priorities of the varsity.

23.6 MOBILE MESSAGING SERVICES

23.6.1 MOBILE BASED AGRO-ADVISORY SERVICES THROUGH

“KISAAN SMS PORTAL”

The University is utilizing the mKisan SMS portal launched by the

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry
of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India in the year 2013
to send regular advisories to the farmers of various districts through its
KVKs. Also, the scientists and the officers of the university are authorized
to send crop relevant messages to the farmers in both Hindi and English.
This particular platform is benefiting more than 80,000 farmers of the
region through the university.

23.7 KISAN HELPLINE

The Kisan Helpline services were started in the university in the year 2012
as an information wing of the Plant Health Clinic. A group of scientists
from different disciplines are assigned duties to answer to the queries of
the farmers over phone. Also, the university has extended this service on
a dedicated number through WhatsApp messaging services so that farmers
can also make use of crop images and other characteristics to explain the
problem in a better way.
The discipline wise calls received from the Kisan Call Center are
mentioned above. Table 23.1 shows that maximum calls were received
related to queries on agronomical aspects including weed and meteorology.
The Plant Health clinic is also responsible for testing of soil samples. It has
tested a total of 1280 soil samples in the financial year 2015–’16 (Table 23.2).

23.8 AGROMET ADVISORY SERVICES (AAS)

Agromet advisory services (AAS) is provided by the agromet advisory unit,

Department of Agronomy, BAU, Sabour. The weather forecast is provided
488 Sustainable Agriculture

twice in a week on Tuesday and Friday. Parameters forecasted are rain-

fall, maximum temperature, minimum temperature, cloud cover, relative
humidity (morning), relative humidity (evening), wind velocity and wind
direction. The forecast is valid for a period of five days. Along with it, advi-
sory services for farmers provide information on management of farming
systems according to the weather conditions and application of fertilizer,
irrigation, cultural practices, spraying of pesticides, fungicides, harvesting
of crops, storage and other farm-related works. Aspects related to fisheries,
animal husbandry, poultry, etc. are also advised according to the prevalent
weather conditions.

TABLE 23.1 Calls Received at Kisan Call Center from Various Disciplines (April 2015–
March 2016)
Sl. No. Discipline No. of Calls
1. Crop Protection 395
2. Fruits 400
3. Vegetable 309
4. Agronomy (Crop, weeds and Meteorology) 785
5. Animal Husbandry 286
6. Plant Breeding 103
7. Bee keeping 27
8. Soil Science 103
9. Social Science (Extension, Economics, Statistics) 280
Total 2688

TABLE 23.2 Soil Testing Work (April 2015–March 2016)

Sl. No. Sample No.
1. Soil samples tested (Farmers, organizations and others) 439
2. Soil samples tested for World Soil Day, 2015 841
Total 1280

23.8.1 AREA COVERED

Weather forecasting and advisory services are provided for agro-ecological

regions III A and III B of Bihar state.

 Zone III A: Six districts are covered viz. Bhagalpur, Munger, Banka,
Jamui, Sheikhpura, Lakhisarai.
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 489

 Zone III B: Eleven districts are covered viz. Patna, Nawada, Nalanda,
Buxar, Bhabhua, Aurangabad, Gaya, Jehanabad, Rohtas, Arwal,
Bhojpur.

The advisories are communicated to the farmers mainly through local

newspapers. Along with it, the agro advisory bulletin is sent to the KVK’s,
NGO’s, ATMA, the office of Annadata program for farmers on ETV, the
office of District agricultural officer, All India Radio, through e-mail. It is
also uploaded on the web site of the university and Indian Meteorological
Department (IMD) for wider circulation.

23.9 VIDEO CONFERENCING AND TVU SYSTEM IN RENDERING

EXTENSION SERVICES

Videoconferencing can act as a suitable delivery method for responding to

the wants and needs of the remote farmers. It is an effective instrument to
curtail costs associated with traditional training programs offered by the
universities and departments. It has already been experimental success-
fully on students. It has been argued that educators are increasingly
facilitating connections between their clients and educational resources
located anywhere in the world through videoconferencing (Valsamidis et
al., 2011; Nudell et al., 2005). The university is regularly reaching out
with farmers located in different KVKs of the districts through video
conferencing.
By using TVU systems which are lightweight, portable video transmis-
sion systems capable of transmitting information from the farmers’ field,
now it is possible to link farmers’ fields in real-time with the scientist sitting
at headquarters for providing advisory to farmers (Table 23.3).
It can be seen from Table 23.3 that a total of 18 KVKs of the Univer-
sity at various locations are connected through videoconferencing from the
university headquarters at Sabour. The trainings on various aspects based on
needs of the farmers are organized regularly with the active collaboration of
the KVKs. The participation of farmers is on the rise with this innovative
method to save time, money, etc. for the want of expert advice. The domain
covered under advisory through video conferencing is weed management,
vaccination in poultry, orchard management, goatery, nutrient management,
mushroom farming, etc. A total of 8645 farmers were directly benefitted
through video conferencing through 344 specialized trainings in the year
2015–16.
490 Sustainable Agriculture

TABLE 23.3 Trainings Organized Through Video Conferencing (April–March 2016)

Month No. of KVK No. of Trainings Through No. of Farmers
Connected Video Conferencing Benefited
April 2015 10 35 875
May 2015 10 35 875
June 2015 10 23 575
July 2015 10 24 600
August 2015 10 30 710
September 2015 10 35 820
October 2015 10 30 700
December 2015 17 40 1000
January 2015 17 22 540
February 2015 17 38 1025
March 2015 18 32 925
Total 344 8645

The benefits attributed to the video-conferencing facility provided by the

university are briefly described below:

 Increased Productivity: The use of videoconferencing is the next

driver for productivity because it is quite easier for the scientists to
keep in closer contact with the farmers. This closeness has led to
new ideas on how to speed up the development of new products and
services in the agricultural sector.
 Improved Communication and Reinforces Relationships:
During a videoconference, one can see the facial expressions and
body language of conference participants. These are both important
aspects of communication that are lost with a basic telephone call.
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 491

The video conferencing facility enables better interaction and the

possibility to be reflected on the screen connects better with the
advices suggested.
 Reduced Travel Expenses: In today's scenario cutting down the
travel expenses and time of the scientists is of utmost importance.
Video-conferencing provides a suitable medium for university scien-
tists to stay connected with the farmers without having to visit them
personally.
 Improved Effectiveness: The quote “A picture is worth a thousand
words” can be very well substantiated by Videoconferencing. A live
video call is much more effective than a phone call in many situa-
tions. The benefit attributed to the video-conferencing by the KVKs
has improved the effectiveness of not only the farmers but also the
scientists associated with the university.
 Time Saved: The video conferencing facility has enabled saving of
time of all the people engaged in the process.

The video conferencing facility has not only facilitated better interaction
between the scientists and the farmers but also helped the policymakers have
a better know-how of the farmers.

23.10 DIGITAL STORYTELLING

Extension professionals are utilizing various video-sharing platforms like

YouTube, Vimeo, etc. to provide expert information to the farming commu-
nity through the generation of farmer participatory videos. The scientists
of the university are providing handy information on several agricultural
avenues to the farmers in this way. It is also updated regularly to meet the
taste of the viewers from all over the world (Table 23.4).
The web analytics of the YouTube channels reveals that Poultry Farming
has the maximum viewership share (1,84,405 views) comprising 34% of
the total views of all the videos uploaded followed by Goat farming on
the second place (1,02,274 views, 19%) and Quail farming on third place
(90,292 views, 17%).
The 19th Livestock census 2012 also reveals the rise of poultry farming
in the country with 12.13% increase from the year 2007 to 2012. Though
the Goat population has declined by 3.82% over the previous census and
the total Goat in the country is 135.17 million numbers in 2012 (Ministry of
Agriculture, 2012). There is a rising interest among the farmers in the rural
492 Sustainable Agriculture

areas in India for poultry and goat farming which can be very much depicted
from the statistics in Table 23.1.

TABLE 23.4 Web Analytics of Farmer Friendly Videos Shared on YouTube

Topic Watch Time (Minutes) Views Views (%)
Poultry farming 982,654 184,405 34%
Goat farming 446,832 102,274 19%
Quail farming 350,771 90,292 17%
Honeybee rearing 123,070 26,956 4.9%
Scientific cultivation of pointed gourd 103,747 18,706 3.4%
Tomato ketchup preparation method 91,083 19,809 3.6%
Azolla farming 77,848 17,395 3.2%
Integrated Farming System 71,813 14,086 2.6%
Strawberry cultivation in Bihar 69,291 15,670 2.9%
Insect and Pest control in Paddy 52,025 11,853 2.2%
Source: YouTube web analytics (bausabour channel), September 2016.

Table 23.5 shows the demographics of viewership on YouTube. Maximum

views are largely from the youth in the age group of 25–34 years. The view-
ership base is mostly from India (64%) followed by Saudi Arabia (9.9%),
United Arab Emirates (5%), Pakistan (2.5%) and Kuwait (2.1%).
The web analytics of farmer-friendly videos produced by the university
along with the visits from different countries show the widening interest of
the youth towards farming through social media channels.
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 493

TABLE 23.5 Demographics of Viewership on YouTube

Viewer Age (in Years) Watch Time (in %) Male (in %) Female (in %)
13–17 1.5% 83% 17%
18–24 17% 91% 8.5%
25–34 49% 94% 5.5%
35–44 20% 94% 6.1%
45–54 6.7% 91% 8.9%
55–64 3.2% 91% 9.1%
65 and above 1.7% 91% 9.4%
Source: YouTube web analytics (bausabour channel), September 2016.

23.11 KISAN GYAN RATH (MULTI UTILITY MOBILE VEHICLE FOR

ENHANCING FARMERS’ KNOWLEDGE)

An approach to mobile technology dissemination facility (a bus vehicle

equipped with multimedia content on farm science and technology and
means of displaying knowledge and information) initiated by BAU is
Kishan Gyan Rath which was launched in 2014. It is an important mobile
medium for providing expert guidance, consultancy, and method illustration
to the farmers on their doorsteps through audio-visual means. The Kishan
Gyan Rath in addition to the technology dissemination facility also has a
fully equipped unit for onsite soil analysis, interpretation, and issuing of soil
health cards to the farmers. The benefit of such service is that farmers need
not visit the soil testing laboratories located far from their place; instead, the
soil testing laboratories reach farmers on their doorsteps.

In addition to this, efforts are also made to bring about change in the
knowledge and attitude of farmers through the Nukkad Natak (Folk drama).
This Rath displays technical videos developed by the varsity. Apart from
this, soil samples are also collected from the farmers and analyzed reports
are given to the farmers in the form of soil health cards at the shortest time.
494 Sustainable Agriculture

23.12 PROMOTING INTERACTIVITY THROUGH COMMUNITY

RADIO

Community radio is thought of as a platform where the everyday experiences

of ordinary people can be shared. Chapman et al. (2003) reported that the
growth of rural radio stations reflects both the improvements in information
technologies and the shifting of development paradigm towards a more
participatory style of information and knowledge transfer. It is an important
means to strengthen participatory communication for both economic and social
development. The Community Radio of the University is operational at KVK,
Barh, Patna, Bihar since May, 2011 on FM 91.2 Mhz bandwidth. The present
study was conducted in the year 2014 with sample from eight blocks namely
Barh, Pandarak, Athmalgola, Belchi, Bakhtiarpur, Khusrupur, Ghoswari, and
Mokama in which services of Community Radio Station, Barh located at
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Barh, Patna is on air. It is broadcasting locally relevant
programs for the farming community on a daily basis for a total duration of
three hours. It covers a total of 503 villages covering a population of 1,34,0293
individuals. The topics for women, children and farmers are discussed in
minute detail. The station is well accessible to the local community and is
staffed with local community members for enhanced and sustainable benefits.

23.12.1 FARMERS’ REACTIONS TO THE RADIO PROGRAMMES

The reaction of farmers to the content of various radio programs were studied
in detail. The results are mentioned in Table 23.6.

TABLE 23.6 Target Audience Understanding of Radio Programmes

Responses Frequency Percentage (%)
Understood well 58 77.33%
No response 2 2.66%
Partly understood 12 16.00%
Had little understanding 3 4.00%

The understanding of radio content by the audience was studied which

revealed that a maximum (77.33%) audience understood the content very
well whether it is in local dialect Maghi or Hindi. It was followed by those
who understood party (16%), had little understanding of the content (4%)
and those who did not respond (2.66%) (Table 23.7).
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 495

TABLE 23.7 Perceived Main Messages of the Programme

Main Message Frequency Ranking
(n=213*)
Importance of health and proper nutrition/sanitation 21 5
Importance of adopting new technologies in agriculture like 33 2
mushroom cultivation, vermicomposting and honeybee rearing
Dairying and animal husbandry practices 29 4=
Organic farming 16 6
Government schemes 29 4=
Orchard cultivation 32 3
Agroforestry and plantation of trees on the bunds 15 7
Plant protection measures and alert on diseases/pest 38 1
*Respondents were permitted more than one response.

The main message/central theme perceived from the program which was
ranked on the first is plant protection measures and alert on diseases/ pests
infesting the crops. It was followed by the practical aspect concerning the
importance of adopting new technologies in agriculture like mushroom culti-
vation, vermicomposting and honeybee rearing among a few on the second
slot. Horticultural aspect like the cultivation of orchard was on the third
rank. Information on various government schemes for the social sector and
practices like dairying and animal husbandry occupied the same fourth rank.
The importance of health and proper nutrition/ sanitation was on the fifth
rank followed by newer methods like organic farming on the sixth. Various
methods on agroforestry and plantation of the tree on the bunds were ranked
on the last position.

23.13 DISSEMINATION OF VIDEOS THROUGH LOW-COST SD

CARDS

It is often said that “Seeing is believing.” The importance of visualization

is very important in the digital era where videos are getting popular in
every domain of learning. To exploit the power of effective videos for
the farming community, a collaborative research project by the National
Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad
and BAU, Sabour is initiated in twenty-five districts of Bihar state under
the jurisdiction of BAU, Sabour. The project entitled “Digital Videos for
farmers by using mobile phones with low-cost SD cards” is providing 100
496 Sustainable Agriculture

Secure Digital (SD) cards each to 100 different progressive farmers having
smartphones in 25 districts of Bihar through the KVK. The low-cost SD
cards have 20 popular videos in agriculture and allied disciplines (Table 23.1)
collected from different sources which would be helpful for the farmers in
understanding and initiating different agricultural enterprises in the region.
The research project aims to understand the agricultural video-viewing
behavior of the farmer along with impact evaluation of the digital videos
on farm productivity. The farmer-friendly videos are developed in 3GP file
format which is easily compatible/ can be played even on a basic smartphone.
The project will further help in bridging the digital divide arising due to
low-connectivity in rural areas in which farmers face problems in accessing
uninterrupted videos from the internet and paying for the high data charges.
The SD card of is of 8GB size in which the videos occupy only 2GB of
space. Awareness campaign is run at the 25 KVKs where farmers are made
aware on the importance of digital videos before distributing SD cards to
them. They are also provided with a flyer containing details on the videos
available on the card along with other relevant information on the videos
(Table 23.8).

TABLE 23.8 List of Agriculture-Relevant Videos Present in the SD Card

Sl. Title Source Duration
No. (Minutes)
1. Azolla farming practices Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 12.58
2. Goat farming Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 13.49
3. Quail (Bater) farming Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 15.57
4. Scientific cultivation of Chickpea Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 14.05
5. Pest and diseases of Paddy Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 19.30
6. Scientific cultivation of Paddy Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 34.55
7. Preparation of Kitchen garden Jeevika and Digital Green 06.11
8. Successful cultivation of Litchi Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 18.47
9. Honeybee farming Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 13.02
10. Importance of Soil testing Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 07.51
11. Poultry management Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 21.48
12. Nursery bed preparation of Onion Jeevika and Digital Green 08.18
13. Oyster Mushroom farming Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 10.31
14. Farming of Pointed gourd Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 27.04
15. How to develop Poly house Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 14.20
16. Scientific cultivation of Rabi maize Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 12.40
Institutional Outreach Through Innovative Approaches 497

TABLE 23.8 (Continued)

Sl. Title Source Duration
No. (Minutes)
17. Integrated Farming System Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 20.42
18. Farming of Strawberry Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 14.45
19. How to prepare Tomato Ketchup Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 20.48
20. Wheat cultivation through Zero Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour 10.16
Tillage method

The program has generated immense interest among the farmers. Most
of them have been benefitted greatly by watching the agriculturally relevant
videos at any time without worrying on data speed/charges.

23.14 CONCLUSION

It is important to realize that farmers and agricultural laborers should not be

treated as mere beneficiaries of generic information. The agricultural sector
requires a well-organized learning community in the form of farmers' asso-
ciations, cooperatives, women's groups, etc. for better results out of various
advisories provided. Innovative farmer information systems are a blended
learning process in which face-to-face interaction, learning by doing, learning
through evaluation and experience, participatory research, brainstorming
exercises, etc. convert the generic information into location-specific, need-
based knowledge and then empower its members through horizontal transfer
of knowledge. It should enhance the self- directed learning among the rural
community. There will never be a 'one fit for all' system. ICT application
for an extension in the university has a long way to go. While the list above
is not an exhaustive list of tools, it shows how the university is harnessing
the potential of ICTs to further build and connect communities. To make
498 Sustainable Agriculture

the most of ICT tools, new age Extension professionals should consider a
variety of outreach methods and choose those that will provide the widest
outreach for the time they have available to produce quality content.

KEYWORDS

 agromet advisory services

 Bihar Agricultural University
 extension advisory services
 information and communication technologies
 Krishi Vigyan Kendras
 public-private partnership

REFERENCES

Ali, J., (2012). Factors affecting the adoption of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) for farming decisions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Information, 13(1), 78–96.
Benjamin, P., (2001). Does ‘telecenter’ mean the center is far away? Telecenter development
in South Africa.” The Southern African Journal of Information and Communication, 1(1).
Retrieved from: http://link.wits.ac.za/journal/j-01-pb.htm (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Chapman, R., Blench, R., Kranjac-Berisavljevic’ G., & Zakariah, A. B. T., (2003). “Rural
radio in agricultural extension: The example of vernacular radio programs on soil and water
conservation in northern Ghana.” Agricultural Research and Extension Network, Network
Paper No. 127. ISBN: 0 85003 640 2.
Eggleston, K., Jensen, R., & Zeckhauser, R., (2002). “Information and Communication
Technologies, Markets and Economic Development, Working Paper.” Tufts University,
Department of Economics.
Etta, F. E., & Parvyn-Wamahiu, S., (2003). “Telecenters in Uganda.” In: Etta, F. E., & Parvyn-
Wamahiu, S., (eds.)”, Information and Communication Technologies for Development in
Africa: The Experience With Community Telecenters (Vol. 2, pp. 71–113). Ottawa, ON,
Canada: International Development Research Center (IDRC).
Ferrández-Villena, M., & Ruiz-Canales, A., (2017). Advances on ICTs for water management
in agriculture. Agricultural Water Management, 183, 1–3.
Herold, D. K., (2010). “Imperfect use? ICT provisions and human decisions: An introduction to
the Special Issue on ICT adoption and user choices.” The Information Society, 26(4), 243–246.
Makuleke Project. http://www.faraafrica.org/media/uploads/File/NSF2/RAILS/Innovative_
Farmer_Advisory_Systems.pdf (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Manda, P., (2002). “Information and agricultural development in Tanzania: A critique.”
Information Development, 18(3), 181–189.
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Nudell, D., et al. (2005). “Non-traditional extension education using video conference.”
Journal of Extension [On-line], 43(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005february/
tt3.php (Accesses on 25 November 2019).
Roman, R., & Colle, R. D., (2003). “Content creation for ICT development projects: Integrating
normative approaches and community demand.” Information Technology for Development,
10(2), 85–94.
Torero, M., & Chowdhury, S., (2005). “Increasing Access to Infrastructure for Africa’s Rural
Poor: 2020 Africa Conference Brief 16.” Washington, DC: International Food Policy
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Valsamidis, S., et al., (2011). “A Framework for e-Learning in Agricultural Education.” HAICTA.
CHAPTER 24

An Appraisal on Quality Honey

Production
RAMANUJ VISHWAKARMA and RANJEET KUMAR
Department of Entomology, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
E-mails: [email protected] (R. Vishwakarma);
[email protected] (R. Kumar)

ABSTRACT

Honey is a good source of carbohydrate, and usually contains a rich diver-

sity of minor elements viz., minerals, proteins, vitamins and others. Quality
is the major factor of honey that determines domestic market price along-
side its export potential in other countries; it must meet the quality stan-
dards. Proper management of bee colonies and honey production, extraction,
processing and packaging techniques can only assure us to have a good grade
honey having with its natural characteristics such as color, flavor, aroma,
and enzymes are preserved. Under this chapter, we have tried to accumulate
the information about different aspects of quality honey production and its
standard measurement which may immensely be helpful to different stake-
holders including producers, retailers and consumers.

24.1 INTRODUCTION

It is a proven fact that beekeeping improves the economic condition of the

farmers; helps in the holistic development of rural society and restrict the
migration of rural youth to urban areas. It is the only endeavor which does
not require more capital investment and skilled labor, and does not create
any problem to the nature. This enterprise has minimum land and structural
502 Sustainable Agriculture

requirements (Singh and Singh, 2006). It is a most ideal industry for uplift-
ment of people. In addition to meet our local health and industry require-
ments, this has vast potential to exports honey, wax, royal jelly, bee pollen,
bee venom and propolis to the USA and Europe.
The total honey production of the country was 81,000 metric tonnes
during the year 2014–15, out of that 29,578.52 metric tonnes exported in
USA, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Libya and Morocco and worth of Rs. 535.07 crore
(Anonymous, 2015a, b). Out of total apiary honey production of the country,
63% contributed by West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar; however,
Bihar produces 7800 metric tonnes during the year 2014–15 (Anonymous,
2015a).

24.2 QUALITY HONEY PRODUCTION

Honey is a natural product that has no substitute. It is a sweet liquid prepared

by honey bees from the nectars of plants. In Vedas, it was considered one of
the nature’s most precious gifts. It had a high place in the society since its
great food value, valuable medicinal effect for human beings and for its use
in a number of ritual occasions. Its unique taste, aroma has sprung off many
cooking ideas and recipes. It also offers incredible antiseptic, antioxidant
and cleansing properties for our body and health - from eye conjunctivitis
to athlete foot. Conventional beekeeping is a complementary agricultural
activity with diverse socio-economic benefits to reduce the risk involved in
depending solely on conventional crop and animal production as the only
source of income (Olarinde et al., 2008).
The major markets for Indian honey are Germany, the USA, the UK,
Japan, France, Italy, and Spain. Indian not used honey in the form of daily
food as its per capita per year consumption only about 8.40 grams, while
in other countries it is considered as a food for instance, in Germany, per
capita honey consumption is 1.80 kg. In the world, on an average, its per
capita consumption is 200 grams whereas in Asia, Japan has the highest per
capita honey consumption, i.e., about 600 grams. The National Commission
on Agriculture had visualized the need for deploying about 150 million Bee
colonies for pollinating the agricultural crops in the country. There is so
huge potential and opportunities for the growth of beekeeping industry in
India. Beekeeping industry has great self-help potential for the rural people,
tribals, marginal and small farmers, land-less laborers, etc. The enormous
possibilities in beekeeping are given as under:
An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production 503

1. As per the cropped area under the major insects pollinated crops,
about 200 million bee colonies are required in the country to
enhance the yield levels of these crops at par with the yield levels of
developed countries. It will provide jobs to about 215 lakh persons.
2. As compared to honey cost, the beeswax is twice.
3. Other hive products, such as bee pollen, royal jelly, and bee-venom
are more costlier as compared to honey and beeswax.
4. Enhancing crop productivity and quality produces through inter-
vention of bee pollination in farmers fields (Vishwakarma and
Ghatak, 2014; Vishwakarma and Singh, 2017; Vishwakarma and
Chand, 2017).
5. Maintenance of biodiversity by pollination of flowering plants.
6. Apitherapy medicine using bees’ products.

The honey production of our country may be increased to many folds

by developing and providing the advanced bee management technology.
However, production alone will not determine the prosperity of this industry
until supported by ready market. Rather, it is the quality honey produc-
tion which will provide a good market for the produce. However quality
is the major factor which will determine our export market as in a number
of importing countries, quality is the most important consideration. So our
honey to have export potential in particular and for our domestic market in
general, it must meet the quality standards. Therefore, it has become impera-
tive to pay due attention to proper management of bee colonies to have a
good grade honey so that all its natural characteristics such as color, flavor,
aroma, and enzymes are preserved.
A number of faulty practices are being adopted by the beekeepers.
Resorting to unrecommended practices hamper the quality of honey and
create problems in its export. China’s export market earlier was badly affected
because of the contamination of its honey. If Indian honey fails to meet the
international standards then India may also face a similar situation. During
honey flow period the colonies may manage efficiently and the beekeepers
should have knowledge of honey flow trends and the status of colonies. The
main function of the beekeeper is to keep the colony moral high congestion
in the hive must be avoided and surplus house bees are drawn in supers.
Therefore, drawn combs should be provided liberally. Many times the queen
enters in the super chamber and lay eggs, and honey extraction become diffi-
cult as well as to maintain the quality of honey. At least 2–3 weeks before
honey extraction a queen excluder should be placed in between brood and
super chamber so that queen is confined to brood chamber. The combs which
504 Sustainable Agriculture

are completely sealed or two-thirds capped may be taken out for honey
extraction and again placed to the supers after honey extraction. Such extrac-
tion, apparently gives an incentive to the colonies and helps to activate the
bees to store more honey with quality. It is strongly recommended to harvest
honey only from supers and leaving the stores in the brood chamber for
colony development. To maintain quality in honey production beekeepers
should have to follow the following points in beekeeping.

 Honey extraction should be always made from the bee colonies which
70–75% cells sealed.
 Honey extracted be strained and kept in stainless steel containers or
food-grade plastic canes.
 Honey should never be exposed to air.
 Raw honey should be kept in cool dry places never be stored in places
exposed in sunlight.
 Treatment of colonies against disease/pest should be stopped 4–6
weeks prior to the honey flow season.
 No extraction should be made from the diseased colonies.
 Maintain the colony hygiene.
 Maintain the strength of colonies.
 Stimulating diet should be provided to maintain high moral of bees.

The present article deals bee management technology for production of

quality honey-based on scientific experience in beekeeping.
Production of honey is the prime objective of beekeeping industry. Its
production was negligible 50 years ago from hived bees, i.e., with modern
beekeeping with Apis cerana in hives. The pattern of honey production was
gradually increased over the years. Most of the beekeepers in India are illiterate
and untrained. They maintain very small number of bee colonies for honey
production. However, the trend is changing and large numbers of commercial
beekeepers have come up, especially, with Apis mellifera. Bee colonies of
Apis mellifera are real boost to the honey production in Punjab. Beekeeping
with Apis mellifera has also gained good popularity in Bihar, West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir. Increasing awareness about the honey
among the beekeepers, honey packers and to meet the increasing demands
of consumers, new patterns of honey production have developed. Migratory
beekeeping is becoming more popular with A. mellifera in Himachal Pradesh,
Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, and Bihar. Beekeepers are obtaining 50–70 kg
honey yield per colony through this technology. With increasing in area under
different surplus honey crops and monocultures, it has become possible for
An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production 505

the beekeepers to produce unifloral honeys. Beekeepers are also aware of

the advantages of unifloral over mixed or multifloral honeys. High honey
yielding, A. mellifera is extended too many potential and more suitable areas
and honey production scenario is fast changing.
The production can further be increased to many folds by developing and
providing the advanced bee management technology. However, production
alone will not determine the prosperity of this industry until supported by
ready market. Rather, it is the quality honey production which will provide
a good market for the produce. When we talk about quality honey produc-
tion, it starts right from the apiary, selection of right apiary and proper bee
management is necessary. Therefore, it has become imperative to pay due
attention to proper handling of honey to ultimately have a good grade honey
so that all its natural characteristics such as color, flavor, aroma vitamins and
enzymes are preserved.
A number of faulty practices are being adopted by the beekeepers. Their
resorting to un-recommended practices hampers the quality and creates
problems in its export as well as growth of the colonies. China’s export
market earlier was badly affected because of contamination of its honey. If
Indian honey fails to meet the global standards then India may also face a
similar situation.

24.3 QUALITY OF HONEY

For maintaining the quality of honey the following practices may be adopted:

 Honey shall be well-ripened, a natural product extracted with the help

of centrifugal extractor; it shall be clear and free from objectionable
flavor, foreign materials and other contaminations such as mold dirt,
bees wax, fragments of plant and bee bodies, etc.
 Color of the honey shall be uniform throughout and may vary from
light to dark.
 Honey shall not contain any food additives such as color, vitamins,
minerals and saccharine, etc.
 Honey shall not be exposed to higher temperatures at any condition.
 Honey shall also comply with the essential requirement as per
AGMARK.
 Adulteration may contain any sweet syrup called honey-like corn,
cane, rice, etc. most simple adulterations can be detected if certain
characteristics exceed the legal standard, for example:
506 Sustainable Agriculture

○ Sucrose content, higher than 5%, if added by cane/beat sugar.

○ High HMF (80 ppm) value, if acid hydrolyzed corn syrup is added.
○ L/D ratio of corn syrup is similar to honey but contains very high
HMF > 200 mg/kg.
 However detection of isotopes is regained this can be detected any
kind of adulteration in honey.

24.4 STIMULATION FOR NECTAR COLLECTION

Productive efficiency in this industry is therefore dependent of several

factors that affect worker bees and their activity. An understanding of these
factors is important to stimulate bees for increased nectar collection such as;

 New combs encourage nectar collection and purity in honey.

 Similarly, an increase in comb space encourages nectar collection and
facilitates moisture reduction in the process of ripening of honey.
 The genetic makeup of the worker bees, which is obtained from
the laying queen, also plays an important role in stimulating nectar
collection activity.
 Young queen bee lay more eggs, resulting in increased workforce that
augments food gathering.

24.5 CONVERSION OF NECTAR TO HONEY

The nectar is collected from the plant sources and has about 25% sugar and
73% water. In this condition it gets fermented. In order to store nectar for
future use, bees remove some water from nectar by an elaborate process that
results in its evaporation. In this process, bees add some digestive enzymes
secreted by their mouthparts. These enzymes convert sucrose in the nectar
into inverted sugars, namely, glucose and fructose. After the conversion of
nectar into honey and reduction in water/content, bees seal with honey cells
of the comb with wax. This honey in sealed combs is the ripe honey and is
ready for extraction.

1. For quality honey production, the following management prac-

tices may be followed: Before Honey Flow: The essence of good
management before honey flow, i.e., during build-up period is to
help bee colonies reaching peak strength just before the onset of
the honey flow. During this period a beekeeper essentially needs to
re-queen/unite weak bee colonies, prevent/control swarming, give
supplement feeding and control disease and pests.
An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production 507

2. Provision of Comb and Comb Foundation Sheet: Honeybee colo-

nies should be provided with enough space for brood rearing and
food storage. Queens are reluctant to lay eggs in the older combs.
Due to continuous brood-rearing, the cells are narrowed down and
the bees reared in older combs are smaller in size. Honey stored in
old dark combs by bees also becomes darker in color. It is strongly
recommended that older and darker color combs should be discarded.
Beekeepers should provide a comb foundation sheet to save the
energy of bees. New raised combs should be ready for placing in
the super who will be utilized for depositing quality honey and to
promote the bees’ efficiency in productive work.
3. Honey Flow: It is the period when bee forage is available in plenty
and surplus is stored by bees. Honey flow is monitored for its start
and end by observing changes in weight of hives. Honey flow is indi-
cated by gradual increase in weight but weight gain ceases as the
flow end. For better honey production shortage of space should be
avoided. Number of combs to be added in supers depends on strength
of the colony. If thin population in the colony only few frames are
places at a time because too large space also leads to demoralization
of the colony. It is advisable to keep nine frames in ten frame beehive.
This allows expansion of top of the combs and this simplifies both
uncapping and harvesting. It is strongly recommended to harvest
honey only from supers and leaving the stores in brood chamber for
the colony development. Only ripe honey having less than 20% mois-
ture should be harvested when two-third of the comb cells are capped.
4. Inspection of Colony: The inspection of the colony helps to over-
come the problem. However, during one season, the bee colonies
should examine at weekly interval. Undesirable interference and
mishandling of the bees during inspection may result into absconding
of colonies. The bees should, therefore, be disturbed as little as
possible. Before approaching to bees for inspection of the honey
stores in the combs during honey flow period, he or she should put
an overall, a bee veil and gloves also to prevent any contamination.
5. Production Techniques: Every beekeeper has to ensure the produc-
tion of quality honey with purity. The following are the few steps in
this direction.
 It is very important not to use chemicals for control of bee
diseases or for cleaning supers of bees. Chemicals easily get into
the honey and contaminate it.
508 Sustainable Agriculture

 Production apiaries should not be placed in or near crops on

which chemicals are applied.
 All the equipment and implement used for extracting or handling
honey should be hygienic and if needed sterilized.
 Containers for storing honey should be of materials of food-grade
quality.
 Honey should be stored in airtight containers, which are kept in
hygienic places.
 At any case, honey should not be extracted from brood chamber’s
comb.

India has a large potential for the production of honey and other hive
products in beekeeping sector. By utilizing all these advantages there will
be a unique opportunity for rural development through the promotion and
extension of beekeeping. Beekeeping is a good profitable venture requiring
a small investment of capital and skilled labors and high yield enterprise in
comparison to other poverty reduction activities.

24.6 PATTERNS OF HONEY PRODUCTION

Increasing awareness about the honey among the beekeepers, honey packers
and to meet to the increasing needs of consumers, the following new patterns
of honey production have developed:

1. Traditional honey hunters or tribes, generally kill the bees by fire,

comb is cut and squeezed along with pollen, brood, wax, etc. Such
honey is highly contaminated and gets spoiled due to fermentation,
however, obtained honey by pressing or squeezing of combs is called
“pressed” or “squeezed’ honey.
2. From hives, honey frames are removed and are extracted with the help
of centrifugal machine. This can be done repeatedly without disturbing
the colonies. Honey collected from the combs by centrifugal machine
is generally termed as “apiary honey” or “extracted honey.”
3. Honeys are classified mainly as per the floral origin (litchi, jamun,
mustard honey etc.), seasonal honey (spring, greeshma or kartika
honey) or according to the place where honey is produced (Maha-
baleshwar honey in Maharashtra, Coorg honey of Karnataka,
Kashmir honey of J and K, English honey of United Kingdom).
4. Comb honey may be available in pieces of the original comb, cut and
wrapped (cut comb) or pieces of comb in glass jar of liquid honey
An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production 509

(chunk honey). Very small frames filled with honey by the bees or
sealed honey in comb is termed as “section comb.”
5. Blended honey, certified organic honey, granulated or crystallized
honey, creamed honeys are gaining great demand among consumers.

24.7 QUALITY CONTROL OF HONEY

It’s an important aspect of mass production of honey and thereafter its sale
or consumption. The literal meaning of ‘quality’ is superiority in kind which
involves three components, skill, relativity and reference and ‘control’
includes notion of checking or verification or comparison or regulation, etc.
In fact, the success of quality program lies in mass honey produce by bees
from natural flora. The aim of quality control should be to determine whether
the honey is still in a condition to consume by the end consumers. Keeping
this in view, one should not consider the maximal or optimal quality but some-
what like term ‘acceptable quality’ (Anonymous, 1995). It is unnecessary and
expensive goal to pursue for keeping quality of mass produced honey.
Quality control of honey includes controllable factors that either posi-
tively or negatively influence the finished product. Identification of die crit-
ical points is essential since the process control relates to the processing of
good and sound raw material. If the raw material is of poor quality then even
good processing will not give desired quality of finished product. Hence, in
food industry, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) and Total
Quality Management (TQM) are recommended under International Stan-
dard Organization (ISO) 9000 series. The principles of quality control in
honey are considered under the following points:

 Raw material control;

 Process control;
 Finished product inspection.

24.7.1 RAW MATERIAL CONTROL

Quality control does not imply that a poor raw material can be converted into
a good finished product. Invariably, once a food product has been through
a manufacturing process, little can be done to alter its quality. This means
that raw material of the desired standard should be accepted to maintain the
quality of the finished product. Careful planning, formulation of the type
of sampling and the test applied must reflect in the finished product. In the
510 Sustainable Agriculture

case of processed honey, the dominant raw material is ripe honey present
in the comb so it should be tested in relation to its contribution to product
quality. Following are some of the points which need attention to maintain
the desired quality of honey:

 Raw honey should be taken from those combs in which there is more
than 75% sealed honey.
 During honey flow season, queen excluders should be used to ger
superior quality honey in super chambers.
 Extraction from unsealed cells reduces keeping quality of honey
which eventually will ferment.
 Old and blackish frames used for honey production, decreases the
yield and color of honey.
 Few beekeepers use if excess sugar feeding is given to bees before
extraction, it is bound to affect the quality.
 Extracted honey has better quality than squeezed honey because the
latter has many contaminations and high moisture due to open comb.
 Unifloral honeys are preferred over multifloral honey because of
distinctive taste and flavor.
 In the case of comb honey and chunk honey, fresh combs containing
honey should be preferred over honey collected in older combs.
 Drained honey and raw honey should be collected in sterilized condi-
tions. Persons involved in this process should change into sterilized
clothing and gloves.
 Testing of raw honey for purity is must before it is sent for processing.

24.7.2 HONEY PROCESSING

Honey processing should be ensured as soon as possible after removal from

the hive. The processing is a sticky operation, where time and patience become
key points to achieve the best results. For destruction of the sugar tolerant
yeast to avoid fermentation and to check granulation in honey processing
must be done alongside the reduction in moisture level. It is recommended
that the processing of honey at 60°C for 20 min, at 65°C for 10 min and at
70°C for 2.5 min does not affect its quality. It is well known that the honey
is a food commodity, so for it must be handled carefully and all processing
equipment must be perfectly clean. After processing, honey is bottled in
wide-mouth glass bottles and food-grade plastic jars of different sizes.
An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production 511

Process Control:
 Extraction should always be done under hygienic and sterilized
conditions to avoid contamination.
 Honey is very sensitive to heat, hence the thermal property of honey
needs to be considered very carefully during liquefaction, filtration,
processing, and handling of honey.
 Excess heating should be avoided as it increases HMF and reduces
enzyme activity. The heat does also affect sensory qualities and
reduces the freshness. Heat processing can darken the natural honey
color (browning), too.
 No or low heating than recommended time will not kill yeast cells
present in raw honey. Such type of honey is liable to ferment early.
 Direct heating should be avoided in bee products to maintain their
texture.
 Complete mechanized system of extraction, processing, and pack-
aging (bottling) has good quality.
 Creamed honey is a fine crystallizes honey which is used as spread.
Processing should be such to maintain the desired texture.
 These days, non-thermal processing alternative for honey are being
tested and ultrasonicated honey is available in which yeast cells are
destroyed.
 Some honeys (Brassica honey) granulate within a few days of extrac-
tion due to high dextrose content. Crystallization can be delayed by
liquefying dextrose crystals at 40–45°C and by eliminating insoluble
matter by filtration.

24.7.3 FINISHED PRODUCT INSPECTION

Honey is a biologically active substance so it should be regularly tested

at different storage periods for fermentation and moisture content. The
sugar tolerant yeast cells are present in honey which causes fermentation.
It can be seen by the presence of air bubbles or foam of carbon dioxide
on the surface. With the presence of partial granulation, increase in mois-
ture content, storage temperature and time, rate of fermentation in honey is
increased.
Wide variations in constituents of honey are reflected in the color, flavor,
and taste of honey (Nair, 1980). In India, 5000 honeys are available depending
upon floral sources, areas and bee species. In general, Codex Alimentarius
Honey Standard (1993) is applied to honey traders of all over the world;
512 Sustainable Agriculture

however, regional or country wise honey standards are also fixed. In India,
the Bureau of Indian Standards (1994) or ISI standards are applicable.

 Processed honey should be according to BIS, ISI standards (Table 24.1).

 Through visual inspection of honey, it must be ensured that the honey
is free from any foreign matters viz., molds, pieces of beeswax,
exuviae bees, etc.
 The honey color is generally varied from light to dark brown.
 Dark-colored honeys contain more minerals than light honeys.
 HMF content should be tested on regular basis. Storage stability
depends on this content.
 If the finished product is Crystallized honey then crystallization
should be uniform.
 Honey produced in coastal areas (rubber honey of Kerala) contains
high moisture due to hygroscopic nature. Such honeys are liable to
fermentation so they have shorter shelf life.
 During storage, if the crystallization occurs and it is in layered form,
then it means the presence of contaminants. Such honeys are consid-
ered of low quality. If the crystallization is complete, honey is consid-
ered pure and of high quality.
 Honey gives sour or acidic taste due to increased acidity on long
storage or on fermentation.

TABLE 24.1 Essential Composition and Quality Factors for Honey

Characteristics B.I.S. (IS: 4941: 1994) Agmark (1984)
Special ‘A’ Standard Special ‘A” Standard
Specific Gravity at 27°C 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.40 1.40 1.35
Moisture (%) (max) 20 22 25 20 22 25
Reducing Sugars (%) (min.) 70 65 65 65 65 65
Sucrose (%) (max) 5 5 5 5 5 5.
Ratio L: D 1 1 1 1 0.95 0.95
Ash (%) (max) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Acidity (%) (max) per 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Fiche’s test Negative Negative
Total count of pollen 50,000 50,000 50,000
H.M.F. mg/kg (max) 80 80 80 -- - --
Optical density (max) 660 nm 0.3 0.3 0.3
An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production 513

24.8 GRADE DESIGNATION MARK

Organic farming should be integrated with the organic honey production.

Organic honey can be produced by a countrywide campaign to explore the
forest flora for honey production in various geographical zones. Product
from such local niches may be labeled as produce of a particular niche.
Such an approach will definitely give quality honey and better price for
the beekeepers. Exploring the forest areas for beekeeping will help in bio-
diversity conservation in long run. Product which is offered in the market
is very important in marketing as the product quality packaging and brand
are the major factors. Honey packaging is needed to be delicately handled
during purification and processing so that the purest honey produced by
the bees is not deteriorated. All concerns should note that ‘least processing
is the best processing.’ Honey by definition is a substance made when the
nectar and sweet deposits from the plants are gathered and stored in honey-
combs by honey bees. The quality honey is possible by following scientific
management practices, implementing IPM strategies in the crop ecosystems,
combating pests and diseases of honey bees by using safe methods, impro-
vising beekeeping technologies and educating beekeepers regarding scien-
tific-technical know-how. Honey is needed to be popularized as food and
not only as medicine. This approach shall expand the domestic market of
the honey and will give a boost to the apiculture industry as a whole thereby
paying a good price to the beekeepers. Widespread promotional efforts are
required to expand domestic market. More aggressive approach, on the lines
of promotional efforts for dairy and poultry products both by public and
private sectors should be essential to expand the domestic market. India will
need more than 5 lakh tons of honey for domestic consumption if average
per capita consumption increases to about 500 grams per year. It is worth
mentioning that in the USA and Germany the honey consumption is one
and 1.8 kg per capita per year respectively. It will be of great advantage to
the beekeepers and honey traders if domestic market expands since higher
prices can be fetched in domestic market.
Quality honey can be produced if beekeepers get higher price for their
produce. So far the same price is given to the beekeepers whatever quality
of honey they produce. Honey is required to be graded and then priced like
other commodities. It is worth mentioning that companies get 3–5 times more
price in comparison to price given to beekeepers. Unified market concept for
procurement and grading of honey is vital to ensure quality honey. About 1.2
million tonnes of honey is produced annually. About 400,000 tonnes is traded
internationally. The honey offered for sale to importers and packers contain
514 Sustainable Agriculture

antibiotic residues and have to be rejected. The industry and consumers want
honey free of residues because it is perceived as a pure and natural product.
Beekeepers will destroy the market for honey unless they begin to understand
the seriousness of the situation. It is absolutely vital that beekeeper under-
stand they have to stop using antibiotics in such a way that residues reach
the honey. Beekeepers depend on exporters, importers and packers to sell
their honey and exporters, importers and packers depend upon beekeepers to
produce the honey. Thus good cooperation between everyone in the supply
chain is essential if consumers are going to continue receiving honey. India
is richly endowed by nature with an imaging range and variety of flora and
fauna. Aiming to help promote an economically viable and environmentally
sound ecosystem and to improve the living standards of rural area.

24.9 QUALITY ASPECTS

In today’s scenario, trading and consumption of honey in its raw-form is

restricted to only tribal communities- and living within the boundaries of
the forest areas and such volume could be miniscule. Largest part of Honey
enters the markets and consumer’s home after a processing comprising
of physical measures like heat treatments and filtration. By virtue of such
commercialization- the end product is required to meet both regulatory
requirements and consumer’s expectations. In a nutshell, these requirements
may be summarized as under:

24.9.1 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS

 Purity standards as stipulated by concerned regulatory authority and

mandatory upon the processing company/ manufacturers. In India, the
erstwhile PFA (which covered Honey) was done away with. As such,
the subject of Honey is now entrusted to a wider and autonomous
body, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
 In addition, the processed honey is bound by other regulations like
weights and measurements act at par with other marketed food
products.
 When the product is meant for exports, the regulatory requirements of
importing country become mandatory upon the export house. In those
cases, the local regulatory authorities give adequate flexibility to the
exporter and assist them in avoiding any conflicts.
An Appraisal on Quality Honey Production 515

24.9.2 CONSUMER’S EXPECTATIONS

 The consumer’s expectations by and large do not deviate from the

regulatory standards. However, they may have additional expecta-
tions in terms of sensory factors, appeal of packaging, product infor-
mation and accessibility to claim support. Sometimes, these expecta-
tions may be drawn basis their knowledge on global trends.

The basic requirements of purity in honey have been time tested across
the globe. These parameters include but not limited to; Specific Gravity,
Moisture content, Sucrose content, Total reducing sugars, FG ratio, Ash
Content, HMF, etc. Optimal/acceptable values for these parameters are set
by different countries in consideration to the local factors.

KEYWORDS

 Apis cerana
 Apis mellifera
 Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
 hazard analysis critical control point
 International Standard Organization
 total quality management

REFERENCES

Agmark, (1984). Sr. No. 183, Rules 1979. Gazzette Part, I. I., sub, sec. 10.
Agmark, (1985). Third Amendment Published as S. O. 754 Dated 28–2–1984 in the Gazette
of India, Part, I. I., Section 3 (ii) Dated 10–4–1985.
Anonymous, (1995). Swiss Food Manual, (Schweizerisches Lebensmittelbuch) Chapter 23 A:
Honey. Eidg. Drucksachen und Materialzentralle, Bern.
Anonymous, (2015a). Indian Horticulture Database 2015. All India 2014–2015 (Final Esti-
mates), Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. http://nhb.gov.in/MISDailyAreaProduc-
tion.aspx?enc (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
Anonymous, (2015b). Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development
Authority, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, GOI. http://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/
SubHead_Products/Natural_Honey.htm (Accessed on 25 November 2019).
BlS, (1994). Extracted Honey-Specifications (pp. 1–10). Bureau of Indian standards (IS 4941:
1994).
516 Sustainable Agriculture

Codex Alimentarius, (1993). Standard for Honey. Ref. Nr. CL 1993/14-SH FAO and WHO,
Rome.
Codex Alimentarius, (1998). Draft Revised for Honey at Step 6 of the Codex Procedure. CX
5/10.2, CL 1998/12-S.
Conte, L. C., Miorini, M., Giorio, A., Bertacco, G., & Zironi, R., (1998). Evaluation of some
fixed components for unifloral honey characterization. J. Agric. Food Chem., 46, 1844–1849.
EU Daft, (1996). Proposal for a Directive of the European Council Relating to Honey, EU
document 96/0114, 1996.
Mishra, R. C., (1993). Handling, processing and storage of honey. In: Goyal, N. P., & Sharma,
R. K., (eds.), I Nat. Conf. Beekeeping, Chandigarh, NHB (pp. 88–97).
Nair, K. S., (1980). Physico-chemical characteristics of rubber honey in India. In: Proc. II Int.
Conf. Apic. Trop. Climates (pp. 676–684). New Delhi.
Nanda, V., Sarkar, B. C., Sharma, H. K., & Bawa, A. S., (2003). Physico-chemical properties
and estimation of mineral content in honey produced from different plants in Northern
India. J. Food Comp. Anal., 16, 613–619.
Olarinde, L. O., Ajao, O. A., & Okunola, S. O., (2008). Determinants of technical efficiency
in beekeeping farms in Oyo State, Nigeria. A stochastic production frontier function.
Research Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 4(1), 65–69.
Singh, D., & Singh, D. P., (2006). A Handbook of Beekeeping (p. 287). Agrobios (India).
Vishwakarma, R., & Chand, P., (2017). Foraging activity of insect pollinators and their impact
on yield of rapeseed-mustard. Bioinfolet, 14(3), 222–227.
Vishwakarma, R., & Ghatak, S. S., (2014). Impact of foraging activity of pollinators including
honeybees on seed yield of sunflower. Indian Journal of Entomology, 76(2), 136–141.
Vishwakarma, R., & Singh, R., (2017). Foraging behavior of insect visitors and their effect on
yield of mango var. Amrapali. Indian Journal of Entomology, 79(1), 72–75.
CHAPTER 25

Empowering Rural Youth Through

Agripreneurship
RAM DATT
Department of Extension Education, Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Every era has its own challenges. In order to deal with the situation, each
challenge demands specific responses. Presently, Indian Agriculture is facing
a major challenge of ‘how to make agriculture more lucrative or profitable as a
profession and an equally respected employment option in our money-driven
society. Agripreneurship plays a crucial role in transforming subsistence
agriculture into a commercial agriculture it also helps in creating jobs at the
grassroots level. Ultimately this will act as a catalyst for empowering the rural
community and overall growth of the economy. Fundamentally this chapter
deals about concepts of entrepreneurship and agripreneurship, innovative
initiatives of the varsity and success stories vis-à-vis agripreneurship
promoted by the varsity.

25.1 BACKGROUND

The term entrepreneur originates from the French word entreprendre meaning
“undertaker, adventurer and projector” (Gündoğdu, 2012; Wadhera and
Koreth, 2012; Landströn, 2005). Hence the term ‘entrepreneur’ did not find any
prominence in the history of economic thought (Gopakumar, 1995). Entrepre-
neurship appeared in the economic thought after writing of Richard Cantillon
(1680–1734) -an Irish economist and whose work “Essai Sur la Nature du
Commerce en General” published posthumously in 1755. Richard Cantillon
is recognized as the father of entrepreneurship. The fundamental assumption
518 Sustainable Agriculture

was, an entrepreneur buys inputs at fixed price, makes value addition and sells
them at uncertain price. An individual who takes advantage of these unrealized
profits is known as entrepreneur (Landströn, 2005). Similarly, the work of an
18th-century French writer, Bernard F. deBelidor defined entrepreneurship as
buying labor and material at uncertain prices and selling the resultant output
at contracted prices (Gopakumar, 1995; Hoselitz, 1960). Further, John Stuart
Mill (1848) advocated that risk is a prime ingredient of entrepreneurial activi-
ties, whereas J.B. Say (1816) stated that entrepreneur is an economic agent.
Modern use of entrepreneurship is credited to Schumpeter (1934)
proposed dynamic theory of entrepreneurship and who considered entrepre-
neur as the catalyst that disrupts the stationary circular flow of the economy
and thereby initiates and sustains the process of economic development.
Similarly, Peter F. Drucker (1985) emphasized innovation as an instru-
ment for entrepreneurship development. McClelland’s (1961) emphasized
that entrepreneur is having a high need for achievement—preference for
challenge, acceptance of personal responsibility for outcomes, innovative-
ness—characterized successful initiators of new businesses (Shaver and
Scott, 1991).
There is a long history of entrepreneurship research but agripreneurship
research came somewhat late in the literature in the year 1980s (Wortman,
1990). Slowly, the worth of entrepreneurial research and/or activities was
recognized on a massive scale (Kahan, 2012; Vaillant and Lafuente, 2007;
Fuller-Love et al., 2006; Kulawczuk, 1998).

25.2 WHAT IS ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND AGRIPRENEURSHIP?

There is a plethora of definitions of entrepreneurship available in the

literature. Pioneer contributor Richard Cantillon (1755) defined entrepreneur
as a person who takes risk and he inherently believes in providing one’s own
economic well-being. Cole (1949) stated that entrepreneur is person who
conceive, initiate and maintain a social institution for a long period of time
which produces economic goods. McClelland (1961) defined entrepreneur
as a person with a strong need for achievement and preference for moderate
risk. Stevenson (1983, 1985, and 1990) discussed fundamentally three key
components of entrepreneurship viz; (1) pursuit; (2) opportunity, and (3)
beyond the resources control. Drucker (1985) stated that ‘the entrepreneur
always searches for change, responds to it, and exploits it as an opportunity.’
He identified seven sources of innovations namely-the unexpected; the
incongruity; innovation based on process need; changes in industry structure
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 519

or market structure; changes in perception, mood and meaning and new

knowledge, both scientific and nonscientific. Mamat and Raya (1990)
emphasize that an entrepreneur undertakes a venture, organizes it, raises
capital to finance it and assumes all or major portion of the risk. Pareek and
Rao (1978) describe entrepreneurship as a creative and innovative response
to the environment.
Agripreneurship means entrepreneurship in agriculture. Entrepreneurs
are innovative, take calculated risks, having strategic vision and change
themselves as per the need of the existing market and/or entrepreneurial
environment (GFRAS, 2016). Most of the time farmers are creative but
unable to incubate their ideas due to lack of venture capital, unable to access
services, market and other necessary inputs (Wongtschowski et al., 2013).
There are many other internal and external factors, which greatly affect the
agripreneurship. Entrepreneurial mindset is a prime factor for small land-
holding farmers to ensure their food, nutritional and financial security under
changing climatic and market conditions. When, farmers see their farm as
a profitable venture and take calculated risk then they efficiently use avail-
able innovations (Kahan, 2012). Stephen C. Mukembo (2016) defined
agripreneurship as “the application of entrepreneurial principles to iden-
tify, develop, and manage potential agricultural enterprises optimally and
sustainably for profit and improved livelihoods.”
With the help of aforementioned key factors we can summarize agripreneur-
ship is a process in which an agripreneurs accept changes and risk, develop
strategic vision and arrange necessary capital and other resources to convert
farming as a profitable venture.

25.3 DETERMINANTS OF AGRIPRENEURSHIP

There are many motivational or personal factors which greatly influence

entrepreneurial process. It is also quite obvious that entrepreneurial activity
not solely depends on motivational factors; but external factors also play
a key role (availability of primary goods, venture capital, communication
channels, market situation, government policy, etc.) in influencing it.

25.3.1 PERSONAL FACTORS

 Need for Achievement: The need for achievement is one of the

social motives which have been studied since long (McClelland,
520 Sustainable Agriculture

1961; McClelland and Winter, 1969). McClelland stated that persons

who are having high need for achievement are involved in managing
overall enterprises, have a high level of accountability, strives for
maximum outcomes, required self efficacy, perseverance, calculated
risk taking ability and clear strategic vision on performance (Shane
et al., 2003). Further, McClelland (1961) (mentioned in Wadhera
and Koreth, 2012) stated that achievement motivation is not merely
achieving success rather achievement motivation is characterized by
a need to:
1. Take moderate risks in setting goals to improve results;
2. Measure the results achieved;
3. Seek and use ‘feedback’ about interim performance and about
the environment; and
4. Try new things in order to achieve better results.
Collins et al. (2000) reported that achievement motivation is
an effective variable for differentiating successful and unsuccessful
entrepreneurs. Many studies thus highlight the importance of a need
for achievement as a characteristic of entrepreneurs and an influence
on entrepreneurial success (Barba-Sánchez and Atienza-Sahuquillo,
2012).
 Willingness to Take Risk: Economic theory suggested that risk
taking ability is an important attribute of an entrepreneur. McClel-
land (1961) argued that individuals with high need for achievement
prefer to take calculated risk. Similarly, Atkinson (1957) stated that
entrepreneurs, who have high need for achievement, take medium
level of risk which helps them to maximize their profits. Whereas
Liles (1974) also claimed that entrepreneurs always take risk in terms
of finance, emotional, career and family relations. Moreover, several
studies claimed entrepreneur always takes risk (Venkataraman, 1997).
 Locus of Control: Entrepreneur is an individual with a high degree
of ‘internal locus of control.’ If an individual perceives that event
and/or his activities in his control this belief is termed as internal
control. Whereas, external locus control is when an individual do not
entirely rely on his action or believe on luck/fate (Rotter, 1966). As
McClelland (1961) mentioned earlier, persons who are having high
need for achievement prefer a situation in which they feel that they
have direct control over the outcomes or in which they feel that they
can directly see how their efforts are going to affect the outcome(s)
of a certain activity.
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 521

 Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE): Bandura (1994) defined

self-efficacy as people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce
desired levels of performance that exercise influence over events
that affect their lives. Further, Bandura (1994) mentioned four
major processes related to self-efficacy which includes cognitive,
motivational, and affective and selection processes, whereas, Chen
et al. (1998) defined ESE as to the strength of a person’s belief that
(s) he is capable of successfully performing the various respon-
sibilities related to entrepreneurship. Further, he pointed out five
factors namely marketing, innovation, management, risk-taking,
and financial control.
Self-efficacy reflects task-specific self-confidence of an indi-
vidual. A person having high level of self-efficacy towards any task
depicts his tendency to exert more efforts for a greater length of time,
persist through setbacks, set and accept higher goals, and develop
better plans and strategies for the task.
 Flexibility: Most of the successful entrepreneurs measure the pros
and cons of a decision and tend to change if the situation demands.
They never feel reluctant to revise their decisions. They are the
persons with open mind without rigidity. Especially, in the case of
farming (where climate change happens to be one of the biggest
concerns, agripreneurs have to be ready to shape their decisions
accordingly), which highly depends on climate with high rate of
change. Agripreneurs always adopt and/or act on these changes/vari-
ability and find viable solutions. This is one of the important attribute
of an entrepreneur (Kahan, 2012).
 Innovativeness: Land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship are
considered as four fundamental factors of production process. Among
these factors entrepreneurship is added as fourth factor in the produc-
tion process. Sometime, entrepreneurship factor of production is a
debatable issue that how this factor contributes towards production
process. Successful entrepreneurs are innovators. They constantly
put their efforts in introducing new products, new method of produc-
tion, opening new markets and recognizing the enterprise (Schum-
peter, 1949). To move towards 21st century agriculture, we must
view agriculture and allied field as a business instead of doing it
in subsistence mode. For this transformation, agripreneurs need to
make new combination of their resources and/or production factors.
Similarly, Schumpeter (1949) clearly mentioned that entrepreneur is
someone who disrupts the circular flow of economy and make new
522 Sustainable Agriculture

combinations (equal to innovation). Drucker (1985) stated that inno-

vation is an important tool of an entrepreneur. Innovativeness is one
of the core attributes of an entrepreneur.
 Perseverance: It is an important ingredient of entrepreneurship
development process. Entrepreneur is possessed with the character-
istic of sticking to the job he decides to undertake. Once committed to
a specific goal and course of action, entrepreneurs become absorbed
in it. They personally solve the problems that come across their way
while setting up the project. They also work sincerely until the whole
project is successfully implemented. Entrepreneur always carries out
relentless efforts with same level of energy and motivation as well as
never give up to the situation.
 Strategic Vision: Unlike routine tasks for which structures and
processes provide a frame of reference, creation of enterprises deal
with unmet needs and gaps that are relevant in the present and
the future around which both competitive forces and uncertainty
operate. Mitton (1989) suggests that entrepreneurs have a knack
for looking at the usual and finding the unusual. This would lead to
what is commonly referred to as strategic vision. Strategic vision in
this context is to set a future-oriented goal, based on environmental
analysis, for determining the content of enterprise action.

In addition to the afore-mentioned characteristics of entrepreneur,

researchers have identified some other characteristics that are decision
maker, independent, arbitrageur, tolerance for ambiguity, coordinator,
positive self-concept, analytical mind, creative, interpersonal communi-
cation skill ability, etc. Kahan (2012) identified nine competencies for an
agripreneur including initiative, taking risks, ambition, creative thinking,
focused problem-solving, flexibility and adaptability, interpersonal abili-
ties, readiness to learn and networking.

25.3.2 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS

Some scholars have stressed the importance of socio-cultural milieu in

entrepreneurship development (Cochran, 1949; Cole, 1949; Lamb, 1952;
Williamson, 1966). Jenks (1949) and Cochran (1949) suggested that the
socio-cultural history accounts for the performance of entrepreneurial func-
tions by a considerable number of individuals. Several writers have used a
comparative framework to highlight the ways in which different societies,
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 523

with differing interests, attitudes, systems of stratification and the like

operate to produce different kinds of business and different patterns of entre-
preneurial behavior.

25.4 FRAMEWORK OF AGRIPRENEURSHIP

There is no denying the fact that entrepreneurial activities originate from

the individuals. Hence understanding of their personality traits, skills and
background are crucial for the development of a comprehensive theory.
Thus if agripreneurship is the individual response to a situation, that is the
environment around him, and creation of an organization is essential for
carrying through that response, the agripreneur, environment and the orga-
nization must be regarded as crucial elements of any framework relating to
agripreneurship (Figure 25.1) (Kanungo, 1997).

FIGURE 25.1 Framework of agripreneurship.

Agripreneurs are independent in nature but they do not work alone. They
operate in a complex and dynamic environment. They are part of a larger
collection of people including other farmers, suppliers, traders, transporters
and processors; each one of them has a separate role to play in the value
chain. Similarly, Kanungo (1997) mentioned that rural entrepreneurship
524 Sustainable Agriculture

development process involves individual attributes, micro environmental

factors such as family, social and cultural values. These factors are often
adequate in themselves for enterprise creation where institutional require-
ments are well developed as in developed economies. At the same time,
macro and contingency factors affect at both creation and development
stages.

25.5 AGRIPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Agripreneurship development is a dynamic process. One phase is intercon-

nected with another phase of agripreneurship development process.

1. Identification of Potential Agripreneurs: In this project, we

approached two villages through key contact person and remaining
three villages of research area were selected sans key contact person.
Those two villages approached by key leaders, we have been more
successful in terms of generating people participation, trust building
and commencing of entrepreneurship development process. A
number of psychological variables were reported by researchers,
achievement motivation is one of the prime variables to become a
successful entrepreneur. Under this study, we selected only those
respondents who were having high need for achievement.
2. Opportunities Identifications: Under this study for exploring
opportunities, we developed individual and village resource maps,
which helped us in identification of opportunities.
3. Selection of Enterprises: Respondents themselves conducted local
market survey to understand the scope of different potential enterprises.
At the same time, they also critically analyzed their own resources and
availability of resources in their villages. Then, agripreneurs selected
agri-venture themselves and we only facilitated the process.
4. Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP)/Entrepre-
neurial Motivation Training (EMT): Under EDP, we conducted
training in three phases viz; pre-training, training and post-training.
In pre-training phase firstly grouping of respondents on the basis
of enterprises was done and then skill gaps of respondents were
analyzed. Before we started the training, EMT through different
videos and FGD were conducted. Then, we conducted different
training sessions according to their enterprises.
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 525

5. Venture Capital: Mostly the selected respondents were from poor

families lacking the resources, so at the initial stage they needed
seed capital. Respondents who were linked with Amrit Hatcheries
Pvt. Ltd. started their businesses but the people who did not receive
venture capital; they could not start entrepreneurial activities.
6. Venture Startup: This is a very crucial phase for agri-enterprise
development. The selected agripreneurs were provided with regular
hand-holding activities. Majority of successful agripreneurs got
assured markets through Amrit Hatcheries Pvt. Ltd.
7. Growth Phase: Those agripreneurs reached in sustainable phase in
their enterprise development. In this phase, agripreneurs started their
own marketing channels and/or marketing management (Figure 25.2).

FIGURE 25.2 Agripreneurship development model.

526 Sustainable Agriculture

25.5.1 ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE

Agriculture plays a pivotal role in India’s economy. Majority of 54.6% of

the population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities (census, 2011).
Majority of Indian farmers are marginal and small, while more than 90%
farmers of Bihar are having less than one hectare of land. Given the crit-
ical role of agriculture in the local economy and the centrality of small and
marginal farmers in agriculture, encouraging entrepreneurship in agricul-
ture with focus on small and marginal farmers would help the sector cope
with the rapidly changing global environment (Philroy et al., 2014). Bihar,
with a population of 104.1 million as per the Census of India, 2011, is the
third most populated state in country. It comprises 9% of India’s population
and covers 3% of its landmass, making it the most densely populated state.
Migrants have predominantly moved from rural to urban destinations and
from agricultural to non-agricultural occupations. More than 90% of house-
holds to be deleted reported migrant members in urban destinations for long
durations from the state (Rodgers et al., 2013 mentioned in Datta, 2016).
Consequently, a large number of defacto women are living in the villages of
Bihar State and they are actively involved in farming activities and decision
making. At the same time, it is a challenge to transform rural women into
agripreneurs especially that are having less land or no land.
There are many lucrative enterprises existing at farm level such as inte-
grated framing system, high value horticulture, food processing, fruit and
vegetable processing, livestock and dairying, fisheries poultry, participatory
seed production, mushroom lab/production, bee keeping, vermicompost,
etc.; as service providers such as input dealers, local service providers supple-
mentary ventures such as soil testing, cold-storage services, transportation,
trading and microcredit agencies run by farmer groups; and processing and
marketing ventures, etc., (Philroy et al., 2014). There are some promising
agri-enterprises discussed in subsections.

25.5.1.1 INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS (IFS)

Integrated Farming System (IFS) is an emerging sustainable and prof-

itable approach of farming and there is appreciable interest raised in IFS
among small and marginal farmers. Integration of enterprises like crops,
fruits, vegetables, poultry, goat-rearing, piggery, duck farming and dairying
is advantageous as these are mutually beneficial to each other, since crop
residues can be used as animal and poultry feed, while animal manure can
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 527

be utilized to enhance soil fertility that enhances agricultural productivity

(Reddy, 2016). This complementary combination helps in reducing risk,
enhancing soil fertility, improves nutrient cycle, intensifies soil use and
increases the overall income of the farm. The “win-win” outcomes can be
achieved by small and marginal farmers’ in-terms of nutritional security and
farm income. Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour has developed a
number of IFS models at its constituent colleges and KVKs as a demonstra-
tion unit.

Sri Hari Mohan Jha is a farmer of Khutha Baijnathpur village of Bhar-

gama block Araria. He started farming in the year 1986 in 15 acres of his
own land. In the year 2006, he got training on different components of IFS
model from KVK Araria. Presently, from IFS model he is earning over INR
30,000/annum from mango orchard, INR 20,000/annum from fishery, INR
40,000/annum from livestock. He also earns 20,000/annum from 10 pits
of vermicompost. He is also cultivating potato, ginger and turmeric and
earning INR 25,000/annum. Altogether from IFS model he is earning INR
2.5–3.0 lakhs/year.

25.5.1.2 HIGH VALUE CROPS

High value crops refer to non-staple agricultural crops such as vegetables,

fruits, flowers, ornamentals and medicinal and spices (Temu and Temu,
2005 and CGIAR, 2005). High value agricultural crops are those which are
having higher return per unit of land in comparison to traditional crops. High
value crops could be potential opportunities for emerging entrepreneur in
the field of agriculture. Bihar state is also having a lot of potential for fruits,
vegetables, medicinal plants and flower cultivation.

Dilip Kumar Singh is an agripreneur from Mehaddiganj near Sasaram in

Rohtas district. He has ownership of 2 acres of land. He proved his persis-
tency and innovativeness in his farm. Rohatas district which is known
as bowl of rice and rice-wheat cropping pattern is prominent across the
district. In the year of 2004, he came in the contact with Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Rohtas, Bikramganj and participated in training programs like
scientific cultivation of vegetables including okra, brinjal, tomato, cauli-
flower, broccoli, cabbage, potato, onion, chili, bottle gourd, bitter gourd,
capsicum, etc. There was some tracts of barren land in the adjoining
villages. He started taking those lands on lease in a very nominal rent for
few years of contract. At the same time, he used to persuade the landowners
that after the cultivation of vegetables the land will gradually convert into
528 Sustainable Agriculture

a cultivable land. Presently, he is producing different offseason and on

season vegetables both organic and non-organic based on 100-acres of
leased land and earning around Rs.7–10 lakhs in a year. Apart from that, he
also provides employment to 10–15 thousand laborers each year in his own
vegetable farming. He is also using a number of modern farm implements.
In addition to farming he is guiding and motivating farming community for
vegetable production. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
recognized his noble work, and awarded him with prestigious Jagjeevan
Abhinav Kisan Award in the year of 2012. His successful journey clearly
reflects his hard work, motivation, innovativeness, and risk taking ability.

25.5.1.3 FOOD PROCESSING

About 15–50% of agricultural produce get damaged due to post-harvest

losses in the state. Food processing related enterprises not only help in
improving the socio-economic condition of farming community, but also
help in reducing wastage of agricultural products. There is huge potential
of food processing in the states like Bihar. Over the last two decades after
globalization of Indian economy, demands of processed food have been
increasing day-by-day. As a result, the future of food processing industry is
increasing tremendously.

Mrs. Radha Devi is from village Gore Gaon, Danapur, Patna. Coming from
a very poor family; she had to struggle for even life- saving necessities.
Situation improved only when she came into the contact with KVK Barh,
Patna and received training on food processing. She started preparing
value-added products of rice, wheat, maize, chickpea, soybean, and barley
flour. Initially, she was producing meager quantity of value-added products
due to which it was difficult for her to access the market. Then she started
contacting other women and developed a SHG. Now, she has improved her
soci-economic condition and is providing employment to many poor women.

25.5.1.4 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING

India is the second-largest producer of fruit and vegetables in the world.

But commercial processing of these commodities is only 2% of the total
production. Despite the fact that our country is the second-largest producer
of fruit and vegetables, its share in the world’s horticultural products is
less than 1% (Sidhu, 2005). Another side, demand of processed horticul-
tural products has been increasing tremendously in the last two decades. So,
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 529

there is a huge market of processed horticultural products. In Bihar there is

a high range of variability in terms of soil, water and weather conditions to
produce a large quantity of mango, litchi, banana, and vegetables. The state
produces 18.56MT accounting for 7.72% of horticultural production of the
country. It is encouraging to note that Bihar is the leading state in litchi and
fourth-largest producer of mango and guava. The state is also fifth largest
producer of pineapple, seventh largest in banana, third largest producer of
okra and potato and fourth largest in onion production. There are immense
opportunities for agripreneurs in the area of processing and value addition
of horticultural products.

Mrs. Manorama Devi is from Sabour block Bhagalpur. She is founder of

Srijan Mahila. After, death of his husband in the year of 1991, she started
Srijan with only five women. Initially, she adopted Bapu’s Charkha as
means of earning and started selling product door-to-door. In the year
of 1994, Manorama Devi joined hands with a few women of a self-help
group. For starting the venture, they needed venture capital and she tried
for many financial institutions because of mortgage problem many of them
denied to lend the loan. Finally, the Primary Agriculture Co-operative
Society, Rajandipur, gave her a loan of Rs 10,000. Presently, Srijan has
taken a shape of successful women’s co-operative and producing a number
products like silk cloth, silk saree, silk suit, Bindi, different types of spices,
incense sticks, etc. Even the Ministry of Textile, Govt. of India procures
silk sarees and bedsheets from this society. In addition to these products,
this cooperative is making a number of processed fruit and vegetable prod-
ucts like pickles, jam, jelly, morabba, etc. Presently, she is providing direct
employment to more than 600 women.

25.5.1.5 COMMERCIAL DAIRY FARMING AND VALUE ADDED MILK

PRODUCTS

India has a very vast resource of livestock, which plays a significant role
in the national economy making it the largest milk producer in the world
accounting 18.5 of total world milk production (Economic Survey, 2015–
16). Animal husbandry is the backbone of small and marginal farmers’ live-
lihood especially for states like Bihar where more than 90% of farmers are
marginal and small. The state is producing about 6516 thousand MT per year
and availability of milk is 175 gram/capita whereas ICMR recommendation
is 220 gram/capita. Presently, the demand of value-added products of milk
like paneer, ice cream, cheese, butter, bottled milk, yogurt, etc., is increasing
530 Sustainable Agriculture

continuously. There is a huge potential of this sector especially in states like

Bihar which abounds in fertile soil and freshwater.

Er. Indra Kishore Chourasia is from Village Dogacchi, Kasba block of

Purnea district of Bihar. His village is 6 km away from Purnea district.
After completing his study he started the business of computer supplier.
But he realized that he should do something in his village only. He started
dairy farming with 15 cows and two buffaloes. Presently, he is procuring
100–110 liters of milk and also having an automatic milking machine. After
the positive response of consumers, he started the value addition of milk in
forms of different sweets and sugar-free sweets (Aditya et al., 2015).

25.5.1.6 POULTRY FARMING

Poultry is a more profitable and popular venture among the rural entrepre-
neurs because it gives provides remunerative returns on the amount invested,
time and energy spent and labor involved. This venture requires less invest-
ment in comparison to dairy farming and also provides quick return within
short span of time. The demand of egg and poultry is increasing over the
years. India produced about 78.48 billion eggs in 2014–15, and availability
of eggs per capita is 58 eggs/year. Bihar state produces 11002 lakhs eggs and
per capita availability is 11 eggs/year, whereas recommendation ICMR is
180 eggs/year (Agricultural Road Map-2012–17). This is another promising
sector through which agripreneurs can earn a lot.

Mr. Shantanu Kumar is from Pachgachhia, Gopal block of Bhagalpur

district. He is a young agripreneur who started his poultry farming with
1000 of birds. He started his poultry farming with Amrit Hatcheries Pvt Ltd
and developed linkage with market. Presently, he is having 5000 birds and
exploring his own business. He is directly providing employment to 10–15
people and 4.5–5.0 lakhs/annum.

25.5.1.7 FISH FARMING

Fish farming is a gainful venture where there is plenty of water available.

Bihar is endowed with vast inland aquatic resources including rivers, ponds,
reservoirs, ox-bow-lakes, flood plains (chaur) and tanks. Fish farming is
a traditional profession especially in flood-prone areas of Bihar. Still, the
state has not been optimally exploited of its water resources having the large
untapped potential of fish farming. The annual domestic fish demand is about
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 531

5.2 lakh tones where we are producing only 2.88 lakh tones only. There is
huge gap between the demand and supply of fish within the state. At the
same time there is an enormous demand of fingerlings in the state, but small
portion of this demand is met indigenously as few firms and agripreneurs are
into this business, rest demand is fulfilled from West Bengal.
Dr. Sanjivanand Thakur is an agripreneur of Balua Deorhi Village of
Palasi Block from Araria district of Bihar. He is a doctorate in Zoology.
After, completion of his study he chosen his own profession instead of
service. He started fish farming in his own 7 acres of low land. He attended
a training programme at Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagar (U.K.) on carp breeding and culture. He started fish
seed production through induced breeding by using low cost improvised
hapa method. He converted his seven acres of low land into two stocking
ponds, one brood stock and three nursery ponds. Then in a tough competi-
tion with West Bengal, he linked with market. Presently, he is successfully
doing breeding and seed production of catla, rohu and common carp and
earns net profit of INR 5.5–6.0 Lakhs/annum (Aditya et al., 2015).

25.5.1.8 MUSHROOM PRODUCTION

Mushroom cultivation is very popular among the landless farming commu-

nity especially for women farmers. Mushroom is nutritionally very rich
food and has high market value. In addition to good quality protein, no
cholesterol, high fiber, low sodium, good quantity of vitamins and minerals,
the mushrooms also have bioactive compounds like b-glucans, protein poly-
saccharide complexes that impart with unique medicinal values like anti-
cancer and anti-viral properties (Singh et al., 2011). Integrating mushroom
cultivation in family farming not only increases income of family but also
helps in decreasing the disguised unemployment of the family. Over the
last decade, mushroom production in Bihar has gained popularity among
the farming community. Oyster and Button mushroom both can be grown
in the state. But, oyster is widely grown in comparison to button mushroom
because production of button mushroom needs compost and high skilled
human resources. The cost of production of button mushroom is also much
higher than oyster mushroom. However, market value of button mush-
room is much higher and it is also suitable for canning process. Now a day,
oyster mushroom production is more popular among the women members
of SHGs. Among the districts of Bihar, Nalanda district is the leading in
mushroom production.
532 Sustainable Agriculture

Mrs. Madhu Patel, Panditpura, Rajgir, Nalanda (Bihar) started her entre-
preneurial journey in year 2008. Mrs. Patel has now become a leader of
about 1,00,000 rural women by greatly transforming their lives. When
Mrs. Patel found Mushroom as highly beneficial venture, she promoted
other women of her locality by motivating them on account of the excel-
lent taste of mushroom but as the women of the locality started realizing
its huge profits with minimum or negligible inputs the industry took up a
quick boom. As the cost of the spawn reached very high due to its trans-
portation from Delhi or Ranchi, she thought of manufacturing it on her
own. Succeeding in her motives she is now capable of distributing the
spawn on a very large scale. She has influenced the lives of women headed
household by providing about 8 to 10 thousand per month of income. For
marketing initially, she approached the Brahmin and Mahuri community
people who were strictly vegetarians and convinced them about high
protein and nutrient content of mushroom. Later as an effective way to
spread and popularize the product, she gave Rs. 10.00 as margin per
kg of mushroom to the newspaper vendor as a marketing strategy. This
proved to be a boon for the mushroom marketing. She has also remark-
ably improved the status of poor women by distributing the spawn free of
cost. She skillfully provides training on how to sterilize the straw of wheat,
way of spawning, method of proper hanging, maintenance of optimum
temperature and humidity and maintaining the hygiene throughout the
cultivation process. Initially started as a small group, which has now
transformed into Mushroom Grower Association led by Mrs. Madhu, is
successfully providing training to the rural women not only for proper
cultivation and its proper sale, but also for its processed products like
mushroom pickles, mushroom papad, murabba, etc., which provides for
the premium returns of the farmers and thus helps raise their living status
significantly. Her mushroom labhas got modern mushroom equipments
like laminar airflow, BOD incubator, autoclave, refrigerator, AC, etc. on
account of which she is able to produce quality spawn on a large scale.
She is also supplying spawn not only to the farmers, but also to the District
Agricultural Officers for its wider distribution. Her area of coverage not
only includes many districts of Bihar but extends even to many other
states like Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, etc. Rajgeer, a very well known
tourist place serves as a big market for the sale of the mushroom and its
processed products. This vital factor of marketing provides a great incen-
tive for its production as the cultivators get remunerative prices and high
demand for their produces. This highly proteinaceous food on account of
its excellent taste and versatile uses is being greatly demanded not only in
the domestic market but also in abroad. Now, Nalanda is being recognized
nationally as well as globally for its mushroom. She contributed a lot for
mushroom revolution in Nalanda district.
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 533

25.5.1.9 BEE KEEPING

Beekeeping is one of the old traditions in our country for collecting the
honey. Beekeeping is becoming very famous among peasants because of its
demand in national and international market. Beekeeping is not only profitable
venture for beekeepers but helps in increasing cross pollination of crops which
increases the farm productivity. Besides honey, we get venom, royal jelly, wax,
propolis, etc. from bee keeping which are used in medicine, cosmetics and
other purposes. These products are in great demand in indigenous and abroad
markets. Bihar is the leading state in honey production and litchi honey of the
state is very popular in the market.

Sri Shashi Kumaris from Surhari, Gaya. He is a successful agripreneur

in the field of beekeeping and honey processing. He started beekeeping in
the year of 1995 with 10 boxes. He struggled a lot during his initial days
of beekeeping but sticked to his goal. Within two years, he increased from
10 Apis mellifera colonies boxes to 400 colonies and established “Shiva
Honey” with financial support of 1 lakh rupees from Bank of Baroda,
Manpur, Gaya under PMRY scheme. In the year of 2004, he started
M/S Kunwar Apiary Pvt. Ltd company with project cost 1.24 crore. He
established a processing, testing and packaging plant and started selling
his produce under the brand name of “Shiva Agro” (Aditya et al., 2015).
Presently, he is having linkage with more than 200 beekeeper of Bihar.
He is consistently receiving scientific inputs from BAU, Sabour and its
KVK Gaya. In addition to his venture, he is inculcating basic skills of
beekeeping among the farmers and proving market linkage through his
company. Sashi Kumar’s contribution to honey production and processing
in Bihar has earned him awards from the Agricultural Produce Export
Development Agency, APEDA, BAU, Sabour, the National Bee Board and
the State government.

25.5.1.10 COMMERCIAL VERMICOMPOST PRODUCTION

Vermicompost is the product of the composting using earthworm. Vermi-

composting is the process by which worms are used to convert organic mate-
rials (usually wastes) into a humus-like material known as vermicompost.
Commercial vermicompost production is one the promising enterprises for
the agripreneurs.

Sri Santosh Kumar is from village-Shekhwara, block-Bodh Gaya of Gaya

district. He started his dairy farming only with two cows in the year of
534 Sustainable Agriculture

2003. Presently he is having 186 milch cows. He is utilizing the cow dung to
establish a large vermicompost unit of 3000 mt capacity. He is earning net
return from vermicompost 10.0 lakhs/year (Aditya et al., 2015). He received
Jagjivan Ram Innovative Farmers Award-2012 by ICAR, New Delhi.

25.5.1.11 COMMERCIAL MAKHANA PRODUCTION

Bihar state is the leading state for Makhana (Euryale ferox) production. The
state of Bihar alone, accounts for 90% of world’s total Makhana production.
Districts of Bihar where it is popular and cultivated by farmers are Darb-
hanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Sitamarhi, Saharsa, Supaul, Araria,
and Kishanganj. Makhana is culturally intertwined with Mithila. This is a
very profitable venture but the collection and processing of Makhana are
difficult. A few agripreneurs from Bihar started processing of Makhana and
earning millions.

Sri Sahid Parwez is from near B.G.P. School, Saharsa. He went to Ambala to
see the machine which is especially developed for Makhana popping by M/S
Jwala Engineering and Consultancy Services, Ambala. Makhana popping
is most tedious and labor intensive task during the makhana processing.
He also got basic training about Makhana processing and prototype for
popping machine from Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and
Technology, Ludhiana. The available popping machines in the market
were expensive and needed uninterrupted supply of electricity. But, due
to erratic electricity supply in his locality, he decided to install 12 HP
generators to run the popping machine. He established whole popping unit
with the cost of 6.2 lakhs. Now he is earning about INR 42 lakhs annually
and sending processed makhana to Varanasi, Lucknow and Indore market
(Aditya et al., 2015).

In addition to aforementioned agri-enterprises, many other promising

agri-enterprises like nursery production, cultivation of medicinal and
aromatic plant, protected cultivation, service provider through farm imple-
ment banks, participatory seed production, animal feeds, goat farming, etc.
are available as profitable ventures to rural entrepreneurs.

25.6 CONCLUSION

Modernizing agriculture and transforming subsistence farming into a

profitable venture, this process could be a strong engine for enhancing
Empowering Rural Youth Through Agripreneurship 535

the socio-economic condition of the grassroots. This will also help in

attracting and retaining rural youth towards agriculture because majority
of the farmers believe that agriculture is no longer a lucrative venture.
Undoubtedly, there are many constrains like lack of achievement moti-
vation; risk taking ability due to poor socio-economic condition, lack of
skill and knowledge, poor linkage with markets, availability of venture
capital, policy issues, social stigma faced by the agripreneurs while enter-
prise development process. The growth of agripreneurship is very much the
need of the hour. However, there are plenty of limiting factors which hinder
the entrepreneurial process. There is a strong need of mechanism or policy
which encourages agripreneurial process.

KEYWORDS

 agripreneurship
 entrepreneurial motivation training
 entrepreneurial self-efficacy
 entrepreneurship

REFERENCES

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Index

A Agro meteorological field units (AMFUs),

153, 155, 156, 168, 169, 171, 172
Abiotic
Agro techniques, 105
factors, 228, 298
Agro-advisories, 154
stresses, 10, 16, 23, 32, 54, 70, 133, 229,
Agrobacterium, 9, 273
297, 300, 303, 433
Agrochemicals, 131, 189, 191, 194, 288,
Abscisic acid, 462
368, 457, 461, 466
Abutilon indicum, 416
Agro-climatic
Acari, 382, 385
conditions, 324
Acaricides, 458
regions, 13, 70, 76, 78, 79
Acetamiprid, 416
situations, 21, 26, 27, 103
Acetic acid, 127, 128, 462
zones, 6, 15, 21, 75, 122, 153, 154, 286,
Acidic soil, 324
346, 347, 432
Acrididae, 385, 386
Agroecosystem, 56
Actinomycetes, 272
Agro-industries, 274, 282, 354
Adhwara basin, 350
Agro-industry waste, 274, 275
Adulteration, 55, 57, 506
Agromet
Aerobic
advisory, 151, 153, 154, 156–159, 162,
rice, 15–17, 132, 467, 468
168, 169, 171, 487, 498
soil
bulletin, 151, 154, 156–159, 168, 169
conditions, 17
methods, 153
organisms, 126
services (AAS), 149, 150, 152, 153,
surface layer, 127
156, 158, 159, 162, 487, 498
Aeroponic
field unit, 172
cultivation, 56
Agrometeorological services, 151
techniques, 301
Agromyzidae, 409
Afforestation, 353
Agronomic practices, 128, 129, 133
Agaricaceae, 205
planting methods, 129
Agricultural
protected cultivation, 129
crops, 99, 175, 321, 323, 325, 330, 502,
Alachlor, 462
527
Aldrin, 460
earth worm role, 271
Aliyar Nagar
emissions, 138
1 (ALR 1), 69
land fertility status, 43
2 (ALR 2), 69
policymakers, 4
Alkathenes, 218
productivity, 137, 151, 152, 527
All India Co-ordinated Research Project
topics, 152
(AICRP), 16, 25, 32, 48, 50, 70, 71,
training, 484
73–75, 80, 217, 471, 474
waste, 274, 275
Allele mining, 56
Agripreneur/agripreneurship, 517–519, 522,
Allergy toxicity, 10
523, 524, 527, 530, 531, 533, 535
Alleviation, 3, 63, 131, 151
540 Index

Allicin, 47 Aromatic, 39, 42

Allied crops, 44 crops, 44
Alluvial flower, 90
plains, 339, 346–349, 351 oil extraction unit, 275
soil, 142, 144 plants, 44, 91, 103
Amalgamation, 9, 231, 270, 395 rice, 15, 17, 21, 388
Amaryllidaceae, 47 Arsenic compounds, 460
Amblyseius ovalis, 412 Artificial mating, 8
Amelioration, 356 Ascomycota, 205
Amino acids, 223, 432 Aspergillus niger, 369, 471
Ammonia, 126, 177 Asphondylia capparis, 398
Ammonium sulfate, 459 Assam green tall (AGT), 77
Amphibolite, 341, 352 Atmospheric nitrogen, 238
Amplified fragment length polymorphism Atomic
(AFLP), 9, 49 absorption (AA), 53, 191, 201
Anaerobic force microscopy (AFM), 191, 201
conditions, 126, 213, 276, 281 Atrazine, 462
sub-surface layer, 127 Attar, 103
Angiosperm, 203, 205 Aulacophora foveicollis, 422
Annual, 90, 103, 240, 243 Auxin, 128, 273, 462
chrysanthemum, 101 Avena sativa, 370
crops, 212, 222, 240, 241 Avermectins, 460
flowers, 112 Azadirachtin, 459
leaf production, 79 Azimsulfuron, 467
manorial potential, 278 Azolla, 280, 285, 290, 492, 496
water requirement, 221 Azotobacter, 272, 273, 280, 285, 286, 290
Anthesis, 124, 125, 130, 474, 475 Azoxystrobin, 470
Anthocyanine pigment contents, 265
Anthracite, 323 B
Anthracnose leaf spot, 470 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), 401, 477
Anthropogenic activities, 146, 174, 183 Bacteria, 45, 56, 127, 272, 273, 280, 285
Anthurium, 99, 112, 114, 115, 311–313 Bacterial leaf blight (BLB), 13, 16, 20, 469,
Anti-inflammatory properties, 41 470, 477
Antimicrobial properties, 41 Bactrocera cucurbitae, 396, 421
Antioxidant properties, 41, 368 Bagasse, 274
Aphid, 53, 107, 110, 162, 383, 384, 387, Barban, 462
390, 395, 421, 431, 433, 438–441, 446, Barcoding, 55
447, 450 Base exchange capacity (BEC), 339, 364
Apical dominance, 263 Basidiomycetous, 205
Apis Basin
cerana, 504, 515 application, 79
mellifera, 504, 515, 533 system, 214–216
Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), 204–208 Bean golden mosaic virus, 433
Arbuscules, 205 Beauveria bassiana, 405, 424
Archaeosporales, 206 Bedding plants, 90
Archaeosporomycetes, 206 Bee pollen, 502, 503
Arecaceae, 81 Beeswax, 503, 512
Aroma, 17, 20, 21, 47, 86, 132, 501–503, 505 Begomoviruses, 431, 433–436, 451
Index 541

Benzoylureas, 460 sequestration, 136, 146

Benzyladenine, 462 soil remediation, 181
Beta vulgaris, 327 compost remediation, 182
Betasatellite, 434, 435 fungal remediation, 182
Betulaceae, 205 microbial remediation, 181
Bhagalpur Katarni, 20, 22 non-remedial options, 182
Biennial cycle, 259 phytoremediation, 181
Bihar Biomagnifications, 463
Agricultural University (BAU), 15, Biomass, 50, 75, 130, 138, 139, 193, 282,
17, 23, 25, 27, 30, 32, 34, 75, 113, 322, 324, 327, 370, 468
124–126, 129, 130, 132, 133, 141, 154, Bionomics, 417
155, 185, 189, 195, 206, 208, 223, 248, Biopesticides, 53, 328, 374, 401, 458
278, 280, 284–286, 311, 312, 329, 367, Bioprospecting, 56
369, 387, 436, 446, 466, 477, 481, 482, Bio-regulators treatments, 259
484, 486, 487, 493, 495–498, 527, 533 Biosystematics, 54
agronomic approaches, 129 Biotechnological methods, 45
crop management, 129 Biotechnology, 8, 9, 48
initiative, 206 Biotic
nutrient management, 130 factors, 451
coconut-based cropping system, 80 problems, 368
crops development, 10 stresses, 70, 229, 297, 300, 379, 433
maize, 28 Biotypes, 9, 387
rice breeding, 10 Bipartite, 433, 435
wheat breeding, 21 Bipolaris sorokiniana, 372
geological information, 342 Bispyribac sodium, 467, 468
river basin, 350, 353 Bitter gourd leafhopper, 398
soil, 342 Black spot tolerant, 107
carbon sequestration, 141 Blight, 16, 23, 28, 53, 372, 442, 471, 472
pollution, 182 Boletus, 205
Bioagents, 53 Bombyx mori, 464
Bioavailability, 57, 204, 371 Borassus flabellifer L., 65, 81
Biochemical Botanical, 458, 469
oxygen demand (BOD), 175, 187, 532 insecticides, 409
processes, 222 pesticides, 402
reactions, 213 Botrytis cinerea, 369
Biodegradability, 131 Brassica
Biodegradable waste, 275 honey, 511
Biodegrading, 373, 375 junceca, 322
nanoparticles, 372 Brazilian garlic germplasm, 49
Bioefficacy, 466 Breeding
Biofertilizers, 50 hybrid, 15
Biogas slurry, 275 program, 12, 113, 448
Bioinformatics tools, 56 Brevennia rehi, 381
Bio-inoculants, 269, 272, 288, 290 Brinjal shoot/fruit borer, 395, 413, 424
Bio-intensive pest management (BIPM), Brown
397 manuring, 130
Biological planthopper (BPH), 20, 171, 172, 380,
nitrogen fixation, 273 387, 389, 392, 473
542 Index

Bulb, 47, 48, 90, 98, 103, 184 Carotenoids, 83, 107
characters, 49 Cartap hydrochloride, 419
diameter, 47 Caterpillar instars, 417
formation, 49 Cation, 325, 326
weight, 47 exchange capacity, 326
Bulbil, 49 Cecidomyiidae, 381, 385
Bulbing period, 47 Cellulose, 144
Bulk density, 140, 321, 323, 325, 326, 331 Cenoccocum, 205
Burkholderia, 273 Center for Protected Cultivation Technology
Butachlor, 468, 470 (CPCT), 302, 316
Central
C cotton growing zone, 406
Calcium hydroxide (CaO), 323, 331 Insecticides Board (CIB), 465, 466, 477
Calcschist, 341, 352 Institute of Plastic Engineering and Tech-
Calendula, 112 nology (CIPET), 270
Calmodulin-binding protein, 16 Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 270
Calopogonium muconoides, 74 Centrifugal extractor, 505
Calotropis gigantean, 402 Cereal, 3, 6, 9, 16, 36, 122, 129, 163,
Canopy, 214, 215, 222, 223, 239, 241–244, 184, 195, 198, 272, 336, 356, 379, 380,
246, 251, 255, 257, 258, 261, 262, 265, 386–388, 391, 392, 406, 432, 462
407, 416 crops, 3, 10, 198, 379, 380, 387, 391
Capsicum productivity, 122
annum, 328 System Initiatives for South Asia
chlorosis virus (CaCV), 444, 451 (CSISA), 16
Captan, 460 Chemical
Carbamates, 459 fertilizer, 73, 144, 328, 329
Carbendazim, 470–472 growth retardants, 257
Carbohydrate, 258, 501 modification, 56
Carbon, 56, 123, 124, 131, 135–142, 144, pesticides, 368, 397
146, 190, 300, 319, 320, 323, 354, 367, Chemopreventive properties, 41
511 Chemotaxonomic categorization, 47
assimilation, 204 Chilean garlic germplasm, 49
dioxide, 124, 135, 136, 139, 146, 300, 511 Chiling stress, 128
management index, 141 Chilli thrips, 424
organic farming, 141 Chilo partellus, 384–387, 392
retention, 137, 140, 146 Chinese garlic germplasm, 49
sensitive indicators, 141 Chitin synthesis inhibitors (CSI), 459, 477
sequestration, 56, 131, 135–137, Chitosan, 131, 189, 199, 200, 373, 375
139–142, 144, 146 Chlorantraniliprole, 419
chemical transformation, 136 Chlordane, 460
engineering techniques, 136 Chlorimuron, 468
potential, 140 Chlorinated hydrocarbons (OCs), 458
soil carbon sequestration, 136, 137 Chlormequat, 462, 475, 477
terrestrial sequestration, 136 Chlorofluoro carbons, 124
sink, 140 Chlorophenols, 459
storage potential, 138 Chlorophyll, 130, 223, 474
trapping, 137 Chlorotic spots, 415
Carnation, 93, 99, 101, 307 Chlorpyriphos, 171, 388, 390, 420, 474
Index 543

Chour land, 364 Colloidal

Chowghat formulation, 373
green dwarf (CGD), 70 suspension, 373
orange dwarf (COD), 70, 77 Colonization, 206, 207, 272
Chrysanthemum, 76, 93, 98–101, 104, 105, Comb foundation sheet, 507
112, 113, 116, 307, 311, 314, 409, 458 Commercialization, 57, 86, 89, 91
Chrysomelidae, 381, 382, 422 Confiscates anoxic stress, 129
Cicadellidae, 381 Conglomerate, 352
Cicer arientinum, 322 Conjunctivitis, 502
Citric acid, 83, 84 Conservation agriculture, 130, 136–138
Citrus Consolida ambigua, 102
crops, 262 Conventional
species, 216 breeding, 54
tree, 223 crops cultivation, 94
Climate change, 56, 121, 122, 124–126, flood irrigation, 218
128, 130, 131, 133, 135, 137, 139, 140, plant breeding, 8, 9
142, 144, 146, 149, 150, 152, 153, 521 Copper, 176, 178, 286, 341, 352
Bihar, 122 nanoparticle treatment, 372
impact, 124 Corms, 98, 101, 103, 108–110
major cereals, 124 Correlation coefficient, 163, 164
natural resource management, 125 Cortical cells, 205
scenario, 121, 131 Costeffective nutrient formulation, 131
stress, 128 Cotesi aplutellae, 418
Clonal Cotton
propagation, 48 fields, 414
selection, 47, 48, 50 hybrid, 5
Cnaphalocrosis medinalis, 381 Cotyledon stage, 423
Coarse grain, 13, 19 Crambidae, 381, 384–386, 399
Coat protein (CP), 436, 437, 440, 451 Crop
Coccinellids, 472, 474 breeding, 3, 4
Coccinia grandis, 402 combination, 239, 251, 324
Coconut research debris, 414
Bihar status, 75, 76 drying method, 112
crop improvement, 76 duration, 52, 263, 307
crop production, 79 geometry, 261, 262
India, 68 growth, 56, 124, 129, 150, 305, 328, 331,
biotechnology interventions improve- 347, 463
ment, 71 plants, 6, 8, 10, 203, 319, 386, 406, 441,
crop improvement, 70 457
germplasm collection and conserva- breeding methods, 6, 8
tion, 68 production technology, 303
varieties and hybrids, 69 productivity, 6, 138, 174, 300, 319, 327,
Codex Alimentarius, 511 328, 353, 503
Coir protection strategy, 398
industry, 275 rotation, 6, 138
pith, 275 season, 19, 150
Cold chain system, 104 stages, 222
Coleoptera, 381–386, 402, 422 yield, 222
544 Index

Cropping Demographic changes, 151

intensity per unit land area, 236 Demonstration and seed production farm
patterns, 360, 379, 386, 391 (DSP Farm), 72
system, 6, 50, 56, 75, 79–81, 98, 99, 129, Dengue, 460
130, 142–144, 195, 231, 239–241, 243, Denitrification, 126, 127
245, 336, 350, 360, 398, 431, 445, 451 Deo-geowoo-gen, 13
Cross-pollination, 8, 463 Desertification, 139
Crotolaria Deterioration, 137, 179, 180, 369, 397
retusa, 74 Diadegma semiclausm, 418
striata, 74 Diamond back moths (DBM), 417, 424
Cryopreservation technique, 71 Diara lands, 360
Crystallization, 512 Diarrhea, 41
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), 440–442, Dicarboxamide groups, 460
451 Dicladispa armigera, 381
Cucumovirus, 451 Dicot wetland plants, 370
Cucurbitaceous, 398, 407, 422, 431, 433, Dicotyledonous plants, 433
438 Dicyandiamide (DCD), 127
crops, 398, 422, 431 Dieldrin, 460
Cucurbits, 238, 360, 421, 423, 431, 435, Digital
436, 438, 439, 441 filming, 152
Cultivars, 17, 32, 41, 50, 51, 53, 69, 113, image processing (DIP), 341
127, 254, 256, 263, 265, 312, 327, 401, Dinitroanilines aryloxyphenoxypropionate,
412, 448, 462 460
Curculionidae, 382, 383, 386, 402 Diptera, 381, 383–386, 421
Curcuma longa, 51 Direct seeded rice (DSR), 129, 133
Curcuminoids, 56 Disc filters, 309
Cut flower crop, 101 Discomycetes, 205
Cyanobacteria, 326, 327 Disease management, 80, 367–369, 371,
Cyclic market fluctuations, 55 373–375, 415, 445
Cyclohexanediones, 460 Dissemination, 360, 433, 446, 493
Cycloheximide, 462 Distillation methods, 103
Cycocel, 257 District agromet advisory bulletin, 156
Cyhalofop, 467 Diversification, 54, 100–104
Cypermethrin, 390, 403, 405, 414, 416, 445, Diversisporales, 206
474 Dolerite, 341, 352
Domestic
D demands, 5
Dahlia hortensis, 102 market, 43, 90, 94, 501, 503, 513, 532
Daira land, 364 Double haploid (DH), 25
Dalma lava, 352 Draught stress alleviation, 131
Defoliation, 416 Drip
Deforestation, 125, 135, 139 fertigation, 79
Defragmentation, 104 irrigation, 72, 73, 126, 214, 219, 299, 308
Degree of milling, 20 system, 216, 217
Dehumidification, 305 trials, 73
Dehydration, 113, 223 system, 217
Dehydrogenase, 193, 204, 326 Drippers, 73, 217, 308, 309
Deltamethrin, 390, 416, 472 Drug modeling, 55
Index 545

Dry matter, 51, 467 dodecastigma, 402

Dwarf Equilibrium, 131, 192, 194, 195
cultivars, 69, 256, 257, 266 Ericales, 205
indicas, 13 Erosion
pyramid, 258, 265 map, 357
Dwarfing rootstock, 258, 263 prone area, 233
Erwinia, 273
E Essential oils, 51, 53, 89, 90, 103
Earias Ethephon, 462
insulana, 413 Ethylene, 461, 462
vittella, 413 Eudrilus eugeniae, 280, 281
East coast tall (ECT), 69, 70, 77 Eulophidae, 405, 410
Eco-friendly compounds, 460 Europe Union (EU), 465
Economic Evaporation, 73, 194, 215–218, 230, 325,
security, 68 371, 506
yield, 133, 240, 242 Extended x-ray absorption fine structure
Ectomycorrhizae (ECM), 204, 205, 208 (EXAFS), 191
Ectomycorrhizal root, 205 Extension advisory services (EAS), 481,
Ectotrophicmycorrhize, 204 482, 498
Eisenia foetida, 280, 281, 324
Electrical F
conductivity, 220, 326 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenti-
tools, 303 cide Act (FIFRA), 465
Eleusineindica, 371 Fermentation, 84, 139, 508, 510–512
Embryo, 71, 82 Fertigation, 72–74, 79, 217, 218, 222–224,
Emission control devices, 319, 320 303, 308, 309, 316
Endomycorrhizae, 203–206 levels, 79
Endomycorrhizal fungi, 203 studies, 222
Endophytes, 206 system, 309
Endosperm, 82, 85, 86 unit, 303
Endosulphan, 460, 470 Fertile clones, 47, 48
Endrine, 460 Fertilization, 47, 143, 261, 482
Entrepreneurial Fertilizer, 125, 126, 130, 141, 174, 180,
motivation training (EMT), 524, 535 192–194, 196, 204, 217, 219, 227, 246,
self-efficacy (ESE), 521, 535 247, 271, 273, 286, 288, 309, 319, 321,
Entrepreneurship, 100, 517–519, 521–524, 322, 325, 330, 371, 389, 414, 416, 457
526, 535 application, 246
development program, 524 compounds, 212
Environmental consumption, 5
oxidation, 138 control order (FCO), 285
Protection Agency (EPA), 189, 465 Fiberglass-reinforced polyester, 304
requirement, 281 Flonicamid, 472
Epidemics, 55, 417, 444, 446 Flood
Epidermal leaf tissues, 418 irrigation methods, 214
Epidermis, 418 plains, 350, 530
Epigeic worms, 281 prone, 350
Epilachna resistant, 12
beetle, 402, 405 system, 215
546 Index

Florets, 107–111 Forest degradation, 125

Floricultural Forestry crops, 321, 325, 362
commodities, 90, 93, 94, 104 French marigold, 108
crops, 89, 90 Fruit
division, 104 crop based cropping system, 239,
products, 91–93, 102, 105 241–243, 251
sector, 98, 99 benefit, 240
diversification potentiality, 100–103 components, 242
profitability, 98 laying procedure, 243
scope, 98 fly, 395, 398, 424, 473
units, 101 orchard, 230, 237–239, 260
Floriculture, 89–94, 98–100, 102–106, 116 plantation, 230, 232
Bihar scenario, 94 Fulvic acid, 144, 146
business constraint and challenges, 104 Fungal
improvement strategies, 104 pathogens, 16
crops, 90, 92 pathosystems, 372, 375, 471
industry, 89, 90, 104 remediation, 181, 187
research work, 105 Fungi, 45, 182, 195, 203–206, 272, 369,
sector, 90–92, 94, 99, 103 372, 373, 405, 406, 423, 424, 471
global scenario, 92 Fungicidal wound dressing, 260
Floriculturist, 103 Fungicides, 162, 175, 217, 227, 230, 367,
Flower crops, 93, 98–100, 105, 106, 112, 374, 457, 458, 460, 461, 469, 470, 477,
116, 243, 299, 300, 311 488
cultivation, 98, 100, 298, 300 Furrow system, 215
improved varieties, 106 Fusarium oxysporum, 372
chrysanthemum, 110
dry flower technology, 112 G
gladiolus, 108 Gall midge, 380, 387, 398
marigold, 107 Gandak basin, 350
rose, 106 Gangetic plains, 25, 351
Flubendiamide, 402, 403, 409, 419, 473 Garlic
Flupyrifurone, 472 breeding, 47
Fly ash, 319–331 genetics, 48
application, 324–328, 331 germplasm, 49
classification, 323 Garlicky flavor, 47
utilization, 322 Gasteromycetes, 205
Foliage, 89–91, 93, 94, 98, 100, 220, 408, Gazania flowers, 110
409, 415, 418, 422, 439 Geminiviridae, 433
Foliar Geminivirus, 431, 433, 435–437, 446
application, 193, 424, 471, 473, 474, 476 Genetic
disease, 34 diversity, 4, 46, 47, 49, 82, 90, 261, 435
spray, 410, 473, 474 engineering, 9, 10
systems, 308 fingerprinting, 57
Food improvement, 3, 4, 36
grade plastic canes, 504 makeup, 8, 506
Quality Protection Act (FQPA), 465 stock, 12
Safety and Standards Authority of India transformation, 8, 9, 10
(FSSAI), 514, 515 variability, 46, 48, 84
Index 547

Genomics, 3, 36, 56 Gomphrena globosa, 102

Genotypes, 6, 9, 25, 45, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, Gondwana rocks, 352
68, 113, 128 Good agriculture practice (GAP), 464
Geographic information systems (GIS), Gora, 12
335, 351, 354 Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS),
Geomorphologic situations, 356 150, 152, 153, 155, 161, 162
Geo-morphology, 357 economic impact, 162
Geophagus worms, 281 case study, 162
Geraniums, 90 Granite, 339, 341, 352
Gerbera, 93, 101, 112, 307, 312 Grass
Germination, 72, 82, 128, 199–201, 324, alleys, 231
325, 370, 372, 373, 462, 467 sod, 234
Germplasm, 9, 12, 15, 16, 23, 45, 49, 55, Grassy alleys, 233
57, 68, 69, 71, 76, 83, 87, 131, 301 Grazing land, 142, 340, 344
Ghujia weevil, 383 Green
Gibberellic acid (GA), 128, 133, 462 foliage, 24, 26
Gibberellins, 273 growth, 231
Gigasporales, 206 manure crop, 74
Ginger manuring, 74, 409
candy, 55 revolution, 5, 22, 271, 288, 335, 360,
shreds, 55 371, 380, 391
Gladiolus, 101, 105 vegetation, 231, 233
Glasshouse, 303 Greenhouse (GHG), 91, 99, 122, 124, 125,
Glimpses, 372 127, 129, 133, 138–140, 144, 189, 192,
Global 295, 296, 299–302, 304, 306–308, 316
emissions, 122, 123, 138 cultivation, 299, 301, 304
floriculture, 92 damage causes, 306
gene bank, 55 emissions, 123–126, 133, 140, 144, 151
GHG emissions, 123 gases, 122, 133, 138
market, 44, 93, 103 technology, 307
pests, 398 Gross domestic product (GDP), 3, 5, 10, 91
scenario, 92, 302 Groundnut bud necrosis virus, 432, 443,
warming, 121, 123, 124, 131, 133, 135, 444, 450
138, 139, 323, 379, 386, 391 Groundwater exploitation, 336, 353, 355
potential (GWP), 124, 129, 133 Growing ornamental plants, 310
Glomalin, 208 Growth
Glomerales, 206 phase, 525
Glomeromycetes, 206 regulators, 52, 84, 461
Glomeromycota, 206 retardants, 257
Glomus Guatemalan garlic germplasm, 49
coronatum, 206 Guava trees, 262
mosseae, 206, 207 Gulkand, 103
Glume surface glabrous, 24 Gundhi bug, 160, 380, 381
Glycine, 223 Gypsum, 204, 220, 272, 321, 322
Glyphosate, 17, 371, 460, 467, 469
herbicide, 17 H
Glyricidia, 74 Hadda beetle, 405
Gneiss, 348, 352 Harmful ultraviolet, 124, 133
548 Index

Hatching, 400, 405, 411, 421 Hot stress, 229

Havoc infestation, 410 Human resource development, 189, 201
Hazard analysis critical control point Humic acid, 144, 146, 464
(HACCP), 509, 515 Humid tropics, 73
Heat Humidity, 65, 66, 149, 213, 220, 247, 300,
conductivity, 368 303–305, 310, 420, 488, 532
stress, 124, 133 Hybrid, 12, 16, 29–34, 46, 70, 78, 79, 102,
Hedging, 257, 258, 262 109, 128, 132, 133, 243, 295, 297, 298,
Helichrysum bracteatum, 102 397, 415
Helicoverpa armigera, 383, 385, 396–398, rice, 15
407 vigor, 29
Hemicelluloses, 144 Hybridization, 8, 12, 13, 22, 50
Hemiptera, 381–386, 415, 420 Hydraulic conductivity, 323
Henosepilachna vigitioctopunctata, 402 Hydrocyclone, 309
Herbicide, 10, 53, 175, 219, 232–234, 371, Hydrogen producers, 127
457, 458, 460, 461, 467–469, 477 Hydrolysis, 371
glyphosate, 371 Hydrolytic process, 213
resistance rice, 16 Hydro-meteorological natural disasters, 122
tolerance, 10 Hydroponics, 56, 301
Heterosis, 46 Hygroscopic nature, 512
Heterozygous population, 108 Hymenomycetes, 205
Hibiscus ficulensus, 416 Hymenoptera, 405, 410
High density
orcharding, 261 I
planting (HDP), 56, 57, 253–266 Ideotypes, 55
Hi-tech horticulture, 311 Imazamox, 468
Hoeing, 171, 230 Imidacloprid, 389, 410, 411, 445, 447,
Holistic growth, 42 472–474
Holotrichia consanguinea, 384–386 Imidazolinone, 460
Homogeneity, 164, 446 In vitro germination, 71
Honeycombs, 513 Inactive larva, 412
Horblende schist, 352 Incompatible rootstock, 258
Hornblende Incubation period, 199, 399, 413
gneiss, 352 Indian
schist, 341, 352 Institute of Spices Research (IISR), 45,
Horticultural 46, 50, 52
crops, 42, 102, 212, 218, 221, 224, scenario, 93
295–297, 306, 307, 354, 398, 437 spices, 52
interventions, 56 Indigenous flora, 89
operations, 253, 255 Indigofera parviflora, 74
Horticulture, 42, 56, 90, 91, 98, 212, 224, Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP), 122, 335, 342,
253, 265, 296–298, 311, 486, 526 343, 401
production, 224 Indole-3-acetic acid, 462
sector, 42, 296 Indoor plants, 89, 90
Host Inductively coupled plasma (ICP), 191, 201
cells, 205 Industrial solid waste, 320
plant, 206, 399, 406, 407, 409, 433 Information and communication technolo-
tissue, 205 gies (ICTs), 152, 481–484, 497, 498
Index 549

Inorganic phase, 82, 84, 231, 242, 459

compounds, 458, 459 stage, 236
fertilization, 139
fertilizers, 74 K
inputs, 328 Katarni rice, 20, 21
salts, 475 Kinnow plants, 263
soil, 322 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK), 57, 207,
Insect growth regulators (IGR), 459 484, 486, 489, 490, 494, 496, 498, 527,
Insecticides, 160, 162, 175, 177, 217, 300, 528, 533
325, 388, 389, 395, 401, 403, 408, 411,
415–417, 421, 422, 424, 432, 445, 447, 448, L
451, 457–461, 463–466, 472–474, 477
In-situ rainwater harvesting, 224 Labor-intensive operations, 260
Integrated Labyrinth, 308
cropping system models, 79, 80 Laccaria, 205
farming system (IFS), 526, 527 Lakshadweep ordinary (LCT), 69, 70
pest management (IPM), 54, 56, 80, 186, Land use planning (LUP), 335, 336, 338,
187, 387, 401, 421, 424, 461, 513 342, 350, 351, 357, 364
Integration, 8, 105, 329, 368 Landfilling, 320
Intelligent packing materials, 131 Landraces, 4, 6, 21, 448, 451
Inter SSRs (ISSRs), 9 Landscape industry, 89
Intercropping, 75, 236, 237, 240, 244, 247, Landscaping, 90, 103, 105, 110
248, 408, 411, 414 Larva, 400, 407, 413
Intercrops, 53, 75, 76, 227–231, 236–239, Larval-pupal endoparasitoid, 405
242, 243, 245, 251 Larvicidal toxicity, 405
International Standard Organization (ISO), Late
44, 509, 515 maturing, 21, 391
Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV), 444, 451 sown irrigated (LS-IR), 132
Irrigation, 17, 25, 43, 53, 57, 72, 73, 75, 79, Lavendula augustifolia, 102
80, 104, 107, 108, 110, 112, 126, 129, Leaf
132, 150, 151, 159, 160, 171, 174, 194, lamina, 423, 435
211–220, 222, 224, 230, 232, 233, 243, petioles, 87
246, 247, 258, 283, 285, 303, 308, 321, spot, 106, 259, 470
325, 338, 345, 347, 353, 355–358, 416, 488 Legumes, 227, 237, 239, 243, 451
channels, 216 Leguminous
frequency, 220 crops, 234, 235, 237, 238, 243
management, 57, 211 hosts, 433, 437
potential, 218, 345, 353 Lentil collar rot disease, 374
studies, 222 Lepidoptera, 381, 383–386, 399, 407, 409,
system, 214, 218, 308 413, 417, 419
time, 220 Leptocorisa acuta, 381
water, 211, 216–220, 230 Leucinodes orbonalis, 396, 399, 402, 404
Isozymes, 49 Liberalization, 89, 91
Lichens, 90
J Lignite quality, 319
Limonium sinuatum, 102
Juvenile Lindane, 460
hormones (JH), 459 Lipid, 369, 443
period, 237, 239 Liriomyza trifolii, 397, 409
550 Index

Litchi, 161, 162, 206, 207, 208, 237, 243, Mesocarp, 86

257, 265, 342, 361, 362, 496 Mesophilic process, 271
Low Metabolic
cost structure, 304 compounds, 223
density orcharding, 261 reactions, 213
dose rate sulfonylurea, 460 Metabolism, 126, 263, 461
tunnel polyhouse, 303 Metallic
Lycopersicon esculentum, 399 foils, 278
nanoparticles, 372
M Meteorological
Macromode, 54 department (IMD), 150, 151, 154, 156,
Macronutrients, 204, 320, 321, 354 168, 169, 171, 489
Macrophomina phaseolina, 470, 471 seasons, 163, 167
Magnesium, 184, 357 Methane, 125–127, 135, 139
Mahananda basins, 350 Methanogens, 127
Maize, 6, 7, 10, 28–34, 132, 133, 141, Mica, 192, 341, 352
160–162, 172, 185, 198, 204, 206–208, Microbes, 127, 181, 276
221, 239, 278, 287, 322, 325, 327, 336, Microbial
342, 345, 355, 357, 360–362, 379, 380, count, 204
383, 384, 387, 390, 422, 446, 447, 467, degradation, 140, 144, 371, 463
472, 496, 528 enzymes, 368
composite maize, 29 inhibitors, 127
growers, 30 population, 137, 204, 278, 285
hybrid, 32 Micro-ecosystem, 310
maize, 29 Microencapsulation, 56
rabi maize, 30 Micro-irrigation system, 263
Malaoxon, 464 Micronutrients, 230, 246, 247, 276,
Malaria, 460 319–321, 325, 326, 354
Malathion, 107, 391, 405, 414, 422, 424, Microorganisms, 180, 203, 229, 272, 273,
464, 474 280, 368, 408
Malayan yellow dwarf (MYD), 70, 77 Microrhizomes, 52
Maleic hydrazide, 462 Microsatellites, 9
Mancozeb, 52, 470–472 Microtubes, 218
Marble schist, 341, 352 Mildly fragrant blooms, 106
Marigold, 95–102, 104, 105, 107, 112, 113, Millennium, 152
408, 410 Millets, 221, 336, 345, 357, 380
Marker-assisted selection (MAS), 9, 16, 23 crops, 28
Maximum permissible limit (MPL), 176, 187 Milling, 19, 20
Meadow orcharding, 259, 266 Mimic hormones, 459
establishment, 260 Mimosa pudica, 213
Medicinal Mission for integrated development of
crops, 42 horticulture (MIDH), 42, 54
plants, 75, 98, 527 Mite population, 412
Medium Mitigation, 56, 122, 126, 128, 133, 138,
cost structures, 305 139, 183
high density, 254 Moisture
Melanin synthesis, 372 adequacy index, 335
Melons, 406, 409 sensitive stage, 222
Index 551

stress, 131, 217, 220, 282, 359 Mycotoxin, 55

Molasses, 274, 422 Mythimna separata, 381, 383–385
Molecular
biology, 8, 55 N
breeding, 8 Nano-emulsion, 371
characteristics, 47 Nanobiosensors, 131
farming, 55 Nanochemicals, 374
markers, 9, 55 Nanochitosan, 367, 373, 374
profiles, 8, 55 Nanoclay, 192, 193, 198, 374, 375
profiling, 56 application, 374
Molluscicides, 458 polymer composites (NCPCs), 192, 193,
Monocot wetland plants, 370 195, 198
Mono-cropping, 360 Nanofertilizers, 131
Monocrotophos, 80, 389, 390, 413 Nanoformulation, 131, 196, 197, 199, 200,
Monocultures, 504 371, 373, 375
Monopartite, 433, 434, 438 Nanomission, 369
begomoviruses, 433 Nanoparticles, 131, 189, 190, 192, 367–375,
Morpholine, 460 471
Morphological Nanopolymeric
character, 47 coating materials, 131
diversity, 49 hydrogel, 131
traits, 47 Nanoscale
Morpho-phenological features, 239 characterization techniques, 191
Mosaics, 433 synthesis, 190
Mosses, 90 Nanoscience, 190, 191, 367, 369
Mottling, 435, 438, 442, 444 Nanosensors, 131
Mulching, 128–130, 218, 224, 230–232, Nanosilver, 131
234, 235, 245, 247–250, 468, 471, 284 Nanotechnology, 55, 131, 189–191, 195,
Multinutreint nanoclay polymer composite 201, 368–371
formulation (MNCPC), 198 agricultural applications, 192
Multiplication rate, 281, 285 nanoclay polymer composites (NCPC),
Mungbean, 324, 327 192
Municipal application, 191, 370
solid waste (MSW), 269, 270, 282 BAU initiatives, 195
waste, 270, 275 achievements, 195
Muscidae, 383–386 education, 195
Mutation, 10, 17, 48, 51, 175 research projects, 195
breeding, 10, 48 Nanotitanium dioxide, 131
Mycelium, 372 Nanotoxicology, 131
Mycorrhiza, 204, 205, 208 Naphthalene, 459
arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), 205 acetic acid (NAA), 50, 52, 462
ectomycorrhizae (ECM), 205 National
Mycorrhizal Centre for Medium Range Weather Fore-
colonization, 204 cast (NCMRWVF), 149, 150, 153, 156,
fungi, 203, 206 159, 163, 164
hyphae, 204 Horticultural
plants, 204 Mission (NHM), 42, 54, 214, 296, 307,
root, 206 411, 413
552 Index

Research and Development Foundation Non-structural protein (NSs), 443

(NHRDF), 48 Non-target organisms, 175, 457, 458, 460,
Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), 190 464, 465
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), North-east alluvial plains, 355
329, 331 Novel
Natural agrochemicals formulations, 131
dyes, 103, 104, 116 fertilizer formulations, 192
enemy fauna, 408 fungicide, 373
plowman, 271 nano Fe fertilizer, 196
resource management, 125 nano P fertilizers, 196
climate resilient varieties, 128 nanoformulations, 199
fertilizer application method, 126 nanopesticides, 131
hormones application, 128 superabsorbent hydrogel, 195, 196
microbes use, 127 Nucleic acids, 212, 223
nitrification inhibitors use, 126 Nucleotide, 9, 441
seed inoculation, 127 Nutraceuticals, 41, 46
site specific nutrient management Nutrient
techniques, 125 compounds, 371
suitable varieties selection, 127 index, 354
tillage management, 126 Nutritional
water management, 126 security, 269, 270, 432, 527
Nausea, 41, 180 standards, 432
Necrotic Nymphal stages, 415
lesions, 50 Nymphs, 411, 412
region, 421 Nymphula depunctalis, 381
Need-based manual weeding (NBMW), 468
Neem seed kernel seed extract (NSKE), O
410, 472, 474 Odontotermes obesus, 381, 383
Negative correlation, 47, 51 Okra, 128, 239, 322, 398, 406, 414, 415,
Nematicides, 457 432, 445–447, 472, 527, 529
Nematodes, 55, 288, 398 stem fly, 398
Neochrysocharis farmosa, 410 Oleanders, 278
Nephotettix nigropictus, 381 Oligonychus oryzae, 382
Nilaparvata lugens, 381, 387 Open
Nitrobacter, 272 field cultivation, 105, 297
Nitrogen pollinated population, 108, 109
metabolism, 258 reading frames (ORFs), 433, 451
cycle, 126 Optimum
rich cover crop, 234 growth, 171, 230, 231
Nitrogenous fertilizer, 130, 223 high density, 254
Nitrophenols, 459 plant density, 264
Nitrous oxide Orchard floor management, 228, 265
emission, 127 benefits, 229
flux, 127 factors affecting, 229
gases, 127 irrigation water, 230
Noctuidae, 381, 383–386, 407, 413, 419 pest management, 230
Non-edible products, 82, 86 soil stabilization, 229
Non-soluble manures, 217 weed population, 229
Index 553

objectives, 228 Para-chlorophenoxy acetic acid (PCPA),

system, 231 128, 133
clean cultivation, 233 Parasitoid, 390, 401, 410, 418
grass alleys, 233 Parathion, 107, 460
inter crop cultivation, 236 Parthenocarpic
mulching, 234 cucumber, 299, 307, 311, 312
solid grass cover, 233 gynoecious lines, 312
weed control, 232 Partial root drying (PRD), 211, 218, 224
Organic Pathogen, 3, 9, 16, 45, 55, 56, 276, 288,
acids, 271, 273 303, 307, 367, 369, 421, 471
amendments, 136, 138, 141–144 Pathogenic fungi, 199
carbon, 130, 141, 143, 241, 285, 325, 326 Pearl millet, 127, 379, 380, 386, 390
compounds, 458 Pediobius foveolatus, 405
farming, 54, 56, 74, 141, 142, 174, 186, Pegmatite, 341, 352
271, 272, 495, 513 Pendimethalin (PE), 53, 467–469
fertilizer, 86, 273 Pepper veinal mottle virus (PVMV), 438, 440
impurities, 309 Percolation, 217, 219
inputs, 328 Pest
manure, 74, 140, 144, 218 free crop, 416
matter, 50, 74, 130, 137, 138, 144, 146, management, 53, 186, 187, 211, 247, 251,
175, 179, 186, 193, 227, 232, 233, 281, 265, 387, 388, 395, 397, 398, 401, 404,
325, 353 421, 424, 461, 473
mulches, 218 resistance, 10
pesticidal compounds, 458 Pesticidal compounds, 460
sources, 74, 137, 269, 288 Pesticides, 53, 55, 56, 151, 174, 175,
substances, 321, 324 177, 179, 181, 186, 192, 219, 227, 230,
Organization for Economic Cooperation and 322, 327, 328, 367, 368, 371, 372, 374,
386, 397, 398, 401, 405, 409, 457–461,
Development (OECD), 320, 331, 461
463–466, 473, 488
Organophosphates (OPs), 458, 464
Pest-resistant varieties, 408
Ornamental, 90, 94
Petals, 106–109
crops, 90, 406
Petroleum oils, 459
gardening, 103
Pharmaceutical
industry, 90
industries, 47, 108
plants, 46, 90–93, 106, 288
properties, 46
Orthoptera, 385, 386
Pharmacological activities, 55
Orthotospovirus, 451
Phenacoccus solenopsis, 406
Oviposition, 399, 400, 405, 412, 418
Phenolics, 475
Phosphatase, 203, 204, 326
P dehydrogenase, 204
Paclobutrazol, 257 enzyme, 203
Paddy transplanter, 126 Phosphogypsum, 272, 280, 285
Palmyra Phosphoric acid, 195, 464
national level research status, 83 Phosphorodithioic acid, 464
crop improvement, 83 Phosphorodithiotate compounds, 464
crop production, 84 Phosphorothioic acid, 464
palm, 65, 81, 82, 84, 88 Phosphorus (P), 83, 126, 203, 204,
products, 83 206–208, 273, 325, 326, 336, 356
554 Index

inorganic, 203 metabolic activities, 212

nutrition, 206 nutrient, 214, 270, 271, 288, 290, 300,
organic, 203 319, 321, 323, 325, 329, 331
solubilizing nutrition, 308
bacteria, 273 population density, 255
potential, 273 Plantation, 63, 65, 66, 72, 84, 105, 212, 214,
Photodecomposition, 463, 464 227–240, 242, 243, 246–248, 255, 261,
Photoemission, 368 265, 275, 296, 330, 356, 361, 495
Photo-metabolites, 464 crop, 63, 65, 69, 212, 214, 296
Photo-period sensitive, 17 Planthopper, 380, 381
Photo-sensitizers, 464 Planting materials, 45, 54, 56, 98, 105, 131,
Photosynthates, 223, 308 189, 409, 438, 446
Photosynthesis, 212, 213, 223, 303 Plastic cladding materials, 310
Phyllite, 341, 352 Policymakers, 484, 491
Physicochemical Pollination, 50, 303, 503, 533
characteristics, 320, 324, 328, 331, 371 Polyacrylamide/clay (PAM/clay), 194
constituent, 83 Polycarbonate, 304, 310
properties, 57, 325, 331 Polycondensation, 131
Physiographic levels, 354 Polyethylene, 248, 304, 305, 310
Physiological Polyhouse, 91, 112, 113, 116, 129, 298–307,
activities, 212, 222, 223 309–311, 313, 315, 316
maturity, 124, 257, 263 cooling, 310
parameters heating, 309
fertigation effect, 223 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 8, 49, 57,
plant status, 223 435–437
Phytochemicals, 56 Polymorphism, 49
Phytopathogen, 367, 369 Polyphagous, 387, 405, 415, 422
Phytopathogenic fungi, 369, 372, 373, 375 Polysaccharides, 144
Phytopathosystem, 367–369, 374 Polythene sheets, 80, 302
Phytophagus, 281 Polyvinyl
Phytophthora, 54, 55, 470 alcohol (PVA), 195
Phytotoxicity, 459, 468 chloride films, 304
Pisciculture, 360 Popularization, 56, 57, 105
Pisolithus, 205 Population dynamics, 231, 232, 280, 388
Pisum sativum, 322, 443 Post
Pit emergence (PoE), 467–469
filling, 244 flood period, 360
marking, 244 harvest technology, 84, 356
preparation, 244 neera collection and storage, 84
Plant Kharif cultivation, 5
breeding, 3, 6, 8–10, 56 rabi cultivation, 5
canopy, 262 vedic period, 40
cells, 223 Potentiality, 34, 94, 100, 174, 227, 233, 234,
density, 253, 254, 263 239, 263, 320, 322, 323, 345, 373, 432
geometry, 255 Potpourri, 103, 116
growth regulator (PGRs), 50, 230, 457, Potyvirus, 431, 433, 437–440, 449, 451
461, 462, 475, 477 Poultry manure, 276
life water importance, 213 Powdery mildew, 53, 106, 108, 162
Index 555

Pre-emergence (PE), 467–469 Pyrethroids, 416, 460

Pre-harvest interval (PHI), 466 Pyrilla perpusilla, 385
Pre-planting (PP), 467 Pyrimidine, 460
Press drying, 112 Pyrole rings, 223
Pressurized irrigation methods, 214
Production technology refinements, 71 Q
coconut organic farming, 74 Quality
bio-fertilizer recommendation, 74 protein maize (QPM), 29, 31
organic recycling, 74 up-gradation, 43
inter cropping, 75 Quantitative verification analysis, 163–165
coconut-based cropping system, 75 cloud cover, 166
multiple cropping systems, 75 maximum/minimum temperatures, 167
inter-cultural operation weed manage- rainfall, 166
ment, 74 wind
planting material, 72 direction, 167
mother palm selection, 72 speed, 167
seed nut collection and planting, 71 Quartzite, 341, 352
water management, 72 Quinalphos, 52, 160
drip irrigation and fertigation, 72
Propolis, 502, 533 R
Protected
Radiation filter, 300
cultivation, 56, 99, 295, 297–300, 302,
Rajendra hybrid makka, 30, 31
304, 312, 534
Random amplified polymorphic DNAs
advantages, 300
(RAPDs), 9
status, 301
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY),
horticulture
214, 312
components, 302
Ratoon crop, 414
plant containers, 307
Raw materials, 63, 90
structures
Recommended dose (RD), 74, 198, 269,
cladding material, 310 273, 282, 288, 328, 329, 331, 475
design and orientation, 303 Recurrent blooming, 106
irrigation and nutrition systems, 308 Red spider mite, 398
site selection, 306 Redox potential, 127
Pruning, 74, 107, 230, 246, 248, 257, 258, Registration committee (RC), 465
260–262, 265, 266, 303, 401, 475, 476 Rejuvenation, 80
Pseudococcidae, 381, 406 Relative
Pseudomonas putida, 127 humidity, 47, 84, 149, 297, 300, 310, 488
Pseudostem, 52 water content (RWC), 220, 223, 224
Pteridophytes, 205 Remote sensing and GIS, 339, 351, 364
Pumpkin beetle, 423, 424 Rhizobium, 272, 286
Pupae, 400, 405, 407, 408, 413, 415, 420, 422 Rhizomes, 43, 51, 52
Pupal Rhizosphere, 56, 131, 196, 198, 204, 241
period, 399, 400, 412, 418 Riboflavin, 83, 464
stage, 399, 400, 411, 414, 419 Ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), 443
Pupate, 400, 407 Rice
Pupation, 400, 407, 417, 419, 421 ecosystems, 14
Pyralidae, 381, 385, 386 research priorities, 15
Pyrazosulfuron, 467 residues, 274
Pyrethrin, 458, 459 tungro virus, 13
556 Index

Ricinus communis, 405 Semi-erect flag leaf, 27

Ridge guard, 435, 436 Senile orchard, 80
Ring system, 216 Sensitivity index, 141, 144
Ripeners, 462 Sesbania cannabina, 327
Rodenticides, 175, 457, 458 Shaktiman
Root -2, 29, 30, 31
colonization, 206 -3, 29, 30, 31
mean square error (RMSE), 164, 163, -4, 29, 30, 31
165, 172 Sheath blight, 20
restriction, 258 Silicon dioxide, 131
Rootstocks, 128, 232, 253, 254, 256–263, Silver nanoparticles, 368, 369, 372
265, 266 Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs), 9
Root-zone irrigation, 218 Skeletonization, 405
Slow-release phosphate fertilizer
S (SAPSRPF), 192, 195
Sabour Sodic soil, 273
Ardhjal, 17, 18, 132 Sodium arsenate, 459
deep, 19, 132 Sogatella furcifera, 381
hybrid maize, 32–35 Soil
Nirjal, 25, 26, 132 aeration, 72, 230
Samriddhi, 26, 27, 132 amendments, 319, 321, 322
Shreshtha (BRW 934), 27 association map, 354
Surbhit, 17, 18, 132 carbon, 136–140, 142, 144, 146
Saffron, 41, 108 sequestration, 137, 139, 144
Saishin, 417 stock, 137
Salicylic acid, 475 characteristics, 176, 180, 323, 326, 328,
Saline 337, 347
alkali soils, 322 erosion, 174, 179, 186, 217, 228,
soils, 354 230–232, 239, 273, 353
Salinity hazards, 353 fertility, 138, 141, 146, 174, 186, 204,
Sand stone, 341, 352 228, 229, 234, 237, 242, 260, 262, 263,
Saturation, 140 270, 319, 321, 328, 527
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 191 health, 135, 137–139, 141, 174, 179, 185,
Scirpophaga incertulas, 381, 392 238, 271, 288, 290, 320, 321, 324, 326,
Scleroderma, 205 331, 353, 354, 493
Sclerotia, 199, 201, 372–374 indicator, 354
Sclerotial germination, 200, 373 management system, 353
Sclerotium rolfsii, 199, 200, 372, 374, 471 metal contents, 177
Scotinophara coarctata, 382 micro flora, 130
Secure digital (SD), 495, 496 microbes, 126
Seed moisture, 126, 220–222, 224, 229, 233,
fertilizer, 130 246–248, 263, 321, 359, 371
rate, 54, 108 tension, 220
Seedling, 72, 80–82, 88, 103, 127, 160, 193, organic carbon (SOC), 140–143, 146
194, 235, 287, 295, 298–300, 307, 372, pH, 325, 326, 341
388, 395, 411, 418, 423, 445, 446, 471 phosphorus, 204
Semi-dwarf plant
varieties, 23, 24, 132 atmosphere continuum (SPAC), 175, 187
wheat, 23 system, 273
Index 557

pollution effects, 180 Spodoptera

porosity, 326 litura, 398, 419
quality, 137 mauritia, 381
salinity, 175, 353 Spoilage bacteria, 56
signs, 220, 224 Spongy haustorium, 82
temperature, 128, 130, 233, 248 Standardized precipitation index (SPI), 169,
tensiometers, 220 171, 172
wet/dry pollutant deposition, 185 State Agricultural University (SAU), 42,
Solanaceous, 407, 431–433, 443 105, 149, 369
Solanum Steady flow rate, 308
anomalum, 399 Steam distillation units, 103
incanum, 128 Stenodiplosis sorghicola, 385, 387
indicum, 399 Streptocycline, 469, 470
Stress Tolerant Rice for Asia and South
melongena, 399, 443
Africa (STRASA), 16
nigrum, 399, 416
Substrate, 272, 273, 275, 278, 280,
pimpinellifolium, 128
282–285, 289
tuberosum, 399, 443
Subtropical
Solar
climate, 6, 48, 53, 137, 341
cookers, 57 clones, 49
dryers, 57 Subtropics zones, 63
energy, 264, 464 Succinic acid, 223
harvesting, 264 Sugarcane trash, 274
panel driven devices, 309 Sulfonylurea, 460
radiation, 253, 255, 264, 265, 300, 351 Sulfur nutrition, 272
Sole mineral fertilizer, 143, 144 Sulfuric acids, 141
Solid vegetation covers, 231 Super absorbent hydrogel, 194
Solubilization, 204 Superfine slender grain, 17
Somaclonal variations, 48 Superior
Sooty mold, 406, 415 cultivars, 45
Sorghum, 127, 287, 324, 379, 380, 384, grade, 56
387, 390, 411, 414 grain, 13
Sowing dates, 130, 133 Surface
Spice, 39, 41–45, 55 catalytic activity, 368
crops, 41, 42, 45, 56 evaporation losses, 230
black pepper, 50 Synthetic
chili, 46 compounds, 130, 474
garlic, 47, 49 dyes, 104
ginger, 51
seed spices, 53 T
turmeric, 51 Taiwanese garlic germplasm, 49
extracts, 57 Tal
farming, 54 areas, 360
history, 39 land, 331, 364
import, 45 Tanymecus indicus, 383
importance, 41 Tarsonemidae, 382, 412
research, 45, 54 Taxonomic
challenges, 55 origins, 49
opportunities, 54 status, 49
558 Index

Tephrosia purpurea, 74 Tree

Terrain, 6, 347, 350, 351 thinning, 257
Terrestrial carbon sequestration, 136 vigor, 233
Thatching roofs, 86 Trellis, 87, 233
Thelephora, 205 Trichoderma, 471
Thermal Trichogramma
plants, 320 chilonis, 390, 401, 409
power plants, 319, 331 evanescens, 401
regime, 140 Trickle irrigation system, 216
Thermophillic stage, 277 Trifolium alexandrinum, 370
Thesis period, 125 Triticum vulgare, 322, 327
Thiamin, 83 Tropical
Thinning, 230, 257, 258, 263 flowers, 89
Thripidae, 381, 383, 384, 410 fruit, 266
Thysanoptera, 381, 383, 384, 410 crops, 255, 259
Tiptur tall (TPT), 69, 77 plants, 39, 301
Titanium, 341, 352 Tuberculation, 407
Tobacco, 33, 336, 355, 395, 416, 443, 458 Tuberose, 98, 100, 101, 103, 105
Tomato Tubers, 90, 103, 184, 296, 336, 355, 432,
leaf curl virus (TLCV), 446, 449 438, 446
spotted wilt virus (TSWV), 442, 443 Turgidity, 213
Topography, 215, 218, 219, 337, 339, 342, Turgor pressure, 213
343, 352 Turmeric rhizomes, 52
Topping, 257, 262
Tospoviruses, 433, 443, 444 U
Total Ultra-high density, 254, 259
geographical area (TGA), 339 guava orcharding, 262
quality management (TQM), 509, 515 Ultraviolet (UV), 124, 133, 300, 302, 305,
Toxic 310, 316, 464
chemicals, 327 Unfertile lands, 213
elements, 175, 319, 322, 326, 327 Urban solid waste, 275
metabolites, 464 Urbanization, 91, 151, 183, 269, 298
Toxicity, 176, 181, 297, 336, 356, 459, 461, Urease, 204, 326
464–466, 469
Traditional V
aromatic varieties, 14 Valorizations, 45
breeding programs, 10 Vegetable
irrigation practices, 224 crops, 212, 215, 238, 287, 299, 395–398,
planting system, 254 406, 407, 409, 417, 424, 432, 433, 448
Transcriptomics, 56 pathosystem, 435, 444, 446, 451
Transfer of technology (TOT), 57 waste, 274, 275
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Vegetative
191 growth, 77, 78, 218, 222, 223, 232, 260,
Transpiration 264
loss, 214 parameters, 224
rate, 212, 223 fertigation effect, 222
Transplanting, 110, 111, 125, 126, 130, 160, Veinlets, 405
287, 308, 314, 388, 408, 418, 469, 473 Ventilation, 289, 303–306, 310
Index 559

Venture Waterlogging, 16, 20, 33, 129, 160, 353

capital, 525 Watermelon bud necrosis virus (WBNV),
startup, 525 444, 445
Vermicasts, 281 Wavelengths, 351
Vermicompost, 50, 125, 269–276, 278, Weather forecast, 149–151, 153, 156,
280–288, 290, 324, 328, 330, 526, 527, 162–164, 171, 487
533, 534 analysis, 163
application, 285, 287 qualitative verification analysis, 163
epilogue, 288 analysis verification, 163
pests and parasites, 288 rainfall forecast verification, 163
influence, 273 verification, 163
nutrient content, 285 Weed, 17, 53, 74, 129, 227–230, 232–235,
production, 280, 282, 533 243, 247–249, 276, 298, 303, 354, 371,
used materials, 278 416, 467–469, 487, 489
Vermicomposting, 271–273, 275, 278, 280, control
282–285, 288, 290, 495, 533 efficiency (WCE), 467–469
importance, 272, 273 process, 232
materials, 274 index (WI), 468, 469
methods, 282 population, 227, 229, 232–234
heaps above the ground production, 283 West coast tall (WCT), 69, 70, 73
in-situ method, 285 Wheat
open method, 284 genotypes, 17, 25
pit production, 283 research, 22, 23, 25, 30, 32
tanks above the ground production, 283
techniques, 282 X
Vermiculture, 271, 274
Xenobiotics, 464
Vertical farming, 56
X-ray absorption near edge structure
Viruses, 45, 431–433, 435, 437, 438,
(XANES), 191
441–444, 446, 448, 451

W Y
Yeast hydrolysate, 422
Water
Yellow
absorbency (WA), 131, 192, 194, 195
fever, 460
harvesting, 224
mosaic virus, 450
holding capacity, 242, 273, 321, 325, 326,
vein mosaic (YVM), 415, 416, 445, 447,
331, 339
influencing factor, 213 450, 472
cultivation, 214 Yield
fertility level, 213 fertigation effect, 224
light, 214 potential, 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 26, 27, 29,
soil moisture and humidity, 213 34, 66, 132, 238, 300
management, 211, 225, 247 ranging, 22, 50
percolation, 126 Young orchards, 237
scarcity, 222, 230
technology center for eastern region Z
(WTCER), 218 Zero
use efficiency (WUE), 43, 212, 216, 218, energy
249 chamber, 304
560 Index

polyhouse, 303 Zingiber officinale, 51

tillage, 129, 140 Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV),
Zincated nanoclay polymer composites 438–440
(ZNCPC), 193, 196