MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT.

ME439: SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION

Chapter 2 – Available Solar Radiation (3)

Course instructor: Prof. Mohammed A. Antar
2.16 RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES: ANISOTROPIC SKY

Beam, isotropic, circumsolar, horizontal, reflection

The HDKR model is based on the assumption that all of the diffuse can be
represented by two parts, the isotropic and the circumsolar. The diffuse
radiation on a tilted collector is written as:

The Perez et al. (1990) model is based on a more detailed analysis of the
three diffuse components. The diffuse on the tilted surface is given by

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2.16 RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES: ANISOTROPIC SKY

The next question is which of these models for total radiation on the tilted surface
should be used.

The isotropic model is the simplest, gives the most conservative estimates of radiation
on the tilted surface, and has been widely used.

The HDKR model is almost as simple to use as the isotropic and produces results that
are closer to measured values.
For surfaces sloped toward the equator, the HDKR model is suggested.

The Perez model is more complex to use and generally predicts slightly higher total
radiation on the tilted surface; it is thus the least conservative of the three methods.

It agrees the best by a small margin with measurements.

For surfaces with γ far from 0° in the northern hemisphere or 180° in the southern
hemisphere, the Perez model is suggested.

(In examples to be shown in later chapters, the isotropic and HDKR methods will be
used, as they are more amenable to hand calculation.)
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 2.17 RADIATION AUGMENTATION

Reading

4
2.18 BEAM RADIATION ON MOVING SURFACES

Reading

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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY

In Section 2.15, the calculation of total radiation on sloped surfaces from

measurements on a horizontal surface was discussed.

For use in solar process design procedures, we also need the monthly average
daily radiation on the tilted surface.

The procedure for calculating 𝑯 ഥ T is parallel to that for IT, that is, by summing
the contributions of the beam radiation, the components of the diffuse
radiation, and the radiation reflected from the ground.

ഥ T is not as
The state of development of these calculation methods for 𝑯
satisfactory as that for IT.

The first method is that of Liu and Jordan (1962) as extended by Klein
(1977), which has been widely used.

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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
If the diffuse and ground-reflected radiation are each assumed to be isotropic,
then, in a manner analogous to Equation 2.15.1, the monthly mean solar
radiation on an unshaded tilted surface can be expressed as

and

ഥ d/ 𝑯
where 𝑯 ഥ is a function of 𝑲
ഥ T, as shown in Figure 2.12.2.

The ratio of the average daily beam radiation on the tilted surface to that on a
ഥ b, which is equal to 𝑯
horizontal surface for the month is 𝑹 ഥ bT/𝑯
ഥ b.

It is a function of transmittance of the atmosphere, but Liu and Jordan

suggest that it can be estimated by assuming that it has the value which
would be obtained if there were no atmosphere.
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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
For surfaces that are sloped toward the equator in the northern hemisphere,
that is, for surfaces with γ = 0°,

where ωs’ is the sunset hour angle for the tilted surface for the mean day of
the month, which is given by

where “min” means the smaller of the two items in the brackets.

For surfaces in the southern hemisphere sloped toward the equator, with γ =
180°, the equations are

and
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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
The numerator of Equation 2.19.3a or 2.19.4a is the extraterrestrial radiation
on the tilted surface, and the denominator is that on the horizontal surface.

Each of these is obtained by integration of Equation 1.6.2 over the

appropriate time period, from true sunrise to sunset for the horizontal surface
and from apparent sunrise to apparent sunset on the tilted surface.

For convenience, plots of Rb as a function of latitude for various slopes for γ

= 0° (or 180° in the southern hemisphere) are shown in Figure 2.19.1, and
corresponding tables of Rb are in Appendix D.

These values of Rb can be used for surface azimuth angles of 0° (or 180°) ±
15° with little error.

The following example illustrates the kind of calculations that will be used in
estimating monthly radiation on collectors as part of heating system design
procedures.
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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
For convenience, plots of Rb as a function of latitude for various slopes for γ = 0°
(or 180° in the southern hemisphere) are shown in Figure 2.19.1, and
corresponding tables of Rb are in Appendix D.

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 Example 2.19.1

A collector is to be installed in Madison, latitude 43°, at a slope of 60° to the

south. Average daily radiation data are shown in Appendix G. The ground
reflectance is 0.2 for all months except December and March (ρg = 0.4) and
January and February (ρg = 0.7). Using the isotropic diffuse assumption,
estimate the monthly average radiation incident on the collector.

Solution
The calculation is detailed below for January, and the results for the year are
indicated in a table. The basic equation to be used is Equation 2.19.1.

ഥ d/ 𝑯and
The first steps are to obtain 𝑯 ഥ ഥ b. The ratio 𝑯
𝑹 ഥ d/ 𝑯
ഥ is a function of 𝑲
ഥT
and can be obtained from Equation 2.12.1 or Figure 2.12.2.

For the mean January day, the 17th, from Table 1.6.1, n = 17, δ = - 20.9°.

The sunset hour angle is calculated from Equation 1.6.10 and is ωs = 69.1°.

With n = 17 and ωs = 69.1°, from Equation 1.10.3 (or Figure 1.10.1 or Table 11
ഥ o = 13.36 MJ / m2. Then 𝑲
1.10.1), 𝑯 ഥ T = 6.44/13.36 = 0.48.
 Example 2.19.1

Solution
ഥ d/ 𝑯
The Erbs correlation (Equation 2.12.la) is used to calculate 𝑯 ഥ from 𝑲
ഥT
ഥ d/ 𝑯=
and ωs gives 𝑯 ഥ 0.41.
—
The calculation of Rb requires the sunset hour angle on the sloped collector.
From Equations 2.19.3

The angle ωs was calculated as 69.1° and is less than 96.7°, so ωs’ = 69.1°.
Then

—
The equation for HT (Equation 2.19.1) can now be solved:

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 Example 2.19.1

Solution
The results for the 12 months are shown in the table below. Energy quantities are in
mega joules per square meter. The effects of sloping the receiving plane 60° to the
south on the average radiation (and thus on the total radiation through the winter
season)—are large indeed.
The HT values are shown to a tenth of a megajoule per square meter. The last place
is uncertain due to the combined uncertainties in the data and the correlations for 𝑯ഥd /
ഥ and 𝑹
𝑯 ഥ . It is difficult to put limits of accuracy on them; they are probably no better
than ± 10%.

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2.20 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED
SURFACES: KT METHOD

Not covered

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯

The methods outlined in the previous sections for estimating average

radiation on surfaces of various orientations can be used to show the effects
of slope and azimuth angle on total energy received on a surface on a
monthly, seasonal, or annual basis.

To illustrate the effects of the receiving surface slope on monthly average—

daily radiation, the methods of Section 2.19 have been used to estimate HT
for surfaces of several slopes for values of φ = 45°, γ = 0°, and ground
reflectance 0.2.
— — —
Here, HT is a function
—
of Hd / H , which in turn is a function of the average
clearness index KT .
—
The illustration is for KT = 0.50, constant through the year, a value typical
of many temperate climates.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯
— —
Figure 2.21.1 shows the variations of HT (and H when β = 0) through the
year and shows the marked differences in energy received by surfaces of
various slopes in summer and winter.

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 Radiation on Sloped Surfaces
We turn next to the general problem of calculation of radiation on tilted
surfaces when only the total radiation on a horizontal surface is known.

 1  cos    1  cos  
Isotropic Model I T  I b Rb  I d    I g  
 2   2 

Rb is the Geometric Factor

Ground reflectance radiation

ρg = 0.2 - 0.7 Dr. Haitham Bahaidarah, KFUPM 17 17
Effects of Surface Orientation On Received Radiation
Figure shows the variations of HT (and H) through the year and shows the
marked differences in energy received by surfaces of various slopes in
summer and winter.

φ = 45°,

γ = 0°,

ρg = 0.2,

KT = 0.5

18 18
Dr. Haitham Bahaidarah, KFUPM
Effects of Surface Orientation On Received Radiation
Figure shows the variations of HT (and H) through the year and shows the
marked differences in energy received by surfaces of various slopes in
summer and winter.

φ = 45°,

γ = 0°,

ρg = 0.2,

KT = 0.5

19 19
Dr. Haitham Bahaidarah, KFUPM
Effects of Surface Orientation On Received Radiation
Figure shows the variations of HT (and H) through the year and shows the
marked differences in energy received by surfaces of various slopes in
summer and winter.

φ = 45°,

γ = 0°,

ρg = 0.2,

KT = 0.5

20 20
Dr. Haitham Bahaidarah, KFUPM
Effects of Surface Orientation On Received Radiation

From studies of this kind, general “rules of thumb”

can be stated.

For maximum annual energy availability, a surface

slope equal to the latitude is best.

For maximum summer availability, slope should be

approximately 10° to 15° less than the latitude.

For maximum winter energy availability, slope

should be approximately 10° to 15° more than the
latitude.

The slopes are not critical; deviations of 15° result

in reduction of the order of 5%.

Dr. Haitham Bahaidarah, KFUPM 21 21

 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯
Figure 2.21.2(a) shows the total annual energy received as a function of slope
and indicates a maximum at approximately β = φ.

The maximum is a broad one, and the changes in total annual energy are less
than 5% for slopes of 20° more or less than the optimum.

Figure 2.21.2(a) also shows total

“winter” energy, taken as the total
energy for the months of
December, January, February, and
March, which would represent the
time of the year when most space
heating loads would occur.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯
The slope corresponding to the maximum estimated total winter energy is
approximately 60°, or φ + 15°.

A 15° change in the slope of the collector from the optimum means a
reduction of approximately 5% in the incident radiation.

The dashed portion of the winter total curve is estimated assuming that there
is substantial snow cover in January and February that results in a mean
ground reflectance of ρg = 0.6 for those two months.

Under this assumption, the total winter energy is less sensitive to slope than
with ρg = 0.2.

The vertical surface receives 8% less energy than does the 60° surface if ρg =
0.6 and 11% less if ρg = 0.2.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯
—
Calculations of total annual energy for φ = 45°, KT = 0.50, and ρg = 0.20 for
surfaces of slopes 30° and 60° are shown as a function of surface azimuth γ
angle in Figure 2.21.2(b). Note the expanded scale.

The reduction in annual energy is

small for these examples, and the
generalization can be made that
facing collectors 10° to 20° east or
west of south should make little
difference in the annual energy
received.

Note that there is implicit in these

calculations the assumption that the
days are symmetrical about solar
noon.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯
Similar conclusions have been reached by others, for example, Morse and
Czarnecki (1958), who estimated the relative total annual beam radiation on
surfaces of variable slope and azimuth angle.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯
From studies of this kind, general “rules of thumb” can be stated.

For maximum annual energy availability, a surface slope equal to the latitude
is best (β = φ).

For maximum summer energy availability, slope should be approximately

10° to 15° less than the latitude (β = φ – 15°).

For maximum winter energy availability, slope should be approximately 10°

to 15° more than the latitude (β = φ + 15o).

The slopes are not critical; deviations of 15° result in reduction of the order
of 5%.

The expected presence of a reflective ground cover such as snow leads to

higher slopes for maximizing wintertime energy availability.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
ഥT
ORIENTATION ON 𝑯
The best surface azimuth angles for maximum incident radiation are
0° in the northern hemisphere or
180° in the southern hemisphere, that is,
the surfaces should face the equator.

Deviations in azimuth angles of 10° or 20° have small effect on total annual
energy availability.

(Note that selection of surface orientation to maximize incident solar

radiation may not lead to maximum solar energy collection or to maximum
delivery of solar energy to an application. This will be treated in later
chapters.)

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 2.22 UTILIZABILITY

The energy balance says, in essence, that the useful gain at any time is the
difference between the solar energy absorbed and the thermal losses from the
collector.

The losses depend on the difference in temperature between the collector plate and
the ambient temperature and on a heat loss coefficient.

Given a coefficient, a collector temperature, and an ambient temperature (i.e., a

loss per unit area), there is a value of incident radiation that is just enough so that
the absorbed radiation equals the losses.

This value of incident radiation is the critical radiation level, ITc for that collector
operating under those conditions.

If the incident radiation on the tilted surface of the collector, IT, is equal to ITc, all of
the absorbed energy will be lost and there will be no useful gain.

If the incident radiation exceeds ITc, there will be useful gain and the collector
28
should be operated.
 2.22 UTILIZABILITY

If IT < ITc no useful gain is possible and the collector should not be operated.

The utilizable energy for any hour is thus (IT — ITc)+, where the superscript +
indicates that the utilizable energy can be zero or positive but not negative.

The fraction of an hour’s total energy that is above the critical level is the
utilizability for that particular hour:

where φh can have values from zero to unity.

The hour’s utilizability is the ratio of the shaded area (IT — ITc) to the total
area (IT), under the radiation curve for the hour as shown in Figure 2.22.1.

(Utilizability could be defined on the basis of rates, i.e., using GT and GTc, but
as a practical matter, radiation data are available on an hourly basis and that
is the basis in use.) 29
 2.22 UTILIZABILITY

The utilizability for a single hour is not useful.

However, utilizability for a particular hour for a —month of N days (e.g., 10 to 11 in

January) in which the hour’s average radiation IT is useful.

It can be found from

—
The month’s average utilizable energy for the hour is the product N IT φ.

The calculation can be done for individual hours (10 to 11, 11 to 12, etc.) for the
month and the result summed to get the month’s utilizable energy. 30
2.23 GENERALIZED UTILIZABILITY

READING

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2.24 DAILY UTILIZABILITY

READING

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 2.25 SUMMARY

In this chapter we have described the instruments (pyrheliometers and pyranometers)

used to measure solar radiation.

Radiation data are available in several forms, with the most widely available being
pyranometer measurements of total (beam-plus-diffuse) radiation on horizontal
surfaces.

These data are available on an hourly basis from a limited number of stations and on
a daily basis for many stations.

Solar radiation information is needed in several different forms, depending on the

kinds of calculations that are to be done.

These calculations fall into two major categories.

First (and most detailed), we may wish to calculate on an hour-by-hour basis the
long-time performance of a solar process system; for this we want hourly
information of solar radiation and other meteorological measurements. 33
 2.25 SUMMARY

Second, monthly average solar radiation is useful in estimating long-term performance

of some kinds of solar processes.

It is not possible to predict what solar radiation will be in the future, and recourse is
made to use of past data to predict what solar processes will do.

We have presented methods (and commented on their limitations) for the estimation of
solar radiation information in the desired format from the data that are available.

This includes estimation of beam and diffuse radiation from total radiation, time
distribution of radiation in a day, and radiation on surfaces other than horizontal.

We introduced the concept of utilizability, a solar radiation statistic based on levels of

radiation available above critical levels.

Determination of critical radiation levels for collectors will be treated in Chapters 6

and 7, and the utilizability concepts will be the basis for most of Part III, on design of
solar energy processes. 34