•SOFTWO S • HARDW

MPO ITES •
 W~l ODWORKER'S l

. GUI E TO 0 .0
'
.I

RICK PETERS

'I

'
•SOFTWOODS •HARDWOODS •PLYWOODS
' •COMPOSITES •VENEERS

Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. l l

• New York
' '
Butterick Media Production Staff
Design: Sandy Freeman Copy Editor: Barbara Mcintosh Webb
Cover Design: Elizabeth Berry Page Layout: Sandy Freeman
Photography: Christopher]. Vendetta Index: Nan Badgett
Cover Photo: Brian Kraus, Butterick Studios Assoc. Managing Editors: Stephanie Marracco,
Illustrations: Greg Kopfer, Triad Design; Nicole Pressly
Elizabeth Berry Project Director: Caroline Politi
Technical Support: jim Kingsepp President: Art Joinnides

Every effort has been made to ensure that all the information in this book is accurate. However, due to
differing conditions, tools, and individual skill, the publisher cannot be responsible for any injuries,
losses, or other damages which may result from the use of information in this book.

The written instructions, photographs, illustra- Published by Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.
tions, and projects in this volume are intended 387 Park Avenue South, New York, N.Y 10016
for the personal use of the reader and may be
reproduced for that purpose only. Any other ©2000, Butterick Company, Inc., Rick Peters
use, especially commercial use, is forbidden
under law without the written permission of Distributed in Canada by Sterling Publishing,
the copyright holders. c/ o Canadian Manda Group, One Atlantic
Avenue, Suite 105, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Library of Congress M6K 3E7
Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Distributed in Great Britain and Europe by
Peters, Rick Cassell PLC, Wellington House, 125 Strand,
Woodworker's guide to wood: softwoods, London WC2R OBB, England
hardwoods, plywoods, composites, veneers / Distributed in Australia by Capricorn Link
Rick Peters (Australia) Pty. Ltd., P.O. Box 6651, Baulkham
p. em. Hills, Business Centre, NSW 2153, Australia
ISBN 0-8069-3687-8
1. Wood. 2. Lumber. I. Title. Printed in China
All rights reserved
TA419.P385 2000
684'.08- dc21 99- 086641

m
T H E BUTTERICK® PUBLISHING COMPANY
161 Avenue of th e Am ericas
Sterling ISBN 0-8069-3687-8 New York, New York 1001 3
 CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ... 4
Introduction .. . 5

~ THE NATURE OF WOOD ... 6

DIRECTORY OF WOOD ... 24
~ MILLING LUMBER... 58

GRADING LUMBER... 82
DRYING LUMBER... 100

-- BUYING AND STORING LUMBER... 118

~ PLYWOOD ... 134

~ ENGINEERED PRODUCTS... 152

~ ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS ... 168
Appendix: Hazards of Wood ... 184
Sources ... 186
Glossary ... 187
Index .. . 190
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For all their help, advice, Carl Hunsberger and
and support, I offer special the crew at Hunsberger's
thanks to: Sawmill in ~akertown,
Pennsylvania, for letting us
Christopher Vendetta
photograph his mill in ac-
for scrambling over sawmills,
tion and sharing his years
wandering through forests,
of wisdom.
and coping with mountains
of sawdust to take the pho- Mike and Louise Peters
tographs for this book. at Shady Hill Farm, for their
willingness to fit me into
Curt Alt of the Hard-
their busy schedule and
wood Plywood Veneer Asso-
to cut any log any way I
ciation for providing photos
wanted, and for their sugges-
of the hardwood plywood
tions on the Milling and
manufacturing process.
Drying Lumber chapters.
Dean Brandt and the
Bill Powell from States Industries, for sup-
expert wood recycling crew at Sylvan Brandt
plying product and technical information on
for letting us photograph their reclamation
ApplePly and prefinished plywood.
operation.
Reginald Sharpe of the Structural Board
Earl Deemer, president of the IWCS (Inter-
Association, for providing the illustrations on
national Wood Collectors Society) for letting
how oriented-strand board is made.
me tap into his network of wood lovers and
experts. Beth Tyler with the Composite Panel Asso-
ciation, for supplying the illustrations that show
Dick and Mary DeihL talented, generous,
how particleboard is made.
and dedicated IWCS members who lent me
their precious turned wooden eggs for the cover. The folks at Butterick for their continuing
support: Artjoinnides, Caroline PolitL Stephanie
jim Flynn, IWCS member, respected
Marracco, and Davidjoinnides. Also Barb Webb,
author, and wood guru, for proofreading the
copyediting whiz, and especially Sandy Freeman,
Nature of Wood and Directory ofWood chap-
whose exquisite art talents are evident in every
ters, and gently pointing out mistakes (particu-
page of this book.
larly with the botanical names).
Heartfelt thanks to my family: CheryL
Erik Granberg of Granberg InternationaL
Lynne, WilL and Beth, for putting up with the
for assistance with a chainsaw mill and with
craziness that goes with writing a book and liv-
technical information.
ing with a woodworker: late nights, short week-
Gary Green, IWCS member and wood ends, wood everywhere, shop noise, and sawdust
sample aficionado, for his willingness to drop in the house. And finally, words can't express my
what he was doing and ship me yet one more gratitude to my wife Cheryl for taking off the
wood sample. rough edges of the manuscript.

' ... f '

'A.CKNOWLEDG¥ EN,Ts , •
INTRODUCTION
This is the book I needed 25 years ago, worker's heart: "You made that? Wow!"
when I got started in woodworking. There's no substitute for experience
I loved wood and wanted to work with when it comes to working wood. StilL
it, but I got so caught up in trying to outfit you don't have to burn your hand to see
a shop and learn a zillion woodworking whether the oven is hot. My hope is that
techniques that I lost sight of the material. from these pages, you'll take the benefit of
For the longest time, not knowing any bet- my experience and that of a host of experts,
ter, I treated wood as if it were plastic. And and apply it to your own learning. I also
the wood rebuked me: Glue joints failed, hope you'll learn faster and with fewer hard
joinery popped apart, tabletops split. That's lessons than I did.
when I discovered that technique without It's not until you've seen light reflecting
wood knowledge can take you only so far. off a beautifully quartersawn white oak
To work wood, you have to understand it. panel that you can really appreciate ray
So, I began learning. I learned about fleck. Or until you've had a board pinch a
wood and wood products-mostly by trial saw blade that you can understand case-
and error-reasoning that the more I knew, hardening. You can't savor the wonderful
the better my projects would turn out. And sweet smell of white ash from a book.
I was right. Now, my glue But it's always possible to
joints and joinery are rock become a better woodworker.
solid, my tabletops seamless. I hope this book helps.
There are no nasty sur-
prises. And when a piece Rick Peters
is done, I get to hear the Spring 2000
phrase that warms a wood-
-
"M urmuring out ot its m~riad leaves,
Down tram its loft~ top rising over a hundred teet high,
Out ot its stalwart trunk and limbs, out ot its toot-thick bark,
That chant ot the seasons and time, chant not ot the past onl~
but ot the future ."
W ALT WHI TMAN (1874)

The NATURE
of WOOD
Whitman knew something of the spirit of wood. Like the tree he so
u admired, the wood it contained was organic, fluid, and elemental.
And like the tree, wood does speak of the future- a unique future that
requires respect. We work with it because we like its texture and feel...we
savor the smell that rises from a cut...we're gratified by how the grain "pops"
when a finish coat is applied.
We appreciate wood, and we admire the poetry-inspiring trees that
produce it. But one thing about its organic nature can delight us- or make
us wish we had taken up a simpler pastime. Unlike glass, ceramic, or steel-
wood moves. Long after you've crafted it into furniture or fenceposts, wood
continues to move as the moisture content of air changes. When you under-
stand and allow for this in your woodworking, your pieces are strong and
lasting. Nothing buckles or falls apart, because you know that wood moves.
To work wood successfully, you need to know why it behaves the
way it does. You need to know a slice of what botanists know. Only then can
the material you work so carefully pay back your attention with enduring
quality. It's the nature of wood.
SOFTWOOD
All of the many beautiful woods available to
woodworkers come from trees classified as
either softwoods or hardwoods. Inexplicably,
not all softwoods are soft and not all hardwoods
are hard. For example, balsa, a hardwood, pro-
duces one of the softest woods in the world.
Conversely, Douglas fir, a softwood, is harder
and has better strength properties than many
hardwoods. A clearer classification would be to
describe softwoods as needle-bearing trees and
hardwoods as leaf-bearing.

Conifers
There are four families of Coniferales with-
in the softwood group. The term conifer is used
to describe a tree that's characterized by needle-
like or scale-like foliage- usually evergreen.
Most softwood trees are identifiable by
their cone shape. a dominant stem, and
lateral side branching (top photo). Most
of the world's commercial softwoods
grow in the northern hemisphere.

Needles and naked seeds

Botanically, softwoods are gym-
nosperms, which in layman's terms
means the seeds are naked-not
enclosed in a flower (inset). You'll often
see the seeds borne on the scales of a
cone, resembling small berries like
those of a juniper, or in a cup such as
on a yew. Although most conifers are
evergreens, Mother Nature threw in a
twist: Some conifers, like the larch,
drop their needles in the fall.

Appearance
When converted into lumber, most soft-
woods are relatively light in color and range
from pale yellow to reddish brown. The annual
growth rings formed by layers of earlywood and
latewood (see page 15) are typically very easy to
distinguish. Most softwoods are fast-growing
and are harvested primarily for manufacturing
and construction-grade lumber.
HARDWOOD
Hardwoods are generally heavier and
denser than softwoods and so are much more
sought-after by woodworkers for their projects.
In addition, hardwoods offer a wide variety of
color and grain options for the woodworker
that softwoods just can't match (see below).

Deciduous
There are over 20 families of hardwoods in
the United States alone. Most hardwood trees
are deciduous, meaning their leaves fall off every
autumn; this doesn't apply to all hardwoods,
though. Those in tropical regions often keep
their leaves year-round, and are evergreen. Most
hardwood trees have a round or oval crown of
leaves and a trunk that divides and subdivides
(top photo). For the most part, broad-leaved decid-
uous hardwoods grow in the temperate
northern hemisphere, and broad-leaved
evergreens grow in the southern hemi-
sphere and tropical regions.

Leaves and nuts

Botanically, hardwoods are
angiosperms- the seeds are enclosed or
protected in the ovary of the flower, typi-
cally a fruit or a nut. Protection can vary
greatly, from the delicate skin of a pear
to the tough shell of an acorn (inset) .

Appearance
When converted into lumber, hard-
woods offer a dizzying array of colors,
figure, and grain. Colors range from
the near white of holly to the jet black
of ebony. Vibrant colors abound, such as the
blood red of padauk, the bright orange of osage
orange, and the deep violet of purpleheart. A
combination of rays and vessels in hardwoods
can produce wild effects in grain: ray fleck, tiger
stripe, and fiddle back, to name a few (see pages
98-99). Growth rings of hardwoods can be diffi-
cult to distinguish; tropical hardwoods have vir-
tually no growth rings since the growing season
is year-round.
HOW A TREE GROWS
• Seeds are dispersed from a mature tree in a
number of ways: Some seeds have broad-bladed
wings to catch the wind, others have hooks to
grab insects or are scented to attract birds. Most
seeds never make it to a fertile spot where the
conditions are right for sprouting. If the soil is
warm, rich, and moist, a root tip and shoot tip
will soon emerge. The root tip burrows into the
ground and, via tiny hairs, absorbs moisture and
elements essential for life. At the same time, the
shoot tip grows upward toward light so that
photosynthesis can occur.
In its first year, the seedling will develop a
special layer of regenerative cells called the vas-
cular cambium, or simply the cambium. This
important layer is only one cell thick and is
what allows a tree to
grow (see paae 11 for more
on this).
The cambium layer
forms a complete
sheath around the
entire tree. As growth
continues, new layers
are added to the pith,
which was formed by
the original shoot. Side
shoots, which ultimate-
ly become branches
and finally knots, also
begin in the pith.
Sheathing the entire
tree like this means that

l
both height and girth
are gained at the same
time as annual incre-
ments of wood are laid 0
@
down in a conelike
form (see the drawina at
riaht).
 A look at the layers of a maturing tree (top
drawing) shows what goes on inside. The outer-
Bast or Inner Bark
most layer is bark composed of an outer, corky,
dead covering, and an inner, living bark or "bast:'
The inner bark carries food from the leaves to
the growing parts of the tree. Sapwood trans-
ports sap from the roots to the leaves; heart-
Heartwood wood is formed by a gradual change in the
sapwood and is inactive (see below). Rays are hori-
zontally oriented tissues that connect various
layers from pith to bark for storage and transfer
of food.

Cambium
Between the inner bark and the sapwood is
the cambium, which actually forms the wood
and bark cells. Cells divide frequently and each
may become either a bark cell or a wood cell.
Wood cells form on the inside of the cambium;
bark cells form on the outside. New wood is
laid down on top of old wood, and the diameter
of the trunk increases. The existing bark is
pushed ou tward by the new bark creating its
familiar cracked and stretched appearance.

Heartwood and sapwood

As the end of the growing season nears, th e
tree's large crown of leaves often produces more
food than it can use (middle photo). This excess
food (called photosynthate) moves from the
inner bark through the rays to the center of the
tree. Here it accumulates and over time breaks
down to form compounds known as extractives,
which plug up the cells and eventually kill them.
This area of extractive-impregnated dead cells is
the heartwood. Frequently, the extractives dark-
en the heartwood and give it its characteristic
color (bottom photo).
 A cross section cut from a tree (top photo)
shows a distinct boundary between heartwood
and sapwood. The cross section shown here is
of yellow poplar; the heartwood is easily recog-
nizable by the green center section in contrast
to the lighter sapwood.
Peeling the tree also helps to display the
different layers and clearly define their propor-
tions (middle drawing). Note: The only thing here
not to scale is the cambium; remember, it's only
a cell or two in thickness. Removing the dead,
rough outer bark reveals the smooth, lighter
inner bark where food in the form ofpho-
tosynthate is transported from the leaves to
the center of the tree. Rays in the inner bark
--Outer Bark
align with the rays in the sapwood and
heartwood to funnel the fluids inward.

Growth rings
New wood cells that form early in the
growing season are large and have thin
walls. Later in the year, new cells are smaller
and have thicker walls (see page 14 for more on
cell structure). As the cells build on top of
each other, layers form. Layers of early cells
and late cells can be easily distinguished
from each other by their width and color.
Typically, the early cell layer is light and
wide, and the layer oflate cells is thin
and dark.
In temperate regions, one layer of early
cells and one layer of late cells define one
growing season. This combination is
referred to as an annual growth ring. The ~r;;t::::::;:;:~=F=:~:J I
age of a tree can be quickly determined by .l- Year6
counting the rings; the tree shown in the I
..l- Year5
bottom drawing is seven years old. This
I
tree-dating process is known in the science .l- Year4
world as dendrochronology.
.l- Year 3

.l- Year 2
I
..l- Year 1

" - - - - r----- Primary Xylem

 "use a block plane on end grain" all describe dif-
GRAIN ferent characteristics of grain.
Grain can describe planes and surfaces,
A woodworker can't talk about wood with-
such as radiaL tangential, and traverse (top draw-
out the word grain popping up immediately. The
ing). It can describe growth-ring placement,
problem is, grain means different things depend-
such as edge grain, rift grain, and side grain, or
ing on how it's used. For example, "that wood has
growth-ring width (open grain and close grain),
uneven grain;' and "oak has coarse grain;' and
and even the contrast between earlywood and
latewood (even grain and uneven grain). Grain
can also illustrate the alignment of cells (across-
the-grain, along-the-grain, with-the-grain), note
Traverse or Cross Section the pore size (fine grain, coarse grain), express
different types of figure (curly grain, roey grain,
quilted grain), and define machining defects
like chipped grain, fuzzy grain, and raised grain.
Technically, grain is defined as the direction
of the wood fibers in a tree. A radial surface, and
therefore radial grain, is created when you cut
along the radius of a round cross section. When
Tangential
a log is cut like this, it is said to be quartersawn,
and the grain is usually straight and uniform.
Tangential grain is created by cutting at a tan-
gent to the growth rings. When a sawyer cuts
logs like this, it is called plain- or flat-sawing. A
traverse or cross section is what you get when
you cut perpendicular to the wood fibers .
Crosscutting a log this way produces end grain.

APPEARANCE

Radial: A radial-cut log Traverse: A traverse-cut Tangential: When a

will produce quarter grain, log will show end grain. log is cut tangentially, it
which is typically straight Note the visible annual produces plain-sawn or
and uniform in width. growth rings. flat-sawn boards.
SOFTWOOD
CELL STRUCTURE
There's one thing that distinguishes wood
from all other crafts materials: cell structure.
Because it's organic, wood continues to move
with changes in humidity even after it has been ®
Ray Cell
cut and dried-it's hygroscopic (it absorbs and
releases moisture). A little tree science will help
you understand why it behaves the way it does,
but you don't have to be a botanist to grasp cell
structure. This is especially true with softwoods,
whose structure is simple and uniform. Longitudinal Tracheid

Cells
There are only two types of cells in soft-
wood: wood fibers (technically, longitudinal
tracheids) and ray cells (top drawing). About 95%
Epithelial
of the softwood is made up of these wood
Cells
fibers, which resemble soda straws. They're long,
hollow, and pitted; but unlike a soda straw,
they're tapered shut at both ends. The diameter
of the fibers determines the wood's texture, sur-
face smoothness, and finishing qualities. Large-
diameter fibers result in coarse-textured wood;
small-diameter fibers create a fine texture.
Short strips of radially aligned ray cells make up
the remaining 5% or so of the volume. \
Resin canals
Resin canals are found in only a few soft-
woods, like pine, spruce, larch, and Douglas fir.
They serve as a defense mechanism in the tree
by transporting resin to an injury. Resin canals
are spaces between softwood cells caused by
separation of adjacent cells. When cells sepa-
rate, special resin-producing cells called epithe-
lial cells are formed (red cells in middle drawing).

Pits Pits
Earlier I said wood fibers are tapered shut
on the ends. If that's so, how does fluid move
Pit
through the fibers? It travels through missing
sections of the cell walls called pits (bottom draw-
ing). Normally, the pit of one cell aligns with the
pit of another cell to form a pathway (inset).
 Rays
Wood fibers are arranged more or
less longitudinally-that is, parallel to the
trunk of the tree. Ray cells, on the other
hand, are oriented radially or perpendic-
ular to the trunk (top drawing). Ray cells
are most commonly found in ribbons
simply called rays (inset). Rays are basically
roadways for transporting food and other
materials around inside a living tree.

Earlywood and latewood

Rays Regardless of where a tree is growing,
.--/ Inner it will always alternate growing periods
Bark with rest. In any region with a temperate
climate, there is one growing period
(spring and summer), followed by one
rest period (fall and winter). This results
in adding just one layer of new wood to the tree
each year, commonly called an annual growth
ring, an annual ring, or simply a growth ring.
The sap-conducting wood cells that form early
in the growing season (earlywood) are large and
have thin walls (middle drawing). Cells forming
late in the season (latewood) are smaller but
have thicker walls- they provide strength
instead of a means to transport sap.
The overall variation in wood fibers
between earlywood and latewood determines
whether the grain is even or uneven. In even-
grain woods, there is little difference in density
between the two; uneven-grain woods display a
three- or fourfold difference in density. If you've
ever stained a softwood, you've likely had prob-
lems getting a uniform color because of uneven
grain- the lighter earlywood is more porous
and will stain much darker than the latewood.
Stain conditioners can help here.

3D softwood cell
If you could cut out a tiny cube of softwood
and magnify it, it would look something like the
bottom drawing. Note the radially aligned rays
on both sides and the difference between early-
wood and latewood. Here it's also easy to see
how the wood fibers match up so the pits can
align for fluid transfer.
HARDWOOD
STRUCTURE
The cell structure of hardwoods is consid-
erably more variable than that of softwoods-
and that variability can produce spectacular
~
Ray Cell
effects. In particular, a combination of vessels
that vary in diameter and configuration, along
with wood fibers and rays, gives hardwoods the
distinctive appearance that woodworkers covet. Parenchyma
Vessel
Cells Elements Fiber
Unlike softwoods, where two cells make
up the majority of the wood's volume, most
of a hardwood's volume is comprised of at
least four types of cells. These are vessel
elements, wood fibers, ray cells, and
parenchyma or storage cells (top drawing).
Some hardwoods have only 10% of the vol-
ume taken up by rays, with vessels and
fibers taking up 60% and 30%, respectively.
A different wood may be 35% rays, SO%
fibers, and 15% vessels. Each species is dif-
ferent. Wood fibers in hardwoods tend to
be shorter than in softwoods.

Vessels
Vessels occur in virtually all hardwoods,
but never in softwoods. This is one of the
easiest ways to identify a piece of wood as a
hardwood. The configuration of the vessels Red Oak Myrtle
has a huge impact on the wood's value to a (Ring-Porous) (Diffuse-Porous
woodworker-vessels affect its appearance,
ability to dry. strength, finishing and
machining. and more. Vessel elements are large
in diameter and have relatively thin walls; they Because fluid passage would be so <it:;:
fit end to end, and fluid flows through perfora- used frequently to make "wet" cas "=- -a, -,
tions to form pathways along the length of a tree. spirits such as wine and bourbon.
The vessels in some woods form tyloses as In hardwoods, pore size is use as a
sapwood changes to heartwood. Tyloses are bub- of texture. Woods with large pores. ~c
ble-like membranes that develop inside the cavi- and ash, are termed coarse-tex -ec.. ...._ e-
ty of a vessel as it dies. The presence or absence pores are smalL as in ch erry or m.a e. -e
of tyloses is what makes one wood impermeable is said to be fine-textured. The
to water and difficult to dry, but not another wood will greatly impact its abili ,- -
one. The vessels of white oak heartwood, for stain or finish- much depenGS
example, are clogged with numerous tyloses. ring- or diffuse-porous.
VESSEL VARIATIONS

White oak: Large vessels in Mahogany: Vessels are dis- Sycamore: Vessels are uni-
white oak are distinct to the tinct to the naked eye and are formly distributed throughout
naked eye and are clustered in numerous and evenly distrib- and are small in earlywood and
the earlywood, usually three uted. May have either white or very small in latewood.
pores in width. gum deposits.

Ring-porous
Many hardwoods have high concentrations
of vessels in their earlywood that are much
larger in diameter than latewood vessels (middle
photo at left). Species such as oak elm, ash, and
chestnut, which display distinct rings of very
large vessels that can be seen with the naked
eye, are called ring-porous hardwoods.
These woods usually have distinct figures
and patterns. Although it's nice to look at_ this
variation in vessel size and concentration causes
a pronounced uneven grain. Because of this,
ring-porous hardwoods have a well-deserved
reputation for uneven staining. The solution in
most cases is to plug up the vessels by applying a
paste wood "filler"; this results in a much more
uniform color when stained.

DiHuse-porous
Diffuse-porous woods, where the vessels in
the growth rings are all about the same diame-
ter in both earlywood and latewood, are much
easier to stain and finish (bottom photo). Most
domestic diffuse-porous woods have relatively
small pores, but tropical woods like mahogany
can have larger pores.
Parenchyma
Hardwoods may or may not contain
parenchyma, the specialized cells that are
sort of a hybrid of a vessel and a wood fiber Parenchyma
(top drawina}. They serve primarily as storage
cells and are very useful for wood identifi-
cation.
Vessel
Rays
Rays in hardwoods vary considerably in
size and appearance. Rays provide a hori-
zontal pathway for materials (particularly
photosynthate} to flow from the inner bark
toward the center of the tree. Rays are very
important to woodworkers, not only for
appearance but also because they create
areas of structural weakness within the
wood. As wood dries, internal stresses often
create checks in these areas. Rays also allow
firewood like oak to be split easily. On the
downside, since rays are perpendicular to
the fibers, they tend to chip out easily when
machined.
But most of these traits can be over-
looked because of the spectacular figure
that rays produce in some woods. When
white oak, sycamore, and lacewood are cut
radially or quartersawn, they show large,
shimmering ray fleck often referred to as
silver grain (see paae 98 for more on this).

3D hardwood
cell PROPERTIES OF HARDWOODS AND SOFTWOODS
The middle
drawing illustrates Hardwoods Softwoods
how all the cells in
hardwood fit togeth- Vessels yes no
er. Note that the ves-
Cell types many few
sels run parallel and
the rays run perpen- Cell composition great variation little variation
dicular to the wood
fibers . Earlywood Rays broad or narrow narrow
cells are large and
Radial alignment of cells no yes
thin-walled, and late-
wood cells are small- Growth ring visibility can be difficult to distingui sh read· visible
er, with thicker walls.
 K N OTS
As a tree grows in height, branches
develop from the pith out. Lateral branches
are intergrown with the wood of the trunk
as long as they are alive. That is, the cells of
the tree and the branch intermingle. This
/
type of knot is called a tight knot (top photo).
When a branch dies, the trunk will con-
tinue to grow and surround it. This is
known as a loose knot (middle photo).
Eventually the branch will fall off and the
stub will be overgrown until clear wood is
formed once again.
Knots affect the strength of wood in two
ways. First, the grain around the knot will be
distorted. Its slope will cause a significant re-
duction in the strength of the wood around
the knot. Second, if the knot is loose or en-
cased, it contributes nothing to strength.
The location of a knot on a board will deter-
mine how it affects strength. If it's near the
edge, the strength of the board will be re-
duced according to the knot's size. When a
knot is located near the center of the board,
it has less impact on overall strength.

KNOTS: DEFECT OR ACCENT?

• Woodworkers usually regard knots as defects- they
cut them out and toss them onto the scrap pile. But in
some woods, knots aren't considered a defect, but a de-
sirable accent. As a matter of fact, the more there are, the
better. One such wood is knotty pine (shown here). The
knots in this pine are usually tight or sound, small and
clustered. When used as paneling or in country pieces,
they can add a rustic charm.
Another wood where knots are sought out is Eastern
red cedar. Aromatic oils in the wood concentrate in the
knots; more knots, better smell. Well-placed knots can
also serve as a decorative accent on a piece; partial knots
can even be used as a rustic pull for a door or drawer.
WooD Although there are many characteristics, I've
described the more common ones here: specific
gravity, modu lus of rupture, modulus of elastici-
CHARACTERISTICS ty, impact bending, compression parallel to grain,
compression perpendicular to grain, and shear
Color. Texture. Grain. Figure. That's wh at
strength parallel to grain (see the drawing on page
comes to mind when most woodworkers are 21). For an exhau stive study of the many charac-
considering a wood for a project. But there are teristics of wood, consult the Wood Handbook:
many more hidden characteristics to wood th at
Wood as an Engineering Material, published by the
can have as much impact, if not more, on the
Forest Products Society (W'.vw.forestprod.org).
success or failure of a project. Every species of
wood has a unique set of strength characteris-
tics. For example, some woods bend easily,
while others snap with the slightest deflection.
Woods like ash and hickory stand up well to
impact, but others like balsa and basswood
crush easily.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON WOODS

Modulus Modulus Compression Shear
of of Impact parallel para ll el
Specific rupture elasticity bending to grain to gra in
gravity (psi) (Mpsi) (in.) (psi ) (psi)

Cherry,
black 0 .50 12,300 1.49 29 7, 110

Douglas
fir, coast 0 .48 12,400 1.95 31 7,230

Hickory,
shagbark 0.72 20,200 2.16 67 9,2 10 0

Maple,
sugar 0 .63 15,800 1.83 39 7,830

Oak, red
northern 0 .63 14,300 1.82 43 6,760

Oak, white 0 .68 15,200 1.78 37 7,440

Pine,
eastern wh ite 0 .35 8,600 1.24 18 4,800

Walnut,
black 0 .55 14,600 1.68 34 7,580

{all characteristics are for wood dried to 12% moisture content)

. , ,l
THE NATURE 0Fi WooD
I
 Specific gravity
To compare the weights of different woods,
specific gravity is used instead of actual weight
because it's more accurate. Specific gravity is
defined as "the ratio of the density of the wood
to the density of the watef.' Specific gravity of
wood is most often based on the oven-dry
weight at a specified moisture content.

Modulus of rupture
You can compare the load-carrying ability
of one wood to another by examining the mod-
ulus of rupture- the maximum load the wood
can support without breaking. Say you want to
make some bookshelves. What's better, eastern
white pine or Douglas fir? The chart on page 20
clearly shows that Douglas fir will support a lot
more weight than pine.

Modulus of elasticity
Compression:
The modulus of elasticity is a measure of a
Parallel
wood's ability to "spring back" after a load is
to Grain
removed. If you've ever missed hitting a nail and
left a dent, you've encountered a nonelastic

t wood. The higher the modulus of elasticity. the

better the wood will be able to recover. Wood
for an archery bow needs high elasticity to
return to its original shape after being drawn.

Impact bending
Impact bending describes how well a

~
wood handles impact. In this test, a hammer

t
Compression:
Pependicular
is dropped from progressively greater heights
until a rupture occurs or the wood deflects
more than 6". Red alder is rated at 22", true
hickory at 88"- it's no wonder that sports
to Grain
equipment is often made of hickory.

Compression and shear strength

Compression parallel to grain is how well a
wood holds together when sustained stress is
applied to the end grain. Compression perpen-
dicular to grain identifies a wood's ability to
hold up under stress applied to its surfaces. And
finally, shear strength measures a wood's ability
Shear Strength to resist internal slipping of one part along
another, along the grain.
jUVENILE
WooD
The wood in every tree that forms within
its first 10 years or so has different characteris-
tics than the mature wood produced later in its
life- most of it is undesirable. This wood is
known as juvenile wood and can also be found
at the tips of the main stem and branches. As
long as a tree continues to grow in height, juve-
nile wood will be produced. But for the most
part, juvenile wood occupies the center portion
of every tree (top drawing).

Properties of juvenile wood

Juvenile wood has two main
characteristics that make it very
undesirable to woodworkers. First,
juvenile wood shrinks and swells
both with the grain and along the
grain. An example of this would be
the 2x2 shown in the middle photo:
Here, one-half of the piece is juve-
nile wood and its edge has shrunk
in length much more than the
other part, resulting in severe crook.
Second, the strength of juvenile
wood is much lower than the
mature wood of the same tree- as
much as SO% lower. This is because juvenile
wood has more thin-walled earlywood and less
thicker-walled latewood.

More common today

Juvenile wood is becoming more of a prob-
lem for woodworkers today because the average
diameter of trees harvested has declined (bottom
photo). In the past, when large logs were milled,
the center section containing juvenile wood was
set aside for pallet stock. Today, many mills will
dip into the juvenile wood to eke out another
board or two. Unfortunately, there is no way to
clearly identify juvenile wood; your best defense
is to steer clear of wood that contains the pith.
 REACTION
WooD
When the trunk of a tree tips
from verticaL it tries to bring itself
back into the upright position by
developing reaction wood (top photo).
In softwoods, reaction wood forms
on the underside of the leaning
truck and is called compression
wood; in hardwoods it develops on
the upper side of the leaning truck
and is termed tension wood. In
either case, reaction wood has many
of the undesirable qualities present
in juvenile wood.

Identifying reaction wood

One of the biggest challenges of either type
of reaction wood is identifying it. Unless you
see the tree before it's harvested, it's difficult to
tell whether reaction wood is present. Even the
mill operator that receives the log will have a
hard time knowing. There are some clues, how-
ever. In generaL the growth rings in reaction
wood are wider than in other parts. The area
opposite the reaction wood generally has nar-
row growth rings. In softwoods, compression
wood often appears reddish in color (middle
photo). As a woodworker, the only way you can
detect reaction wood is to study the end grain
of the board. If you find unevenly spaced growth
rings, chances are it contains reaction wood.

Fuzzy grain
In addition to shrinkage and strength prob-
lems, tension wood in hardwoods also creates
another annoying problem: fuzzy grain (bottom
photo). Loosely attached tension-wood fibers
have a tendency not to cut cleanly, and portions
of the wood fibers often tear out during
machining. Sharp blades can help but will not
make the problem go away. Your best bet is to
write the board off and get a new one.
-
"We work with boards tram these trees, to tultill their ~earning
tor a second lite, to release their richness and beaut~. From these
planks we fashion o~ects useful to man, and it nature wills, things
ot beaut~. "
GEORGE NAKASHIMA (1981)

DIRECTORY
of WOOD
We all share something with master furniture maker Nakashima: an
appreciation of wood's function, beauty, and rich variety. From the
inky gloss of ebony to the pale hues of aspen, wood pleases the eye, the hand,
the soul of all who are part of its "second life:·
I once showed my turned work at a juried art show, and the potter in
the next booth was amazed at how different all the woods in my pieces were.
He went from walnut bowl to zebrawood vase, caressing the wood and com-
menting on the beauty of each. Like that potter, we admire and appreciate
wood. We study the color and observe the grain, rub our hand over it, even
smell it. Sure, we build things, but it's the wood itself that we most enjoy.
This chapter examines 64 common woods that woodworkers use.
Each piece is /2" x 3" x 6"- the standard size used by the International Wood
1

Collectors Society (IWCS). Founded in 1947, the IWCS is a nonprofit society

devoted to collecting, crafting, and advancing information on wood. You can
learn more about the IWCS at www.woodcollectors.org. To show both nat-
ural and finished states, each sample has been sanded with 150-grit sand-
paper, and the lower half is finsihed with three coats of satin polyurethane.
 Alder, Red
Alnus rubra
You may have walked on red alder if you've ever worn clogs, since it's the
traditional wood used in this footwear. Found on the Pacific Coast ofNorth
America, this is a soft. weak wood. While it has low shock resistance and
very low stiffness, it machines very well. Thanks to its uniform small pore
structure and the absence of any visible boundary between heartwood and
softwood, it accepts stains readily and takes a good finish. Red alder is one of
the easiest commercial timbers to peel into veneer. Its natural defects-
knots, burr or burl clusters, minor
stains and streaks- are showcased CHARACTERISTICS
in its decorative veneer form.
The sapwood is white to pink- COST
$
I $$$
I
ish brown, and the heartwood is
found only in red alders of ad-
vanced age. The wood has a sub-
DENSITY
Light
I Dense
dued pattern and fine texture. It's
used for furniture, veneer and ply-
WORKABILITY
Easy Difficult
I
wood, sash and door panel stock
and other millwork.
FINISHING
Easy Difficult
I

Ash, American
Fraxinus americana
At baseball and hockey games, ash is part of the action: Its high shock
resistance makes it the preferred wood for baseball bats and hockey sticks, as
well as for tool handles. This exceptionally flexible wood is found in eastern
North America from Nova Scotia south to Georgia and west to the Missis-
sippi River. Ash is often underappreciated by many woodworkers; it offers a
sweet fragrance when cut, it's inexpensive, it machines welL and it can be
stained to look very similar to red oak (see page 179 for more on this).
The sapwood of ash is nearly
white; the heartwood is light brown CHARACTERISTICS
to pale yellow. The grain is straight,
coarse, and even-textured. Even COST 1 ':-_ _,___~I
though it's heavy, hard and strong, s $$$
ash boasts remarkable bending DENSITY I
":U-,gh:-t-----''::c
D-en_s_,e
properties. Coupled with its shock
resistance, this flexibility makes it WORKABILITY
perfect for an array of uses: cabinet- Easy Difficult
work, veneers, bent handles forum- FINISHING I
brellas, bent frames for canoes, boat Easy Difficult
oars, canoe paddles, and snowshoes.

DIRECTORY OF WOOD
Aspen, American
Populus tremuloides •
Aspen gets around: It covers a wide zone across the northern United
States, and up into Canada. Famous for its flat, paper-thin leaves that flutter
with even the slightest breeze, it's often called quaking aspen. Once aspen is
dry, it has no odor or flavor, so it's well suited for use in the food industry as
lightweight containers and cooking utensils. Wide, glued-up panels of aspen
are becoming popular in home centers in the United States, but be aware
that its woolly surface can cause problems in staining.
Aspen is whitish, creamy gray to
gray-brown and has a straight to CHARACTERISTICS
woolly pattern. The grain is a fine
and even texture. Aspen is light and COST I,.__.___ _ --=='I
soft and often used for pulpwood- $ $$$
it is the preferred wood for making DENSITY ~~...,....,..-_L__-=---'
OSB (oriented-strand board). Aspen Light Dense
is also used to make plywood, furni- WORKABILITY
ture, and construction lumber. Due Easy Difficult
to its nondescript grain, it's often FINISHING
used as a paint-grade hardwood. Easy Difficult

Balsa
Ochroma pyramidale
Balsa is a wood of extremes: It's the lightest-weight, commercially used
wood in the world. It's also the softest and most porous wood (it's difficult to
finish, as it absorbs whatever finish is applied)- yet it's a hardwood. What's
more, this product of Central and South America and the West Indies grows
extremely fast: It can be ready to harvest just six years from planting. It has
excellent strength and stability despite its very light weight. Buoyant balsa
(the word means "raft" in Spanish) is a good insulator against heat and cold;
it's valued as a heat insulator in re-
frigerated ships. CHARACTERISTICS
Balsa is pale to pinkish white
and has an indistinct pattern with COST I,.__ _...J..__--=='1
some pores visible. Though associ- $ $$$
ated with model planes, less than 10 DENSITY I I
'-:
Li--:gh'-t-----::D,--e-
ns--'
e
percent of balsa is used for models
and novelties. It's favored for floata- WORKABILITY
tion devices, life preservers, rafts, Easy Difficult
and speed boats, plus flooring in air- FINISHING
craft, recreational vehicles, and sub- Easy Difficult
way cars, where weight is a factor.

DIRECTORY OF WOOD
 Basswood
Tilia americana
Carvers around the world are big users of basswood. also known as lin-
den. The reason: Its grain offers both softness and regularity- lack of contrast
between earlywood and latewood. Woodturners also account for basswood's
popularity. especially when a project calls for lightness in weight: Turned
Christmas-tree ornaments are often of basswood. While its fans are global.
this wood's native ground is limited to the eastern half of North America and
the Canadian provinces. Because it has no taste or odor at alL the business
world uses. too: It's been used for
years in the food industry for tools. CHARACTERISTICS
utensils. and containers.
Basswood is creamy white in COST I I
. ,. .$---'---$:;:-:;$:7$
color with a fine. indistinct grain. A
very light wood. it's fairly soft and DENSITY I I
weak. Those traits explain why it's '-:Li--:gh!--t----::D:-e-ns--'e

used primarily for carving. hobbies WORKABILITY I

'-Ea_s_y--'--,D,..,.iff=i-cu-=-'lt
and crafts. commercial veneer. food-
handling utensils. and food contain- FINISHING
ers. It's also used to manufacture Easy Difficult
beehives and Venetian blinds.

Beech, American
Fagus grandifolia
When a job calls for wood that's sturdy and can take a pounding- but
still look good- beech can be the answer. Hard. strong. and stiff. yet suitable
for steam-bending. beech is often used for not-so-fine furniture like school
desks and chairs. Found in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island in Canada
and throughout the eastern one-third of the United States. beech offers an
odd group of properties. It's great for steam-bending while retaining its
strength; it becomes slick with wear and so is p erfect for drawer sides and
runners; and it imparts no odor or
taste, so it's used for food utensils CHARACTERISTICS
and containers.
The heartwood of American COST l_:.j_ I
beech is white to pinkish to reddish s $$$
brown. It has conspicuous rays and DENSITY 1·,: r .
tiny pores. a straight to interlocked Light Dense
pattern. and a close grain with a fine WORKABILITY f ' I' I
texture. This all-around general- Easy Difficult
purpose wood is also used to make
handles and flooring.
FINISHING
Easy
I" · I
Difficult
I

Dnu:croRY ot: Wooo

Birch, Yellow
Betula alleghaniensis
If you've ever bought high-quality plywood, it was probably yellow birch,
since that's its biggest use. Abundant in the forests of the U.S. northeast and
the Great Lakes states, this wood has a smooth, dense surface that's free from
pores. It paints, stains, and polishes beautifully. U nequalled as a base for
enameling, it virtually guarantees a permanent, smooth finish. Yellow birch
steam-bends well and is a common choice in making upholstery frames.
The sapwood of yellow birch is white, while the heartwood is cream or
light brown tinged with red. When
stained, the difference between CHARACTERISTICS
heartwood and sapwood is barely
noticeable. The grain is straight, COST I7-$_ ____..._.,$$,.-,J$I
close, and even, and it has a fine tex-
ture. Yellow birch is heavy, hard, and DENSITY ~-:-1-:------1..,..----'
strong. In addition to its primary Light Dense

use in plywood, it's also popular for WORKABILITY

furniture, interiors, and cabinet- Easy Difficult
work, and for door skins on flush FINISHING
doors and interior and exterior Easy Difficult
panel doors.

Blackwood, Australian
Acacia mela noxylon
Australian blackwood, often referred to as black wattle, grows in New
South Wales, ~eensland, and sou theastern Australia. There are hundreds of
species of wattle belonging to the Acacia species, but Australian blackwood
is the most attractive and largest growing. It is similar to ash in impact
stren gth and has good steam-bending properties. Lustrous Australian black-
wood is a highly decorative timber and is in great demand for furniture .
T he sapwood of Australian blackwood is straw-colored, and the heart-
wood is not the color the name su g-
gests; instead it is golden to dark CHARACTERISTICS
reddish brown with occasional
chocolate-colored splotches. T h e COST
grain is medium-textured and
straight but often interlocked and DENSITY
wavy, creating a handsome fiddle-
back figure. Heavy and strong, Aus- WORKABILITY
tralian blackwood is most u sed for
furniture, cabinetwork, and gun- FINISHING
stocks, and it can be sliced into
beau tifu L decorative veneer.

DIRECTORY OF WOOD
 Bacote
Cordia spp.
If you like the look of teak-but don't like what it does to the cutting
edges of tools- try bocote. Often used as a substitute for rosewood or teak,
this wood is similar in texture and color to teak. Even though it's harder, it
isn't as abrasive and will only slightly blunt cutting edges. Bocote is one of
the many types of cordia found throughout the West Indies, tropical Amer-
ica, Mrica, Asia, Mexico, Belize, and Honduras. It's typically available only in
small sizes and is often sliced into decorative veneers.
The heartwood of bocote is
rich, golden brown with a pinkish CHARACTERISTICS
tint, often showing variegated irreg-
ular markings and an attractive ray COST
fleck figure when quartersawn. It is
straight-grained with a medium- DENSITY
coarse texture. Bocote is heavy and
of medium strength. It is most often WORKABILITY
used in the manufacture of furni-
ture, cabinetwork, boat decking.
FINISHING
veneer, and tool handles. Easy Difficult

Box Elder
Acer negundo
Credit an unglamorous fungus for the beauty of box elder. That's what
causes the red streaks that form stunning patterns in this wood. These im-
pressive colorations make this member of the maple family sought-after by
woodturners. Box elder is found in lower elevation in. ·onh America, ex-
tending through Mexico into Guatemala, excluding Pacific Coast states and
south central Canada. While fast growing. it's al o short-lived: This delicate
tree is highly susceptible to damage from \\<ind, hean rot, insects, and fungus.
The heartwood of box elder is
yellowish brown, while the sap- CHARACTERISTICS
wood is greenish yellow to creamy
white. Red streaks in the wood are COST
s
I $$$
I
composed of a pigment from a fun-
gus. Because box elder is light, soft.
porous, close-grained, and weak, it
DENSITY I
Light Dense
has limited cosmetic use. For the
most part, it's used for inexpensive
WORKABILITY I I
Easy Difficult
furniture, railroad cross-ties, wood-
enware, boxes, crates, pallets, and
FINISH I G I I
Easy Difficult
wood pulp.

DIRECTORY OF WOOD
Bubinga
Guibourtia demeusei
It looks like rosewood. It's often called ''African rosewood:' It's sometimes
sold as a substitute for rosewood. But bubinga is a distinct wood with special
properties. Found in Mrica, primarily around Cameroon, Gabon, and Zaire,
bubinga trees are massive, producing logs weighing up to 10 tons that pro-
duce extremely wide planks. When bubinga is rotary-cut into veneer to dis-
play its exotic coloring, it's sold under the trade name "Kevazingo:' Bubinga
causes moderate to severe tool blunting, and interlocked and irregular-
grained areas tend to tear or pick up
when machined. It needs a finish CHARACTERISTICS
with UV protection to prevent fad-
ing to brown with exposure. COST
Bubinga is red-brown with light
red to purple stripes or veining. It is DENSITY
straight-grained, often with irregu-
lar and interlocked areas. It is heavy.. WORKABILITY
and gum pockets can cause prob-
lems machining and gluing. Bubinga FINISHING I I I I
is used for turnings, handles, furni- Easy Difficult
ture, and decorative veneer.

Butternut
]uglans cinerea
There's something about this wood that appeals to both carvers and
clerics. Its natural luster comes up quickly when polished, and it's the wood
most often used for church altars. Found in the United States from Maine
south to Virginia and west to Iowa and Missouri, it's also known as white
walnut because it resembles black walnut but is lighter in color. Although
it can be stained to look like black walnut, it doesn't offer the same strength
or hardness. Easy to work with, butternut is an excellent carving wood.
Virtually every part of a butternut
tree is sticky- the leaves, the stems, CHARACTERISTICS
the flowers, the seeds, the nuts,
and the sap are all oily and buttery COST
$
. ,_I
-----'--'"--...__~1
$$$
to the touch.
The heartwood of butternut is
warm, medium brown. It is straight-
DENSITY I
Light Dense

grained and coarse with a soft tex-

ture. Butternut is light to medium
WORKABILITY
Easy
,'I I
Difficult
weight and is used for furniture,
carving, interiors, and cabinetwork
FINISHING
Easy
,'I I
Difficult
and is sliced into decorative veneer.

DIRECTORY OF WooD
 Cedar, Eastern Red
juniperus virginiana
While its reputation for moth-repelling is unproven, Eastern red cedar's
pleasant scent is undisputed: It was one of the first woods to be exported
from America to Europe, where perfume was extracted from its oils. If it's the
scent you're after, look for knots: More knots indicate higher concentration of
scent-producing oils. Eastern red cedar grow s in North America from Nova
Scotia south to Georgia along the Atlantic coast and west to the Mississippi
River. Expect a lot of waste working with this wood because of loose knots
and problems matching boards due
to the highly varied colors. CHARACTERISTICS
The sapwood of eastern red
cedar is nearly white; the heartwood COST
~-.........----.-.:-.'
is purplish to rose red, which ma-
tures to dull red or reddish brown. DENSITY
""!"'!"'-.......'"---::,-----"
The grain is fairly straight with a
fine texture. Eastern red cedar is
moderately heavy and hard. It is
used for chests, wardrobes, closet FINISHING
interiors, paneling, drawer lining,
and pencils.

Cedar, Spanish
Cedrela odorata
A true cedar (Cedrus spp.) is a softwood, but Spanish cedar is a hardwood.
It's a common misnomer: Many hardwoods that produce a fragrance similar
to softwood cedar are called cedar, and this is one. It grows in Mexico and
South America. Spanish cedar contains gum that gives the wood its charac-
teristic pleasant odor. This gum may exude, and appears on th e surface as
sticky resin, which can lead to difficulties in finishing. Spanish cedar is often
referred to as cigar box cedar. It's known as the wood of choice for making
cigar humidors.
Spanish cedar is pale pinkish CHARACTERISTICS
brown to dark reddish brown. The
grain is straight but may be wavy,
curly, or mottled in areas-it can
COST
$
! $$$
I
exhibit a moderate to high golden
luster. It is moderately light and soft.
DENSITY
Light
I Dense

Spanish cedar is used for cigar

boxes, pencils, and doors and is
WORKABILITY
Easy Difficult
I
sliced into decorative veneer for
paneling and plywood.
FINISHING
Easy Difficult
I

- D IRECTORYOFWOOD .
Cedar, Western Red
Thuja plicata
V\Tater attacks both houses and boats, and the best defense is often west-
ern red cedar. Completely nonresinous, this is one of the most decay-resis-
tant species in America, hence its popularity in home and marine construc-
tion. It grows along the coastal ranges of western Canada and the United
States from Alaska through British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon and
east to Montana. Because of its fragrance, it's often confused with "aromatic"
cedar. Its tendency to split makes it perfect for shingles; when exposed, it
weathers to an attractive silver gray.
The sapwood is white; the CHARACTERISTICS
heartwood is a rich red color. It is
straight and even-grained with a COST
fine pattern and texture. Western
red cedar is moderately soft and DENSITY
light in weight, is extremely decay-
resistant, and exhibits little shrink- WORKABILITY
age. Low in strength and brittle,
it's used primarily for shingles
FINISHING I I!ll!lll I
and shakes, siding, caskets, boat- Easy DiHicult
building, porch columns, and sheds.

Chakte Kok
Sickingia salvadorensis
You could say that chakte kok (pronounced CHO CK-tay CO KE) is
chock-full of color. In fact, the wood and bark of this tree are u sed to create a
commercial red dye. Chakte kok grows in the Yucatan and Chiapais regions
of southeastern Mexico and Belize and is often available from sustainably
managed sources. The waste factor can be high when working this wood be-
cause it's difficult to match boards- they can vary widely in color. Chakte
kok requires a finish with U V protection; otherwise it will qu ickly fade
when exposed to sunlight.
The heartwood of chakte kok is CHARACTERISTICS
a vibrant pinkish red with occa-
sional streaks of brown. It often COST
possesses a gorgeou s flame figure.
The grain is fine and even, with DENSITY
occasional check and wormholes. Dense

Chakte kok is hard and dense. It is WORKABILITY

used for furniture and cabinetwork Easy DiHicult
and is sliced into decorative veneers FINISHING
for paneling and plywood. Easy DiHicult

DIRECTORY OF WoOD
 Chechem
Metopium brownei
The chechem (pronounced chay-CHEM) tree is one to look at- not to
touch. The bark contains a caustic sap that can raise a poison ivy- like rash on
skin. The wood, though, is eminently touchable, with a hardness and density
like Brazilian rosewood. In color, chechem resembles black walnut with a
golden luster, making it look like teak (in fact, it's a good substitute for teak).
Chechem grows in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Jamaica, Guatemala,
Belize, and Mexico. It is often available from sustainably managed sources.
When finishing, know that
chechem takes lacquer finishes CHARACTERISTICS
welL but not polyurethanes.
The heartwood of chechem is Il ~~--71,..,..JI
COST 't-
shaded amber to dark brown, often $ $$ $
with a range of colors and contrast-
ing streaks. It is tight-grained, hard,
DENSITY
Light
ItDense
and dense. Chechen is slightly oily
and very rot-resistant. It is used for
WORKABILITY
Easy
ll
Difficult
I
furniture making. cabinetwork
and boat decking and is sliced into
FINISHING
Easy
II
Difficult
I
veneer for paneling or plywood.

Cherry, Black
Prunus serotina
One of the most highly prized American woods for cabinetmaking,
cherry gleams with advantages: It cuts cleanly, polishes welL and turns a gor-
geous, rich red as it ages. Once dried, it's so stable that it's used for end-grain
engravers' blocks and to back the metal engravers' blocks used to print U.S.
currency. Cherry grows in North America from the Canadian border south
to the Carolinas and west to the Dakotas. Although it machines welL it has a
well-deserved reputation for burning if you hesitate during a cut.
The sapwood is nearly white;
the heartwood, light pinkish brown. CHARACTERISTICS
The variance in color between
heartwood and sapwood can be COST ~~-_.J....---.:-..-.11
problematic- this discrepancy will $ $$$
become more obvious as the heart- DENSITY I
'-:-Lig--:h-t--"----=D-en_s_,e
wood darkens with age. The grain is
straight with a fine, close pattern. It WORKABILITY
is light, strong. and hard. Cherry is Easy Difficult
used for turning. carving. furniture, FINISHING
interiors, cabinetwork musical in- Easy Difficult
struments, and decorative veneer.

DIRECTORY OF WOOD
Chestnut, American
Castanea dentata
American chestnut once made up one-third of the U. S. hardwood
growth (about 9 million acres of forest). In the 20th century, a fungus bark
disease nearly made this species extinct. All current supplies of chestnut
lumber come from standing dead timber located in "ghost forests:· Although
you can still can find logs in the Appalachian Mountains (since the fungus
attacks the bark and not the wood), this source is almost depleted. New
chestnut trees continue to sprout, but they are quickly killed by the bark
disease. American chestnut is often
referred to as wormy chestnut CHARACTERISTICS
because it is liberally marked with
wormholes. COST .,_.I_ _ _...,_ ·II .,....,.I

The heartwood of chestnut is $ $$$

straw to light brown in color. The
grain is fairly straight and coarse-
DENSITY
Light
I Dense

textured, sprinkled with worm-

holes. Chestnut is medium weight
WORKABILITY
Easy Difficult
I
and strong. It is used locally for
furniture and is sliced into veneers
FINISHING
Easy Difficult
I
for paneling and plywood.

Cypress, Bald
Taxodiu m distichum
Where moisture is a challenge, bald cypress can be the solution. Found
in North America from New Jersey south throughout the southeastern
United States, this is a strange tree in many ways. It's very long-lived and
thrives in swamp water, preferring to be submerged at least part of the year.
Although it's a conifer, it loses its needles every winter. In the spring it pro-
duces new, tender green needles; in the fall, they turn autumn colors and fall
off again. Bald cypress boasts extremely high resistance to insects, dampness,
and fungal decay. So it's excellent
in any locale where insects and CHARACTERISTICS
humidity are a concern.
This wood is yellowish red to COST ~~--~.-71
salmon-colored. It has a distinct $ $$$
leafY grain and can exhibit a nice DENSITY ~~----'------=-----'
crotch pattern. It is moderately Light Dense

strong, reasonably light, and WORKABILITY

durable. Bald cypress is used for fur- Easy Difficult
niture, interior and exterior trim, FINISHING
tanks, vats, greenhouses, stadiums, Easy Difficult
and barrel making.
Douglas Fir
Pseudotsuga menziesii
Named for David Douglas, the Scottish botanist who discovered it. Dou-
glas fir is the forester's idea of perfection- very tall with a thick trunk taper-
ing up gradually with no branches for the first 100 feet. Douglas fir grows
along the Pacific Coast of North America from British Columbia through
Washington and Oregon into California, and eastward into the Rocky Moun-
tains. It is one of the most widely used woods in North America and the con-
tinent's most plentiful species: The vast stands in Washington and Oregon
carry more usable timber per acre
than any other forest except red- CHARACTERISTICS
wood. Although not a true fir, it's a
fast grower and is very long-lived COST I I
'::-$---'-- - -$-;-,$,-,J$
(500 years is common).
Douglas fir is pale cream to DENSITY I
'-:Lig--;h- t ---'------=D-en_s_,e
light orange in color, straight-
grained,. and hard and strong- WORKABILITY
exceptionally strong for a softwood. Easy Difficult

It is used primarily for construction FINISHING

lumber; it is the world's most im- Easy Difficult
portant source for plywood.

Ebony
Diospyros spp.
For exotic pasts, it's hard to beat this very hard wood. Ebony was the ulti-
mate wood for the ancient Greeks, the maharajahs of India, and the pharaohs
of Egypt. Its black heartwood has been treasured for centuries. Ebony grows
in the Philippines, East Indies, India, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar as well as
Africa, Central America, and South America. Extremely expensive, today
ebony is most often used as an accent such as fingerboards on violins and
keys on pianos. It tends to be very brittle, and the wood is so dense it will dull
virtually any tool. The sawdust from
ebony has been known to cause CHARACTERISTICS
respiratory problems.
The heartwood of ebony is an COST
uneven gray to black with black
stripes to jet black. The grain is DENSITY
slightly interlocked with a fine tex-
ture. Ebony is very heavy. It is used WORKABILITY
for musical instrument parts and
turnings, is sliced into decorative
veneer, and is often made into inlay.
FINISHING -=:::J
Easy Difficult
Elm, American White
Ulmus americana
Though relatively hardy, the American white elm couldn't stand up to
D utch elm disease. That's why no native American elm grows west of the
Rocky Mountains, a region that used to boast hundreds of th ousands of
these trees. They still grow in North America, from Newfoundland to Nova
Scotia in Canada south to Florida along the Eastern seaboard. The American
white elm has excellent steam-bending and water-resistant properties. Even
perpetual wetness didn't faze the elms of old: Romans hollowed out elm
trees and used them for water pipes.
The sapwood of American CHARACTERISTICS
white elm is grayish white; the
h eartwood is light-brown with a COST I.._--'---~1
reddish tinge. The grain is straight, $ $$$
sometimes interlocked with a DENSITY ~~ ....,...,.--L.._: : - -_J
coarse texture. It is moderately Light Dense

heavy, and weak. Elm is a standby in WORKABILITY I

':::-Ea_s_y_ _...,D""iff:-::i-cu-=-'lt
dam and lock construction; due to
its muddy color, it's most often used FINISHING
as a paint-grade hardwood for furni- Easy Difficult
ture and cabinetwork.

Gonc;alo Alves
Astronium fraxinifolium
Brazil yields this handsome, rewarding-but challenging- wood.
Gon<;alo alves (pronounced gon-SALL-o ALL-vez) turns well and finishes
smoothly, with a vibrant russet gleam. But since the heartwood is highly resis-
tant to moisture absorption, it can be difficult to glue. And gon<;alo alves
takes extra effort to work because it blunts cutting edges. It's called zebra-
wood in the United Kingdom and tigerwood in the United States.
The heartwood of gon<;alo alves is russet to orange brown, with narrow
to wide stripes of medium to very
dark brown, contrasting sharply CHARACTERISTICS
with the brownish white sapwood.
It has an irregular grain, often inter- COST
locked with alternating layers of
hard and soft material with an over- DENSITY
all medium texture. Gon<;alo alves is
heavy, hard, and dense. Although it WORKABILITY
is used as an accent and for high-
quality furniture and cabinetwork FINISHING
and for turnings, it is available pri-
marily in decorative veneers.

D IRECTORY OF WooD
 Gum, Sweet
Liquidambar styraciflua
Nice smell...nasty movement. That's the good news/ bad news about
sweet gum, found in North America from New England to Mexico and into
South America. It produces vanilla-scented resin formed in the bark by
wound stimulation. The resin is a source of storax or styrax, used in medi-
cine and perfumery. Nice. But it tends to warp and twist when dried, requir-
ing great care in drying to avoid degradation. Plus, it exhibits a lot of wood
movement after it's been dried. Nasty. Sweet gum's heartwood is sold sepa-
rately as red gum, and the sapwood
is sold separately as sap gum. CHARACTERISTICS
The heartwood of sweet gum is
a dull pinkish brown; the sapwood COST
is creamy white. The grain is irregu-
lar but with a fine texture. Sweet DENSITY
gum is moderately heavy and hard
but is not exceptionally strong. It is WORKABILITY
used for turnings, cabinetwork. dec-
orative and commercial veneer, and FINISHING
sometimes for "dry" or slack barrel
making.

Hickory
Carya spp.
When you need a wood with flexibility, strength, and resilience, con-
sider hickory. With high bending strength and crushing strength, high stiff-
ness, and very high shock resistance, its outstanding combination of proper-
ties makes hickory great for striking tools like hammers and axes, and also
for sports equipment like bats and golf clubs. Hickory grows in North Amer-
ica, from southeastern Canada to the eastern half of the United States. The
heartwood is sold as red hickory; the sapwood is sold as white hickory. This
wood shrinks considerably when
drying but then is stable. It causes CHARACTERISTICS
moderate blunting of cutting edges.
The sapwood of hickory is COST ~~--'--~..71
nearly white; the heartwood is $ $$$

DENSITY ~~----'-=-----'
creamy to pinkish brown. The grain
is straight. close, and finely textured. Light Dense

It is moderately hard and heavy. WORKABILITY

extremely tough, and resilient. Easy Difficult
Hickory is used for tool handles,
FINISHING ~--1.::=::---:-11
ladder rungs, sports equipment, fur- Easy Difficult
niture, turnings, and cabinetwork.

D IRECTORY OF WooD
Holly
Ilex spp.
This is a wood that can change identities. Since holly can be virtually
white with no visible figure, it's sometimes used as a substitute for boxwood.
At the other extreme, it's often dyed black to mimic ebony. There are over
100 species, found in Europe, the United States, and western Asia. It is
excellent for turning. Because very little holly is cut each year and the trees
are smalL it is used mostly for inlay Holly is difficult to dry and tends to
split. For best results, it should be converted to small pieces and then dried
slowly with the top of the pile
weighted down. CHARACTERISTICS
The heartwood of holly is white
to ivory white with bluish streaks. COST ...,_!.,....,.,!
. . , _ I_ _ _

The grain is even with no visible $ $$$

figure and has a fine texture. Holly DENSITY ...,_!- : - -_ __..!__JI
is hard and moderately strong. It Light Dense

is used for turnings, for musical

WORKABILITY :--- --==!----;-:'!
instrument parts, for accents in Easy Difficult
furniture and cabinetwork and FINISHING
often as inlay Easy Difficult

Imbuya
Octea porosa
If you admire a piece of furniture in Brazil and are told it's Brazilian wal-
nut, you're probably looking at this wood. Imbuya grows in Brazil and can
look so much like black walnut that it is often referred to as Brazilian walnut.
Although imbuya is not as strong as black walnut. it is highly valued in its
native country as a cabinet and furniture wood. Imbuya has a peculiar, spicy
odor, most of which is lost in drying. The sawdust often causes irritation.
The heartwood ofimbuya is rich brown with some streaks and stripes.
The grain is fairly straight. often
wavy or curly in areas, with a fine CHARACTERISTICS
texture. It is fairly hard, heavy, and
durable, making it a good choice for COST ~
furniture and cabinetry. It is used $ $$$
primarily for decorative purposes DENSITY
and is commonly seen as veneer or
in paneling, or as rifle butts and WORKABILITY
gunstocks.
FINISHING -====:]
Easy Difficult
Iroko
Milicia excelsa
Carvers, turners, and boatbuilders share a liking for this wood from
equatorial Mrica. Iroko is sometimes referred to as Mrican teak but it isn't as
good-looking as teak and doesn't have teak's greasy feel. It's a favorite wood
for carving and turning, and like teak it's widely used in boatbuilding. Iroko
causes moderate to severe blunting effect on cutting tools. If you value your
cutting tools and your sinuses, approach this wood with caution. It is not
popular in North America, because the logs often contain hard deposits of
calcium carbonate, commonly
called "stone;· which make them CHARACTERISTICS
difficult to work; these can severely
damage tools. The sawdust ofiroko COST
can cause respiratory problems.
The heartwood of iroko is light DENSITY
brown to rich golden-orange brown.
The grain is interlocked, with a WORKABILITY
coarse texture. Iroko is moderately
heavy, hard, and dense. It is used for
boatbuilding, furniture, and cabinet-
FINISHING -==:=J
Easy Difficult
work and is sliced into veneer.

Jarrah
Eucalyptus marginata
This type of eucalyptus has a special status in its native land: It's har-
vested more than any other Australian timber.Jarrah is used locally in Aus-
tralia for projects with a maritime theme: shipbuilding and marine struc-
tures like dock pilings and harbor work and bridge building.Jarrah requires
careful drying, due to its tendency to twist and warp. Gum pockets or veins
are a common defect that can make it difficult to work.
The heartwood of jarrah is dark brownish red and is often marked with
short, brown radial flecks on the
end grain and boat-shaped flecks on CHARACTERISTICS
the flat-sawn surfaces. Fungus is the
cause of these flecks, which en- COST
hance the wood's decorative value.
The grain is straight to irregular, DENSITY
often wavy with a coarse texture.
Jarrah is heavy and of medium WORKABILITY
strength. It is used for furniture,
boatbuilding, marine construction, FINISHING
tool handles, and cabinetwork and
is sliced into decorative veneer.
Jatoba
Hymenaea courbaril
Shock-resistance similar to that of ash is the prime trait of this wood,
which grows in Central and South America and the West Indies. It is often
available from sustainably managed sources. While it's a good choice for tool
handles and sporting goods, it can be difficult to machine because of its high
density; it causes moderate to severe blunting of tool edges.Jatoba tree bark
contains an orange or yellowish resin called South American co pal, used in
the manufacture of specialty varnishes and cements.Jatoba is difficult to dry
and often exhibits surface checking.
The heartwood of Jatoba is CHARACTERISTICS
salmon-red to orange-brown,
marked with dark brown to russet COST
brown streaks. It often exhibits a
golden luster. The grain is inter- DENSITY
locked and of a coarse texture.
Jatoba is heavy, hard, and tough and WORKABILITY
has good bending characteristics. It
is used for furniture, cabinetwork, FINISHING
sporting goods, and tool handles
and is sliced into decorative veneer.

Kingwood
Dalbergia cearensis
It's easy to see why this wood is so named. A member of the rosewood
family, kingwood grows in BraziL and its unmistakable appearance makes it a
king among woods. It was heavily used in the finest furniture for Louis XIV
and Louis XV of France and in the Georgian period of English furniture.
That's why it's extremely popular now with antiques restorers. The great de-
mand for antiques restoration work has made this an endangered species,
and it's available only in small pieces. It causes moderate dulling of cutting
edges; but if tools are kept sharp, a
very smooth finish is obtainable- it CHARACTERISTICS
is well suited to a wax finish.
The heartwood of kingwood is COST
violet-brown to black with dark
streaks of violet-brown, black, and DENSITY
sometimes golden yellow, often lus-
trous. The grain is straight, with a WORKABILITY
fine texture. Kingwood is heavy,
strong, and tough. It is used mostly
for accent work, marquetry, inlays,
FINISHING -==:J
Easy Difficult
and turnings.

D IRECTORY OF WOOD
 Koa
Acacia koa
There's a musical connection with this wood, which grows only in the
Hawaiian Islands and is the principal timber of the 50th state. Koa is best
known for helping make music in ukuleles and guitars, but it is also used for
gunstocks. As supplies dwindle, this ever-scarcer wood is now used chiefly to
produce highly decorative veneer. Its fiddleback figure lends it well to archi-
tectural paneling and decorative face veneering. Cutting edges must be kept
sharp, especially when curly grain is encountered.
The heartwood of koa is golden
reddish brown, with dark brown CHARACTERISTICS
streaks marking the growth rings,
showing as black lines on longitudi- COST
nal surfaces. The grain is inter-
locked, often with a wavy or fiddle- DENSITY
back pattern. It is medium-textured
and is sometimes lustrous. Koa is WORKABILITY ~
moderately heavy and hard. It is used Easy Difficult
for furniture, musical instruments,
and gunstocks and is sliced into ve-
FINISHING -===::J
Easy Difficult
neer for paneling and plywood.

Lacewood
Cardwellia sublimis
There's no mistaking the look of lacewood, which grows in Australia and
is often referred to as silky oak. Lacewood and silky oak are two related but
separate species. Lacewood has a much more obvious lustrous quartersawn
figure- large rays produce a silver grain figure much more pronounced than
in silky oak (see page 47). Neither species, though, is a true oak (Qy_ercus spp.).
~artersawn lacewood has a high tendency to chip out when planed, and
the sawdust is an irritant and can cause respiratory problems.
The heartwood of lacewood is
light pink with a silvery pink sheen. CHARACTERISTICS
The grain is straight with a coarse
texture; ray fleck is prominent COST
when quarter-sliced. Lacewood is
moderately heavy and hard. In Aus- DENSITY
tralia, it's often a substitute for soft-
wood in building and shuttering. in- WORKABILITY
teriors, and so forth. Elsewhere it is
used for furniture, inlays, accents, FINISHING
and turnings and is often sliced into
decorative veneer.

D IRECTORY OF WOOD
 Larch, European
Larix decidua
For a softwood, European larch is very tough. Used where durability and
strength are prime requirements, this tree grows in Europe, particularly the
mountain areas of the Alps, in the U nited Kingdom, and in western Russia.
Although it's a conifer, it sheds its needles in the winter. It is often treated
chemically and used outdoors for stakes, transmission poles, boat planking,
bridge construction, railway sleepers, and exterior joinery that contacts
the ground. European larch is resinous and must be seasoned properly to
avoid problems. The knots can
cause moderate to severe blunting CHARACTERISTICS
of cutting edges.
The sapwood of European larch COST 1..,__~·--'-1-____,..~1
... is white; the heartwood is light
orange-red. The grain is straight and
$

DENSITY 1'-:---:-----'-------'
$$$

ofuniform texture. It's durable and Light Dense

tough and boasts abrasion proper-

WORKABILITY ~-L----==;--;-:~1
ties superior to many softwoods. Easy Difficult
European larch is commonly used FINISHING
for staircases, flooring, window Easy Difficult
frames, posts, and fencing.

Lauan
Shorea spp.
A common nickname for this wood is "Philippine mahogany;' but luck-
ily for woodworkers' wallets, that isn't accurate. Lauan (pronounced lu-ON)
is not actually a mahogany: It's much less rare, and therefore much less ex-
pensive. It's also known as the working man's plywood because it is used for
subflooring as well as backs, bottoms, and drawers in furniture making, and
as a substrate in paneling and plywood. It can be found in southeast Asia,
from the Philippine Islands south and west throughout Indonesia. Lauan has
excellent waterproof properties and
is often used in boatbuilding. CHARACTERISTICS
The heartwood of lauan is
medium to dark reddish brown, COST t Jllfr' J
.,....
$ .........."'"'"'-- -"""'
I
$$,....,.,
$
with whitish resin streaks. The grain
is interlocked, with a coarse texture. DENSITY
It is moderately heavy and hard.
Lauan is used for cabinetwork, for WORKABILITY
interiors, for doors, for commercial
and decorative veneer, and in the FINISHING
manufacture of plywood.
 Locust, Honey
Gleditsia triacanthos
Although it grows in several regions of the United States. this sturdy
wood is fairly scarce. Honey locust grows in North America from Pennsylva-
nia west to South Dakota, Nebraska, south to Texas, east to Alabama and
Georgia and northeast along the Appalachians. The "Gleditsia" in its botani-
cal name is a Latinized word, honoring Johann Gottleib Gleditsh (1717- 1786).
director of the Berlin Botanic Garden. Honey locust has many desirable
qualities: attractive figure and color, hardness and strength, and no odor or
taste; but is not commonly used.
because it's in short supply. CHARACTERISTICS
The sapwood of honey locust is
creamy white; the heartwood is COST L,--1_ L __ _~I
pinkish to reddish brown. The grain $ $$$
is straight and the wood is heavy DENSITY --,-------L-=--_J
1L : -

and hard. Honey locust is used lo- Light Dense

cally for fence posts and rails and
WORKABILITY L----=J,-.-.,-JI
general construction. Occasionally Easy Difficult
it is used for crafts, for furniture.
FINISHING L---~,---,-JI
and sliced into veneer. Easy Difficult

Mahogany, African
Khaya spp.
Mrican mahogany grows in West, CentraL and East Mrica. It is closest to
American mahogany or "true" mahogany (Swietenia mahogoni)- the premier
wood for fine furniture and cabinetwork in Europe as early as the 1600s. To-
day. Mrican mahogany has a solid reputation as a quality wood. It's an impor-
tant timber for furniture, office desks, cabinetwork. staircases, banisters,
handrails, and boatbuilding. In maritime construction. it's extensively used
in laminations, especially in cold-molded process.
The heartwood of Mrican
mahogany varies from light to deep CHARACTERISTICS
reddish brown. The grain is straight
to interlocked, with a medium to COST [1.~ I I
moderately coarse texture. It pro- $
·' $$$
duces a nice roe figure when DENSITY I,· .·1
quartersawn. Mrican mahogany is Light Dense
moderately heavy and hard. It's used WORKABILITY [. .\'·, : tt~:, J
for furniture and cabinetwork and Easy Difficult
is sliced into decorative veneer for
FINISHING ,...
1\>~~
! -'----L....,.,.,...-,-JI
paneling and plywood. Easy Difficult

D fRECTORY OF Wooo
Mahogany, Big Leaf
Swietenia macrophylla
Often referred to as "New World" mahogany, this variety can be found in
Mexico south through Central America to Brazil and Peru. It rates among
the best furniture woods in the world. Big leaf mahogany stains and polishes
to a beautiful luster. The trees are huge, and the lumber is available in many
widths, lengths, and thicknesses. It is prized for its figures: stripe, roe, curly,
blister, fiddleback, and mottle. Big leaf mahogany works extremely well and
is the wood of choice for pattern makers: New cars are often made entirely
out of this mahogany- every part-
then the parts are used as patterns. CHARACTERISTICS
The heartwood of big leaf ma-
hogany varies from light to dark COST I !t\ 4' ;1 I
reddish brown to deep red. The $ $$$
grain is straight to interlocked, and DENSITY , . f(l •J ]
medium to moderately coarse in Light Dense

texture. It can be highly figured woRKABILITY 1 r:h\:J~A 1

when sliced into veneer. Moderately Easy Difficult
hard and heavy, this wood is used for
furniture, cabinetwork, decorative
veneer, and musical instruments.

Maple, Hard
Acer saccharum
Hard maple (also known as rock maple or sugar maple) grows in North
America in the Rocky Mountains of Canada and the eastern states of Am er-
ica. It is famous for exhibiting rare figure in some trees: wavy, curly, quilted,
blistered, fiddle back, burL and the much sought-after bird's-eye pattern. Its
unusual resistance to abrasion and indentation makes it the number one
choice for furniture and flooring- especially dance floors and bowling al-
leys. This tough wood has a tendency to burn during end-grain cuts.
The sapwood of hard maple is
white to creamy white; the heart- CHARACTERISTICS
wood is creamy white to pinkish
tinge to light reddish brown. The COST
grain is straight, sometimes wavy or
curly, with a fine texture. It can be
highly figured. Hard maple is heavy,
hard, and tough. It's used for furni-
ture, flooring, interiors, cabinet-
work, decorative veneer, wooden-
Fl NISHI NG ="'lJ...,.i""'~9)
........_--=-:-;;;;--;:'1
ware, bowling pins, spools, and Easy Difficult
handles.
 Maple, Soft
Acer rubrum
Soft maple can be found in North America in north temperate regions
of Canada and the eastern United States and along the Pacific Coast. It re-
sembles hard maple but is not as heavy and is much easier to work. The
wood of silver maple, red maple, and box elder is soft maple; that of sugar
maple and black maple is known as hard maple.
The sapwood in soft maple is white; the heartwood is gray-white to
pinkish tinge to light reddish brown, often with olive or greenish black areas
that are known as mineral streak,
which is likely due to an injury. The CHARACTERISTICS
sapwood in soft maples is consider-
ably wider than that in hard maples. COST I I
The grain is straight, with a fine tex- '"""s---'---=ss.-:::'s
ture. Soft maple is heavy and fairly DENSITY I
'-:-Lig-:h-t--'---::D,--e-ns-'
e
tough. It is used for furniture, furni-
ture parts, and cabinetwork. Special- WORKABILITY
ized uses include shoe lasts, dairy Easy Difficult
equipment, sporting goods, and FINISHING
musical instruments. Easy Difficult

Oak, American Red

Qy_ercus rubra
American red oak is hugely popular in the United States for interior
trim and furniture making. No wonder: It works exceptionally welL but be-
cause of its open pores, it must be filled properly before finishing. It can be
found in North America in eastern Canada and the eastern half of the
United States. Its high shock-resistance and crushing strength make it ideal
for flooring. When quartersawn, American red oak produces a nice ray
fleck. It also exhibits excellent steam-bending qualities.
The sapwood of American red
oak is grayish white to pale reddish CHARACTERISTICS
brown; the heartwood is pinkish to
COST I
'"""s____.._s.,..,s'"s"'I
light reddish brown. The grain is
straight with a coarse texture. It is
heavy, hard, and strong. American DENSITY 1<-:--:-~--'----'
red oak is used for furniture, cabi- Light Dense
network, interior trim, and slack or WORKABILITY
"dry" barrel making and is often Easy Difficult
sliced into veneer for paneling and
FINISHING !:---'---~!---.:'~
plywood. Easy Difficult

DIRECTORY OF WooD
Oak, American White
QE.ercus alba
What makes this wood significantly more valuable than red oak? Not
only is it very resistant to wear, insects, and fungi, but it's also practically wa-
terproof American white oak is found along the eastern half of the United
States. Its medium bending and crushing strengths combined with its low
stiffness make it an excellent choice for steam-bending. The sap-conducting
pores of American white oak are naturally plugged, yielding its water repel-
lency. It's used for "wet" or tight casks and is especially prized for aging and
storing wine, bourbon, and whiskey.
The sapwood is whitish to light CHARACTERISTICS
brown; the heartwood is rich light
brown to dark brown. The grain is COST
. $
Ii ! II I I 1 I
straight, with a coarse texture, and $$$

DENSITY !J 1 1 j f, ! /j
1
shows a prominent ray fleck when
quartersawn. American white oak is Light Dense

heavy, hard, and strong. It's used for WORKABILITY , , /' I ,' ,. I I I
furniture, cabinetwork, flooring. Easy Difficult
tight or "wet" barrel-making. keels,
FINISHING ~ ~ -'-'!I.;....I...:..IL...l.
/ --"-=-==-...,.,1
planking, and bent parts in ships Easy Difficult
and boats and is sliced into veneer.

Oak, Silky
Grevillea robusta
Silky oak is a name given to a number of different genera and species in
Australia and New Zealand. Although lacewood (see page 42) is often referred
to as Australian silky oak, the name originally referred to the oak shown here,
native to southern ~eensland, which also grows in New South Wales. Silky
oak is similar to lacewood but doesn't have as pronounced a figure when
quartered. It is drought-resistant and is reported to have been successfully
grown in warm, dry regions throughout the world, including the southeast-
ern United States. Contrary to what
its name suggests, the sawdust of CHARACTERISTICS
this wood can cause skin irritation.
The sapwood of silky oak is COST 1 7-_ _...J....._~I
cream or straw-colored; the heart- $ $$$
wood is pale or red-brown upon DENSITY ~~--;---L.__=--_J
drying. The grain is typically Light Dense

straight, sometimes wavy, and often

WORKABILITY ~----.J'-==,....--,'1
lustrous. It is moderately heavy and Easy Difficult
strong and is used for furniture and FINISHING
inlays and can be sliced into decora- Easy Difficult
tive veneer.

DIRECTORY OF WoOD
 Osage Orange
Maclura pomifera
This tree went to war in the early 20th century: Its bark was used in the
United States to make khaki dye for uniforms worn during World War I. O s-
age orange can be found in North America, tropical America, and Africa. The
genus Madura is dedicated to William Maclure (1763- 1840), an American
geologist. It is exceptionally resistant to decay and is one of the most durable
woods in North America. It is commonly confused with black locust.
The sapwood of osage orange is light yellow; the heartwood is golden
yellow to bright orange, darkening
upon exposure to sunlight. The CHARACTERISTICS
grain is straight, with a medium to
fine texture. Osage orange is heavy, COST ~~_ _...1...._~1
hard, strong, and durable. It was $ $$$
used by Native Americans to make
archery bows and is used now for
turnings, fence posts, smoking
WORKABILITY 1':-----:-=:--:-'1
pipes, crutches, insulator pins, Easy DiHicult
wheel rims and hubs of farm wag- FINISHING
ons, and machinery parts. Easy DiHicult

Padauk, African
Pterocarpus soyauxii
Vivid in color, high in strength, durable, and decay-resistant, African
paduak is a workhorse. Known as camwood or harwood in the U nited King-
dom, it grows in central and tropical West Africa. This dramatic-looking
wood is often used in boatbuilding, and its abrasion-resistance makes it ideal
for flooring. African padauk is also a world-famou s dye-wood. The timber
works well with only moderate blunting (the sawdust will stain your h ands),
but needs UV protection or it will darken quickly.
The heartwood of African
padauk is a vivid blood red, chang- CHARACTERISTICS
ing to dark purple-brown with red
streaks upon exposure; the sapwood COST - = : = ]
is straw-colored. Its grain is straight $ $$$
to interlocked, with a coarse texture. DENSITY
African padauk is heavy, hard, and Light Dense
strong. In some parts of the world, it WORKABILITY
is commonly used as flooring. Else-
where it's used for furniture, cabi- FINISHING
network turning, accents, and inlays
and is sliced into decorative veneer.

D ffiECTORY OF Wooo
Pear
Pyrus communis
Although the fruit of the tree is valu ed more than the wood, pear has a
very fine, even texture that makes it great for carving. It grows in Europe, the
U nited States, and western Asia. Since the small tree limits th e size of lumber,
it makes excellent turning stock and in Europe it is often used to make
record ers. Pear can also be dyed black to resemble ebony. It has a tendency to
warp when drying and causes a blunting effect on th e cutting edges of tools.
The sapwood of pear is pale yellow apricot; the h eartwood is a pale pink-
ish brown. T he grain is fairly
straight_ with a smooth, even tex- CHARACTERISTICS
ture. Rays are visible on quartersawn
surfaces as deeper flecks of a darker COST
tone. Pear is heavy, hard, and moder-
ately strong. It is used for carving,
turning, musical instruments, cabi-
network and decorative veneer for
WORKABILITY ~ fi~ ""'--'-------=:-:-=--=-'1
...
paneling, marquetry, and inlay. Easy Difficult

FINISHING fl.....i1_------=:-:=--=-'l
~
Easy Difficult

Pecan
Cary a illinoinensis
Undervalued by many woodworkers, this is a fine, attractive wood. Pecan
is prized more for its nut crop than its timber and is often confused with
hickory (a cousin}. It's found in central an d southeastern U nited States, most
often in the flood plains of the Mississippi River and other low-lying terrain.
The high bending strength and crushing strength, high stiffness, and very
high shock-resistance of pecan make it an excellent choice for steam-
bending. The tree has a short trunk and many forked branches, which
makes it rather difficult to obtain
long lengths of lumber. CHARACTERISTICS
The heartwood of pecan is red-
dish brown; the sapwood is white. COST I I
7-$--~--;:-:$$..... $
T he grain is straight, although often
mottled or wavy with a coarse tex- DENSITY I
'-:Li,..-gh:-t----'-,D-e-ns-'e
ture. It is used for turnings, furni-
ture, tool handles, sports equip- WORKABILITY
ment, and drumsticks, and it can be Easy Difficult
sliced into veneer. FINISHING
Easy Difficult

D IRECTORY OF WOOD
 Pine, Eastern White
Pinus strobus
This wood helped start a war. The first sea skirmish of the American
Revolution was over this lumber, which grows in Newfoundland, Ontario,
and Manitoba in Canada, and throughout New England and the Great Lakes
region to South Carolina in the United States. Eastern white pine was used so
extensively for ship masts in the 18th and 19th centuries that the British gov-
ernment tried to impose laws reserving large trees, but the laws were openly
flouted. The result was that historic sea clash. In the 18th and 19th centuries,
virtually every colonial American
building was constructed with east- CHARACTERISTICS
ern white pine- inside and out.
The sapwood of eastern white COST I$
I
$$$
pine is nearly white to pale white;
the heartwood is creamy to light to
reddish brown. The grain is straight
DENSITY ILight Dense

with a fine texture. Eastern white

pine is light and moderately strong.
WORKABILITY
Easy
I
Difficult
It is used for construction lumber,
patterns and casting, furniture,
FINISHING
Easy
I
Difficult
cabinetwork, and interiors.

Pine, Ponderosa
Pinus ponderosa
Often marketed as "knotty pine" for interior decoration, this is one of
the most attractive pines. Since the knots are usually sound, logs can be
sliced into knotty pine veneer for paneling. Ponderosa pine can be found in
western Canada and the western United States. With this most resinous of
Canadian pines, resin exudation is the chief problem: The wood needs to be
treated carefully before painting or varnishing. The durable sapwood of the
ponderosa pine is also valuable and is used for pattern making.
The sapwood is light yellow;
the heartwood is darker yellow to CHARACTERISTICS
reddish brown. The heartwood is
considerably heavier than the soft- COST
$
I $$$
I
wood, which is soft, uniform in tex-
ture, and nonresinous. The grain is
straight, with an even texture. Pon-
DENSITY I
light Dense

derosa pine is used primarily in

construction and for interior trim,
WORKABILITY
Easy
I
Difficult
turning, doors, window frames,
boxes and packing, and furniture.
FINISHING
Easy
I
Difficult

- DTRECTORY
'
oF Wooo
Poplar, Yellow
Liriodendron tulipifera
With no limbs or branches except at the very top. yellow poplar lumber
has few knots. Often referred to as tulip tree, it grows in the eastern United
States, from Connecticut south to Florida and west to Missouri. A fast
grower, its lumber is lightweight and soft for a hardwood. Poplar paints well
and can be stained to resemble walnut or cherry. It is gaining in popularity as
a substitute for clear pine in interior trim.
The sapwood is nearly white; the heartwood is yellow to tan to greenish
brown, frequently marked with
streaks of purple, dark green, blue, CHARACTERISTICS
or black. The grain is straight, with a
fine to medium texture. Poplar is COST ---'------~~ 'TI

moderately light and soft. It is used $ $$$

for furniture, turnings, cabinet- DENSITY 1~,..--L--1----=-----'J
work, interiors, and commercial Light Dense

veneer. Plentiful and affordable, WORKABILITY I

'::-Ea_s_y----'---::D'""iff~i-cu-:-'lt
poplar is also used for inexpensive
products like toys, broom handles, FINISHING
baskets, food containers, Popsicle Easy Difficult
sticks, and tongue depressors.

Purpleheart
Peltogyne paniculata
Its royal hue is temporary: Purpleheart is brown when cut and turns
purple when exposed to air. But without UV protection, it will revert to
brown when exposed to sunlight. Also called amaranth, it grows in Central
and South America but mostly in the Brazilian Amazon region. There it's
used in cabinetry and furniture, but also for flooring and heavy outdoor
construction work like bridges, pilings, docks, and harbor work. Cutting can
be hampered by gum deposits. If blades aren't kept extremely sharp. gummy
resin often exudes when heated by
a dull blade. Spirit finishes tend to CHARACTERISTICS
remove the purple color; lacquer
finishes tend to preserve the color COST -=:::::J
The heartwood of purpleheart $ $$$
is deep purple violet, maturing to DENSITY f •

dark brown. The grain is straight Light Dense

and often irregular and wavy, with a WORKABILITY

fine to moderate texture. Purple-
heart is heavy and hard. It is used for
furniture, cabinetwork, and inlays
FINISHING -==:J
Easy Difficult
and is sliced into decorative veneer.

DIRECTORY OF WOOQ
'
Redwood, California
Sequoia sempervirens
What makes this lumber a legend? The ability of California redwood to
grow super fast, along with its decay- and insect-resistance and great
longevity, makes it the most commercially valuable softwood. California red-
wood grows along the coastal northwest of the United States. Related to the
Giant Sequoia (which are protected), the California redwood is often huge:
14 feet in diameter, 40 feet at the lower trunk, and 275 feet tall. Today most
redwood for commercial growth comes from new-growth forest in privately
held lands. The cinnamon-colored,
very thick bark is used in the manu- CHARACTERISTICS
facture of fiberboard.
The sapwood of California COST . . I
redwood is nearly white; the heart- $ $$$
wood is light red to deep reddish DENSITY ~
brown. The grain is straight, with a Light Dense

coarse texture. California redwood WORKABILITY

is light to moderately light and soft.
It is used for outdoor furniture, FINISHING
decking, and siding and is sliced
into decorative veneer.

Rosewood, Brazilian
Dalbergia nigra
Exquisite color and exotic patterning...strikingly wild, wavy markings ...
all make this irregular pattern almost impossible to "match:' Brazilian rose-
wood grows in the tropical zones of Mexico, Central America, and South
America. It gets its name not from its color but from its odor- a fragrant oil
in the heartwood has the scent ofrose blossoms. Though one of the world's
most treasured woods, it is increasingly rare due to a lack of a good forestry
programs, past exploitation, and strict export embargoes. Brazilian rosewood
has a severe blunting effect on tools.
The heartwood is chocolate- CHARACTERISTICS
brown to violet-brown to violet,
streaked with black or golden COST
brown. The grain is straight to wavy,
with a coarse texture. It is heavy, DENSITY
hard, and very dense. Brazilian rose-
wood is used in musical instru- WORKABILITY
ments for fingerboards and piano
cases, for furniture, inlays, and dec- FINISHING
orative veneer, and often as a design
element in knife and tool handles.
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Yes, it's more than tea, which is made from its root bark. Sassafras grows
in North America from Maine through Ontario, Michigan, Iowa, and Kansas,
to Florida and Texas. It is a member of the same family as cinnamon and is
best known for its fragrant oiL used for flavoring and scenting, and of
course, the tea. Sir Walter Raleigh brought sassafras back to England from
the Virginia colony. It is seldom available in large sizes and is often mixed in
and confused with black ash. Sassafras is decay-resistant and so is used for
boatbuilding and making paddles.
The sapwood of sassafras is light CHARACTERISTICS
yellow; the heartwood is dull gray-
ish brown to darkish brown, some- COST ~_.__-~I 1. ,_
times with a slight greenish cast. $ $$$
The grain is straight, with a medium DENSITY I
texture. Sassafras is moderately Light Dense

heavy and hard. It is used for furni-

ture, for furniture parts, for cabinet-
WORKABILITY
Difficult
I
Easy
work, and in boatbuilding. FINISHING
Easy Difficult
I

Satinwood, Ceylon
Chloroxylon swietenia
Ever since the "Golden Age of Satinwood" in 19th-century England, this
timber has been highly valued and in great demand. Although it has been
used for centuries by cabinetmakers, it is scarce now and is found mainly in
veneer form- especially the famous bee's-wing mottle pattern. Satinwood
grows in central and southern India and Sri Lanka. Select logs are sliced to
produce extremely attractive veneers in a wide variety of figures for panel-
ing. Satinwood is lustrous and smells great, almost edible- like honey.
The heartwood of Ceylon satin-
wood is golden yellow, maturing to CHARACTERISTICS
golden brown with darker streaks.
There is little distinction between COST .
I . , __ __ .,....,.,1
_.,_
I

heartwood and sapwood. The grain $ $$$

DENSITY ~~-.--:---------::---'-1__JI
is interlocked, with a fine texture.
When quartersawn, it yields beauti- l ight Dense

ful mottled and ribbon-stripped WORKABILITY

figure. Ceylon satinwood is heavy Easy Difficult
and hard. It is used for furniture, FINISHING
cabinetwork, accents, and inlays and Easy Difficult
is sliced into decorative veneer.

;
DIRECTORY oFWooo 53 '
 Snakewood
Brosimum guianense
You have to really love this wood to work it. One of the most expensive
woods in the world, it's a smalL rare timber with markings resembling snake-
skin, sometimes spotty like leopard spots, or even like hieroglyphics. The last
is why snakewood is called letterwood in the United Kingdom. It grows in
Central and South America, from the Amazon region of Brazil through
Colombia, southern Mexico, and the West Indies. The dark spots are the re-
sult of variations in the gummy deposits that fill the cell cavities. Snakewood
is a challenge for more reasons: It
needs care in gluing and finishing CHARACTERISTICS
because of its resin, and it causes
severe blu nting of cutting tools. COST
The heartwood is reddish
brown with snakeskin markings. DENSITY
The grain is interlocked, but mod-
erately fine-textured. Snakewood is WORKABILITY
heavy, dense, and hard. It's used for
turnings, carvings, musical instru-
ment parts, and archery bows and is
FINISHING -=:::::J
Easy Difficult
sliced into decorative veneer.

Spruce, Sitka
Picea sitchensis
Read all about it! Spruce is the world's most important pulp for news-
print. becau se of its whiteness. And it's by far the most important wood for
aircraft construction (remember Howard Hughes' The Spruce Goose?). Spruce
grows in North America, from western Canada down to California. It is the
major timber-producing tree of the Pacific Northwest, where its biggest use
is in fram ing and general construction. Special grades of spruce are selected
for their resonance to make sound b oards for pianos, and guitar and violin
fronts . This special spruce is typi-
cally qu artersawn and often aged. CHARACTERISTICS
Spruce is white to yellowish
brown with a slight pinkish tinge. COST I I
'::-$-----!.-~$$,....,$
The grain is straight, with a medium
even texture. It has a very high DENSITY -=---'----.,.....-- '
":-1

strength-to-weight ratio. Spruce is Light Dense

used for general construction, mill- WORKABILITY
work an d interior trim, musical in- Easy Difficult
strum en ts, boatbuilding, oars, glid- FINISHING
ers, wood pulp, and plywood. Easy Difficult

DIRECTORY OF WOOD
Teak
Tectona grand is
Teak is so heavy that elephants are still used to transport big logs from
inland jungles of southern India, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma),Java, and the
East Indies to the waterways. It is distinctively oily to the touch; oil in the
grain makes it very durable. Teak is resistant to all insects, fungus, and ma-
rine borers; termites won't touch it. And it resists rot and moisture. This
vaunted wood is extremely abrasive and causes severe blunting to cutting
tool edges. In fact, savvy teak turners keep an oilstone next to their lathes so
they can sharpen their turning tools
frequently. Even the leaves are abra- CHARACTERISTICS
sive: They're used locally as sandpa-
per. Teak sawdust can be an irritant. COST :> •
Teak's heartwood is golden $ $$$
brown with dark chocolate streaks. DENSITY
The grain is straight, sometimes Light Dense

interlocked or wavy, and coarse- WORKABILITY

textured. Teak is moderately heavy
and hard and oily. It's used for boat
decks, flooring, "brightwork;' and
FINISHING -==:J
Easy Difficult
furniture and is sliced into veneer.

Walnut, Black
]uglans nigra
Beautiful black walnut has always been prized as a custom furniture and
cabinetry wood. It can be highly figured: crotches, burls, fiddle back, butts,
and stripes. Found in North America, black walnut is exceptionally stable
once seasoned, and takes a high polish when finished. Walnut is famed as the
"gunsmith's" wood: In addition to its beauty, its straight grain will not warp,
guaranteeing accuracy. Black walnut is toxic to other plants- a mature tree
produces a substance called juglone in its roots that kills neighboring trees. It
is also toxic to animals: Its shavings
should never be used for bedding. CHARACTERISTICS
The sapwood is whitish to yel-
lowish brown; the heartwood is light COST
gray-brown to rich chocolate-brown
to deep purplish brown. The grain is DENSITY ~
straight to interlocked or curly or Light Dense

wavy, with a medium to coarse tex-

ture. Black walnut is moderately
WORKABILITY -==:J
Easy Difficult
heavy. hard, and strong. It is used for FINISHING ~
furniture, cabinetwork and carv- Easy Difficult
ings and is sliced into veneer.
 Wenge
Millettia laurentii
Like many other exotics, wenge is difficult to work but delightful to
look at. This dark wood can be found in Equatorial Africa, particularly Zaire,
Cameroon, and Gabon. Its high abrasion resistance makes it a choice wood
for flooring in buildings or rooms (like conference rooms and hotel lobbies)
where a high impact is expected. Wenge is excellent for turning, but its
coarse grain needs to be filled for best appearance. It causes moderate blunt-
ing of cutting tools and can be difficult to glue because of its resins.
The sapwood of wenge is
whitish; the heartwood is dark CHARACTERISTICS
brown, with fine almost-black veins.
The grain is usually straight, with COST
a coarse texture. Wenge is heavy,
hard, and dense. It is used for cabi- DENSITY
network, furniture, accents, and
inlays and is sliced into decorative WORKABILITY
veneer. Easy Difficult

FINISHING~
Easy Difficult

Willow, Black
Salix nigra
Because its European cousin is used to make cricket bats, the overseas
relative is called "cricket willoW.' But this North American version grows in
Canada, and in the eastern United States from the Atlantic Coast west to
Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and south into
Mexico. It is light, resilient, and flexible and has no characteristic odor or
taste. Black willow's strength plus lightness makes it suited for use in artifi-
ciallimbs. Black willow requires sharp cutting tools to prevent fuzzy or
woolly grain.
The sapwood of black willow is CHARACTERISTICS
light tan; the heartwood is light
brown to pale reddish to grayish COST ~~--~='1
brown, frequently with darker $ $$$
streaks. The grain is straight, with a DENSITY f
'-:Lig-:h,-t-'----=:-D-en_s_,e
fine texture. Black willow is light
and moderately soft. It is used most WORKABILITY L I
often for commercial veneer, ""'
Ea~s-y--"""'------=-D-:-=iff=-ic_u.,...,lt

wooden toys, and artificial limbs. FINISHING

Easy
J Difficult

DIRECTORY OF WOOD
Zebrawood
Microberlinia brazzavillensis
Zebrawood looks incredible, but it's difficult to work. It tends to split, it's
difficult to obtain a smooth finish because of the nature of the grain, and it
smells (the first time you work it, you'll check your shoes to make sure you
didn't step in something). Zebrawood's coarse texture requires a clear filler
to get a smooth finish. Also called zebrano, it grows in West Mrica, particu-
larly in the Cameroons and Gabon. Its distinctive grain pattern comes from
quartersawing. It is usually found as veneer or used as an accent. Note: The
veneer tends to buckle over time
and so should be weighted when it's CHARACTERISTICS
being stored.
The heartwood is light golden COST I' I I li I I I
yellow with dark brown to almost- $ $$$
black veins; the zebra stripe results DENSITY 1 ·1 I ill I
from quartersawing. The grain is in- Light Dense

terlocked to wavy, with a coarse tex-

WORKABILITY IL--.._ 1 1 ..1-f·---:1~17
=-'
, 1

ture, but often lustrous. Zebrawood Easy Difficult

is heavy and hard. It is used for turn-
FINISHING II : j I I I I
ing, accents, inlays, and marquetry Easy Difficult
and is sliced into decorative veneer.

Zircote
Cordia dodecandra
If you can't find wenge or even ebony, try zircote. Found in Belize and in
Mexico, this moderately hard wood is a member of the Cordia family-like
bocote (see page 30). In fact, this wood has a lot in common with bocote, dif-
fering mainly in color. (Actually, you may often find the names interchanged
at even the best lumberyards.) Zircote is a different species than bocote, and
it's quite a bit darker in color. Most woodworkers find it relatively easy to
work and turn for a variety of furniture projects.
The heartwood of zircote is
black, gray, or dark brown with CHARACTERISTICS
black streaks. The grain is straight,
with medium to moderately fine COST
texture, often lustrous. Zircote is
moderately heavy and dense. It is DENSITY ~
used for furniture, cabinetwork, Light Dense

inlays, and accents and is sliced into WORKABILITY ~

decorative veneer. Easy Difficult

FINISHING
lEI
CCR.
LJefore a log is opened, let the in9uirer careful!~ examine it,
and, noting all the peculiarities of its appearance, endeavor to
form an opinion of its 9ualities; the event as seen in the cut wood
will shew the value of the opinion he had formed ."
B LACKIE AND SON (1853)

MILLING
LUMBER
~ j.~ ~ Sawmills make me feel like a kid at Christmas. Every log is like a pres-
: . . - ent, and you just can't tell from the wrapping what treasure might be
inside. Sometimes, you find junk (Socks. Oh, thanks). But other times, as the
smell of freshly cut wood spices the air, you lay open gorgeous, shimmering
grain ...beautiful ray fleck. .. wild spalting.
With wood, understanding how these potential treasures are revealed
by the blade will help you to be a better woodworker. Once you know the
different ways wood is cut, you can use this knowledge to create works that
are finer, more lasting, and more beautiful.
Actually, there's no reason not to do your own cutting; it adds an extra
dimension to your work. There's something especially rewarding about tak-
ing a project from the real start to finish- from tree to final result. This
gives you a sense of completion that you don't get with store-bought lumber.
Consider, too, what a family treasure you might create from a tree with spe-
cial significance, like the maple Grandpa planted at his first house. Whether
it's chainsaw milling. cutting logs on a bandsaw, or harvesting bowl blanks
from a storm-damaged tree, many woodworkers find cutting just plain fun.
TYPICAL CUTS
There are three main techniques that
sawyers use to cut a log up into hardwood
lumber: a through-and-through or "flitch''
cut, quartersawing or rift-sawing, and plain-
sawing or "sawing for grade" (top to bottom in
drawing at right). The difference among the
three is how the growth rings of the log are
oriented to the cut.
When a log is cut through and through,
the lumber is cut tangentially to the growth
rings. With quartersawing, the log is divided
into quarters or thirds and then each sec-
Flitch Cut
tion is cut radially to the growth rings. If a
log is sawed for grade (the most common
cut in hardwood mills), it's rotated as it's cut
to yield the best lumber; this produces flat-
sawn lumber along with rift- and quarter-
sawn. The low-quality pith is usually set
aside for pallet stock.
How can you tell how a board was cut?
Just inspect the end grain. On a plain- or
flat-sawn board, the annual growth rings
will be 30° (or less) to the face of the board.
A rift-sawn board will have growth rings
that are more than 30o but less than 60°;
with quartersawn boards, the growth rings
will be 60o to 90o to the face of the board.
The closer the rings are to 90°, the more Quarter- and Rift-Sawn
stable the wood will be.

• MILLING LUMBER
 As noted in Chapter l, the orientation
of the growth rings in a piece oflumber
will determine not only stability, but also
board appearance.

Plain· sawn
A plain- or flat-sawn board (top photo) is
a common type oflumber since this cutting
method produces the highest yield from a
log. The grain on the face of the board will
often swirl in many directions. When a
wild-grained piece of wood like this is
stained, the softer, more porous earlywood
will soak up more stain and be darker than
the harder, less porous latewood. The
resulting pattern is often referred to as
"landscape figure:· Flat-sawn lumber tends
to move a lot with changes in humidity- it
often cups and warps.

Rift-sawn
Rift-sawn lumber (middle photo) generally
has clearer, straighter grain than plain-sawn
lumber. You'll often find rift-sawn lumber in
the same stack as plain-sawn. In some cases,
you may even see both types of wood in a
single board; sawyers call this a "bastard" cut.
The face grain will have wilder grain on one
side and straighter, more even grain on the
other. Generally, it's best to avoid boards like
this because the two sides will react differ-
ently to changes in humidity. True rift-sawn
lumber will be much more stable than
plain-sawn, with less tendency to warp.

Quartersawn
Of all the cutting methods, quartersaw-
ing produces boards that are the most sta-
ble. ~artersawn lumber (bottom photo)
shows the straightest grain and in some
-~-
species exhibits ray fleck. Ray fleck is com-
mon in quartersawn white oak. red oak.
=' =-- -=-- - -
sycamore, and cherry. But beauty like this
exacts a price. ~artersawing is the most
wasteful way to cut a log. it's time-consum-
ing and expensive, and you need a larger log
to produce reasonably wide boards.

MILLING LUMBER
 768". Dividing by 144 gives 5 1/3 board feet.
HARDWOOD Boards thicker than 1" can get confusing. The
cause of the confusion is the "quarter" designa-
DIMENSIONS tion system that is still used today but is based
on the cutting capabilities of some of the first
Hardwood lumber is sold by the board foot,
sawmills. These rather crude water-driven
a volume measurement that indicates thickness
machines could cut only in 1/4'' increments.
and width as well as length. One board foot
equals 144 cubic inches- this is easy to visualize
as a board 1" thick, 12" wide, and 12" long (see
drawing at right). This also means that two
boards of the same thickness can have dif-
ferent widths and lengths and still have the
same board footage.
To determine the number of board feet
in a given board, first measure the width
and length in inches (it's best to round off
fractions). Next consider the thickness.
Boards that are 1" or less are all said to be 1"
thick. (Note: Boards !fl'' thick or less are typ-
ically sold by the square foot- a surface
measure that does not account for thick-
ness.) To calculate board footage, multiply
the width times the length times the thick-
ness. Then divide by 144. Say, for example, a
board is 3/4" thick, 8 feet long, and 8" wide.
The calculation would be 1" x 96" x 8" =

QUARTER DESIGNATIONS
Quarter Rough Rough Surfaced Surfaced
designator thickness thickness thickness thickness

4/4 1" 25.4 mm 13/ 16 11 20.6 mm

5/4 1114'' 31.8 mm 1116'' 27 mm

6/4 1112" 38.1 mm 15/ 16 11 33.3 mm

8/ 4 2" 50.8 mm 1314'' 44.4 mm

10/4 21f2" 63 .5 mm 2114'' 57.2 mm

12/4 3" 76.2 mm 2 3!4'' 68.9 mm

14/4 3112" 88 .9 mm 3114'' 82.6 mm

16/4 4" 10 1.6 mm 3 3f4'' 95.2 mm

MIL.LING LUMBER
 Because of this, lumber was sold in "quarters"-
three-quarters (3/4"), four-quarters (4/ 4 or 1"),
six-quarters (6/ 4 or 1 W'), and so on. It's impor-
tant to note that this measurement is for rough,
unsurfaced lumber.
But most hardwood is sold surfaced- this is
where the confusion comes from (see chart on
paae 62). Say you want to buy a board that's 6"
wide, 8 feet long, and F /16 " thick. You might
think the board footage would be 5 1/4 (6" X 96"
X 1.3125"). But it's not- it's 6 board feet (6" X 96"
X 1.5''). That's because although the board is only
w·
15/16 " thick, it's 6/ 4 lumber (it was 1 thick
before planing) and the quarter designator-
not actual thickness- is what's used to calculate
board feet.

Random widths and lengths

Since most hardwood logs are cut for grade,
the lumber that comes off the log can vary in
width and length. Because too much good
wood would be lost trying to convert each
board to a uniform dimension (as in softwood
lumber; see paae 64 ), hardwood lumber is sold in
random widths and lengths (top photo). This
makes buying hardwood lumber more of a chal-
lenge (see Chapter 6).

525 and 545

Straight-Line Rip Much of the lumber you'll find in lumber-
yards and at some sawmills will be sold planed
or surfaced, instead of rough. The two most
common surfacing treatments are S2S (surfaced
two sides) and S4S (surfaced four sides); see draw-
ina at left. An S2S board has both faces planed. An
S4S board has both faces planed and both edges
either jointed or straight-line ripped to provide
flat, true reference for machining. Be aware that
not all mills plane their stock to the NHLA
(National Hardwood Lumber Association)
guidelines for thickness shown in the chart on
page 62. You might encounter 4/ 4 lumber that's
3/4", 25 /64", or 13 /16 ". Depending on your project,
this may or may not be a problem; it's always a
good idea to ask in advance what thickness they
plane down to.

MIUING LUMBER
 Although softwood lumber is also manufac-
SOFTWOOD tured in 1-foot increments, 2-foot increments are
more common. The width of softwood lumber
DIMENSIONS varies from 2" to 16", usually in 2" increments.
Thickness is generally categorized into three
Because most softwood lumber is used in groups: boards are lumber that's less than 2" in
construction, it is cut to standard sizes. This way thickness, dimension lumber ranges from 2" to 5",
architects and builders around the world can and timbers are more than 5" (see the chart below).
all use the same "building blocks" when they
design or build a structure. The length of a soft- Big mills
wood board is given in actual dimensions, and Most of the sawmills that cut softwood lum -
the width and thickness are given in "nominal"
ber up into boards, dimension lumber, and tim-
dimensions; actual dimensions are somewhat
bers are huge. I visited a sawmill in eastern Wash-
less. Nominal dimensions are based on rough- ington State where the "mill" was around 1/3 mile
cut, green lumber; actual dimensions describe long (500 meters). Logs went into one end, and
boards after they've been dried and surfaced on finished boards literally came out the other end .
all four sides (see photo on paae 65).

STANDARD SOFTWOOD DIMENSIONS

Nominal Dressed Dressed Nominal Dressed Dressed

Item thickness thickness thickness width width width

Boa rds 1" 3/4" 19 mm 2" Jl/2" 38 mm

] 1/4'' 1" 25 mm 4" 3W' 89mm

l W' ] 1/4'' 32 mm 6" sw· 140mm

8" 7 W' 184 mm

10" 9 1/, 4" 235 mm

12" ll W ' 286 mm

Dimension
Lumber 2" Jl/2" 38 mm 2" Jl/2'' 38 mm

2 W' 2" 51 mm 4" 3 W' 89 mm

3" 2!f2'' 64 mm 6" sw· 140mm

3W' 3" 76 mm 8" 7 W' 184mm

4" 3W' 89 mm 10" 9 1/4'' 235 mm

4 W' 4" 102 mm 12" 11 1/4'' 286 mm

• ~!LUNG LUMBER
A computer on the front end examined each log By the board foot
and then calculated the maximum yield, and off Although the majority of softwood is cu t
went the log to be cut up into pieces, dried, and and sold in standard dimensions, you'll still
surfaced- all in one machine. All that was left occasionally come across a sawmill or lumber-
was to sort, grade, and palletize the lumber. yard where they cut a log for grade and sell the
lumber by the board foot. In cases like this, the
calculation method is the same as that used
for hardwood lumber. Measure the width and
length and thickness in inches, and multiply
them together. Then divide by 144 to get the
board footage (see the equations below). Here again,
you'll need to use the rough or nominal thick-
ness in your calculation.

Surfacing options
Most softwood lumber is surfaced on four
sides (S4S). But in the case of some softwood
lumber, the faces are left rough and one or two
edges are surfaced (SlE or S2E) by either
straight-line ripping or jointing. An example of
this would be rough cedar boards used for exte-
rior siding and construction.

Length (ft.) x Width (in.) x Thickness (in.)

Volume (BD. ft.) =
12

Example: What is the volume of this hardwood board:

11/4 " X 8" X 9'?

9' X 8" X 11/4" 90

Volume= = - - 17.5BD.ft.l
12 12

MILLING LUMBER
 AT THE
SAWMILL i .I

Hardwood sawmills, often called

"grade" mills, can be found wherever
hardwood grows. These mills vary
from two-man portable mills to large
mills costing hundreds of thousands
of dollars where a team of workers
quickly turns logs into lumber.

The yard
Regardless of where a log comes from, its
first stop is the yard (top photo), where a worker
scans it for metal using a hand-held metal detec-
tor. Larger mills often have a detector built into
the conveyer line. Metal in a log is disaster to a
sawmill. When a spinning blade hits metaL the
first thing that goes is its teeth. Even worse,
there can be severe damage: The blade can dis-
tort, bend, or break. resulting in flying shrapnel.

Loading the log

Mter a log is cleared for metaL it's loaded
into the mill with a forklift. Then, depending on
the level of mechanization, the log is positioned
to be fed into the de barker. At small mills, this
is usually done manually using a special tool
called a cant hook (middle photo). On larger mills,
the log is moved via hydraulics.

Debarker
Stripping the bark from a log or "debarking"
does two things. First, it gives the sawyer a clear
view of the log so he or she can identify defects
and position the log for the best cut. Second, it
removes dirt, rocks, and other abrasive particles
that often get trapped in the bark during the
logging operation. This saves considerable wear
and tear on the mill's saw blade. Debarking can
be done by blasting bark off with high-pressure
water jets or by grinding it off with a traveling
abrasive-head debarker (bottom photo). Removed
bark is usually collected and burned to heat the
mill or to generate steam for the kiln.

- MILLING LUMBER
 On to the head rig
The now naked and slightly chewed-
up logs travel down a conveyer belt to the
carriage or "head rig" (top photo). Here the
logs are clamped securely to the carriage
with hydraulic pinchers called "dogs:' The
carriage moves back and forth and pre-
sents the log to the spinning saw blade,
where boards are trimmed off. This
action is similar to that of the meat slic-
ing machines at most delis.

The sawyer " reads" the log

The sawyer is the most highly skilled
member of the sawmill's team. A good
sawyer can "read" and judge a log in just
seconds. It's the sawyer's job to get the
most out of the log. Positioned high
above the log, the sawyer uses joystick-
like controls to manipulate it (middle
photo). A flick of the wrist, and the log is
rotated. Another flick and the log spins
again. The sawyer's controls are linked to
hydraulic arms that push and pull the log
to virtually any position.

Determining the cut

Once the sawyer decides on the best
log position for the first cut, he or she
uses built-in lasers to project lines onto
the log to show where this cut will be
(bottom photo). This first cut
is critical and will deter-
mine how the subsequent
cuts are made. Depending
on the type of sawmilL
laser lines can show both
thickness and width if
the mill is equipped with
multiple blades.

, •I

't
·.II
I \

M ILLING LUMBER
 Edging blades
On some sawmills (like the one in the top
photo), the sawyer can move a set of horizontal
blades up and down independently to match
the position of the laser lines. This allows the
sawyer not only to set the thickness of the
board, but also to cut the board to width at the
same time. Here again, a flick of the sawyer's
wrist is all it takes to hydraulically move the
blades in or out and up or down for the cut.

Cutting the log

With the log and trim blades in final posi-
tion, the sawyer signals for the carriage to push
the log into the blade (middle photo). Circular-saw
blades on mills this size range from 30" to
60" in diameter. The actual cut takes 1 to 2
seconds. At the end of the cut, the boards
fall over onto a conveyer belt and the car-
riage returns to its starting position.
Depending on the log, the sawyer may
continue cutting boards or may rotate the
log to make the next cut.

Circular-saw blades
Although fast and powerfuL circular-
saw mills do have one disadvantage. Every
time a cut is made, roughly 1/4'' of wood is
lost to the kerf that the saw blade makes.
This may not seem like much, but for
every four cuts a sawyer makes, a whole
board is lost. This is one area where a
handsaw mill is far superior (for more on this, see
pages 70- 73). The sawing capacity of some
sawmills can be increased by vertically stacking
saw blades on top of each other (bottom photo).
This allows them to cut larger-diameter logs
without having to make partial cuts.

- MILLING LUMBER
CuHing subsequent boards
The way that subsequent boards are cut off
the log will depend on the mill and the equip-
ment that the mill has down the line from the
saw. Small commercial mills {like the one in the top
photo) combine all the cutting and trimming
operations in one machine. Typically, the log is
cut into a square billet, then sliced into same-
sized boards. At larger mills, the sawyer cuts
only slabs. These slabs are then sent down the
line to an edger, who trims to width, and a trim-
mer, who cuts the boards to length. The advan-
tage to this type of system is that they can adjust
the cut to maximize each individual slab so that
there's less waste.

Sorting boards
After the boards come off the mill or
down the conveyer from the edger and
trimmer, they're sorted and stacked. At
some mills, the boards travel down a long
conveyer and are graded before going
to the kiln. This conveyer is typically
referred to as a "green chain" because the
wood is wet. Boards may be separated by
species, size, grade, or any combination of
the three. The boards are stacked on pal-
lets to be moved to the kilns via a forklift
(see Chapter 5 on dryina lumber).

No waste
Every mill I've ever visited generates
almost no waste- virtually everything
they produce is either sold or reused.
Peeled-off bark is chipped and sold as
landscaping bedding. Cutoffs drop onto a
conveyer (bottom photo) and are ground up
into chips for bedding or to be burned
for heat. Even sawdust is often sold for a
variety of uses, including making wood
pellets for heating stoves.

M ILLING L UMBER
 ABANDSAW
MILL
Unlike their expensive circular-saw cousins,
bandsaw mills can be purchased for a fraction
of the cost ($20,000 to $40,000, depending on
features). Plus, because they're portable, you can
take the mill to the log. And a thinner blade
(1/16") means a smaller kerf and more lumber.

End-coat logs
The first thing that many bandsaw mill
operators do when they receive a log is to end-
coat it (top photo). That's because many of them
cut wood in their spare time, and it can be a
while before the log is cut. Without end-coating
to seal the logs and reduce checking. the
logs could degrade to the point of being
useless. Although wax-emulsion coatings
designed just for sealing green wood are
available, regular latex house paint or
even white glue will do in a pinch.

Check for metal

Just as with the big mills, metal in a
log is devastating to a bandsaw mill.
That's why every mill operator I know
checks each log for metal with a metal
detector before cutting (middle photo). If
the metal is near the surface, they'll often
make plunge cuts with a chainsaw to
remove it. If it's deeper, they may decide to
remove that portion of the log. If they find a lot
of metaL the log is set aside for firewood.

Make first cut

A smaller mill means less hydraulics, and so
the log is often loaded with a forklift combined
with muscle power. Once it's on the milL the
operator rotates the log to determine the best
cut. Note that the bark is still on the log (bottom
photo). This makes it difficult to "read" the log.
especially for a novice operator. Experienced
operators will always take the time to adjust
the position of the log so that all cuts will be
parallel to the heart (see page 72 for more on this).

- MIL.LING LUMBER
 Cut boards
Just like a larger milL a handsaw mill
operator will continue rotating a log and
cutting until there is a square billet (top
photo). The big difference here is that after
the log is locked in place, it remains sta-
tionary and the saw comes to it- the
entire handsaw travels along a track to
move the blade through the wood. Mter
every cut the saw returns to a starting
position, and the operator adjusts it for
the next cut and sends it down along the
track again. Another difference is that cut
boards don't drop off onto a conveyer.
Instead, either they're pulled
off manually or an arm on the
saw drops down to drag the
board back as the saw returns
to its starting position.

Flip up to trim
If the boards weren't cut
from a square billet, the edges
will need to be trimmed
straight. To do this, the opera-
tor flips one or more boards
up on end and clamps them in
place (middle photo). Even with
the aid of hydraulics, sawing
lumber with a handsaw mill
like this is labor-intensive.
Bandsaw operators and their
helpers quickly develop strong
backs and muscular arms.

Trim to width
With the boards in place, the operator
adjusts the saw for a straight cut that will pro-
duce the maximum amount of clear lumber
out of each board. Mter one edge is trimmed
straight, the board (or boards) is flipped, the saw
is readjusted, and then the board is cut to final
width (bottom photo). Cut boards are then stacked
on a pallet to be stickered before going to the
kiln, or set aside for air-drying.

M ILLING LUMBER
QyARTERSAWING
Bandsaw mills excel at quartersawing lum-
ber for two reasons. First, although quartersaw-
ing yields less lumber than the other methods, a
thinner blade with its narrow kerf reduces waste
and increases yields. Second, bandsaw mills can
handle smaller logs and pieces oflogs more
adeptly than larger mills can.

Parallel cuts are essential

By the very nature of how they grow, all logs
are tapered to a certain degree. If the mill opera-
tor were to simply roll the log onto the mill and
start cutting, none of the cuts
would be parallel to the heart.
This would result in lumber
with angled grain that would
be guaranteed to warp.
Knowledgeable operators ad-
just the log to compensate for
taper before cutting. To do
this, they measure up from
the bed to the heart or pith
of the log on both ends (top
photo). Then, using wedges or a
built-in toe board, they adjust
the log until the difference
between the two measure-
ments is less than 1/2''.

First third
There are two common cutting strate-
gies used for quartersawing. The first cuts
the log into equal fourths, and then each
triangular-shaped section is resawn. Since
gripping these odd-shaped pieces is diffi-
cult for the mill, some operators choose a
different approach. As shown in the bottom
photo, the first cut made removes the top
one-third of the log. This is then set aside
and will be quartersawn later.

Flitch cut
With the first third removed, the oper-
ator then begins cutting the log as if it were

M ILLING LUMBER
being plain-sawn, or cut through and through.
That's because the grain on both sides of the
pith will generate the truest quartersawn lum-
ber. The operator will continue cutting through
and through until about one-third of the origi-
nal log remains. This will also get set aside for
quartersawing later.

Cut out quartersawn

The next step is to extract the quartersawn
lumber out of each of the flitch-cut slabs; these
will be the widest and typically the finest boards
of the log. Since this wood is sold at a premium,
the operator will often cut each slab indepen-
dently. Each piece is flipped on
its edge, clamped in place, and
ripped as close to the pith as
the grain allows. Then each
half is trimmed again to create
a straight edge and then is cut
to width.

Slice up first third

Each of the log thirds that
were cut earlier are now
clamped vertically on the saw
and boards are cut off in succes-
sion (middle photo). This produces
narrow boards to begin with that
gradually get wider the closer
the cuts are to the center. Mter
the center is reached, the boards
begin to narrow again. Although not as wide as
the boards cut from the through-and-through
slabs, these boards will likely be quartersawn, or
rift-sawn at the very least.

Trim the edges

The final task for quartersawing the log is
to cut straight edges on the boards that were cut
from the thirds. Here again, the mill operator
will flip the boards on edge, clamp them in
place, and rip them to final width (bottom photo).
A good sawyer will make sure that the customer
will always get at least one straight edge.

,,
M ILLING LUMBER
 A CHAINSAW
Attaching the rail
The guide rail is screwed to the log
through the angle brackets (bottom photo); use
MILL plenty oflong screws to create a solid foun-
If you don't have $20,000 for a sawmilL how dation. Before you attach the guide rail to
about $200? Inexpensive chainsaw mills attach the log, crop off any protruding limbs as
to a chainsaw and allow you to cut your own close to the log as possible. Then check to
lumber- that is, if your back is strong and your be sure you'll be cutting parallel to the heart
chainsaw is powerful enough. There's no doubt by measuring from the pith to the bottom of
about it, chainsaw milling is hard work. A cou- the angle brackets on both ends of the log.
ple of things can help, though: a powerful chain- Insert wedges as necessary between the
saw with a 60cc to 70cc engine, and a ripping guide rail and the log to make these mea-
chain instead of the standard crosscut chain. surements as close as possible.
Most milling attachments hook up to a
chainsaw without your having to
modify the chainsaw. just insert
the saw in the mill and secure it
with built-in clamps- one near
the engine, the other at the tip of
the bar. Mills are available in vari-
ous sizes ranging in capacity from
24" to 56". A 30" mill with at least a
60cc engine is a good starting
point. The real expense, though, is
the chainsaw. Professional-strength
chainsaws (those above 60cc)
range between $400 and $1,000.
You may be able to get by with a
smaller saw, or you might burn it
11/2" Angle Iron
up within the first couple of logs.
.-/
The guide rail
The first step in chainsaw
milling is to build a guide rail. The guide rail
attaches to the log and ensures that the first
very important reference cut is flat and straight.
It's nothing more than a pair of straight 2x4s
held together with aluminum angle or angle
iron (see drawina above riaht). Some chainsaw mill
manufacturers sell premade aluminum brackets.
To provide support for the mill at the beginning
and end of the cut, make sure that the 2x4s
extend 6" from each end of the log.

-I MILLING LUMBER
 Setup
Before you begin cutting, it's best
Gu ide Rail
to elevate one end of the log so that
you'll be using gravity to your advan-
tage by milling downhill. Make sure
the log is wedged firmly in place and
won't rock as you cut. Now adjust the
mill for the first cut: Set it to take off
an inch or two- all you need to do is
Blade create a flat reference (top drawing).

The first cut

Now the fun begins. Wearing
appropriate safety gear (goggles, ear
plugs or muffs, leather gloves, and
sturdy boots), start the chainsaw and
lift it onto the guide rail. Pull the
trigger and gently ease the chain into the log.
Keep the mill in firm contact with the guide rail
at all times. Don't press to saw too hard; let the
chain do the work. Your job is to guide it. The
going will be slow, as you're removing a lot of
wood (middle photo).

The second cut

Depending on how you're cutting the log,
you may or may not want to make a deep sec-
ond cut to create flat parallel sides. If you're cut-
ting through and through, just remove the guide
raiL reset the mill for the thickness you want,
and keep on cutting. If you want to create a
square billet (as I did), remove the guide rail and
set the mill for a deep cut
(bottom photo). As you make
this cut, stop periodically and
insert wedges in the saw kerf
to prevent the weight of the
log from pinching the chain
as it cuts.

I.
M ILLING LUMBER
Setup for the third cut
Now rotate the log 90o and use wedges to ..__ Fram ing
secure it firmly in place. Place the guide rail Square
back on the log (you'll likely need to move the
Gu ide Ra il
2x4s closer together). Use a carpenter's square
or framing square to position the guide rail so
the cut will be 90o to the face of the sides (top
drawina). Take your time here and make sure to
double-check both ends before securing the
guide rail. Here again, it's important to adjust
the guide rails with wedges as necessary so Wedge
you'll cut parallel to the heart.

The third cut

Reset the mill to a depth that
will cut all the bark off and leave a
smooth, flat surface. Here again,
ease the saw into the cut and take
it easy (middle photo). The going will
be much better here since you've
already removed a considerable
amount of wood when you cut the
sides parallel.

Cutting boards
With a flat reference, you can
remove the guide raiL reset the
mill for the desired thickness of
boards, and begin cutting. Keep
the mill centered on the log, and
make sure that it's pressed firmly
against the reference surface as
you cut (bottom photo). Mter you've
cut all the boards you can from
the log, you can stack and clamp
them on edge and trim them to
any width you want.

M ILLING LUMBER
 your shop. All it takes is a handsaw, a router, and
SMALL LOGS a simple shop-made shooting box. The basic
idea here is to split a log into manageable pieces,
INTO LUMBER create a flat surface for reference with a router
and a shooting box, and then cut this flattened
IN THE SHOP piece into boards on the handsaw. The size of
the log you can handle will depend on the cut-
If you've always wanted to mill your own ting capacity of your handsaw; this will also
lumber but the thought of a howling chain saw determine how large a shooting box you'll need
makes you cringe, consider milling a small log in to build.

Shooting box
The shooting box holds the log securely so
that you can rout a flat section (see drawing). The
shooting box here is just a suggestion; you can
make it any size you want- just keep the width
double the depth. The shooting box I built can
handle a 12"-diameter log that's up to 30" long.
Cleats on the end of the box help prevent it
from racking and also provide a convenient
place for securing one or both ends of the log.
Additional support is provided by one or two
L-shaped support blocks. Each is nothing more
than a piece of scrap plywood screwed to a 2x6.
11/2" X 7" A platform that spans the sides sits on top
Cleat
of the shooting box and accepts your router. In
use, a straight bit is mounted in the router and
the platform is slid back and forth, and from
side to side, to rout a flat surface. Cleats
on the ends of the platform keep it
from sliding off

Splitting a log
Before you can use the shooting
box, you'll need to split the log to fit
the box. This is best done with a wedge
and a sledgehammer (bottom photo). If
possible, use a crack or check in the log
as a starting point. A few blows with the
hammer and you'll be surprised how
easily the log splits.

MILLING LUMBER
Secure log to box
Once the log is split in hal£ set it
in the box and secure it. Either screw
through the cleats on the end of the
box (as shown in the top photo) or use
the support blocks. With support
blocks, you'll need to first screw them
to the log and then fasten them to the
bottom of the shooting box. The key
here is that the log must be close to
the top so the router bit can flatten it,
but it can't protrude above the sides.
If it does, you won't be able to slide
the platform back and forth. If the log
protrudes and you have a drawknife
handy. you can quickly remove the excess. The
other option is to remove the log and split off
the excess with the wedge and hammer.

Rout a flat surface

With the router mounted on the platform,
insert the bit (I used a 3/4'' straight bit) and adjust
it to take an 1/s"-deep cut. Then turn it on and,
starting at one end, slide it from side to side,
slowly working your way toward the other
end. When the cut is complete, lower the bit
another 1/s" and repeat. Continue this way until
the entire surface is flat (middle photo). This takes
less time than you'd think, but it does make a
heck of a mess.

Setting up the bandsaw

Now the log is ready for the
bandsaw. But first, you'll need to
set it up. Two things are critical
here. First. you'll need a sturdy
rip fence to guide the cuts (see
page 172 to make the fence shown in
the bottom photo). Second, you'll
need to install a resaw blade and
tension it properly. I used a W'-
wide blade with 3 teeth per inch.
To prevent bowing. you'll need to
apply more tension than you nor-
mally would. If you notice the
blade bowing as you cut, stop and
increase the tension.

MILLING LUMBER
 Cutting the log
To make the first cut, temporarily attach a
piece of plywood to the flat face of the log so
the plywood protrudes past the side of the log.
By butting this up against the handsaw's rip
fence and cutting. you'll establish a straight edge
for the subsequent cuts. Remove the plywood
and adjust the rip fence for the board thickness
you want. Turn on the saw and ease the log into
the blade (top photo). Resawing like this takes a
firm hand and patience. Go slow and don't force
the cut.

Ripping to width
After the log has been cut into boards, you
can lower the blade guard, reset the rip fence,
and rip each piece to width (middle
photo). Depending on the log and
your project needs, you may want
to rip each piece to a different
width to maximize the wood in
each piece, or you,may want to rip
them all to the same width.

Stickering
Fresh-cut green wood needs
immediate attention to prevent it
from checking and twisting. This
involves stickering the wood (bot-
tom photo) and sealing the ends
(inset). Set the boards on stickers
(kiln-dried wood strips roughly
3/4'' square) to help the drying

process by allowing air to circulate

freely. Coat the ends with green wood sealer
or latex house paint (jor more on stickering and
sealing wood, see pages 110- lll).

'j

MILLING LUMBER
 CUTTING
BowL BLANKS
If you like to turn wood and you're tired of
paying a premium for the turning blanks, why
not try cutting your own blanks? All you need is
a small chainsaw and access to downed trees or
even stumps. Sources for wood include storm-
damage sites, areas being cleared for new
homes, firewood companies, nurseries, and tree
surgeons. In many cases, the wood will be free
or can be had for just a few dollars.
Regardless of the source, the first thing to
do is crosscut the log into manageable pieces. A
wet log is extremely heavy: A 4-foot section of a
14" to 16" log can easily weigh over 200 pounds.
A good idea is to cut the section an inch or two
over the maximum size that your lathe
can handle.

Draw profile on log

Once the log is cut into smaller sec-
tions, the next step is to draw bowl pro-
files on it with a lumber crayon or a piece
of chalk (top photo). If you've been turning
awhile, you'll know how you want the
grain to run. If you're a beginner, just
experiment and have fun. This is a great
way to learn how grain can be used as an
accent.

Cut in half
With the profiles drawn, use a chain-
saw to cut the log in halflengthwise (bot-
tom photo). Make sure to raise the log off
the ground to keep the blade from hitting
the ground and causing damage. Wear appropri-
ate safety gear (gloves, goggles, ear protection),
brace the log welL and hold the saw at arou nd a
30o angle for optimum control.

-I M ILLING LUMBER
 Cut to desired w idth
Now you can cut the half sections of
the log as necessary to obtain the desired
bowl width (top photo). Here again, prop the
piece off the ground and hold the saw at
around 30°.

Trim to rough shape

Mter you get the log cut into bowl-
sized lengths, you can use the chainsaw to
remove excess wood (middle photo). Use the
bowl profile drawn on the end as a guide to
trim away corners, leaving a rough bowl
shape. Then if you're working with a long
strip (as shown here), crosscut the piece into
bowl-sized pieces.

Seal the blank

All that's left is to seal the blank. Brush
green wood sealer or latex house paint only on
the end grain (bottom photo). Sealing the other
surfaces won't help prevent checking- it'll only
slow the drying process needlessly. Store fresh-
cut blanks outside, protected from direct sun-
light and rain. Mter six months to a year
(depending on the size of the blank), you can
bring it into the shop for further drying. If you
want to speed this up, rough-turn the blank
with 1"-thick walls, seal it completely, and it'll be
ready to finish-turn within a month or so. (See
page lll for another option.)

MILLING LUMBER 81 .
"I n general, a softwood board is graded as a whole piece,
whereas a hardwood board is graded on its useable content
aside trom an~ parts which ma~ be considered undesirable tor its
use such as knots, wane, splits, etc. "
NATIONAL HARDWOOD LUMBER ASSOCIATION (NHLA) (1998)

GRADING
LUMBER
The idea of "usable content" is something that comes through loud
and clear when you take an NHLA lumber grading course, as I did a
number of years ago.
"Whaddaya got?" queried the NHLA's chief inspector, Bob Sabistina.
"WelL I've got a nice board here that would grade FAS except for those two
big knots:· answered the novice student grader. "No, no, no:· replied Bob, "a
good grader doesn't see defects. All he sees is clear wood. Look at the huge
clear cuttings you can get out of this board. It's easily No.1 common:'
Like the puzzled student, many woodworkers can't see past the knots
to the clear wood a board offers. The day you realize that there is no such
thing as a perfect board, free from defects, will be the day your lumber buy-
ing gets a lot easier.
As Sabistina advised, don't get caught up in the "defects"- look for the
good wood. As the NHLA grading expert says, "An FAS board grades itself."
Besides, wood with "defects" sells for a lot less than perfectly clear boards.
With just a little bit of extra effort, you can pull the good wood out of a
board.
 1908 that provided uniform rules for insp ect ing
HARDWOOD and grading lumber. To get your own copy of
"Rules for the Measurement and Inspection of
GRADING Hardwood and Cypress;' contact the NHLA at
www.natlhardwood.org.
Lumber grading allows anyone who cuts, Although grading lumber can be complex,
dries, grades, sells, buys, or uses hardwood lum- the underlying principles are easy to under-
ber to compare apples with apples. Without a stand. The foundation of the hardwood grading
grading system, you'd never know what you system is the cutting-unit method, which closely
were buying. What one mill considers "select" approximates the actual manufacturing process
might be "common" at another. Fortunately for where boards are crosscut and ripped into
us, the National Hardwood Lumber Association smaller pieces. This method allows a grader to
(NHLA) established a set of guidelines back in

GRADING RULES board to see if a stain is only sur-

face deep. Pre bent sharpened
• Graders use lumber rules points on the end of the disk al-
(sometimes called board rules or low the grader to hook into a
grading sticks) to determine board and flip it to determine
quickly the total square footage the best face. (Some rules also
or "surface measure" (SM) of a have a set of notches in the head
board. The shafts of these rules to measure a board's thickness.)
are made of thin, flexible hick- Although available in many one edge and the rule is pressed
ory so the grader can "read" a styles, most lumber rules are 3 flat against the board (see photo
board without bending over far. feet long and have either 6 or 8 above). Then the scale corre-
The business end of the rule has scales running lengthwise on sponding to the length of the
a hardened-steel football-shaped the ruler. Even-length lumber is board is read to determine the
disk attached to the end. The measured on one side; odd surface measure. If the board
edges of the disk are beveled and lengths on the other. In use, the shown here is 16 feet long, its
sharp so the grader can scrape a head of the rule is hooked over surface measure wou ld be 8.

-........... -............
----!'--.... /
----
!'--.... /

Odd Length -----.. 9 11 13 IS 12 10 14 16 ....- Even Length

- 3 4 1--
3 I--
Scales are read here 4
f=-- 3 I--
'4
rs-
~
5 1-- 5

~
4 I-- I--
-
4
1-- 5

8
5 6
rt7 / ~ 4
FS
'6
r- 5
I-- I--
6 7
1--
7 8
6 7 I--
5 r-
- 1-- 1-- 9 7 68 r2-
8 I-- 9 10
f=- I--
6 7 I-- 10 rg I-- 1--
- 1-- 91-- 7 10 II
~ 1--

G RADING LUMBER
 quickly make a in relation to its total square footage or surface
mathematical com- measure (SM). As a woodworker, you're likely to
parison between come across four common NHLA grades: FAS
the total amount of (firsts and seconds), select, No. 1 common, and
wood in a board No. 2 common (actually 2A and 2B); see the chart
and the amount of below. Each grade specifies how much clear
usable wood the wood the board will yield: roughly 83% for FAS
board will yield. and select, around 67% for No.1 common, and
The beauty of this is SO% for No.2 common.
that instead of the With all of the grades except select, boards
grade depending on an arbitrary judgment of the are judged from their poorer side. A select
board's appearance, it relies on a mathematical board is judged from its good side. The select
computation that seldom leaves room for inter- grade is sort of a hybrid ofFAS and No.1 com-
pretation. According to NHLA rules, a cutting is mon- the good side must grade FAS, the poor
"a portion of a board or plank obtained from side must grade No. 1 common. Each grade also
crosscutting or ripping or by both. Diagonal cut- has requirements for minimum board size, min-
tings are not permitted:' imum size cuttings, and allowable number of
Basically, the grade of a board depends on cuts. One important thing to realize about grad-
the total area of clear cutting the board will yield ing is that the clear cuttings in a No. 2 common
board are the same quality as those in an FAS
board- they're just smaller.

HARDWOOD LUMBER GRADES

No.1 No. 2A & 3A
FAS Select common common

Minimum size board 6" X 8ft. 4" X 6 ft. 3" X 4ft. 3" X 4ft.

Minimum size cutting 4" X 5 ft. good face grades FAS, 4" X 2 ft. 3" X 2 ft.
3" X 7ft. poor face grade 3" X 3 ft.
No. 1 common

Basic yield SM X 10 good face grades FAS, SM X 8 SM X 6

83 113% poor face grade 66 213% 50%
No. 1 common

Formula to determine SM.;-4 good face grades FAS, SM+1.;.3 SM.;-2

number of cuts (4 maximum) poor face grade {5 maximum) {7 maximum)
No. 1 common

Surface measure needed 6-15ft. SM good face grades FAS, 3-10ft. SM 2-7ft. SM
to take extra cut poor face grade
No . 1 common

Extra yield needed SM x 11 good face grades FAS, SM X 9 SM X 8

to take extra cut 91 213% poor face grade 75% 66 213%
No . 1 common
 HOW A GRADER
GRADES LUMBER
It's amazing how quickly good graders work. In
just seconds, they'll read the surface measure (SM),
flip the board to determine the best face, make a
quick mental calculation, and then assign it a grade.
Let's slow this down and examine each of the steps
in the process.

Surface measure
The first thing a grader will do is use a lumber
rule to determine a board's surface measure (top
photo). For the four examples shown below, this
would be a surface measure of6 and 8 (left page)
and 5 and 4 (right page). You can calculate sur-
face measure without a lumber rule- just mul-
tiply length in feet (rounded to the nearest foot)
times the width in inches (and fractions of an
inch) and divide by 12.

Determine beHer face

The next step for a grader is to determine
the poor side of the board. This is the side that
has the least amount of clear wood. A flip or
two of the board is all it usually takes (bottom
photo). Grading the poorer face helps ensure that
the board will meet the minimum requirements
for that grade.

8 ft.

r - - - - - - - - 8 - "_x_7._5_ft._=_6_o_c_u_ _ _ _ _ __,l• .1 9,

SM = 9 X 8 =6 No. of Cuts = -SM = 1 Yield = SM x 10 = 60 Cutting Units (CU) = 60

12 4

8 ft.

~..__3_"
- ...
x"'"'7"'"'ft.... 1"'"'C"'"'U==========I=,=,==_..~~l2"
. =....2.... 8" X 8 ft. = 64 CU :

SM = 12 X 8 = 8 No. of Cuts = -SM = 2 Yield = SM x 10 = 30 Cutting Units (CU) = 64 + 21 = 8.:

12 4

GRADING LUMBER
 Calculate cutting units
Here's where experience comes into play. At
this point the grader will assign a trial grade to the
board, based on an estimate of how much clear
wood the board will yield. The grader then identi-
fies clear cuttings and calculates the total yield for
the board. In the top example on the left page, one
cutting yields 60 cutting units (CU). In the bottom
example, two separate cuts will yield 21 and 64 for a
total of 85 cutting units.

Determine and mark grade

For the top example on the left page to grade
FAS, it needs a minimum of 60 cutting units. At
exactly 60, it just makes the grade. In the
bottom example, a total of 80 cutting
units are needed for FAS. With 85, this is
no problem. In either case, if the board
doesn't yield sufficient cutting units, the
grader drops to the next lower grade and
tries again. (See the boards below for examples
of No. 1 and No. 2a grades.) Mter a board is
graded, the grader marks the board to indi-
cate the grade (top photo) and logs it in the
tally book (bottom photo).

6.5 ft.

7" X 4 ft. = 28 CU I~I 7" X 2ft. = 14 cu

SM = 9" X 6.5 ft. = 5 SM+ 1

No. o f Cuts =- - =2 Yield = SM x 8 5 x 8 = 40
12 3
Cutting Units (CU) = 28 + 14 = 42

6.5 ft.
6" X 2ft. = 12 CU
5" X 3 ft. = 15 CU
I..
8" X-6ft.
SM= - - =4 Yield = SM x 6 = 24 Cutting Units (CU) = 15 + 12 = 27
12

GRADING LUMBER
 Hardwood lumber grades specifY the
minimum requirements that a board must
meet to make the grade. Unless otherwise
noted, grading is determined from the poor
side of the piece.

FAS boards
The highest grade assigned to hard-
wood lumber, FAS boards yield a minimum
of around 83% clear cuttings (top photo).
With a minimum board size of 6" x 8 ft.,
and cuttings that must be at least 4" x 5 ft.
or 3" x 7 ft., it's no wonder that most FAS
boards virtually grade themselves. Take the
minimum size board as an example. A 6"-
wide, 8-ft.-long board only allows one cut-
ting. This cutting must produce 40 cutting
units (CU), which means it can either have
a 5"-wide by 8-ft.-long cutting (40 CU) or a
6"-wide by 7-ft.-long cutting (42 CU). Not
much room for interpretation here.
As it's a premium grade, FAS has the
most stringent limitations regarding
defects. The pith in inches cannot exceed
the surface measure in feet. Wane is limited
to less than one-half the board's length. The
length of splits in inches allowed must be
less than twice the surface measure except
when 1 foot or shorter. The diameter of
knots or holes (in inches) must be less than
one-third the board's surface measure.

Select boards
The next lower grade, select, can be
difficult to find at many lumberyards or
mills. That's because grading takes longer, as
the board is virtually graded twice. The
good face must meet FAS standards and the
poor side must grade No. 1 common (bottom
photo). Since time is money, many graders
simply assign the board the lower No.1
common grade and move on. The yield of
select is the same as FAS- 83%- except the
yield is from the good side. And although
the size and number of cuttings are the
same as in FAS, the boards may be smaller
(4" X 6ft.).

GRADING LUMBER
No. 1 common boards
As soon as you drop down into the
common grades, you'll notice a lot more
defects on the boards (top photo)- which
means less usable wood (roughly 67% for
No. 1 common). Board and cutting size drop
dramatically. The minimum size board
allowed is 3" wide and 4 ft. long. Cuttings
can be as small as 4" x 2 ft. or 3" x 3 ft. Along
with this, the number of cuttings allowed
increases. If you don't mind a little extra
crosscutting and ripping, No. 1 common
boards can yield a lot of nice lumber for
around half the cost ofFAS.

No. 2 common boards

No. 2 common boards are really a com-
bination of two grades- 2A and 2B (bottom
photo). No. 2A common requires clear cut-
tings, and No. 2B requires only that the
cutting be sound- i.e., a cutting that's free
from rot, pith, shake, and wane. Sound
knots, bird pecks, stain, and streaks are
allowed. The yield of No. 2 common lum-
ber is 50%. The minimum size board is the
same as No. 1 common, but the minimum
size cutting drops to 3" x 2 ft. In order to
get the smaller cuttings, more cuts are
allowed.

No. 3 common boards

The yield is so low on No.3 common
boards (33%) that they're not much use to a
woodworker (or to the mill or lumberyard,
for that m atter). A lot of work is required to
harvest a small amount of wood. Because
this grade of lumber is so inexpensive, you'll
rarely see it at a lumberyard- there's just no
money in it for them.

G RADING LUMBER
 impossible to compare apples with apples as you
SOFTWOOD can with hardwood lumber.
StilL there are a couple of things you can do
GRADING to help unravel the grading mess. First, familiar-
ize yourself with a typical grading system like the
Although you might think that softwood Western Wood Products Association's guidelines
grading would be fairly simple, it isn't. In fact, in this chapter. Second, learn how to read a soft-
it's much more complicated than hardwood wood grade stamp (see the sidebar below). Note:
grading. The main reason it's so complex has to Although grade-stamping is often not done on
do with its end use. Since the vast majority of appearance grades of lumber, you may find grade
softwood lumber sold is used in the construc- information stapled to the end of a board.
tion industry, softwood grading must take into
account strength, stiffness, and other
mechanical properties of softwood. The
problem is, no two woods have identical
characteristics. This means every softwood
species has its own set of guidelines.
To add to the confusion, there are
almost a dozen organizations that publish
grading guidelines- most are area-specific
or end use- specific. Four of the largest are:
National Lumber Grades Authority;
Northeastern Lumber Manufacturers
Association, Inc.; Northern Softwood
Lumber Bureau; and the Western Wood
Products Association. Because each grading
organization has different names and speci-
fications for the softwood grades, it's almost
0

READING A graded under the supervision of Mill Number

the Western Wood Products
SOFTWOOD Grade
Association. The numerall2 in
GRADE STAMP the upper left-hand corner is the
Most grade stamps have five manufacturer's mill number.
elements to provide information The large. bold 3 C OM tells us 12 3 COM
about the piece. These are: the
grading certification, the manu-
that this board has been graded
No.3 common. The back-to-
w®
f0j) S-DRY f
facturer, the grade, the species back P's in the lower right-hand
mark, and the moisture content. corner are the species mark for
Here's how to read the grade ponderosa pine. And S-DRY
stamp shown here. indicates that the board is sur-
The circled WWP symbol faced (planed) dry- dried to
Certification
means that this board has been 19% or less moisture content.

G RADING LUMBER
 The actual grade for a piece of softwood Association (WWPA). Many of the other grad-
lumber is calculated with a complex formula ing organizations will have similar names for
that considers the type, size, closeness, frequency, the grades, but because the species are different,
and location of all characteristics and imperfec- the appearance and characteristics of the grades
tions of the piece. It is the responsibility of the can vary considerably.
grader to judge visually the total effect of the So how do you know what you're buying?
various combinations according to the limita- Unless you're familiar with the grade stamps and
tions in the grading rules for each grade and guidelines of the various organizations, you
species. won't know. Here's where dealing with a rep-
The softwood grades shown in the chart utable yard makes all the difference. Although
below are typical of a grading organization and their wood may cost a bit more than at large
are set forth by the Western Wood Products discount centers, they'll most likely be able to
tell you where the wood came from and provide
you with detailed grading information. For the
most part, the clearer the board, the higher the
grade and the more it will cost. (See pages 92- 95
for more information on the various grades).

SOFTWOOD GRADES FOR BOARDS

Classification Grade Appearance

Select B&BTR Many pieces are absolutely clear and free from knots; only minor defects
and small blemishes are permitted.

C select Small defects and blemishes allowed . Recommended for all finishing uses
where fine appearance is essential.

D select Defects and blemishes are more pronounced; used when finishing needs are
less exacting.

Finish Superior Only minor defects and blemishes allowed .

Prime Similar to superior but with more defects and blemishes allowed.

E Pieces where crosscutting or ripping will produce superior or prime grades.

Common #l common The ultimate in fine appearance in a knotty material; all knots must be small
and sound .

#2 common Contains larger, coarser defects and blemishes; often used for knotty pine
paneling .

#3 common Broken knots, stain, and knot holes are allowed; used for shelving, paneling,
siding as well as fences, boxes, crating and sheathing .

#4 common Edge knots, wane, larger knotholes allowed; used widely in construction for
subfloors, roof and wall sheathing, and concrete forms.

GRADING LUMBER
SOFTWOOD
C HARACTERISTICS
Knots play a b ig role in grading softwood
lumber. The WWPA defines a knot as "a portion
of a branch or limb that has become incorporat-
ed in a piece oflumber:· In softwood lumber
grading, knots are classified by form, size,
quality, and occurrence. A "red" or tight knot is
one that results from a live branch growth in the
tree that has intergrown with the surrounding
wood. A "black" or loose knot is one that results
when a dead branch is surrounded by the wood
growth of the tree.
Knots are one of the main reasons softwood
grading is so complex. A grader must be th or-
oughly familiar with almost two dozen d ifferent
types of knots (see the chart below). T he type, size,
number, and location of knots all come into
play when a piece is graded.

COMMON KNOTS FOUND IN SOFTWOOD

Type of Knot Description

Round Produced when the limb is cut at a right angle to its axis

Oval Produced when a limb is cut at slightly more than a right angle

Spike Produced when the limb is cut lengthwise or diagonally

Pin or small Not over 112" or 3/4'' in d iameter, respectively

Medium or large Not over 1 112 ", or over 1112 ", respectively

Sound Conta ins no decay

Pith Sound except it contains a pith hole less than 1/4" in diameter

Hollow A sound knot containing a hole greater than 1/4" in diameter

Unsound Conta ins decay

Firm Solid across its face but contains incipient decay

Tight So fixed by growth, shape, or position that it retains its place in the piece

Loose or Not held tightly in place by growth, shape, or position

" not firmly fixed"
 To give you an idea of how complex this knife marks. These rarely affect the mechanical
really is, let's look at just the knot limitations for strength of the piece the way natural defects do.
a 6"-wide No.3 common board (yes, the number
and size of knots allowed changes with the Wane
width). For a 6" board, red knots that are sound Wane is the presence of bark or a lack of
and tight must be less than 3" in diameter; wood from any cause on the edge or corner of a
unsound knots, loose knots, or knotholes must piece oflumber (left board in photo below). Wane
be less than 11/4'' in diameter. In addition to this, that is away from the ends and extends partially
black knots may be two-thirds the size of allow- or completely across any face is permitted for
able red knots, two maximum in each 12 ft. of 1 foot if it's no more serious than skips in dress-
length, or equivalent smaller, tight black knots. ing allowed, or across a narrow face if no more
Fixed knots may be equal to knothole size and damaging than the knothole allowed. Wane is
are limited to two per 12 ft. of length. Only one limited to one occurrence in each piece.
maximum-sized knothole is permitted in any
one piece, but two equivalent smaller knotholes Shake
may be permitted if well spread and if the piece Shake is the lengthwise separation of the
is otherwise of high quality. All this covers just wood, which usually occurs between or through
the knot limitations for one size board, of one the annual growth rings (middle board in photo). A
grade, of one species. small amount of shake is allowed in some
In addition to knots and knotholes, there is grades and is classified as light shake (where
an array of natural and man-made defects that separation is less than 1/32"), or medium shake
are considered when grading softwood lumber. (separation is less than 1/s''). Shake is further
Common man-made imperfections are chipped, defined as "through shake" where it extends
torn, raised, or loosened grain, skips in surfacing, from one face to the other, "pith shake" where
undersize, mismatch, wavy dressing, and the shake extends through the pith, and "ring
machine-caused burns, chips, bite marks, or shake:· which occurs between growth rings.

Split
Splits are similar to checks except
that the separations of the wood fibers
extend completely through a piece,
usually at the ends. Splits are classified
according to their length. A very short
split is equal in length to half the width of
the piece. A short split is equal in length
to the piece's width and cannot exceed
one-sixth the piece's length. Medium splits
are equal to twice the width and cannot
exceed one-sixth its length. A long split is
longer than a medium split.

Speck
Speck is caused by a fungus in the liv-
ing tree and appears as small white pits or
spots (right board in photo). No further decay
will occur unless the wood is used in wet
conditions.

G RADING LUMBER
STRUCTURAL
LIGHT FRAMING
LUMBER
There are four grades of structural
light framing lumber: select structuraL
No. L No.2. and No.3. All pieces are
graded full-length. Knots appearing on
narrow faces are limited to the same dis-
placement as knots specified on the edges
of wide faces.

Select structural
Select structural is the highest grade
in structural light framing and is recom-
mended where appearance is as important
as strength and stiffness (three riaht boards in
photo). Sound, firm, encased, and pith
knots are limited to 7/s" in diameter and
must be tight and well spaced. Unsound
or loose knots or holes are limited to up
to 3/4" in diameter, one per every 4 lineal
feet. Wane, shake, splits, and stain are also
limited in this high-quality lumber.

No. 1
When appearance is still important
but is secondary to strength, No. 1 grade is
the best choice (middle three boards in photo).
Knots must be of the same type as in
select structural grade but can be larger-
up to 11/2" in diameter. Unsound or loose
knots or holes are limited to up to 1" in
diameter, one per every 3 feet. Most other
limitations are similar to structural select.

No.2 No.3
No.2 structural light framing lumber is When strength is not a factor, No. 3 grade
used for general construction (left three boards in can be used. Since strength is less of an issue,
photo). Well-spaced knots of any quality are knots can be up to 2 1/2" in diameter of any
allowable up to 2" in diameter, with one hole up quality, with one hole up to 13/4'' in diameter
to 11/4" in diameter every 2 feet. Edge knots are every lineal foot. Edge knots are allowable up to
allowable up to 11/4''. There are still limitations 13/4'' in diameter. And as you'd suspect, limita-
on wane, shake, splits, and stain, but they're not tions for No. 3 grade are more relaxed than for
as stringent as for No. l. and select structural. No.2 grade.

GRADING LUMBER
 essential (top photo). Because its appearance and
FINISH LUMBER usability are so close to that of B&BTR (B grade
and better), it is often combined with that grade
The two most common grades of softwood
and sold as a C&BTR (C grade and better) select.
finish lumber you'll find at lumberyards and
C&BTR is used widely by woodworkers who
home centers will be select and common.
enjoy crafting furniture and other projects from
Select: B&BTR, C select, D select pine. Each board may contain only two smalL
sound knots. Other limitations are similarly
Lumber in the C select grade is recom-
strict for C&BTR.
mended for projects where a fine appearance is
D select grade lumber will still offer a fine
appearance, just less so than C&BTR. As a gener-
al rule, one side of the board will have a finish
appearance and the other side will show more
and larger defects. Up to four smalL fixed knots
are allowed, and the other limitations are
relaxed somewhat.

Common: No. 1, 2, and 3

You're not likely to find No.1 common
lumber at most lumberyards. That's because
although No. 1 common offers the ultimate in
fine appearance of a knotty pine materiaL it's
difficult to keep it stored so that it stays in
pristine condition. Most yards will be happy to
special-order it for you, but beware, it will be
expensive. (You can pay as much for No. 1 com-
mon as for some hardwoods.) No. 1 common
grade includes all sound, tight-knotted stock,
with the size and character of the knot deter-
mining its grade.
Although No. 2 common grade is intended
primarily for use in housing and light construc-
tion, it also works well for country furniture
where a knotty pine appearance is desired
(bottom photo). As long as you seal the knots, this
grade takes paint well. Both red and black knots
must be sound and tight but can be larger than
No. 1 common.
No.3 common grade is used for a wide
range of building purposes where both strength
and appearance are important. This grade is
often used for shelving, paneling, and siding. It
works well for rustic furniture projects, as well.
Red knots must be sound and tight and can be
larger than in No. 2 common. Unsound knots,
loose knots, and knotholes are allowed.

G RADING LUMBER
D EFECTS
IN WOOD
Warp is defined as any deviation of the face Bow
or edge of a board from flatness, or any edge
that is not at right angles to the adjacent face or
edge. Warp can be either natural or man-made.
It occurs naturally because wood doesn't shrink
uniformly in all directions. There are consider-
able differences between the radiaL tangentiaL
and longitudinal shrinkage in a piece as it dries
(see pages 102- 104 for more on this). Warp is aggra-
vated by irregular or distorted grain and the
presence of abnormal types of wood such as
juvenile wood and reaction wood (see pages 22
and 23, respectively). Wood can also warp if it
hasn't been cut, dried, or stored properly.
The four most common types of warp are
bow, cup, twist, and crook (shown from top to
bottom in the drawing). Bow is an end-to-end curve
along the face of a board; it can be caused by
irregular grain or improper storage. Cup is an
edge-to-edge curve across the face of a board;
it often occurs when one face of a board dries
more quickly than the other; cup is very com-
mon in plain-sawn lumber and on boards cut
near the pith. Twist is when one corner of a Crook
board is not aligned with the others; it usually
results from uneven drying or irregu-
lar grain (bottom photo). Crook is an
end-to-end curve along the edge of a
board. It happens because of improp-
er drying or when the pith is near the
edge of a board. (See page 109 for strate-
gies for dealing with warped lumber.)
In terms of hardwood grading,
there are strict limitations on how
m uch warp, if any, is allowed. In
selects and better, the entire board
m u st be flat enough to surface both
sides to standard surfaced thickness.
For FAS boards, the entire length,
regardless of cutting placement, is
considered.
Stain
Mineral streaks like those on cherry board
shown at right in the top photo should not be
confused with stain. Stain occurs naturally in
many species and is admitted in the cuttings
unless otherwise specified in the grading rules.
Fungal stains, like the blue stain shown left in
the photo, are caused by fungi that grow in the
sapwood when the initial stages of drying are
too slow. This type of stain is not allowed unless
it will dress out in surfacing to standard thick-
ness. Sticker stain is a discoloration that occurs
under the stickers in a stack of wood. Some-
times called shadow, these imprints of the stick-
ers can be caused by either chemical or fungal
action, or both. In almost all cases, it's
considered a defect, since it's unlikely
that planing will remove the stain.

Decay
When conditions are right, decay-
producing fungi can flourish in wood
and attack either the sapwood or the
heartwood. Decay is often referred to
as rot, dote, or doze and can appear
as soft, discolored areas on a board
(middle photo). Surface growths of decay
often appear as fanlike patches. Some-
times fruiting bodies such as mush-
rooms are produced. In terms of grad-
ing hardwood, cuttings must be totally
free from rot or decay. Note that this
defines cuttings, not boards.

Spalting
Some woods that are attacked by decay
develop an attractive dark brown or black
staining known as spalting (bottom photo).
Often referred to as zone lines, these layers
can produce amazing patterns when exposed.
Although turners love this stuff. it presents
quite a challenge to work because the areas
between the zone lines will be in varying
forms of decay- often soft and punky. The
constant change from hard to soft wood and
back again makes it tough to cut cleanly. Even
the best turners resort to heavy sanding.

GRADING LUMBER
FIGURE - - --=- ---""""

Figure is the pattern on a wood's surface

resulting from the combination of its natural
features and the way the log was cut. The
grain direction in a tree is more or less
straight. but interesting figure results when
the grain is distorted. When a log is cut in a -_::!:!" - --'- .....,.,._

certain way, this figure can be exploited.

Surprisingly, the figure a piece of wood dis- --=- ~- - -
plays has little to do with the grade assigned. A
board graded FAS that shows stripe, bird's-eye,
or ray fleck is still an FAS board. Savvy mill
owners, however, will cull this special wood
from the stack so they can sell it at a premium.

Ray fleck or flake

The relatively large rays of some species
form a conspicuous figure when the wood is
quartersawn. Ray flecks (flake, or silver grain,
as it's sometimes called) can be delicate, as in
the intricate cross striping in cherry, or pro-
nounced, like the large and lustrous rays of
white oak in the top photo.

Bird's-eye
In some woods, the cambium can have
indentations, bumps, or bulges that leave
behind a characteristic figure (middle photo). In
softwoods, this is commonly called dimpling.
In hardwoods, particularly like the hard
maple shown here, localized small
swirls in the grain direction create the
much sought-after bird's-eye figure . No
special cutting is required to display
bird's-eye figure.

Fiddleback
Wavy grain results in fiddleback
figure, so called because it was com-
monly used for the backs of violins.
When wavy-grain wood is cut radially,
like the mahogany shown in the bottom
photo, fiddleback occurs. The surface
looks like a washerboard, caused when
light reflects off the surface where the
grain intersects at variable angles.

GRADING LUMBER
 Burl
Burls are wartlike, irregular
growths that can form along the trunks
or sometimes limbs of trees (inset).
Inside the burl you'll find tight
clusters ofbuds. Each of these buds has
a dark pith- a branch that never devel-
oped, because of stunted growth. The
resulting wood tissue within the burl is
extremely disoriented and results in a
very attractive figure like the walnut in
the top photo. Most burls are smalL
and so burl wood is usually used for
small turnings or accents or is sliced
into decorative veneer.

Crotch
Crotchwood is highly figured grain that
occurs where a limb joins the trunk. As you can
see from the walnut in the middle photo, the
grain swirls dramatically where the wood fibers
have crowded and twisted together. Any tree can
produce crotchwood; the angle formed by the
limb and trunk is a good indicator as to
whether it will be highly figured or not. The
wider the angle, the better the chance. When a
cut is made down the center of the crotch, the
resulting wood is referred to as feather crotch.
Cuts toward the outside produce a swirl crotch.
Here again, don't plan on using crotch for big
projects- the pieces are small or are sliced
into veneer.

Stripe
Woods with interlocked grains that
slope in alternate directions produce a
ribbon or stripe figure when quartersawn
(bottom photo). The interlocked grain is the
result of repeated cycles of spiral growth
varying back and forth from left- to right-
hand spirals. The stripe effect is caused by
the variation in length of severed vessels at
the surface. Stripe is often referred to as roe
or roey figu{e; a combination of wavy grain
and interlocked grain produces broken
stripe or mottled figure .

GRADING LUMBER
"The dr~ing ot woods is not a thing to be attempted unadvis-
ed I~ or indiscreet!~. It demands knowledge, care, experience and
constant watching. "
GUSTAV STICKLEY (1909)

DRYING
LUMBER
' Stickley knew that wood dried improperly is trouble, and I found out
the hard way early in my woodworking career. I had bought six white
oak boards, and discovered too late- the only time you can detect faulty
drying- that they were case-hardened. I was ripping a 2"-thick piece, and
halfway through the cut, the kerf closed up so violently that it stopped the
blade on a table saw with an industrial-strength, 3-hp motor.
Dangerous? Potentially, sure. Aggravating, time-wasting. and expen-
sive? Absolutely. I ended up with several fine pieces of firewood, and this
illustrates one of the bedeviling traits of improperly dried wood: You can't
tell till you start machining it. Start cutting into such wood, and you can en-
counter warp and twist that endanger your safety, your wallet, and your time.
That's why proper drying is so critical to producing usable wood. And
that's also why knowing what to watch far- and watch out for-is so im-
portant. That's why mills charge for this service. StilL you can save some
money by drying wood yoursel£ as long as you know what you're doing.
We'll examine why wood moves the way it does before and after drying...
and see why Stickley was so right.
 structure). Water contained within the cell walls is
WATER called bound water, as it's held in place by the
walls. As wood dries down to around 30%, only
AND WOOD the water stored in the lumens is lost- none
leaves the cell walls. Eventually, all the water
The lumber cut from a freshly downed tree
from the lumens has gone- this is a very impor-
contains a surprisingly large amount of water. Its
tant point in the drying process called the "fiber
moisture content (see the sidebar below) can range
saturation point:' In most woods this occurs
anywhere from 60% to over 100% (when the
when a moisture content of27% to 31% is
water in the wood weighs more than the dry
reached. Why so important? This is the point
wood itself). For woodworking, the moisture
where wood begins to shrink.
content needs to be down around 6% to 10%.
Why? There are several reasons: Wet
wood is extremely heavy; it's suscep-
tible to attack by decay and fungi; and CHECKING AND WARPING TENDENCIES
if left to dry in uncontrolled condi- OF HARDWOODS
tions, it will cup, twist, bow, or crook
lfor more on this see paae 96). Low Moderate High
The process of getting wet wood
Alder Apple Boxwood
down to 6% has challenged lumber-
men for a long time. Over the years, Basswood Ash Beech
two basic methods of controlling the Birch, paper Birch, European Chestnut
drying process have been developed: Cherry Birch, yellow Oak
air-drying and kiln-drying. Each has its Cottonwood Elm, European Sycamore, American
own advantages and disadvantages. Elm, white Elm, rock
Before exploring these, it's important Poplar Hickory
to first have a solid understanding of Willow Holly
how moisture is stored in wood and
Pear
how it is removed.
Sycamore, European
How water is stored Walnut
Water is stored in two places in
freshly cut lumber: the lumens and the
cell walls (see paaes 14- 18 for more on cell

WHAT IS MOISTURE CONTENT?

The term "moisture content" simply describes the amount of water in a piece of wood.
For most wood, this is calculated on a dry basis. Moisture content is expressed as a percent-
age and is equal to the green weight minus the dry weight times 100, divided by the green
weight. The dry weight is the weight of the wood that has been dried to the point that no
moisture remains. Expressed another way, moisture content is the weight of the water in
the wood expressed as a percentage of the dry weight. For example, in a log where the mois-
ture content is 100%, the water bound in the log weighs as much as the dried wood.
 Shrinkage
As moisture content drops below the fiber

•
saturation point, the cell walls begin to release
water. As the water exits, the cell walls shrink,
they move closer together, and the wood
becomes stronger (see top drawing) . The downside
I ~.
-- , .... \
to this is that the average tangential shrinkage
I I Dry is around 8% to 10% (the actual amount will
\ I
' I
depend on the species). Wood also shrinks radi-
-- /
ally an average of 4%, and almost nothing in
length. Since wood shrinks
more the twice as much tan-
gentially as radially, the orien-
tation of the growth rings will
have a pronounced impact on
how the wood deforms (see
middle drawing).

How wood dries

Unfortunately, the water
in cell walls doesn't leave all
the cells at the same time. It
leaves cells near the surface
first (see bottom drawing). The
center or core of the wood
remains wet well after the sur-
rounding wood is dry. This is
one of the biggest challenges
in drying wood- getting it to
dry uniformly.
If you recall the "wood is
like a bundle of straws" analo-
gy (see page 14), it's easy to see that partially plug-
ging the ends of the straws will help control
how quickly the wood releases moisture. This is
accomplished by applying a sealer to the ends of
boards. Other methods for controlling moisture
release include air-drying (see page 107) and kiln-
drying (see page 112). Every species of wood dries
differently. Some dry rapidly and behave nicely.
Others tend to split, check, or warp (see the chart
on page 102).
Equilibrium moisture content
Many woodworkers think that once a
piece of wood has been dried to, say, 8%,
it'll remain that way forever. That isn't true.
Wood is constantly reacting to its environ-
ment by absorbing and releasing moisture
in response to changes in the relative
humidity (see the chart below).
Where you live also has a sizable impact
(see the maps at right). Wood is always trying
to get to an equilibrium moisture content
(EMC), where no moisture is leaving or
entering the wood. Wood furniture attains
an average EMC of abou t 6% when stored
in homes; that's why wood is dried down to
that level.
In reality, wood never reaches a stable
equilibrium because the weather is always
changing. As the wood absorbs moistu re, it
swells; as it gives up moistu re, it shrinks.
Both of these cause a woodworker prob-
lems. Understanding why and how wood
moves is half the battle; taking steps to deal
with it is the other h alf See pages 105- 106 for
solutions to common wood-movement problems.

Equilibrium moisture
Relative humidity content (approximate)

90% 17-19%

80% 15-16%

70% 12-13%

60% 10-11 %

50% 9-10%

40% 7-8%

30% 5-6%

20% 4-5%
 COPING
WITH WOOD
MOVEMENT
If wood moves constantly, how can
pieces be joined so they'll stay together?
The answer: Anticipate and compensate for
wood movement. We've already covered
how it moves (see pages 102- 104), so let's look
at ways to compensate for the movement.

Breadboard ends
The top of a table or breadboard will
change considerably in width as it reacts to rela-
tive humidity. But since the grain of the end
caps is perpendicular to the top, they'll move
much less (top photo). If you glue the end cap in
place, the top won't be able to move; either the
top cracks, or the end cap splits. The solution is
to glue the cap only at the center and then
attach it underneath near the ends with screws
set in slotted holes (inset).

Buttons
Since a tabletop moves considerably across
its width, screwing it directly to a base will sure-
ly cause it to crack over time. One way to attach
it so it's secure and can move is to use "buttons:'
Buttons are smalL rabbeted blocks of wood that
fit into grooves in the table aprons (red pieces in
middle drawing). As the top changes in width, the
buttons slide along with it in the grooves.
Slots in Front and Back
Allow Carcase to Move Web frames
with Changes in Hum idity To lighten a heavy chest of drawers and save
money, savvy woodworkers use web frames
instead of solid wood for the dividers between
drawers (bottom drawing) . The only disadvantage
to this is that the grain of the frame runs per-
pendicular to the chest sides. Here again, if you
Screw glue these in place, the sides can't move without
in Center cracking. To prevent this, drill or rout slots near
the ends of the frame for screws. When the
frame is screwed in place, the sides can move
independent of the web frames.
Multiple tenons
A small but important wood-movement
challenge occurs whenever you join an apron to
a leg with a mortise-and-tenon joint (such as a
table base or bed frame). The problem here is
that the tenon grain is perpendicular to the
mortise grain inside. If the mortise-and-tenon is
small, the movement is insignificant. But with
wide tenons, the movement can be enough to
break the glue joint. One way to eliminate this
is to cut multiple tenons so the movement is
spread out over the smaller tenons (top drawing).

Floating panels
The frame-and-panel is a staple of cab-
inetmaking. A grooved frame, typically Panei "Fioats"
joined with mortise-and-tenon joints, in Grooves and
accepts a thinner panel (often beveled or Moves in
"raised"). Early cabinetmakers learned that Response to
if they glued the panels in the grooves in Changes
the frame, the panel would crack. This led
in Hum idity
to the "floating" paneL where the panel is
secured to the frame at only the top and
the bottom with a single centered dowel
or pin (middle drawing). This secures the
panel yet allows it to "float:'

Stub tenon and groove

A different solution to the frame-and-
panel challenge is to use a panel that hard-
ly moves: a plywood panel. Plywood is so
stable that you can glue it into the grooves
in the frame. Since the glue surface is so
large, you don't need to cut mortise-and-tenon
joints. Instead, a simpler stub tenon- and-groove
joint can be used (bottom photo). The beauty of
this joint is that after you cut 1/4'' grooves on the
inside faces of the frame pieces and 1/4'' tenons
on the rails- you're done. The grooves in the
stiles also serve as the mortises for the tenons.
AIR-DRYING
Most of the commercial wood sold in the
United States is dried in large kilns to speed up
the natural drying process (see pages 112- 114 ). But
even sawmills with kilns often partially air-dry
wood before putting it in the kiln. There are
two reasons for this: Space is limited in a kiln,
and fresh-cut wood will rapidly lose some of its
excess moisture naturally if left out in the open
(as long as it's stickered, stacked, and protected).
The disadvantage to air-drying is time- roughly
one year per inch of thickness- plus it takes up
yard space. Also, the wood will drop only to a
certain percentage outside (roughly 20%). For
the moisture content to drop lower, the wood
needs to be moved inside.

Foundation
Although some mills simply set a lumber
stack on the ground to air-dry, savvy mill own-
ers build stable foundations for their stacks.
These will often be cement slabs, old
steel rails (as shown in the top photo), or
leveled timbers. A solid foundation
does two things. First, it ensures that
the stack remains level. And second,
it helps prevent ground moisture
from seeping into the stack. The
location is just as important. The
mill owner selects a spot in the open,
where air will circulate evenly
around the entire stack.

First layer
Creating a stable, well-ventilated
stack takes thought and patience. As a
general rule, mill owners use lower-
quality wood on the bottom and top
of the stack, as these have the greatest
tendency to degrade. In most cases,
the first layer is 4 feet wide. The mill owner lays
down boards, carefully measuring until the
desired width is reached (bottom photo).
Stickers
When the first layer is down, stickers
are added. Stickers are 3/4''- or 7/s "-thick
strips of dry wood planed to the same size.
Starting at one end, a sticker is placed every
16" or so (top photo). Many mill owners mea-
sure this and mark the outside bottom
boards on both sides of the stack. They
make sure the stickers are straight and on
the marks.

Additional layers
Now the next layer is added. Here's
where the challenge to building
a stack comes in. The sawmill
owner needs to pick boards
carefully to end up with the
same width as the previous
layer. If the mill owner can't
find a narrow enough board to
fill a layer completely, he or she
will keep the outside boards
flush with the stack and spread
out the inner boards so the gaps
are consistent (middle photo).
For boards that are shorter than
the stack, another sticker is
added to support the end. If it's
left unsupported, it'll surely
warp (see inset). Stickering con-
tinues like this until the stack is
complete.

Cover and press

To protect the stack from the elements
and help prevent warp, a cover is added to
the stack (bottom photo). The cover shown
here is built from scrap lumber, plywood,
and a sheet of corrugated metal. Notice
how one end is higher than the other to
encourage water runoff For best protec-
tion, the cover needs to extend past the
stack at least 6" to 12" in every direction.
Now it's just a matter of time.
 DEALING WITH WARP
• No matter how carefully wood is dried, there
will always be warped wood in a stack. In cases
where the warp is severe, you're best off using the
wood to heat the shop. But lumber that has mod-
erate cup, bow, or twist can often be salvaged us-
ing one of the three methods described below.

Removing cup
The simplest way to remove cup from a
board is to use a jointer (top drawina). Start by
placing the concave face of the board on the bed
of the jointer. This way the edges ofthe
board make solid contact with the bed as
you pass the board over the cutterhead.
Continue making light passes until the
high spots have been removed and the
face is flat. With one face flat, you can
now resaw or plane the board to the
desired thickness.

Removing bow or taper

Boards that are bowed or tapered can
Screw Board be straightened with a straight-line rip-
to Plywood ping jig (middle drawina). The jig is just a
Carriage
piece of plywood that's wider than the
board and at least as long. Screw the
warped board to the jig so one edge
extends over plywood. Then adjust the rip fence
to trim off the overhang. Remove the board,
readjust the fence, and trim the board to width.

Removing twist
Twist is the toughest form of warp to deal
with. The most effective method I've fou nd is
to first crosscut the board into short sections
(bottom drawina). Then I take these to the jointer
and joint one face flat. Keep even pressure on
the push block to prevent the piece from rock-
ing. Then place that face against the jointer fence
and joint the edge. This creates a 90° edge that
can be used to rip and plane the piece square.

,109
AIR-DRYING
YouR OWN
WooD
Air-drying lumber isn't hard, it
just takes a little know-how and a
lot of patience. The general rule of
thumb is one year for every inch of
thickness (see the chart below for spe-
cific times for some common woods). But
different woods dry at different
rates, and a moisture meter (see page
117) is the best way to track drying
speed. In most parts of the United
States, air-drying lu mber outside
will bring the moisture content down to around
20%. At that point, it needs to be moved indoors
to continu e drying. When it hits 8% to 10%, it's
ready to be worked.

Location, location, location

Of all the choices you have to make about
air-drying lu mber, the location you choose can
have the greatest impact. You need a place that
will provide good ventilation to the entire stack:
You don't want a stack next to a building, since
the air flow will be uneven, resulting in irregular

Very slow Slow Moderate Fairly rapid Rapid

(9-18 months) (6-15 months) (5-12 months) (4-10 months) (3-9 months)

Oak, American red Apple Birch , yellow Ash, European Alder, European
Oak, American white Cherry, American Elm , rock Basswood Alder, red
Oak, European Cherry, European Hickory Beech, European Hackberry
Chestnut Walnut, black Birch, European Poplar
Holly Walnut, European Birch, paper
Hornbeam Cottonwood
Pear Elm , American
Elm , European
drying. A dry foundation is also a must. Use The stack
cinder blocks, old steel beams, whatever you To create the first layer, use lower-quality
have to raise the stack off the ground. Without boards, since this wood tends to degrade.
this, moisture will seep into the lumber, delaying Support the boards every 16", and lay boards
drying and causing mildew, decay, and rot. down until the desired stack width is reached.
There's much debate about how much gap, if
any, is necessary between the boards. The indus-
try standard is between 1/2" and 3/4''. Whatever
you use, just try to keep the gaps even.

Sealing the ends

If the ends of the boards haven't been previ-
ously sealed, brush on a generous coat of green
wood sealer, latex house paint. or white glue (top
photo). Without sealer, the moisture will evapo-
rate too quickly out of the ends, and the boards
will check and crack.

Stickers
Stickers are inserted between layers so air
can circulate freely on all surfaces of the wood.
There are two basic rules for making your own
stickers: The wood must be dry, and all stickers
must be the same size. The most common size
in industry is 3/4'' square. To help
minimize "sticker stain" (light discol-
orations on the boards from stickers),
you can rout a shallow cove on each
face of the sticker. This reduces the
contact the sticker makes with the
drying lumber. Note: Sticker stain is
most common on lighter-colored
woods, such as maple and ash.
Place stickers every 16" between
layers, and align them vertically (see
the drawina on paae 110). Continue
stacking until you reach the top layer
(again, lower-quality boards are best
saved for this). Cover the stack with a
sheet of pressure-treated plywood
cut to extend past the stack in all
directions, and set it at an angle to
assist water drainage (bottom photo).
Check the moisture content of the
wood every month or so with a meter. When
it hits 20%, move the stack inside to continue
drying.
KILN-DRIED
LUMBER:
DEHUMIDIFICATION
A dehumidification kiln works on the same
principle as a dehumidifier in your home. As air
circulates through the condenser unit, it cools
down and water vapor in the air condenses, col-
lects, and is drained away. In a kiln, the con-
denser is much larger, the compartment is
sealed, and air is forced to circu-
late. As moisture seeps out of the
wood, it is whisked away by the
condenser unit. Over a period of
weeks, all but a small percentage
of the moisture is removed from
the wood. When the wood reads
6% to 8% with a moisture meter
or probe, it's ready to come out.
Many kilns use probes to
monitor the moisture content of
the wood. The kiln operator finds
a board in the middle of the stack
with a defect (not wanting to ruin
a good board) and drills a small
hole to accept the probe tip (top
photo). Mter the probe tip is ham-
mered in place, a cable is hooked
to it and fed out the side of the
stack (inset). Most systems like this allow the
operator to monitor multiple probes at the
same time. This way, different species can be
loaded in the kiln and tracked separately.
With the probes in place, the stack is
loaded into the kiln with a forklift (middle photo).
Then the probe cables are plugged into the
monitor. Next, the fans and condenser are
turned on (bottom photo) and the doors are
sealed. Now it's just a matter of time. The kiln
operator checks the monitor every day or so
and notes the progress in a log. As different
species dry, they can be unloaded.

DRYING LUMBER
I
KILN-DRIED
LUMBER: STEAM
Most large kilns in the United States are
steam-heated kilns where both temperature and
humidity are closely controlled. They use a
combination of wet and dry heat to rapidly
remove excess moisture from wood. These kilns
are used to dry both green lumber and partially
air-dried lumber. For hardwoods, the tempera-
tures inside the kiln range from 100° to 180°F;
air speeds through the lumber range from 200
to 400 feet per minute.
Although there are high-temperature
kilns that use temperatures between 230°
and 250oE they work best with softwoods.
When they're used to dry hardwoods,
honeycombing, collapse, checking, and
darkening of the wood often result.
Research shows that a combination of the
two may be effective- starting low and
then switching to high temperatures.

Big buildings
Steam kilns are really just large build-
ings where the internal climate can be
easily altered and closely monitored (top
photo). In many cases, the stickered lumber
is stacked on pallets and then placed on a
large platform that rides on rails set into the
floor (middle photo). Inside the kiln there are
two probes- a "wet bulb" and a "dry bulb:'
Each controls the amount of wet heat and dry
heat, respectively.

Kiln schedules
Although kiln-drying does require a lot of
skilL there is help available. The Forest Products
Society publishes "Dry Kiln Schedules for
Commercial Woods;' which contains suggested
dry-kiln schedules for over 500 commercial
woods. These schedules call for changes to be
made to the wet and dry heat on the basis of the
average moisture content of the wood. The use
of sample boards and accurate record keeping is
required (bottom photo).

113
Sample boards
To track how the lumber is drying, the
kiln operator periodically measures the
moisture content of the wood. This is done
with sample boards cut from larger pieces
oflumber in the stack; small "moisture
sections" are trimmed off of these. These
sections are carefully weighed and the
moisture content is calculated (top photo).
Sample boards are chosen to represent all
the boards in the stack, from the fastest to
the slowest drying, and from the widest
to the narrowest. Then the kiln operator
checks this moisture content against the
kiln schedule. Any changes that need to be
made are done at the monitor (middle photo)
or control panel.

Treatments
Once the lumber reaches the desired
moisture content, two treatments may be used
on the boards: equalizing and conditioning.
Equalizing is used when there's a wide spread in
the moisture content between boards (typically
3% or greater). Conditioning is used to relieve
the stresses that d rying creates within the
boards. This stress or tension set (often referred
to as case-hardening) occurs because the outer
portion of a board dries faster than the inner
portion. Conditioning increases moisture in the
kiln anywhere from 4 to 72
hours after the desired mois-
ture content is reached.

Dead stack
When either or both treat-
ments are complete, the wood
is removed from the kiln, the
stickers are removed, and the
lumber is "dead" stacked (bot-
tom photo). Since the wood is
dry, there's no need for air to
circulate, and the weight helps
keep the lumber flat. Often
the species and thickness are
marked on the edges of some
of the boards in the stack.

DRYING LUMBER
 concrete blocks as a foundation. The solar kiln
BUILDING shown here is a suggested starting point; modify
it to suit your needs. Mter the frame is built.
A SOLAR KILN cover the sides and back with exterior plywood.
For the top and front. use plexiglass. clear cor-
If you'd like to dry your own wood but don't rugated plastic. or tempered glass (old patio
want to wait for it to air-dry. a solar kiln may be doors work great). Apply caulk to prevent leaks.
the answer. A solar kiln uses heat from the sun to A fan is installed on the floor, centered on
accelerate drying. The wood dries during the day. the back. Install a thermostat centered on the
when it's warmed by sunlight. At night. the mois- top of the back walL and adjust it so when the
ture from the wetter core migrates towards the inside temperature exceeds 80oE the fan turns
surfaces. To prevent the boards from overheating on. Install vents near the top of the back wall to
on warm days. a thermostatically controlled fan allow hot air to escape. To keep air circulating
circulates air. and warmer air escapes out a vent. under the stack. nail 2x2 cleats to the floor
Choose a sunny location for the kiln. and every 16". Stack the lumber as you would for air-
level the surface. Spread gravel over landscape drying. and monitor the drying process with a
cloth (to keep out weeds). and use timbers or moisture meter.

4 x 8 Sheet of
3/4" Exterior-Grade Plywood

4' Long 2 x 4, 45° Miter on One End

"
DRYIN(i LUMBER
DRYING
DEFECTS
Case-hardening
Case-hardening occurs when wood is kiln-
dried. Basically, the surface of the wood dries
too rapidly (usually in the early stages), causing
permanent set and stresses in the outer zone
and tensile stresses in the core. Kiln operators
check for this by cutting stress sections, often
called a "prong test:' Two relief cuts are made
into the sample with a handsaw (top photo). If the
prongs bow significantly out or in, then case-
hardening is present. A good prong
test results in straight or nearly
straight prongs after 16 to 24 hours.
Case-hardening is prevented by the
conditioning stage (see page 114).

End checks
When the ends of boards dry
faster than the rest of the wood,
end checks and end splitting result
(middle photo). This can happen with
either air-dried or kiln-dried lum-
ber. The solution in both cases is to
apply end sealer as soon as possi-
ble. End splitting can occur when
there's too much air circulation
over the ends and not enough over
the stack. This can usually be prevented with
proper sticker placement (near the ends) and by
using baffies to ensure even airflow.

Surface checks
Surface checking appears in kiln-dried
wood when the surface dries too rapidly in rela-
tion to the core (bottom photo). The best way to
prevent this is to use higher relative humidities
in the early stages of drying by using accurate
temperature- and humidity-monitoring equip-
ment. If surface checking is slight, the checks
may close up when the wood is fully dried to a
uniform moisture content.
 Honeycomb
Honeycomb Honeycombing occurs when lumber
Checks undergoes severe case-hardening in the early
stages of drying. Internal checking results from
excessive tensile stresses in the core (top drawing).
Honeycombing can also be caused by exces-
sively high temperature in the final stages.
What's particularly nasty about honeycomb is
that it often resembles surface checking, which
you might think you could just plane away. If
you try this, you'll find that the checks widen
the deeper you go. Honeycombing can be pre-
vented by using higher relative humidities in
the early stages, applying periodic steaming, and
limiting the final temperature. If lumber you've
purchased from a mill or lumberyard has hon-
eycomb, don't try to work with it: It's useless.
Instead, take it back- it wasn't dried properly.

USING A MOISTURE until the push-button switch between the pins

depresses far enough to turn on the meter and
METER provide a reading. Take your reading away from
• Moisture meters have been used in the com- knots and the ends of boards, which will give
mercial lumber industry for years to monitor the you an abnormally high reading. It's also a good
moisture content of wood. Although expensive, idea to take multiple readings and average the
they are accurate and reliable, and several manu- results. To achieve accurate results on thicker
facturers have made this technology affordable to stock when using a pin-type meter, first drive in
the average woodworker. There are two basic nails to "extend" the pins deeper into the wood
types of moisture meter available. One is scanned (see drawing below).
across the board. The
other (as shown in the
photo) uses a pair of Drive Nail
short, sharp pins to pen- into Center
etrate the wood. As a of Wood
rule, meters with pins
are less expensive, but
they aren't as easy to use.
To use a pinless
meter, just hold it over
the board and press the
test button. For a pin-
type meter, push the
pins into the surface
CC I\
1\ good rule is to bu~ as much as ~ou can sensibl~ afford
of an~ wood that excites ~ou and then , quick!~ , bu~ a little bit
more. "
]AM ES KRENOV (1975)

5UYING and
STORING
LUMBER
. . "Where's your rig?" asked the old man at the south Florida lumber-
,. yard. I gestured to my little pickup truck. A young lad in my early 20s,
I was stunned. Everywhere I looked, ~onset huts crammed with hardwood
lumber awaited their usual customers: construction companies that piled
their giant flatbeds with wholesale orders.
I was after a couple of white oak boards to build a tool chest- but I
got an education in buying lumber. The old man let me wander around,
clambering over the stacks to extract this board and that. "Honeycomb;' he'd
pronounce, shaking his head. "Good for nothin' but firewood:' Or, "Not that
board, son; it has sticker stain:· He taught me how to use a grading stick,
what to look for in wood, how to judge a board.
Now, like every woodworker I know, I hoard the stuff; I'm just more
selective than I used to be. I have little bits of exotic woods that I can't throw
away. Someday I'll use them.
Let's walk through the stacks with that wise old man. And find out
how, when a wood really excites us, to buy it and store it so that our final
result is just as exciting.
 need to factor in waste for cutting and planing.
ESTIMATING If you've designed the piece yoursel£ take
the time to generate a cutting list. Sometimes it
LUMBER helps to visualize how much wood you'll need by
creating a cutting diagram as well (see the sample
In a perfect world, all boards are defect-free, shown below). As a general rule of thumb, FAS
color-matched, and just the right size for all boards are around 6" wide. If you plan for SW '-
parts of a project. In the real world, hardwood wide boards that are 8 feet long. you should be
is sold in random widths and lengths, rarely fine. You can use wider boards, but realize that
matches in color, and often has knots, checks, you'll pay a premium for anything over 8" wide,
wane, and warp. That's why it's critical to have a and that wider boards tend to cup.
solid grip on how much and what type oflum- To make sure you have plenty of wood, buy
ber you need for a project before you buy it. at least 20% more than you think you'll need.
The first step is estimating how much wood This extra lumber will let you compensate for
you'll need. This is where a cutting list and a cut- snipe or mistakes, and allows for the best grain
ting diagram can help. If you're working from a selection (see the examples on page 121). And if
set of plans, there will likely be a cutting or everything goes welL you'll have a little stash left
materials list. It's important to note that these for another project.
lists usually show finished dimensions; you'll

CUTIING LIST FOR WALL SHELF

A Sides (2) 7/ s" x 4 1/ 2'' - 24"
B Shelves (3) 3/4" X 41/2''- 30"
C Top Brace (1 ) 3/4'' x 31/2''- 283/s"
D Bottom Brace (1) 3/4'' X 3 1/2'' - 28"

5/ 4" X 6" - 5 ft.

A A

•
Waste

•
Waste

3/4" X 81/ 2'' - 8ft.

c D

8 8

B UYING AND STORING LUMBER

Snipe
It's said that there's no excuse for snipe~
that nasty divot your planer takes out of the last
2 or 3 inches of each board (top photo). It can
often be prevented by adjusting the feed-roller
pressure and supporting the workpiece as it
passes into and out of the planer. But even when
properly adjusted and with the workpiece sup-
ported, many planers still do this. So if you cut
off the snipe as you should from both ends,
you'll lose 4 to 6 inches of every board. Keep this
in mind as you estimate lumber.

Mistakes
Every woodworker makes mistakes. I have a
friend who says the difference between a crafts-
man and an amateur is their ability to hide mis-
takes. I've even seen talented
craftsmen turn a mistake
into a design element. like
adding an inlay out of con-
trasting wood to cover a gap.
The point is, we all make
mistakes like the errant
notch cut into the stretcher
of the table in the middle
photo. Not enough wood
caused the builder to patch
the stretcher, instead of
replacing it. Extra wood
could have prevented this.

Best selection
Having extra wood allows you to
pick and choose the best wood for a
part. It lets you match pieces and use
the grain effectively. Notice the care
that was taken in selecting the quar-
tersawn white oak for the parts of
the Craftsman-style rocker shown in
the bottom photo. The ray fleck on
both front legs gently curves up; the
pattern of ray fleck on the arms gives
the impression of bookmatching,
although the pieces were cut from dif-
ferent boards. This is possible only
when you have extra wood on hand.

BUYING AND STORING LUMBER

 SPECIAL
PARTS
Mter you've estimated the
bulk of the material you'll need
for a project, it's a good idea
to identify any parts that will
strongly affect the overall appear-
ance of a piece. Care in selection
of these highly visual parts
can make or break the piece.
Consider, for example, any table-
top or the front and side pieces
of a cabinet. In the sideboard
drawing shown at right, this
would entail the top. the side
panels, and the fronts of both the
drawers and doors.
If you were to pick only
enough boards to glue up a top. chances are
you'd later wish you had purchased more. I try
to set aside at least one or two extra boards in
case one of them acts up during machining or I
discover a blemish or sticker mark during plan-
ing. In the example shown, I would select a
board that is wide enough and long enough for
all the narrow drawer fronts. This way the grain
could run continuously across the face of the
piece. At the same time, I would select an alter-
nate in case of problems or mistakes, like mis-
cutting the center drawer front. If you don't
have an alternate board, you'll be stuck trying to
match the color and grain to the end pieces.
Since you'll usually bring home a stack of
wood, it's smart to label the special boards at the
lumberyard with a lumber crayon or piece of
chalk. On parts that are to be glued up. I'll often
go to the trouble to draw the standard cabinet-
maker's triangle on them as a reminder of the
intended assembly sequence.

11111!11 B UYING AND STORING LUMBER

 I've been privileged to experi-
ence some extraordinary wood-
working firsthand, from James
Krenov's masterful cabinets to Sam
Maloof's sculpted chairs. I've judged
pieces for design books, art shows,
and competitions.Many of the
pieces were flawless.
For me, the difference between
an exquisite piece and an ordinary
one is often how the craftsman uses
grain and color of the wood. Every
piece of wood is different, and a
woodworker can use these subtle
differences to advantage.
The half-round table shown in
the top photo is a simple example.
Notice how the grain used for the sides is con-
tinuous and also curves gently to match the
curve of the front. This wasn't an accident- it
was planned. Attention to details like this makes
the difference.

GRAIN AS A the frame pieces; the grain in the plywood tilts in

and up, guiding the eye from top to bottom. The
DESIGN ELEMENT
left panel shows a total disregard for grain. The
II Too often, a woodworker will randomly grab a haphazard selection of both frame pieces and
piece oflumber, cut it up for a project, and start plywood give the overall piece a disjointed
gluing pieces together- with virtually no thought appearance that does not please the eye.
to the grain. The grain of wood
can and should be used as a design
element.
Compare the two panels
shown here: They're identical in
size, all the frame parts are made
from cherry from the same stack,
and the panels are both 1/4'' cherry
plywood. The only difference is
how the grain was or wasn't used
to advantage. The right panel
shows care and thought. Notice
how the straight grain is similar in
- r l - -

BUYING AND STORING LUMBER 123

SAVING
MONEY
You can save money
several ways when buying
hardwood. It means spend-
ing time to save money;
Waste Waste
so it all depends which is
more precious to you. Waste Waste

Common boards
Many lumberyards and
sawmills don't sell No.1 or
No. 2 common hardwood,
for a reason: They don't
make any money on it (bad
for them, good for you).
I've found common lumber
that's half the cost ofFAS lumber. As discussed
in Chapter 4 (see page 85), the basic yield of No. 1
common is around 67%; for FAS it's 83%. So for
twice the price, you're only getting 16% more
usable wood. The tradeoff is time: With com-
mon lumber, you'll need to make more cuts to
get to the clear stock (top drawing). This really
isn't an issue, since the first thing you often do
with a board is cut it up into pieces. Common
stock just takes a little more thought, and a
couple of extra cuts.

Shorts
Some lumberyards sell FAS
"shorts:· These are basically discount
cutoffs oflonger 12- to 16-foot FAS
boards, typically 4 to 6 feet long (bottom
photo). Technically, this violates the
NHLA grading rules, as all FAS lumber
must be at least 8 feet long. (These are
not to be confused with select "shorts;'
which have a minimum board size of 6
feet.) If you don't care about length and
the price is right, go for it. But if some-
one tries to sell you these at the same
board footage rate as FAS, tell them
there is no such thing as FAS shorts and that you
want a discount. You can't get it if you don't ask.

BUYING AND STORING LUMBER

 Selects
Another way to save money is to purchase
select lumber instead ofFAS (top photo). Basically,
a select board is FAS on one side and No. 1 com-
mon on the other. These boards cost less and
are perfect for furniture parts where only one
side will show. And after alL most parts don't
show both faces.

Narrow stock
"Narrow" FAS is another common mis-
nomer (middle photo). There's no such grade. The
minimum width of an FAS board is 6"-period.
If you find FAS "narrow" stock at
a discounted rate, the wood is
good, and the narrowness isn't a
problem, then buy it. Here again,
if a lumberyard tries to sell it to
you at FAS prices, gently inform
them of their mistake and try to
negotiate a discount.

MICRO-THIN LUMBER
• Resawing and planing lumber can eat up valuable shop time. If
time is a factor and you're getting ready to start on a project that
calls for a lot of thin stock, consider buying "micro" lumber. Micro-
thin lumber is sold by many woodworking mail-order catalogs and
comes in a variety of woods, both domestic and exotic; thicknesses
vary from 1/s" up tow·.
In addition to saving time, you may save money with pre-thick-
nessed lumber, especially in some of the exotics that blunt cutting
edges: You won't have to resharpen saw blades and jointer or planer
knives. But make no mistake, micro-thin lumber isn't cheap; you
pay a premium to have someone else do this work for you.

B UYING AND STORING LUMBER

 SELECTING
LUMBER
To me, a trip to the local
lumber store or sawmill is an
adventure- a treasure hunt.
You never know what you'll dis-
cover in an old pile of wood or
a freshly cut log. Some wood-
workers regard selecting wood
as a chore, which puzzles me.
Sure, it's hard work sorting
through heavy planks; but the
time and energy you spend
finding just the right wood will
show in the final piece. Even more puzzling are
woodworkers who order wood sight-unseen or
go to a lumberyard and simply take the top
three or four boards off a stack. Selecting boards
by chance like this is a sure way to end up with a
finished project that shows inattention to detail
and a lack of sensitivity to the material (see the
sidebar on page 123).
Over the years, I've developed a routine for
selecting wood that has served me well. I offer it
here as a suggested starting point; we all react to suspect the board is twisted, I'll use a pair of
wood differently. The best advice I can give you winding sticks (see the sidebar on page 127). If the
about selecting wood is to develop a trusting board passes these tests, it goes in the "good"
relationship with a local lumberyard or sawmill. pile; everything else is set aside.
These businesses take great care in stacking
wood so that it remains in top condition. The Color matching
last thing they want is for a customer to rifle When I've set aside two to three times as
through the stack for one board and then leave many boards as I need, I go through the pile
it in a mess. To build a trusting relationship, you again, this time looking to match the boards for
need to show them that you're sensitive to their color. Sorting the boards from dark to light will
needs and that you'll always leave the stack in help (middle photo). Hopefully, as you do this,
the same condition you found it- if not better. you'll get boards that are similar- they usually
end up in a pile in the middle. Color matching
First pa ss may not be that important if you're planning to
The first thing I do when I begin sorting stain a project, but the closer the boards are in
through a stack is to eliminate warped wood. color, the easier it'll be to achieve an even stain.
Any board in the stack with crook (see page 96)
will likely be evident by comparing it to a Check for sapwood
straight board next to it. I pick up each board in Depending on the wood you're sorting
turn and flip it on its side to sight down the through, sapwood may or may not be a concern.
edge and check for cup or bow (top photo). Ifl If you're looking for heartwood only, you'll need

-- B UYING AND STORING LUMBER

 to make a decision about boards that are
showing sapwood. If it's a lovely board and
there's only a little. keep it. If you're losing
more than one-fourth of the board to sap-
wood (like the top white oak board in the photo
at left). leave it. Some woodworkers prefer
wood with both heartwood and sapwood-
it's your call.

Best grain
Finally. I inspect each board carefully
for grain patterns. This is also the best time
to pick out boards for special parts (see paae
122). In most cases. I'm looking for a wide
range of grain. I usually avoid plain-sawn
boards; they tend to cup and have wild pat-
terns that are difficult to match. If I've got a lot
to choose from. I gravitate to the rift- and quar-
tersawn boards because they move less and are
easier to match. To see how they blend together.
I prop them next to each other (middle photo).

Knots and wane

You may have noticed that checking for
knots and wane isn't one of my criteria for
selecting wood. There are two reasons for this.
First. if you're sorting through FAS lumber and
it was graded properly. you won't find much of
either. Second. if you're sorting through No. 1 or
No.2 common lumber. try to develop the same
mindset that graders use- they don't see the
"defects:· they see only good wood.

CHECKING FOR TWIST:

WINDING STICKS
Whenever I shop for wood. I always take a pair of shop-made "winding
sticks" with me to check boards for twist. They're just two pieces of ab-
solutely straight stock about 16" in length. To use them. set one stick on each
end of a board as shown. Then squat down so your eyes are level with one
stick and sight over its top edge to the stick on the other end. If the top
edges are paralleL there's no twist; if there's deviation. the board is twisted
and will surely cause you problems.

B UYING AND STORING LUMBER

 G ENERAL
STORAGE
Don't let your carefully selected wood
degrade because of improper storage. First and
foremost, lumber should always be stored off
the floor (see pages 129- 133 for rack ideas). If you
store lumber on a floor, especially cement,
moisture may seep into the wood; at worst it
can cause warpage and decay.

Allow to acclimatize
Whether your newly purchased lumber is
air-dried or kiln-dried, you must allow it to
acclimat.ize to the conditions of your workshop
before you work on it. This is a common mis-
take that causes unnecessary aggravation. We
know that wood constantly moves and adjusts
to come to equilibrium with its surroundings. If
you don't allow for this, the wood will continue
to adjust as you work it- joints that once fit
perfectly may tighten or loosen. As a general
rule of thumb, I allow wood to rest for a month
in the shop before I work on it (top photo).

Sticker if necessary
If the initial moisture content of the wood
is high, say above 12%, you'll need to allow more
time for it to acclimatize. You can help
the process along by re-stickering the
wood in the shop (middle photo). The
stickers will allow better air movement
and help speed drying.

Store vertically if necessary

If storage space is tight, you can tem-
porarily store lumber by stacking it verti-
cally (bottom photo). Make sure the wood
doesn't rest directly on the floor, though.
A scrap resting on plastic will help keep
out moisture. Also, try to stack the lum-
ber as vertically as possible; elastic cords
or rope can add support as necessary.

-- B UYING AND STORING LUMBER

 OVERHEAD
STORAGE
Ceiling Joist There are several ways to store wood in the

~
unused overhead space in a basement, garage, or
shed: a simple storage rack cleats to hold cut-
offs, and short sections of plastic pipe to hold
Arm dowels or molding.
(11/2 II X 3 1/4'' - 14 II)
Storage rack
The overhead storage rack (top drawing) has
three parts: a vertical support and two arms.
Three or four of these racks attached to floor or
ceiling joists with lag screws or bolts will hold a
surprisingly large amount of wood. The rack
parts are cut from 2-by material and are joined
together with T-half-laps strengthened with glue
and screws. Since the racks hang from the ceil-
ing, I averted nasty head bumps by knocking off
the sharp corners on the bottom of the arms
and the top and bottom of the vertical supports.

Cleats
The space between ceiling or floor joists is
perfect for storing cutoffs. All you need to do is
span the joists with cleats screwed at regular
intervals (typically 16"). To prevent the ends of
the cutoffs from catching on the cleats as they're
slipped in and out. rout a 1/2"-roundover on the
edges of one face of each cleat. Then attach
each cleat to a joist so the rounded edges face
up, as shown in the middle photo.

Plastic pipe
I like to store small or delicate
wood parts, like dowels or inlay.
overhead where they're out of
harm's way. To do this, I cut short
lengths of plastic pipe (commonly
used for waste or drain lines) and
screw them to ceiling or floor
joists as shown in the bottom
photo. You'll need to drill a pilot
hole in the top of each piece for a
screw, and a larger access hole in
the bottom for the screwdriver.

BUYING AND STORING LUMBER

 Even the space between the verticals or
LUMBER RACK studs is used for storing cutoffs; the cutoffs are
held in place with elastic stretch-cords that hook
Although the lumber rack shown below is
into metal eye hooks installed in the sides of the
designed to be built as a stand-alone unit that
studs. A length oflx4 across the bottom of the
can attach to any walL it can also be quickly
rack supports the bottom of cutoffs stored, and
made using the existing exposed studs in your
adds stability if the lumber rack is built as a sepa-
basement, workshop. or shed. Lumber is stored
rate unit. Two more lx4s are notched into the
on short lengths of black iron pipe that fit into
top and bottom back of the stand-alone rack to
holes drilled in the vertical pieces or wall studs.
provide additional support. All other parts butt
(Note: Before you drill a series of holes in wall
together and are joined with screws.
studs, check with a local building inspector to
make sure the wall isn't load-bearing and that
drilling holes won't weaken it.)

/2"
1
Black Pipe
at 4° Angle

Eye Hook

All Stock 2 x 4 Unless Otherwise Sepcified

~ BUYING AND STORING LUMBER

 The trick to building this lumber rack
1
is drilling accurate angled holes for the
/2" Black Pipe, black pipe (see drawing at left). First, to make
15" Long sure the holes for each "shelf" align, use a
long level to mark the hole locations in the
1 studs. To drill the angled holes, I made a
simple drilling guide. It's just a 4"-long piece

r
1
of 2x4 with a 4"-square piece of 1/ 4" hard-
board fixed to the side for clamping the
7
/s"-dia. guide to a stud. You can either drill a 4o
Hole, -+---' hole through the width of the 2x4, or drill a
3" Deep straight hole and cut a 4o taper on the back
edge of the 2x4. A mark on the side of the
hardboard indicating the centerpoint of the
hole will make it easy to align the guide to
the marks you made on the studs.

Black pipe
Black pipe is sold in various lengths at most
building centers (middle photo). I found 30"-long
sections and had these cut in two (or you can
cut them yourself with a hacksaw). Mter the
pipe is cut, round-over the ends with a mill file
or on a grinder. Black pipe is often grimy, so
make sure to clean it thoroughly with mineral
spirits before storing wood.

Elastic cords
Elastic stretch-cords provide the most con-
venient access to cutoffs stored between the
studs (bottom photo). For 16" on-center studs, a
14" cord is just right- you can purchase these
at almost any hardware store or home center.
The elastic cords hook into
eyes screwed into the sides
of the studs. For maximum
flexibility, you can install a
couple of different levels so
you can move the cords up or
down to match the length of
the cutoffs.

BUYING AND STORING LUMBER

 Then clamp the two pieces together and lay out
SHEET GOODS and cut the taper on the front ends with a circu-
lar saw. Level out the rough cuts with a belt
RACK sander or a hand plane.
Next, make the L-shaped frame by screwing
The sheet goods rack shown below is the
a 2-foot length of 2x6 to the end of an 8-foot
perfect companion to the lumber rack shown piece. Now sandwich and clamp the L-shaped
on page 130. It attaches to the wall with hinges, frame between the plywood sides. Screw the
and pivots out on casters for easy access to the sides to the frame every 8" or so with wood
stored sheet stock. It can hold up to five 3/4''-
screws. To help prevent the edges of the plywood
thick 4x8 sheets, or a variety of other thick- sides from splitting and tearing, I cut a 1/s" cham-
nesses, as well as sheet good cutoffs.
fer along all exposed edges with a block plane
(or you could use a sanding block). It's also a
Construction
good idea to round-over the top front edge of
You can make this rack with a single sheet
the bottom 2x6 to make it easier to slide sheet
of 3/4" plywood and a couple lengths of2X6.
stock into the rack.
Start by ripping the plywood in half lengthwise.

2x6
2x2

/
/

(
/ ....
/
/

/
/
/
(

T
24"
~·
Casters•

BUYING AND STORING LUMBER

 If you're adding the sheet
goods rack to the lumber
rack shown on page 130, you
don't need to make and attach
the mounting cleat shown at
left. Instead, you can attach
the hinges directly to a wall
stud.

Attach mounting cleat

The easiest way to attach
the sheet goods rack to a wall
is to use a mounting cleat (top
photo). This is nothing more
than a 2-foot length of2x2
with counterbored holes drilled in it for lag
screws. For a masonry walL you'll need to drill
holes with a masonry bit to accept lag shields.
On framed walls, locate a wall stud with a stud
finder, and drive lag screws through the cleat
directly into the stud. In either case, make sure
the cleat is plumb and set above the ground to
match the height of the casters.

Add casters
Flip the plywood rack so the bottom faces
up. Then install two casters about 2" in from the
end of the 2x6 (middle photo). Either fixed or
swivel casters will work here; just make sure
they're heavy-duty and are rated to support con-
siderable weight- S sheets ofMDF weigh in at
over 500 pounds. Use beefY screws at
least 1" in length.

Install hinges
The best way to support the rack is
with strap hinges (I used 5" hinges). You
can either attach the hinges to the cleat
before attaching it to the walL as I did, or
attach them after the cleat is mounted.
Position the rack against the wall and
insert a scrap of wood under the back so
the rack is level. Then use beefy screws at
least 1" in length to secure the hinges to
both the cleat and the rack (bottom photo).

B UYING AND STORING LUMBER

"P !~wood , with a 3 ,500-~ear perFormance record , is the
pinnacle of wood engineering-no other product improves
wood 's natural characteristics as great!~. "
). F. BURRELL (1972)

PLYWOOD
. . . Although humble and common, plywood has a remarkable history.
,. Since the time of the pharaohs, humans have recognized the benefits
of gluing together thin strips of wood to achieve lightweight strength plus
stability. In ancient Egypt, plywood formed the cases that entombed
mummies. Much more recently, Americans enlisted the properties of this
versatile material in World War II: Hardwood plywood was used to build
airplanes, boats, and barracks. That's quite a history for something so simple:
Plywood is three or more layers of wood glued together so the grain direc-
tions are 90o to each other.
Today, plywood is a woodworker's dream: It's flat, stable, and strong.
Large panels can be purchased without the trouble of gluing up separate
boards. As with all wood, forewarned is forearmed, and I was neither the
first time I used plywood. Ignorant of the difference in grades, I bought a
sheet of exterior plywood (it was the cheapest) for a sewing cabinet I was
planing to veneer. Who knew how poorly its uneven surface would serve as
a substrate for veneer? With all the different types of plywood available, an
informed choice can make even the humblest project a fine piece of work.
 is also manufactured with an engineered-panel
CONSTRUCTION core (particleboard or medium-density fiber-
board) or with a solid-lumber core (see the draw-
Traditionally, plywood has been made by
ing and chart below). In some cases, you can even
gluing together sheets of thin veneer so the
find a combination of core materials. This type
grains of successive sheets are perpendicular to
of plywood, commonly known as multi-core,
each other. This cross-ply construction does two
mixes layers of engineered wood with veneer.
things. First, it creates strong panels- pound for
pound, plywood has been proven to be stronger
than steel in static bending strength. Second,
cross-ply construction creates stable panels.
Consider how much an 8-foot-wide panel
made of glued-up boards will change in width
as humidity changes. The general rule of thumb
is 1/s" per foot. This means it could move l" in
width throughout the year! But since the grain
of the veneer in plywood runs in opposite direc-
tions, and the glue that holds the plies together Veneer Core Lumber Core
is stronger than the wood itsel£ there's hardly
any movement at all- typically less than 0.02%.
Strength and stability aside, plywood con-
fuses many woodworkers because some of it
isn't really plywood. When we think of ply-
wood, we envision an inner core that's made of
cross-plies of veneer. Although veneer-core is
MDF Core Particleboard Core
the most common type of plywood, "plywood"

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLYWOOD
Core Visual Edge Surface Dimensional Screw- Bond in~
Type Flatness Quality Uniformity Stability Holding Strengt Availability

Particle- Excellent Good Excellent Fair Fair Good Readily

Board

MDF Excellent Excellent Excellent Fair Good Good Readily

Hardwood Fair Good Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Readily

Veneer

Softwood Fair Good Fair Excellent Excellent Excellent Readily

Veneer

Lumber Good Good Good Good Excellent Excellent Limited

Hardboard Excellent Excellent Excellent Fair Good Good Readily

NOTE: Table developed by the Hardwood Plywood & Veneer Association in cooperation with the Architectural Woodwork Institute

PLYWOOD
 Lumber core
The first thing that's important to real-
ize about lumber-core plywood (top photo)
is that the core can be either softwood or
hardwood. However, mixing species within
the core is not allowed. There are three
grades of wood strips used to make up the
cores: clear, sound, and regular. Clear-grade
strips must be full-length or finger-jointed
and free from knots or other defects. Sound
grade is similar to clear, except that it allows
discolorations and sound knots. Regular
grade allows strips to be butted together
without a finger joint.

MDF or particleboard core

Even though it has been around
for years, many woodworkers (includ-
ing myself) still don't think ofMDF
(medium-density fiberboard) or
particleboard plywood as plywood.
In reality, it's just an engineered panel
with veneer applied to both faces
(middle photo). Although it doesn't offer
the screw-holding ability and strength
of standard plywood, it does have
other advantages. Because the surface
of particleboard and MDF is so flat,
the surface of the plywood made with
these as cores is very uniform and the
panels are extremely flat.

Veneer core
Although MDF and particleboard cores are
gaining in popularity, veneer-core plywood is
still the standard (bottom photo). The main reason
for this is the superior strength and screw-
holding characteristics that can be found only
with this type of plywood. One note about
veneer-core plywood: The thickness will vary
from manufacturer to manufacturer. Always
measure the thickness (preferably with dial
calipers) before cutting any joinery. In many
cases, 1/4" plywood won't be exactly 1/4''; if you
cut a 1/4'' groove for it to fit into, you won't get
a tight fit.

P LYWOOD
 HARDWOOD
FACE VENEERS
How the face veneer for a sheet of plywood
is sliced will have a great impact on its overall
appearance. The four most common types of
slicing are rotary, plain, quarter, and half-round.

Rotary
Rotary-sliced veneer is produced by press-
ing a broad cutting knife set at a slight angle
against a rotating log (top drawing) . The log is
placed between centers of what is basically a
huge lathe. The veneer is peeled off the log
as if it were a giant roll of paper towels.
Rotary-cut veneer can be sufficiently wide
to provide a full sheet or a one-piece face.

Plain-sliced
When veneer is plain-sliced or flat-cut,
the knife cuts parallel to the center of the
log (middle drawing). In most cases, the log is
brought down against a stationary knife.
The innermost growth rings of the log often
produce what is known as a "cathedral"
grain effect.

Quarter-sliced
Ollarter-slicing a log results in straight,
uniform grain. One-fourth of a log is brought
down against a stationary knife to slice pieces
perpendicular to the annual growth rings (inset
drawing). In some species, like white oak and
sycamore, this produces a distinct ray fleck or
silver grain pattern.

Half-round
The motion in half-round slicing basically
is a combination of rotary and plain slicing.
The log is moved in an abbreviated arc roughly
parallel to the center of the log (bottom drawing).
This technique creates the more attractive pat-
terns of plain slicing while getting the most out
of the log. The resulting veneer is similar to
plain slicing except that the "cathedral" patterns Rotation of Flitch
have more rounded tops.

- P LYWOOD
 Unless veneer has been rotary-sliced to pro- four main patterns that can be formed by
duce full-sized or one-piece sheets, the pieces of matching sliced veneer in different ways: book-
sliced veneer must be assembled into full sheets. match, slip-match, random match, and pleasing
How the pieces are assembled will also affect the match. Pieces of veneer are spliced together
finished appearance of the plywood. There are temporarily on a taping machine or tapeless
splicer before they're glued to the inner plies.

Book-match
When alternating pieces of veneer sliced
from a log are turned over so that adjacent edges
meet, the pattern created is referred to as a
book-match since the pieces resemble the
opened pages of a book (top drawing). The growth
rings of the wood match up to form interesting
symmetrical patterns. This method of matching
yields the maximum continuity of grain.

Slip-match
A slip-match pattern is created when suc-
cessively cut pieces of veneer are slipped out in
sequence and joined together (middle drawing).
This produces a repeating figure where the
grain doesn't match up at the joints. Slip-
matched plywood is typically very uniform in
color, as all faces have similar light reflection.

HOW MATCHING AFFECTS APPEARANCE

Book: When successive Slip: Ifthe pieces of sliced Random: Pieces of

pieces of sliced veneer are veneer are slipped off the veneer that are joined to-
opened like a book and stack and joined together gether at random create a
joined together, a symmet- in order, it creates a repeti- jumbled pattern. Pieces
rical pattern of continuous tive pattern with no conti- may or may not even come
grain is created. nuity of grain. from the same log.

PLYWOOD
 Random match
On plywood faces that are random-
matched, no attention has been paid to
the sequence or placement of veneers
(top drawing). This is typically done only
on lower grades of veneers, where knots,
stains, and other natural characteristics
are allowed. ~ite often the pieces of
veneer are of different widths. This cre-
ates a casual "boardlike" effect similar
to planks that have been glued up at
random. Random Match

Pleasing match
When a pleasing match is created,
care is taken to match up the color of
each of the veneer pieces, but not neces-
sarily the grain (middle drawing). This
results in a pattern where there is no
color contrast at the joints. A pleasing
match is basically a combination of
book- and slip-matching and random
matching. Pleasing-match and random-
match faces are most often used as back
veneers.

Pleasing Match

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON WOODS

Species Plain-Sliced Quarter-Sliced Rift-Sliced Rotary-Sliced

Birch yes no no yes

Cherry yes yes no yes

Lauan no yes no yes

Mahogany yes yes no yes

Maple yes yes no yes

Oak, red yes yes yes yes

Oak, white yes yes yes yes

Walnut yes yes no yes

- PLYWOOD
AT THE
PLYWOOD MILL
Before being loaded onto a lathe or slicing
machine, all veneer logs are steam-heated to
soften the wood fibers and assure a smooth
texture and easier cutting.

Lathe and charger

Some 80 % to 90% of all veneer is cut by the
rotary lathe method. As the lathe spindles move
(top photo), the log is rotated against a knife.
The speed with which the knife and the knife
carriage move toward the center of the log reg-
ulates the thickness of the veneer. Newer lathes
use powered rollers to help the lathe spindles
turn. An even more recent development is the
high-tech spindle-less lathe. Without spindles,
this lathe is capable of peeling a log all the way
down to a 2" peeler core.

Rotary veneer clipper

Mter veneers are cut, they go directly to
a clipper, which trims the veneer to various
widths and removes defects (middle photo).
Basically, the green veneer ribbon passes over
an infrared scanner, which identifies voids,
splits, and knotholes and then automatically
clips them out. Advanced clippers can be pro-
grammed to remove sapwood as well.

Rotary veneer dryer

From the clipper, the veneer goes to
the dryer (bottom photo). The large cham-
bers of the dryer are equipped with heat-
ing elements and fans to circulate air. The
veneer is transported on a conveyer belt
at a set rate to guarantee that the veneer is
dried to a moisture content below 12%.
This moisture content is compatible with
both the gluing process and the eventual
end-use environment of the plywood.

Photos courtesy of the Hardwood

Plywood and Veneer Association

PLYWOOD
 Slicer
Most decorative face veneers
aren't peeled on a rotary lathe.
Instead, they're cut into thin
pieces on a slicer (top photo). With
this method, a section of a log
or "flitch'' is attached to the log
bed, which moves up and down
against a stationary knife, cutting
a slice of veneer with each stroke.
Veneer may be plain-sliced,
where the knife is parallel to the
growth rings, or quarter-sliced,
where the knife is perpendicular
to the growth rings.

Sliced-veneer dryer
just like the dryers for rotary-sliced veneer,
the dryers for sliced veneer remove moisture to
a level compatible with gluing. Here again, the
veneer is conveyed automatically through a
heated chamber with forced-air circulation
(middle photo). Smaller mills also kiln-dry sliced
veneer. Since sliced pieces are substantially
narrower than rotary-cut veneer, sliced-veneer
dryers are typically much smaller in size.

Cross-feed splicer
After drying. less-than-full-sized sheets
are dry-clipped and joined together to form
full sheets (bottom photo). The machines that
do this are called splicers, taping machines,
or tapeless splicers. First, the edges of the
. -- -

-,, -- . ·....
==- ;. ·_

thin strips of veneer are coated with hot- -...

-
~ ;;--.;- :.' :~
·- ·-
melt adhesive. Then these edges are pressed -- ,• ,:
together, and heat is applied to melt the
glue and form a temporary bond. The bond
needs to hold just long enough for the full
sheet to be bonded to the inner plies. Some
machines use a fiberglass thread coated
with adhesive to join the pieces.

Photos courtesy of the Hardwood

Plywood and Veneer Association

~~~~~~ PLYWOOD
 Glue spreader
Once full sheets have been pro-
duced, they're ready to be glued up into
hardwood plywood. Alternate lower-
grade ply veneers for the core are fed
through a glue spreader, which simulta-
neously coats both sides with a thin
layer ofliquid adhesive (top photo). On
face veneers, the glue is spread on only
one side. The spreader roller controls
how much adhesive is applied to the
veneer. After the adhesive is applied, the
sheets of veneer are "laid up" or stacked
into plywood by hand, machine, or a
combination ofboth.

Hot press
Now all it takes to turn the separate sheets
of veneer into plywood is heat and pressure. In
most plywood plants, the veneer sandwich is
first passed through a set of cold rollers to flat-
ten veneers and help transfer adhesive. Then
these panels move onto the hot press (middle
photo). A hot press is a huge machine typically
two stories high with dozens of slots in it to
accept individual panels. When the press is
closed, it exerts anywhere from 150 to 300
pounds per square inch at a temperature of
about 250° F. After pressing, the panels are
stacked to allow the adhesive to cure and then
are trimmed to final size.

Sander
After the panels are
trimmed to final size, they're
graded. Knotholes and splits on
the backs of some grades may
be repaired with either wood
or synthetic patches. Panels that
don't meet specifications are
downgraded, remanufactured,
or rejected. The final step for
most hardwood plywood is
sanding. Here the panels pass
through wide-belt sanders,
where they are sanded to final
thickness (bottom photo).

PLYWOOD
 how well the plies stay together when exposed
HARDWOOD to different conditions. Both Technical Type and
Type I are waterproof and are used where the
PLYWOOD plywood will be exposed to water. Technical
Type has the better moisture resistance and is
Hardwood plywood is available in many
often used in boatbuilding. Since Type II ply-
different types, grades, and sizes. Many wood-
wood is moisture-resistant but not waterproo£
workers think the "quality" of hardwood ply-
it should be used only for indoor applications-
wood is better than softwood plywood because
most of the hardwood plywood you'll find in
it's made out of hardwood. This isn't always the
home centers and lumberyards is Type II.
case. The inner plies of hardwood plywood can
be made of softwood. It's only the outer or "face" Hardwood plywood grades
veneers that have to be hardwood. As a matter of
The different grades of hardwood plywood
fact, often the core of the plywood is a manufac-
describe various characteristics allowed in each
tured panel such as particleboard or medium-
veneer or ply. Since the "face" ply is exposed, it
density fiberboard (MDF). The bottom line is,
determines the appearance of the panel. On
you're paying a premium for the face veneers.
some panels, high-grade veneers have been care-
fully chosen to match color and grain. Other
Types
panels show more character marks to give a
There are three types of hardwood plywood
more natural appearance. The chart below
available: Technical Type, Type L and Type II.
Basically. the difference among the three types is

HARDWOOD PLYWOOD GRADES

Face Back Inner-Ply
Grades Grades Grades

AA Best-quality grade Allows sound, tight knots J No knotholes allowed;

for high-end use less than 3/s 11 ; no knotholes splits and gaps less than 1/s 11

A Excellent 2 Allows sound, tight knots K 3fs 11 to 3/4 11 knotholes allowed,

appearance, not less than % 11 ; knotholes up depending on thickness;
as perfect as AA to 112'' if repaired splits and gaps under 1/4 11

B Used where natural 3 Allows sound, tight knots L 1 11 knotholes allowed;

characteristics are less than 1 112 11 ; knotholes up splits and gaps under 112 11
desirable to 1 11 if repaired

C/D/E Used where surfaces 4 Allows sound, tight knots M 2 112 11 knotholes allowed;
will be hidden; C, D, of any size; knotholes up splits and gaps less than 1 11
and E allow repairs to 4 11 if repaired
in increasing sizes

Special Appearance depends

on species, such as
wormy chestnut or
bird's-eye maple

PLYWOOD
 details the different grades in the vol-
untary American National Standard
for Hardwood and Decorative
Plywood. There are separate grades
for the face, back, and inner plies. It's
important to note that the grade
assigned to a sheet of hardwood ply-
wood describes only its appearance,
not its core type or strength.

Hardwood plywood grade stamps

Since appearance is important, the grade of
a sheet of hardwood plywood is stamped on the
edge. There are five parts to the grade stamp (top
photo): the grade (the first character is the face
grade, the number is the back grade), species
{birch, oak, etc.), construction {number of plies),
mill number {may not be present on all stamps),
and the standard by which the panel was graded.
Unfortunately, there is no mandatory certi-
fication for grade stamps. This basically means a
manufacturer can stamp any grade it wants on a
panel. Reputable manufacturers, however, will
note the Voluntary Standard they followed
directly on the purchase order to the lumber-
yard. If the plywood is of questionable quality;
ask to see whether the lumberyard can back up
the grade stamp in writing.

Buying tips
I can't tell you how many times I've
watched a woodworker sort through a stack
of high-grade plywood to find a piece
where both faces are near perfect, only to
find out the plywood is to be used for a
tabletop where only one side will show.
The real waste is that A-1 plywood (top photo)
can cost 20% to 30% more than the same
species in A-3 or A-4 (bottom photo). Simply
put, pay for only what you need. Another
way to save money when buying hardwood
plywood is to ask whether the store carries
any "shop"-grade plywood. This unofficial
grade can be either factory seconds or dam-
aged sheets. You'll find these sheets typically
priced 25% less than standard sheets.

PLYWOOD
 SPECIALT Y
PLYWOODS
In addition to standard
hardwood plywood, there are
a number of specialty and pre-
mium plywoods available to
handle the woodworking needs
of most any project. Premium
plywoods such as Baltic Birch
and ApplePly, bending plywood,
and even prefinished plywood
can make a difficult job easy.

Premium plywood
The big difference between
premium plywood and standard
plywood is the thickness and
number of plies. Basically, premium ply-
wood has more, thinner plies (top drawing).
This does three things. First, more plies
mean greater stability and a much higher
strength-to-weight ratio. Second, its screw-
holding capability is much better than con-
ventional-core plywood's. Third, unlike the
unattractive edges of standard plywood,
premium plywood offers a unique, attrac-
tive edge that can be cleanly machined.

Jigs
This combination of stability and
strength is why I use premium plywood
most often for making jigs. Less movement
and greater stability means that the jigs are
more precise- cuts are straighter, joints are
tighter. Baltic Birch plywood is manufactured in
Europe and comes only in metric sizes (middle
photo). It can be hard to find, and when you do
locate some, you'll often find only sheets that
are roughly 60" square (that's as big as it comes).

ApplePiy
ApplePly is the trade name that States
Industries has given to their premium,
American-made multilayer hardwood plywood
(top photo, page 147). The core laminations of

- PLYWOOD
 ApplePly are 1/IG"-thick veneers of western red
alder- this produces a strong but light plywood.
Unlike Baltic Birch, ApplePly is available in a
variety of species (maple, birch, oak, pecan,
hickory, ash, and more) and surface treatments
(see the sidebar below). Thicknesses of ApplePly
range from 1/s" to 1". Contact States Industries at
www.statesind.com to find the nearest ApplePly
distributor.

Bending plywood
Unlike most plywood products where you
want the panel to be rigid, bending plywood
flexes easily (middle photo). Bending plywood or
bending panels are available in 1/s", 1/4", and 3/s"
thicknesses and are manufactured by Danville
Plywood Corporation. They're sold under the
trade name Curv-A-Board and are great for
sheathing a curved corner or other tight radius,
such as the end of a kitchen counter or any-
where you'd like to incorporate a gentle curve
into a project. The panels can bend because the
grain of the thicker face veneers runs in the
same direction. The grain of the thinner inner
ply runs perpendicular to these to provide some
modicum of strength. Curv-A-Board is intended
for decorative uses only and should never be
used as a structural material.

PREFINISHED PLYWOOD
• If you're ever faced with a large project that
calls for a lot of exposed plywood, such as built-in
bookcases or panels for wainscoting, you might
want to consider using prefinished plywood. Pre-
finished plywood has been used in the high-end
cabinetmaking industry for years, but it's popping
up more and more in smaller shops where time-
saving benefits can easily outweigh the added
cost. A wide variety of natural and stained or
dyed hardwoods are available, most with UV-
cured finishes. Contact States Industries at
www.statesind.com for more information.

P LYWOOD
 Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels, published by
SOFTWOOD the APA. now called the Engineered VVood Asso-
ciation. Photos from top to bottom on page 147: A-C.
PLYWOODS B-C. and C-D plywood. Each is cut in half and
one half turned over so you can see both faces.
Most softwood plywood is manufactured
fo r use in either industrial or construction
applications. That's why most standards for soft-
wood plywood deal exclusively with how it
m u st perform in a designated application rather
than from what or how the plywood is manu-
factured. Certain grades of softwood plywood,
however, are quite suitable for woodworking
proj ects where appearance isn't critical or the
plywood will be used as a base for veneer, lami- Span --RA_T_Et'!1THING +--- Panel
nate, or paint. Rating - 32/16 15/321NCH Grade
SIZED FOR SPACING
Softwood plywood grades Expo:~re .- EXPOSURE 1
Grade in softwood plywood generally refers
Class1f1cat1on OOO __- Mill Number
to the quality of the veneer used for the face and PRP-108 APA Panel
back veneers (A-B, B-C. etc.); see the chart below. HUD-UM-4DC ~ Standard
Grade can also refer to the intended end use of
the paneL such as Sheathing, or Underlayment.
The standard that most softwood plywood
manufacturers adhere to is Voluntary Product l

Standard PS 2-92, Performance Standard for

SOFTWOOD PLYWOOD GRADES

Veneer
Grade Characteristics

A Smooth, paintable. Not more than 18 neatly made repairs, boat, sled, or router type, and
parallel to grain, permitted . Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. May be used for natural
finish in less-demanding applications.

B Solid surface. Shims, sled, or router repairs, and tight knots to 111 across grain permitted.
Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. Some minor splits permitted.

c Improved C veneer with splits limited to 1/ 8 11 width and knotholes or other open defects limited
(plugged) to 114'' x 112'' . Admits some broken grain. Wood or synthetic repairs permitted.

c Tight knots to 1112 11 • Knotholes to 111 across grain and some to 1112 11 if total width of knots and
knotholes is within specified limits. Synthetic or wood repairs permitted. Discoloration and
sanding defects that do not impair strength permitted. Limited splits allowed . Stitching permitted .

D Knots and knotholes to 2 112 11 width across grain and 112'' larger within specified limits. Limited
splits allowed. Stitching permitted . Limited to Interior, Exposure 1, and Exposure 2 panels.

P LYWOOD
 Grade stamps
Reading an APA grade stamp is
fairly straightforward. For unsanded
panels (top drawing on page 148), the
panel grade is listed under the APA
mark (Sheathing, Underlayment, etc.).
Directly under that and to the left is the
span rating (32/ 16), and next to this is
the panel thickness (l5/32"). Beneath that
is the exposure durability (Exposure 1),
the mill number, and the panel stan-
dard. Sanded panels are similar, except
the grade is shown as a letter designa-
tion (A-C C-D) and there is no span
rating or thickness specified.

Exposure durability
For projects that will be subjected to mois-
ture, such as outdoor play equipment, sheds, or
boatbuilding, there are three exposure durabil-
ity classifications you should be familiar with:
Exterior, Exposure t and Exposure 2. Exterior
panels have a fully waterproofed bond and are
designed for applications subject to permanent
exposure to moisture. Exposure 1 panels should
be used for protected applications where the
glue bond must be waterproof Exposure 2 pan-
els are intended for protected construction and
industrial applications. Panels rated as Interior
are manufactured with interior glue and should
be used only in interior applications.

Quality
Softwood plywood is manufac-
tured from dozens of species of
wood, and the quality of the panels
can vary tremendously. The face
veneer on some plywood is clear
and straight; other panels offer wild
grain with lots of patches. The quali-
ty and number of inner plies used to
make the core also varies greatly. It's
important that you carefully inspect
plywood before buying it. I've seen
3/4"-thick softwood plywood with

five inner plies, others with seven.

 r

CHARACTERISTICS
OF SOFTWOOD
PLYWOOD
There are three common defects to look
out for when you shop for softwood plywood:
patches, fill, and voids. For the most part, patch-
es and fill affect only appearance; however, voids
can create a structural or strength problem.

Patches
Larger knots on A and B grades of softwood
plywood can be removed and filled with foot-
ball-shaped wood patches (top photo). Although
this shape is routed to help the patch blend in
well with the surrounding wood, it rarely works,
because the patch itself has a different grain
pattern. Synthetic patching is also becoming
commonplace, where the defect is routed out
and then a nonshrinking synthetic filler is
applied to the void. Mter the filler sets up
completely, it is sanded smooth.

Fill
Smaller knots, gaps, and minor surface
imperfections are typically filled with a syn-
thetic wood filler. Voids in the edge of a panel
are frequently filled as well (middle photo). In
some cases, this can be as low-tech as a mill
worker using a putty knife to sloppily force
filler into the void, or as high-tech as injecting a
specialized foam which sets up almost instantly.

Voids
I've always felt voids are the biggest problem
to watch out for in softwood plywood (bottom
photo). Depending on the quality of the inner
plies, an edge void may reach in for several inch-
es. This can create a huge problem, especially if
you're planning on covering the plies with a
wood strip-a void means there's nothing to
nail into and not enough surface for a good glue
bond. Whenever possible, cut off sections that
show voids. If you can't, take the time to fill it
with a mixture of SO/ SO epoxy and sawdust.

P LYWOOD
 SPECIALTY
SOFTWOOD
PLYWOODS
Medium-density overlay
Medium-density overlay or MOO is
basically a B-grade plywood that's free of
voids and has one or both faces covered
with a smooth paper overlay (top photo).
The overlay is impregnated with a phe-
nolic resin to make the panel moisture-
and abrasion-resistant. Although MOO
has been used to make road signs for
years, I find that it's perfect for making
jigs- especially complex ones. The smooth
paper face is easy to draw on and resists wear.
The lack of voids means the panel holds screws
well and will remain stable even with hard use.

Siding
Softwood plywood siding is available with
many surface treatments such as V-grooves or
channel grooves, and with brushed or rough-
sawn textures. Although I don't use siding like
the Tl-11 shown in the middle photo for many
woodworking projects, I've used it for years to
cover the interior walls of my shop. Sure, it's
more expensive than drywalL but it looks great,
and because it's plywood, you can screw into it
anywhere. I have, however, used it occasionally
for the back of a country-style cabinet to give
the piece a rustic feel.

Pressure-treated plywood
Pressure-treated lumber has been treated
with a preservative- typically chromated
copper arsenate (CCA), which produces the
familiar green tinge (bottom photo). I don't know
of a woodworker who would build a cabinet or
a piece of furniture out of it. But it certainly has
its uses. I've often used it in air-drying lumber to
cover the stack. And it's great for building kilns
or other projects where moisture is a concern
(like a steam box for bending wood).

P LYWOOD
"0 n average, 6)% ot a tree can be used to make solid lumber.
When engineered wood and other products are made tram the
remaining wood , more than 95% ot a tree can be made into useful
consumer products. "
U.S.D.A. FOREST SERVICE (1990)

ENGINEERED
PRODUCTS
Humans couldn't make wood any better-looking, so we settled for
added strength, stability, and workability- plus lower cost. StilL many
woodworkers dismiss engineered wood products, and that's a shame. This
man-made material is not only good for our planet- it helps us conserve
natural resources by using more of the tree with less waste- but also a boon
to our projects. Using waste like planer shavings that lumbermills used to
burn, engineered-product manufacturers produce material boasting stabili-
ty, flatness, smooth surfaces, and vibration-dampening weight. Your enter-
tainment center, dining room table, and kitchen countertops are probably all
made of engineered wood, as is the majority of commercial furniture.
Do these natural/synthetic mixes have a place in woodworking?
Absolutely. Are they all pretty much the same? Absolutely not. just as with
solid lumber, knowing what products are available, how they're graded, and
how they machine can help you save time and money. No one ever confuses
particleboard with pine, or MDF with mahogany; color and grain are still
best created by Nature's hand. But when you want workhorse performance
on a wage earner's budget, these products are engineered for success.
 stable, particleboard is still made of wood and it
PARTICLEBOARD can and will react to changes in relative humidi-
ty. But it's not linear expansion- less than 1%-
Particleboard is a wood panel product that's
that you have to worry about here. The problem
produced mechanically: Wood is reduced into
is that the wood particles can absorb moisture,
small particles, adhesive is applied to the parti-
which can impede gluing and finishing. For
cles, and then heat and pressure turn a mat of
example, I've had laminate peel right off particle-
particles into a panel product. Particleboard was
board that was glued up on a humid summer
first developed in the United States and Europe
day. Second, unless you're using particleboard
in the 1930s. While a wood shortage in 1940
made with exterior glue, take care to keep it dry.
spurred Germany into early commercial pro-
duction, wood was still plentiful in America
at the time. That's why particleboard wasn't
produced here in quantity until the 1960s. In
America, it was developed primarily to make
use of large volumes of mill by-products- saw-
dust, planer shavings, etc.
Grade Application
Characteristics
Particleboard is heavy (a 3/4''-thick sheet M-1, M-S Commercial construction,
weighs almost 100 pounds), flat, fairly stable, such as shelving and kitchen
and inexpensive. Although there are a number cabinets
of grades available (see the chart at right), you'll M-2, M-3 Industrial construction such as
probably find just two of these at your local tabletops with high-pressure
lumberyard or building center: Underlayment laminates, case goods, hard-
and Industrial. Grade stamps like the one shown wood veneered panels, coun-
in the top photo on page 155 provide the grade tertops, and sporting goods
name, mill number, and certification agency
H-1, H-2, H-3 High-density industrial uses
information.
where a smooth finish is
Underlayment is used in flooring; its coarse required
particle surface makes it unsuitable for most
woodworking. The stuff you're after is Industrial LD-1, LD-2 Core material for solid-core
grade. Industrial-grade particleboard has a core flush and raised-panel doors
made of coarse particles sandwiched between
M- 1, M-2, M-3 Exterior construction
two outer layers of finer particles. Finer parti-
-exterior glue
cles on the outer layers increase the panel's
strength and create a smoother, flatter surface H-1, H-2, H-3 High-density exterior construc-
that's ideal as a substrate for laminate and veneer -exterior glue tion, such as road signs
(see page 155). Particleboard is commonly avail-
able in W', 5/s", and 3/4" thicknesses in 4-ft.x 8-ft. PBU Underlayment under carpeting
or other floor covering in
sheets. You can also special-order other sizes.
residential or commercial
Most manufacturers can handle widths from 2-layer floor construction
3 ft. to 9 ft. and any length that's transportable.
Thicknesses range from 1/4" to 2". D-2, D-3 Used as a single-layer floor
system in manufactured-home
Cautions construction
There are a few important things to know
about particleboard. First, although it is fairly

ENGINEE!li!D PRODUCTS
Particleboard will wick up liquid water and can
swell up to almost twice its thickness. Finally,
because of its high resin content, special pre-
cautions should be observed when machining
particleboard (see paaes 160- 161).

Countertops
If you have a laminate-covered countertop in
your kitchen, odds are it has a particleboard core
(second photo from top). Particleboard is a natural
here: It's heavy. flat, and inexpensive. If you're
planning to install your own countertop with a
bathroom or kitchen sink, try this trick: Before
you install the sink, wipe on two or three coats
of spar varnish or exterior paint to the edges of
the sink cutout. This will seal the particleboard
and help prevent it from expanding if it gets wet.

Substrate
As evidenced by its widespread use in lami-
nated countertops. particleboard makes a
great substrate for surface treatments
(third photo from top). Laminate, veneer, and
melamine (see below) all lay down flat and
smooth. Whenever you're applying your
own surface, take the time to apply a simi-
lar treatment to both sides of the particle-
board. If you don't, the unfaced side will
absorb more moisture than the other side.
If the panel is free to move, it will warp.

Melamine
In addition to veneer, particleboard is
available in a variety of surface treatments
including melamine, one of my favorites.
Melamine is particleboard with a thin
layer of plastic applied to both sides
(bottom photo). A lightly coated plastic surface is
useful in many situations, since it needs no fin-
ishing. I've used 1/4''-thick melamine for years for
drawer bottoms, particularly in bathroom and
kitchen cabinets. The kitchen cabinet industry
uses 3/4'' panels to build the actual cabinet cases
and then irons on melamine edge-banding. Here
again, the beauty is that no finishing is needed.
Melamine will stand up well to frequent wash-
ing and heavy use.

ENGINEEREb P RODliCTS
' "'
 AT THE
PARTICLEBOARD
PLANT
The most common process for manufactur-
ing particleboard is the "mat-formed" process
shown here. The size of the particles will
depend on the end use of the panel and on the
manufacturer. For a graduated board, particle
size can vary somewhat. To make three-layer
boards, the core particles will be longer and the
surface particles shorter, thinner, and smaller.

Raw material
Regardless of the desired par-
ticle size, the first step in the process
is to reduce the logs to chips. Mills M/Ll.!Nb ?RODUC/f5
use a combination of chippers. ham- J7E5/REP t:;IZIE- ..,
T'(PEi OF WaJP
mermills, ring flakers. and ring mills PAR.ncu::.
to create th~se. From here, the chips
are further reduced by refiners.
Particles are then sorted into like
DRYERS REMOVE
sizes with air streams or screens.
t=XC/5$$ M0~71JRe
Screens are the most common and
may be wire cloth or plates with
holes or slots.

Drying
The next step. drying. is one of
the most critical. To achieve a good
bond during forming. the moisture content of
the particles needs to be around 2% to 7%.
There are three types of dryers commonly in
use: rotary. disk. and suspension. In most cases.
wet particles enter the high end and are dis-
charged at the low end when dry.
??IE. WOOD
Blending CHIP5ARE.
8LENPSP
Dry particles move on to the blender, where
WfTH ~/NOEftS
they're mixed with binders and other chemicals. /J/1/D OTHEP-...
The most common resin for particleboard is CHEMICAL"?
urea-formaldehyde. The resin content can range
anywhere from 6% to 9%. Besides resin, paraffin
or microcrystalline wax emulsion is added to
help with moisture resistance.

1111:11 ENGINEEftED PRODUCTS

 Forming
Once the particles are blended, they
F0~/1/b MACHI/IlE? are laid down into an even and consistent
PE.R7;-IT TREATEC>
PA~TICLIE~ ONTO BeL.-7~/ mat so they can be pressed into a panel.
FbRNIINC> MA~ Most mats are cold-pressed prior to mov-
ing onto the hot press, to reduce mat thick-
ness and help consolidate the mat. Three-
layer boards require three or more forming
stations to lay down the multiple layers.

The hot press

Mter the mats have been formed and
prepressed, they move along to the hot
press. There are two common types
of hot presses is use: platen and
continuous. Temperatures for urea-
formaldehyde presses range from
PAR77CJ.E.MAT'7 A~E. 280° to 325°F. The pressure exerted
COMPRP3SEP AtVD 13/ND~ will depend on the press and the
CL.!Fl.£0 IN HEATE:D
HYoRAJJUC PRE56E7 material- typically, it will vary
fVITH TE/VfP. UPIO -'/00°F. between 200 and 500 pounds per
AND PRESSI.J/=lE.;; LIP TO square inch. Moisture content of
/,000 p=-i. the mat is further reduced in the
press by about 3%.
Another way particleboard is
formed is by the extrusion process.
Here, formation and pressing occur
at the same time. Reciprocating
pistons force the particles into a long,
heated dies- basically pairs of roller
platens. This process creates particle-
board that has different strength
properties than with flat pressing.

Sanding
Pressed boards are trimmed to
the desired size. Then the boards are
passed along to the sanders, where
CU!<EO 20ARD5 ARt=- they are sanded to final thickness.
7RIMME.P AND In most plants this is accomplished
SANDt=D IN f/16H
with high-speed, wide-belt sanders.
SP~l3E.LT
SANDER$ Mter sanding, the boards are grade-
stamped and stacked for distribution.

Illustrations courtesy of the

Composite Panel Association

ENGINEERED. PRODUCTS
' .
 Features
MEDIUM-DENSITY Since there's no grain, changes in relative
humidity have little effect on MD F. This means
FIBERBOARD stability- MDF moves less than 0.1% with
Of all the composites available, MDE or changes in relative hu midity. What's more, finer
medium-density fiberboard, is my favorite (top particles yield a smoother, flatter surface than
photo on paae 159). The reason is how it's made. particleboard. This makes it the perfect substrate
The process is similar to that used for particle- (see paae 159). Uniformly small particles also
board- with one important difference: The size create a solid, homogenous edge that machines
of the particles in MDF is much smaller than well and holds up over time.
in particleboard. There's an extra step in the
Weight
process that breaks wood chips down into tiny
fibers. Basically, the wood is cooked in a moder- As you might suspect, packing a lot of fibers
ate-pressure steam vessel known as a digester. in a 3/4"-thick panel results in some serious
During this step the wood changes both chemi- weight. A standard sheet of3/4"-thick MDF
cally and physically, becoming less susceptible weighs around 100 pounds. Don't try to carry or
to the influences of moisture, and less brittle. cut a sheet of this by yourself- the weight plus
In making particleboard, wood is broken awkward size requires a helper. Although a dis-
apart mechanically; for MDE though, the advantage when machining, the weight ofMDF
wood is rubbed apart into bundles. These fibers can be quite useful for damping vibration and
are then coated with adhesive (usually urea- creating a stable foundation. It's the perfect base
formaldehyde), heated, and pressed into a panel. for a tool such as a table saw, drill press, or lathe.
To grasp how much finer the particles are, con-
Standard sizes
sider this: It takes roughly a 23"-thick mat of
MDF fibers to make a 3/4"-thick panel. Contrast The standard size for a sheet ofMDF is 49" x
this with the 4" to 6" of wood chips, sawdust, 97". Since most sheets oflaminate are 48" x 96",
and resin it takes to form the same-thickness the extra inch allows a margin of error when you
particleboard. Breaking down the fibers like this glue the laminate onto the MD F. This way you
creates the features that I prefer in MD F.

Modulus of Modulus of Screw Holding - Screw Holding -

Rupture Elasticity Face Edge
Product Class Grade (in MPa) (in MPa) (inN) (inN)

Interior MDF HD - 34.5 3,450 1,555 1,335

high -density

MD - 24.0 2,400 1,445 1,1 10

medium-density

LD - 14.0 1,400 780 670

low-density

Exterior MDF MD- 34.5 3,450 1,445 1,1 10

medium-density

El ENGINEEp.ED P RODUCTS
 don't have to worry about aligning the
edges perfectly- just lay down the sheet
and then use a router with a flush-trim bit
to trim the MDF to match the laminate.
MDF is manufactured in thicknesses rang-
ing from as little as 5 /32" to as much as 15/s",
but you'll most likely find only 3/4"-thick
MDF at your lumberyard or home center.

Homogenous edges
One ofMDF's prime features is that its
homogenous edges allow for sharp, clean
edge-machining with minimal treatment before
finishing. In industry, MDF is machined into
intricate patterns with little or no fuzzing or
chip-out. You can do the same thing in the shop,
as long as you use carbide-tipped cutting tools
(second photo from top). (For more on working with
composites, see pages 160- 161.)

Takes paint well

Because the surface ofMDF is smooth and
dense, it takes paint very well (third photo from
top). A thin coat of primer and one or two top-
coats, and it looks great. (See page 161 for a tip on
dealing with the porous edges of MDF) Many of the
road signs you see are made from an exterior
grade ofMDF. The main reason I often use
MDF for making children's furniture and stor-
age units is its painting ease- it's easy to get
even coats of bright colors with little prep.

Great substrate
MDF is very popular in the furniture indus-
try, where it's the premier substrate for high-
grade veneer, thin vinyls, hot-transfer foils, and
resin-saturated papers. MDF is dead-flat and
supersmooth. Along with premium ply-
wood (see page 146), it's the material that I
most often use in building jigs (bottom photo).
I prefer MDF over particleboard as a sub-
strate because the surface is smoother and
denser. A denser surface means it absorbs
much less adhesive than particleboard: You
can usually get a solid bond with a single
coat of contact cement, versus the mini-
mum of two required for particleboard.

ENGINEERED P RODUCTS
' f
WORKING WITH
COMPOSITES
• While composit es are mostly wood, their
working properties are distinctively different
from those of softwood, hardwood, or plywood.

No grain
On the plus side, you don't have to worry
about grain direction: There isn't any. This
means you'll experience far less tear-out when
routing. And there's no such thing as crosscut-
ting or ripping; instead, you just cut the panel.
But this ease of machining has its downside,
mostly concerning particle size and the resins
used during manufacture. First, the resin is
tough on blades. Second, small par-
ticles create a superfine sawdust that
will quickly line unprotected lungs.

Carbide blades and cuHers

You can cut composites with
standard steel blades and bits, but
they'll dull quickly. Your best bet is
to use carbide-tipped bits and blades
(top photo). Not only do carbide
blades and bits stay sharp longer, but
they also handle the higher tempera-
tures that often build up when cut-
ting composites. For most cutting,
I recommend a 10" combination
blade with 50 to 60 teeth and a
triple-chip or ATB design.
One way to increase tool life is
to reduce feed rates. Since most composites cut wore a dust mask while machining. by the end
so easily, there's a natural tendency to feed the of my second day there my sinuses were com-
workpiece rapidly into a bit or blade. Although pletely blocked. Yes, the dust collector was on,
this will cut faster, it'll also quickly dull the but the dust from MDF and other composites is
blade. Take your time and ease off the pressure. so fine, you can't see it. And the particle size is
A thin-kerfblade is also a good idea. Removing so smalL it can penetrate an inexpensive mask.
less material means a cooler blade, which If you're planning on working with composites,
reduces friction and wear. do yourself a favor. First buy a quality mask
rated for fine particles- such as the cartridge-
Dust mask type shown above. Then keep it on as long as
I once worked in a high-end cabinetmaking you're in the shop. (For more on the hazards of dust,
shop that used MDF exclusively. Even though I see paaes 184- 185)
Biscuit joiner
Although, composites don't have the edge
strength required for advanced joinery like box
joints and dovetails, they do work well for bis-
cuit joinery. A biscuit joiner, like the one shown
in the top photo, cuts a half-oval-shaped groove
in both pieces to be joined. The groove accepts a
football-shaped "biscuit" made of compressed
wood. When glue is injected into the groove
and the biscuit inserted, the wood fibers of the
biscuit wick up the glue and swell. This effec-
tively locks the two pieces together. As long as
you keep the groove as far from the edge as pos-
sible, the joint will hold up well over time.

Edge-banding
Not all composites have
homogenous edges; that is, they
may have a denser surface than
their core. This creates a problem
when finishes are applied, espe-
cially a high-end finish where a
smooth, uniform high gloss is
desired. Basically, the coarser inner
core absorbs finish more rapidly-
it acts almost like end grain. A
simple solution is to apply fiber-
board edge-banding to seal the
edge (middle photo). This can be
either self-adhesive or iron-on. I
recommend the iron-on banding
because you'll get a better, more
durable bond.

Special fasteners
Most composites hold screws well and so
they are the fastener of choice in the ready-
made furniture industry. Modifications have
been made to the screws to make them hold
even better (bottom photo). New and improved
composite screws can be purchased from most
mail-order woodworking catalogs. For the most
part, these screws are threaded the entire length
and have deep, open threads to bite into the
composite better.

'ENGINEEREb PRODUCTS
\ "
 Grades and performance standards
ORIENTED- Unlike some plywoods and other engineered
panels, OSB is rated by a performance standard,
STRAND BOARD rather than a prescriptive standard that defines
Oriented-strand board (OSB) is an engi- how the panel must be made. The beauty of a
neered panel made from strands of wood bond- performance standard is, it sets requirements for
ed together with a waterproof resin under heat a product based on the product's intended use. In
and pressure (see pages 164- 165 on the manufactur- other words, as long as the panel can do what it's
ing process). OSB started appearing commercially supposed to do, the manufacturer can make it
in the United States around 1980. Since then it using any materials and methods at their disposal.
has found wide acceptance in the construction
Span ratings
industry, where it's used primarily for roo£ walL
and floor sheathing. Since OSB is a performance-rated paneL
Besides using larger pieces than particle- you'll always find a span rating as part of the
board or MDE the big difference with OSB is grade stamp. A span rating is the recommended
that the strands are laid down so that they're ori- center-to-center spacing of supports, in inches,
ented in a certain direction. This creates panels over which the panels should be installed. For
that have cross-banding properties somewhat APA Rated Sheathing and Sturd-1-Floor, the span
similar to plywood (photo below right). rating applies when the long panel dimension is
across supports. The span rating for APA Rated
Exposure classifications
Under the APA guidelines of the Engineered
Wood Association (formerly the American Ply-
wood Association), OSB is made with two differ-
ent exposure ratings: Exterior and Exposure I.
Exterior-rated panels have a fully waterproof
bond and are designed for use with permanent
exposure to moisture. Exposure !- rated panels
have a fully waterproof bond and are designed
for applications where the panels may be unpro-
tected. Some 95% of OSB is manufactured with
Exposure I ratings. OSB is also made in three
grades: APA Rated Sheathing, APA Rated Sturd-1-
Floor, and APA Rated Siding (see the chart below).

Grade Thicknesses Application

APA Rated Sheathing 5/ 16 11 3/ s" 7/16" 15132" Can be used for subflooring, wall sheathing, and
1f211 /1913211/ 5/s" I 23132" I industrial applications such as shelving, furniture, trailer
and 3/411 I I I
liners, recreational vehicle floors, roofs, and components

APA Rated Flooring 19132" S!a" 23132" 3/A" Intended for use as ~ingle-layer flooring under carpet
(Sturd-1-Fioor} 7/s", l", a~d 11/s~' ' and pad; most floonng has tongue-and-groove edges

~~~~~~ ENGINEE~Eb PRODUCTS

 Siding panels is for vertical installation.
A span rating looks like a fraction (such as
32/ 16), but it isn't. The left-side number de-
scribes the maximum spacing of supports in
inches when the panel is used for roof sheath-
ing; the right-side number denotes the maxi-
mum spacing of supports when the panel is used
for subflooring.
Although I don't use OSB for woodworking.
I do use it for various applications in the shop.
Since it's about half the price of plywood yet has
some similar strength properties, I use it as a
low-cost alternative. The waterproof resin makes
this stuff well suited for small outdoor buildings
like storage or garden sheds. The
two most common uses I have
for OSB in the shop are building
crates and building mock-ups.

Crates
I've shipped a lot of hand-
• J
made projects to friends and
\' family over the years in crates
made entirely o£ or sided with,
OSB (top photo). If you're planning
to make a crate entirely out of
OSB, I recommend using at least
5/s"-thick panels and joining

them together with narrow crown staples for

better holding power.

WHAT AN OSB GRADE Mock-ups

STAMP WILL TELL YOU OSB is also a great material to make mock-
• A certification stamp on OSB provides the ups from when designing a new project. Some-
following information: times you just can't visualize the impact of a part
or dimension on paper. In these situations, I like
• span rating to make a full-sized piece out ofOSB. If you use
• nominal thickness at least 3/s"-thick panels, you can even screw the
• exposure durability classification parts together to get a three-dimensional view.
• grade For example, I couldn't quite decide on a length
• manufacturer's name or mill number for the aprons of a ~een Anne- style coffee
• certification organization logo table I was designing. So I built a quick mock-up
• symbol signifying conformance to a with two different apron lengths (middle photo).
performance standard It took about 10 minutes and a couple bucks'
• quality assurance report number worth of OSB. I brought it into the house and it
• direction of surface strand alignment was obvious that the shorter aprons would be
better. What a work saver!

.
ENGINEERED P RODUCTS
/
HOW OSB IS MADE
Log Hauling
At the start of the OSB manufacturing
and Sorting
process, logs are sorted and hauled to the
jackladder, where they're presoaked to soften
the bark. Then they move up a conveyer to
the de barker, which removes the bark and
cuts the logs into shorter lengths. The bark is
burned as fuel for the mill's power system.
Next, the short logs move into the stran-
der. The strander is a machine that slices the
logs into strands along the direction of the
grain. Strand dimensions are set by the man-
ufacturer and are cut to a uniform thickness.
Most mills use a combination of strands
ranging from 31/2" to 6" long and approxi-
mately 1" wide.
The strands are temporarily stored in
wet bins before moving onto the dryers,
where they're dried to a uniform moisture
content. Then the strands are sorted and
Drying
mixed with a waterproof exterior-type
binder.
At the forming line,
the strands are orient-
ed in layers. The
strands on a panel
are generally aligned
in the long direction
of the panel for better
Blending
bending strength and
stiffness in each direc-
tion. The two or three
inner layers are cross-
aligned (like plywood) to
the surface layer.
Mter forming, the mat of strands is
pressed at high temperature and pressure to
form a rigid panel. The panels are then
cooled, cut to size, grade-stamped, and
stacked for shipping.
Forming Line

Illustration courtesy of the

Structural Board Association
 Debarking
Jackladder

Pressing

Finishing Line

Shipping

.
ENGINEERED PRODUCTS
'
 HARDBOARD
Another engineered product
that's been around for a long time
and seen wide use is hardboard.
Hard, dense, and relatively flat. hard-
board is commonly called Masonite,
the brand name of the leading manu-
facturer. If your house was built with-
in the last 15 years and has siding,
odds are it's hardboard. But the most
recognizable form of hardboard is
pegboard. Who doesn't have a sheet
or two of this lining the walls of
his or her shop, basement, or garage
to organize tools or gardening
equipment?
Hardboard is made in much the same way
as MDF and particleboard. A mixture offinely
ground processed wood and resins are bonded
together under heat and pressure. There are
two basic types of hardboard, available in two
thicknesses (1/4'' and lfs''): standard and service-
tempered. Whenever possible, I u se service-
tempered because it's harder and more resistant
to moisture than standard hardboard and has
less tendency to delaminate.

Stripes
Although many woodworkers think you
can tell the difference between standard and
service-tempered hardboard by its color, you
can't. The color of the hardboard has to do with
the species of wood that was used to make it. (top photo). A textured side is a by-product of the
Lighter-wood trees produce lighter hardboard. manufacturing process when a freshly pressed
The only real way to tell the difference is to sheet is transported on a screen that leaves an
look for stripes on the edges of the hardboard. imprint. I've had consistent troubles getting a
Two red stripes means it's service-tempered, one good glue bond with textured-back hardboard;
green stripe is standard. Since most hardboard stick with the smooth stuff
is thin, detecting the stripes can be difficult-
your best bet is to check the stack of hardboard Jigs
at the lumberyard. Since hardboard sheets are thin, I generally
use them for drawer bottoms and for jig making.
Waffle or smooth? The 1/s"-thick size is particularly well suited for
The other thing to look for in hardboard runners or slides for a jig (middle photo). That's
is the type that is smooth on both sides. Some because the kerf on a standard carbide-tipped
hardboard is available with a "waffie" back blade cuts a perfect groove to accept hardboard.

lid ·E NGINEEp.E PRODUCTS

 TRANSPORTING
SHEET STOCK
A 4-ft. x 8-ft. panel is a real challenge
to move around by yourself You have to
struggle not only with the awkward size,
but also with the weight. If the panels are
w· thick or less, try the rope trick or the
tote below. For 3/4"-thick panels, I recom-
mend making a push-around dolly.

Rope trick
You don't have to be a cowboy to use
this simple rope trick to transport sheet
stock (top photo). Just tie a length of rope into a
loop. Then place opposite ends of the loop
under the two bottom corners of the panel.
Now pull up on the rope in the center of the
panel to carry it. It'll take some trial and error,
of course, to find the right length for the rope.

Dolly
The dolly is a skateboard for sheet stock
Fixed Caster
(middle drawing). It's just a 2-ft. length of 2x6 with
a centered groove cut in it. Two fixed casters in
the back and a swivel caster in the front make it
easy to push even the heaviest sheets around the
shop. To use the dolly, place a sheet
in the dolly's groove so the sheet is
centered along its length. Then gently
push the panel while keeping it bal-
/4'' Black Pipe,
3 anced upright.
6" Long
Tote
Although the rope trick above is
good in a pinch, it can be cumber-
some to use. A more elegant solution
3 is to extend your arm by building a
/A"x5",
sturdy tote (bottom drawing). The tote
6" Long~
consists of two sides held together by
an L-shaped cleat plus a length of
31/2" black pipe. The cleat holds the sheet
I Wood ---+....,.;...to-~ stock, and the pipe serves as a com-
fortable, stout handle.
\_ 1 x 3, 6" Long

·ENGINEE~ED. PRODUCTS
"I t the veneer be ver~ cross and unpliable, as man~ curls ot
mahogan~ are, it is in vain to attempt the hammer. A caul in this
case is the surest and best method, though it be attended with
considerable more trouble than the hammer. "
THOMAS SHERATON (1802)

ALTERNATIVE
MATERIALS
. . In Mr. Sheraton's time veneers were troublesome, but things have
,. improved considerably. Today's paper-backed, flexible veneers are a
joy to work with, and good thing: Some woods are so expensive and rare that
the only way most mortals get to work with them is in veneer form.
Due to the increasing cost and scarcity of solid wood in generaL it's
smart to explore veneer and other alternatives, like recycled wood and even
nonwood products. Sometimes, money isn't the issue at all- woods like old-
growth pine and chestnut simply don't exist anymore, and they're available
only as reclaimed or recycled woods. Don't think, though, that you're "set-
tling" when you choose an alternative. Thanks to advancing technology,
some of these materials perform even better than wood.
For example, recycled-wood-and-plastic composites will stand up to
the worst elements without sacrificing their looks or strength. Still other
alternatives-phenolic, plastic, and laminate- are impervious to changes in
humidity, unlike solid wood, so you can use them for more precise jigs and
fixtures. When your automatic first choice is naturaL solid wood, think
again: There are alternatives, and they might be the best materials for the job.
 1
hs" veneer is often referred to as common
VENEER veneer or natural veneer. Even thicker veneers
(1/w" to 3/16") are cut for the manufacture of ply-
Veneer, basically a thin piece of wood sliced
wood inner cores.
from a log, has long been used as an alternative
to solid wood. Rare and highly figured pieces Knife checks
were used in post-Renaissance Europe for the
Although the veneer that's cut with knife-
finest furniture. But because this type of veneer-
based machines is smooth and uniform in thick-
ing required expert skills and a lot of patience,
ness, it does have one problem: knife checks. As
it was expensive. When production machinery
the veneer is forced by the knife away from the
appeared in the 19th century. the art of veneer-
log at a sharp angle, tiny checks or cracks devel-
ing declined. But two important things changed
op on the knife side of the veneer. This checked
that. The first was the invention of the knife-
slicing machinery that can produce thin,
uniform veneer inexpensively. Second, the
development of moisture-resistant and water-
proof adhesives swept away the poor reputation
that veneered furniture had developed in the
20th century because of frequent delamination.
In the past, veneer was split from a log and
painstakingly scraped to a uniform thickness.
Today. most all veneer is sliced- rotary-cut.
half-round, flat-sliced, or quarter-sliced (see
the chart below). (For more on slicing process and tech-
niques, see pages 138- 140.) Typical thickness for
veneer ranges from 1/wo" to 1/2s". The thinner
veneers are used to make flexible or reinforced
veneers (see the sidebar on page 171). The thicker

Veneer Cut Typical Species Standard Sizes

Burl Carpathian elm, English oak, myrtle, irregular dimensions; pieces vary from 6" x 10"
olive, redwood, walnut to 16" x 52"; typical size is 16" x 24"

Butt and stump Maple, walnut irregular dimensions; pieces vary from 12" x 36"
to 18" x 52"; typical size is 12" x 36"

Crotch Mahogany, walnut width from 10" to 24"; length from 18" to 52";
average size is 12" x 36"

Flat-sliced Ash, rosewood, cherry, maple, oak, teak width from 4" to 24"; length 3 ft. to 16 ft.

Quarter-cut Mahogany, oak, satinwood, zebrawood width from 3" to 14"; length from 3ft. to 16ft.

Rotary-cut Birch, bird's-eye maple, bubinga, width from 8" to 36"; length up to 10ft.
cherry, red oak

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 surface can create imperfections on a finished
surface long after the veneer has been applied.
The checked side is commonly referred to as
the loose side; and the opposite side, free from
checking. is called the tight side. Whenever pos-
sible, the loose side should be bonded to the
substrate to prevent future problems.

Sizes
Common veneer is available in a wide
variety of species and sizes and is sold by the
square foot (top photo). Be aware that
although most mail-order veneer
suppliers will try to meet your
FLEXIBLE VENEER: request for specific sizes, veneers are
PAPER AND PEEL-AND-STICK cut in random widths and lengths,
like hardwood lumber. This means
• There are two types off1exible veneer that have become in- you may not get the exact size you
creasingly popular, and for good reason. Standard ·and pressure- need. Your best bet is to call the sup-
sensitive adhesive- backed (also called peel-and-stick) veneer plier to see what they have in stock.
are easy to work with. And since they are both thinner than Usually, you'll find them more than
common veneer and reinforced with a backing, they can bend willing to help.
around a smaller radius without breaking. This stuff is so f1ex-
ible that it comes in rolls, typically 24" x 36". High-figure veneers
Flexible veneer is so thin that it cuts easily with a utility Highly figured veneers like burls,
knife. A word of caution, though: Because it's so thin, it's really crotches, and butts usually come in
easy to sand through the veneer. I don't recommend power small sizes or in preassembled sheets
sanders for f1exible veneer. In the first place, the veneer should where smaller pieces have been
not need heavy sanding; secondly. a power sander can damage joined with veneer tape. Most of
veneer in the blink of an eye. these veneers will arrive far from
Oat- they're often quite convoluted.
Before you can glue them to a sub-
strate, you'll need to f1atten them.
Most veneering companies sell a
special "f1attening" liquid that is basi-
cally watered-down white glue with a
bit of glycose added to lengthen the
time before the glue sets. To use it,
wipe on a thin coat with a damp
sponge and let the veneer rest for
Flexible veneer: A paper Adhesive-backed veneer: a few minutes. Test the edge for
backing provides support for Commonly referred to as peel- f1exibility. If it's pliable, lay a plastic
the thin face veneer and cre- and-stick, this type of veneer garbage bag over it and then carefully
ates a smooth surface that's has a thin layer of adhesive set of piece of plywood on top. Then
perfect for use with contact applied to the back. gradually add weights to the plywood
cement. until the veneer is f1at. Allow it to sit
for at least 24 hours.

A LTERNATIVE M ATERIALS
 MAKE YouR
OWN VENEER
Cutting your own veneer has a number
of advantages. It saves money. of course.
And by using the same wood as the rest of
your project, the veneer you cut will match
perfectly. What's more, you can custom cut
the veneer to any thickness you want. All it
takes is a handsaw with a sharp blade, a cou-
ple of shop-made jigs, and some patience.

Book-matching
One of the things I like best about cut-
ting my own veneer is that it lets me book-
match- where consecutive sheets are
opened like the pages of a book (top photo).
When you order veneer from a company. you
may not get consecutive sheets.

Bandsaw fence
To cut veneer on a handsaw, you'll need a
tall fence to support the wood during the cut.
I recommend making a sturdy fence like the
one shown in the middle drawing. It's two
pieces ofMDF or plywood screwed together at
a right angle, with a pair of triangle-shaped sup-
port blocks to provide rigidity and ensure a 90o
cut. Cutting a notch near the handsaw's guide
assembly lets you lower it when cutting shorter
workpieces.

Featherboard
Another simple jig that helps
ensure accuracy is a featherboard,
which presses the workpiece firmly
against the fence (bottom photo). It
consists of three parts: a base, an
arm, and a pressure plate. The pres-
sure plate is a piece of 1/s" hard-
board. In use, the featherboard is
clamped to the handsaw table so
the workpiece is pressed against the
fence but can move smoothly.

IIIII ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS

 Adjusting the bandsaw
There are a couple ofbandsaw require-
ments that are critical for successfully cutting
veneer. The blade must be the right type, and it
must be sharp. I use a 1/2"-wide, 4-tooth-per-inch
blade because it's designed for resawing. The
gullets on this style blade are deeper, which
allows for better waste removal and cooler cuts.
The saw must also be adjusted properly (top
photo). Make sure the guide blocks and thrust
bearing are in the correct position (a gap equal
to the thickness of a dollar bill works best).
Increase the blade tension to at least the next
blade width. For instance, if you're using a 3/s"-
wide blade, adjust tension for a W'. Then lower
the blade guard as close to the workpiece as
possible, and clamp the fence and featherboard
to the table for the desired cut (I generally allow
an extra 1/IG " for planing).

Cutting veneer
Turn on the saw and guide the workpiece
into the blade (middle photo). Use steady, even
pressure. Don't force the cut- let the blade do
the work. Remember, you're removing a lot of
material here- it's slow going. As you complete
the cut, use a push block to safely push the
workpiece past the saw blade.

TROUBLESHOOTING: BOW AND ANGLED CUT

The two most common problems encountered while resawing are bowed and angled cuts.

Bow cut Angled cut

A bowed cut, or In most cases,
"barreling;' is usually an angled cut is
the result of a blade caused by a table
that's not tensioned that's not square to
or supported prop- the blade. This is
Bowed Angled
erly. First, check to Cut an easy fix: Just Cut
make sure the upper readjust the table.
guide assembly is as close as possible to the work- You might also want to try repositioning the
piece. If it is, then increase blade tension until it featherboard so it presses the workpiece more
cuts straight. firmly against the fence.

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 VENEER ON THE
TABLE SAW
Another way to cut veneer is with a table
saw (top photo). The only limitation is that the
maximum width of veneer you can cut will be
roughly double the maximum cut your saw can
make. What's more, the wide kerf of the saw
blade wastes a lot of wood; minimize this waste
by using a thin-kerfblade. To safely cut veneer
on the table saw, you'll need to make a zero-
clearance insert (see the sidebar below). This special
insert hugs the blade and prevents veneer
from dropping down into the normal wider
blade slot. A built-in splitter also helps pre-
lst Cut
vent binding.

Two cuts
To make sure the veneer cuts evenly, the 2nd Cut
saw blade must be perfectly parallel to the rip
fence. Raise the blade to cut slightly more
than halfway through the workpiece, and
position the rip fence for the desired cut.
Then, using a push block, make the first cut
(middle drawin&)· Here again, use firm, even
Insert J
pressure and don't force it. For dense woods, Blade J
consider a series of shallower cuts. Now flip
the workpiece end-for-end and, with a push
block, finish the cut with the second pass.

ZERO-CLEARANCE INSERT
/4''
3
Finger Hole
You can use your standard insert as a template to Splitter
make a zero-clearance insert. First, place the standard in-
sert on a 1/2"-thick piece of plywood and trace around it.
Then cut it to rough shape to within 1/s" of the outline.
[?/
Next, temporarily attach the standard insert to the ply-
wood with double-sided tape. Now you can trim it to
exact size with a flush-trim bit in a router. Drill a 1" lift-
out hole in the insert and cut a kerf in it for a splitter
1
that aligns with the blade. Glue a lfs'' piece of hardboard /2"-Thick Plywood
in the end of the ker£ and you're ready to resaw.

IIIZI ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS

VENEER TAPING
PATTERNS
In addition to the standard veneer-matching
possibilities shown on pages 139- 140, you can
achieve several highly decorative patterns with
some cutting and taping and a little care and
patience.

Quartermatching
~artermatching produces many fancy
patterns. This type of match is commonly used
with butt, stump, and crotch veneers, since it's
the most effective way of showing them off (top
photo). The most common quartermatch config-
uration is the four-way center and butt match.
Circles, ovals, and other odd shapes are
easily obtainable with quartermatching.
Small veneered tabletops often use this
pattern because it's an excellent way for
you to use up short stock that would
otherwise be waste.

Diamond
Diamond-matching is a very popular
variation of quartermatching. It is espe-
cially striking when used with straight-
grained wood without much figure. The
sheets are cut at an angle and quarter-
matched to produce the diamond pat-
tern. Reverse diamond-matching is the
same principle applied to the same kinds
of veneers, but with the grain matched to
produce an "X" pattern (middle photo).

Matching tips
Without actually cutting the veneer,
it's difficult to visualize the patterns you can get
with the different matching methods. One trick
to get around this is to use a pair of mirrors,
approximately 8" wide and 16" long. Butt the
mirrors together end to end, and apply a strip of
duct tape at the joint to create a simple hinge.
Then set the mirrors on a piece of veneer and
adjust the angle to get the desired effect.

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 WORKING
WITH VENEER
Whenever you cut your own veneer, you'll be
faced with some rough surfaces. Since the veneer
is so thin, you can't run it safely through a thick-
ness planer. This is a situation where your trusty
old hand tools can get the job done.

Securing the veneer

The first thing you'll need to do is secure
the veneer so you can work on it. It's too thin to
clamp in place, but double-sided carpet tape
will work. Apply a couple of strips to each piece
of veneer, and then attach them to a
flat base such as a piece ofMDF or
particleboard (top photo). Mter you're
done surfacing the veneer, don't try
to pry it off the base- it'll break.
Instead, drizzle a little lacquer thin-
ner between the veneer and the base;
this will dissolve the tape's glue, and
the veneer will lift off easily.

Planing
For woods that aren't highly fig-
ured, a well-sharpened jack plane will
quickly level the surface (middle photo).
Adjust the plane for a very light cut,
and angle the plane to make a shear-
ing cut. Change direction as needed
to follow the grain. Be especially
careful of veneer that's quartermatched, as the
grain will shift in each of the four sections.

Scraping
If the veneer you've cut is highly figured,
I recommend using a scraper to flatten and
smooth the surface (bottom photo). Although it
won't remove material as fast. the tiny burr of
a scraper will pose less risk of tear-out. Since
scrapers have a tendency to follow saw marks-
they ride up and down with them instead of
leveling them- it's best to hold the scraper at an
angle to the ridges. This way it'll shear off the
high point, leaving a flat surface behind.

AlTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 No matter what the veneer type or how it
was cut, there's basically just one way to attach
it to a substrate. There are big differences,
though, in the type of adhesive you use. If you're
applying flexible veneers with paper backing,
use contact cement (Unibond 800 brand urea-
formaldehyde works great). Do not use contact
cement on natural veneers, as it will eventually
form loose spots and bubbles in the veneer.
White glue works fine, but stay away from yel-
low glue: The open time is so short, it's impos-
sible to spread it and clamp it before it sets up.

Contact cement
Although you can get away with brushing
on contact cement on small projects (top photo),
it's best to roll it on larger surfaces. I use a 3" or
4" short-nap paint roller. For porous substrates
like particleboard, apply at least two coats.

Pressing with a roller

Once the contact cement has set up (it'll
gloss over), it's ready for bonding. It's easy to
position small pieces without accidentally
touching the parts together. Larger pieces
require extra precaution. I place dowels every 6"
or so on the substrate before placing the veneer
on top. Then, working from one end and
removing one dowel at a time, I press the veneer
firmly onto the substrate with a laminate roller
(middle photo).

Trimming
As soon as the veneer is
attached, any excess can be
trimmed off with a utility knife
(bottom photo) or a veneer saw
(inset). The tiny teeth of a veneer
saw work best, as they don't have
a tendency to follow the grain
of the wood the way a utility
knife does.

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 know much about wood that the table you just built
LESSER-KNOWN is made from chechem, how will they react? Probably
by asking. "What the heck is that?" But tell that to
HARDWOODS someone who's wood-savvy, and you'll get a different
reaction. "So that's chechem; I've heard about it. How
Alternative hardwoods did it work? Any problems?" And so on.
When most woodworkers think about If prestige isn't an issue and you want to break
selecting a wood for a project, usually the old away from the usuaL I heartily recommend dipping
standbys come to mind: oak, cherry. maple, and into the world of alternatives. Shown from left to
walnut. It's logicaL since this is what's commonly right are some of my favorites: chechem, chakte kok.
available at the local building center or lumber- jarrah, jatoba, and imbuya. (For a detailed description of
yard. But with a little extra effort, you can dis- each of these woods, see Chapter 2.) Each of these looks
cover a whole new world of alternative woods, great and is interesting to work with.
exotic or domestic. Many of these not only are
as attractive as "standard" woods, but
also can be much cheaper. Add to that
the fact that many of the alternative
exotics are grown in sustainably man-
aged forests (see the sidebar below), and
you've got a winning combination.

Exotic alternatives
Perhaps the biggest stumbling
blocks to using alternative hardwoods
are lack of information and, to a degree,
the lack of prestige an unknown wood
offers. If you tell someone who doesn't

CERTIFIED FOREST third-party standards. Independent, third-party

forest certification is site-specific, and it vali-
PRODUCTS COUNCIL
dates on-the-ground operations as employing
If you're interested in locating certified wood the best management practices to ensure the
and wood products, the Certified Forest Products long-term health of the total forest ecosystem.
Council (CFPC) website, www.certifiedwood.org,
is the place to go. CFPC is an independent, not-
for-profit organization whose mission is to "con- SM

serve, protect, and restore the world's forests by

promoting responsible forest products buying
practices throughout North America:·
CFPC's web listing of certified suppliers
covers products from forests that an accredited, Certified Forest Products Council
CERTIFIED WEll-MANAGED FORESTS
independent certification organization has certi-
fied as well managed, according to stringent, Loao courtesy of the Certified Forest Products Council

~~~~ AlTERNATIVE MATERIALS

 Domestic alternatives
~ite often you can find small
mills in your area that cut up local
trees into lumber. The big advan-
tage of woods from these mills is
that they're usually a lot cheaper
than "standard" hardwoods. Some
of the more common domestic
alternatives worth checking out are
ash, birch, poplar, and soft maple.

Ash for oak

I love working with ash. It's
inexpensive, it smells great, and it
can be stained to look just like oak. From left to
riaht and top to bottom in the top photo: red oak and
white oak and ash finished with red oak stain,
naturaL and dark oak stain. Ash often has very
straight grain, which makes it a joy to work. It's
also often available in wider pieces than oak
and it generally costs 1 to 2 dollars a board foot
less than oak.

Birch for maple or cherry

Depending on where you live, you may be
able to find yellow birch at much lower prices
than hard maple or cherry. Birch is just as hard
as either of these woods and, when stained, can
closely resemble cherry. (In the middle photo,
the top piece is birch, the bottom is maple; the
left side is naturaL and the right side has one
coat of satin polyurethane.) Birch is sweet-
smelling, fine-grained, and easy to work.

Poplar and soft maple

Two softer hardwoods that can be
used for "secondary" parts in a project like
drawer sides and backs are poplar and soft
maple (the two middle pieces in the bottom
photo are poplar, the others are soft maple).
Both species are inexpensive and work well.
Poplar is particularly well suited for parts
that won't show or will be painted, as it
often exhibits yellow-green streaks and
mineral stains.

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 RECLAIMED
WooD
One of my favorite alternative
materials is reclaimed or recycled
wood. Not only is it attractive, but
as wood prices continue to rise,
reclaimed wood is rapidly becoming
an economical alter native. Another
plus: Much of the wood "harvested" is
old-growth wood-stuff you just can't
get your hands on anymore, like wide
heart pine and chestnut. Although
there are quite a few wood recycling companies
spread across the United States, they all operate
in much the same manner.

Raw material
The primary sources of wood for most
reclamation companies are old barns and other
industrial buildings scheduled for demolition.
But instead of ending up as landfilL the struc-
tures are painstakingly disassembled one piece
at a time to salvage the wood, by enterprises like
Sylvan Brandt in Lititz, Pennsylvania. Once
taken apart, the timbers and planks are trans-
ported back to the mill's yard
(top photo).

Checking for metal

Just like any other mill,
NOT JUST FOR FLOORS
reclamation companies will When most folks think of reclaimed wood, they
check their logs for metal think of flooring- and this is the number one u se
before resawing (middle photo). of this wood. But re-
The big difference here is that claimed wood is also a
since the timbers and planks great way to add extra
were used in construction,
character to pieces of
the reclaimers expect to find
furniture, especially
a lot of metal- and they do.
cou ntry-style or Colo-
Hammers, pry bars, and if
nial. Reclaimed wood
necessary plunge cuts with
also makes for attractive
chainsaws are used to remove
trim in a home, every-
nails, screws, mending plates,
and other miscellaneous bits thing from molding to
of metal. wainscoting (see photo).

- ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 Cutting the timbers
Mter all the metal is removed from the
beams, they're ready for the mill. Although
they don't look like much in the rough and
weathered stage, as soon as the first cut is
made, you're faced with gorgeous wood,
typically wide and clear (top photo). Most of
the boards trimmed off the beam are cut
1" thick so that they can be planed down
to 3/4''. Mter the boards are cut from the
beam, they are moved into a simple kiln to
bring each board to the same moisture con-
tent, typically around 12%, which is fine for
flooring. Note: If you're planning to use
reclaimed wood for furniture, have it dried
down to around 8%.

Planing
The uniformly dry boards are then moved
to the planer for surfacing. Some planers, like
the one shown in the middle photo, will also
shape a tongue on one edge and a groove on the
other as the board is simultaneously being
planed. Mter shaping, the flooring is dead-
stacked on a pallet and is either shipped to a
customer immediately or stored for future sale.

Finished product
The resulting product is clear, smooth
flooring with a number of natural and man-
made characteristics such as random nail holes
(bottom photo). Species will vary,
but at Sylvan Brandt they handle
white pine, yellow pine, oak,
poplar, and chestnut. Although
many reclamation companies
sell wholesale only, some of the
smaller firms will gladly sell you
a few boards, or even custom-
cut some lumber for you. You
can find numerous companies
on the Internet by searching for
reclaimed or recycled wood.

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 NoN-WooD
PRODUCTS
There are several non-wood products
that can handle some jobs better than wood:
phenolic, laminate, clear plastics, and PVC.

Phenolic
Phenolic is a very strong and durable
material that's made of paper and resins (larae
rectanaular brown plate in top photo). It's terrific for
jig making. as it's very stable and won't expand
or contract with changes in humidity as wood
will. This makes it especially useful as a runner
to fit in the miter gauge slot of a table saw,
shaper, or bandsaw, or to attach your router to
for insertion into a router table. This stuff is
so hard, I recommend cutting it only with a
carbide-tipped blade. Wear a dust mask when
cutting this: The fine dust generated not only
will irritate lungs, but it smells awfuL too.
Two other materials that are becoming pop-
ular for jig building are high-density polyethyl-
ene (HOPE) and ultra-high molecular weight
(UHMW) plastic (white strip and disk in top photo).
Both of these are low-friction, nonstick, and
great for sliding surfaces like the fence for a
router table or table saw. The big advantage of
these is they're easier to work than phenolic. tables and glue-up fixtures with it so that excess
The only disadvantage to these opaque plastics glue can quickly and easily be scraped off.
is they can't be glued- even epoxy won't work. Laminate comes in a variety of colors and
is available in 4-ft. x 8-ft. and 4-ft. x 12-ft. sheets.
Laminate Many lumberyards and home centers sell smaller
Anytime a project calls for a surface that's pieces. Standard colors are stocked and others
almost indestructible, I reach for plastic lami- are special-ordered. Occasionally at a home cen-
nate, often referred to by its common brand ter you'll find, at a discount price, a piece that
names, Formica or Wilsonart (middle photo). I've someone never picked up.
used plastic laminate for years for projects for Laminate cuts well with carbide-tipped
my kids: easels, travel boxes, any surface that I tools. just be aware that freshly cut edges are
know will get hard use. Plastic laminate is also very sharp. Contact cement spread on both sur-
great for around-the-house projects like TV trays faces will create an amazingly strong bond. I
and microwave carts. But the place I use plastic recommend buying a J-type laminate roller to
laminate the most is in the shop. It's perfect for press the laminate firmly onto the surface. A
sliding surfaces like router fences and the bot- flush-trim bit in a router will clean up protrud-
toms of sliding tables. I also cover assembly ing laminate and will leave a clean, smooth edge.

- ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 Clear plastic
I also frequently use sheets of clear plastic
(polycarbonate or acrylic) when making jigs.
In most cases. the purpose is some form of see-
through guard, such as the blade guard on a slid-
ing cutoff table. Thicker plastic also works well
for featherboards (top photo). Clear plastics can be
purchased from most mail-order woodworking
catalogs in either clear or safety orange. in stan-
dard thicknesses of 1/s", 1/ 4", 3/s", and 3/4''.You can
cut plastic with a standard saw blade; just make
sure to keep the protective sheet in place when
you cut, to reduce chip-out and to prevent
scratches. You can smooth rough edges with a
mill file and sand them with sandpaper.

PVC
Although I most often use PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) pipe for jigs. it's also
useful as a base for veneering (middle
photo). With flexible veneers. you can
quickly create perfect wood columns by
wrapping the veneer around a piece of
PVC. If you insert toy wheels into the
ends of short lengths of PVC and run a
steel rod through the wheels, you can
make rollers for an outfeed table for a

,, table saw, bandsaw, or planer. PVC is also

useful in the shop for storing cutoffs,
dowels. and molding (see page 129).

OUTDOOR ALTERNATIVES
There are few woods that really hold up well
outdoors- teak, redwood, white oak, and cypress
among them. The next time you're building an
outdoor project, whether it's a deck, a planter,
or a bench, consider a solid wood alternative
(see photo). There are a number of recycled
wood/ plastic composites being manufactured,
like ChoiceDek and Trex, that hold up extremely well when exposed to the
elements. All of these can be worked with standard woodworking tools and can
be ordered from most lumberyards.

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS
 a latency period of 40 to 45 years. This means

APPENDIX: you could work with wood a long time with no

apparent problems and then suddenly develop

Hazards ot Wood cancer. Over half of all known cases of this type
of cancer are found in woodworkers.
For the most part. working with wood is a
real pleasure. There are, however, some less- Dust control
than-desirable side effects when working with The good news is, you can prevent this from
some types of wood and wood products. Sap happening with proper dust control. For starters,
from some woods can cause irritation to the always wear a high-quality cartridge-type dust
skin; wood and wood dust can cause hypersen- mask when working in a dusty environment (top
sitivity, allergic reactions, skin irritation, and photo on page 185). Also, dust collectors will cut
respiratory problems (see the chart below). down on the dust in a shop; if you don't have
Inhaling the dust of some hardwoods can one, you should wear your mask anytime there's
even cause nasal (sinus) cancer. What's really dust in the air- not just when you're outting.
deceptive about this type of cancer is that it has

Type Source Type How potent is it?

of Wood of Irritation of Reaction What It Effects (1 =low, 4=high)

Beech leaves, bark, sensitizer eyes, skin, and respiratory 2

and dust
Birch wood and dust sensitizer respiratory 2
Cocobolo wood and dust irritant eyes, skin, and respiratory 3
and sensistizer
Ebony wood and dust irritant eyes and skin 2
and sensitizer
lroko wood and dust irritant eyes, skin, and respiratory 3
and sensitizer
Purpleheart wood and dust (nausea) nausea 2
Rosewoods wood and dust irritant respiratory, eyes, and skin 4
and sensitizer
Satinwood wood and dust irritant respiratory, eyes, and skin 3
Teak dust sensitizer eyes, skin, and respiratory 2
Walnut, black wood and dust sensitizer eyes and skin 2
Wenge wood and dust sensitizer respiratory, eyes, and skin 2
Western leaves, bark, sensitizer respiratory 3
red cedar and dust
Yew dust irritant eyes and skin 2

APPENDIX
l 1
Sensitizing woods
Sensitizing woods take a while to have any
effect on you- basically. you become more sen-
sitive the more frequently you're exposed. Black
walnut is good example. I have a friend who
used to work with walnut all the time, without a
dust mask. Now if he walks into a shop where
somebody is working with it, he immediately
starts sneezing and his eyes water. It's a real
shame because he loves the wood, and he could
have prevented his reaction by wearing a mask.

Composites
The dust from composites (left photo) can
cause respiratory ptoblems for two reasons.
First, the dust can be superfine, especially the
dust generated from cutting or sanding MDF
(medium-density fiberboard). Second, since all
composites are bonded together with resins, the
dust contains a high amount of resins. Neither
the fine dust nor the resins belong in your lungs.
Use dust collection, if you have it, when machin-
ing composites, and always wear a dust mask.

Exotics
Most woodworkers have some form of reac-
tion when working with tropical hardwoods or
exotics (left photo). I have a problem with rose-
wood and coco bolo; one snoutful of dust, and I
can't breathe. If you're planning on working with
an exotic, wear a dust mask and keep the dust
away from your face, particularly your eyes. Just
a little dust in your eye, and it can start watering
and even swell up. Goggles are a good idea, but a
full-face respirator is even better.

Pressure-treated lumber
A final wood product to watch out for is
pressure-treated lumber (bottom photo). The dust
generated from working with pressure-treated
lumber contains the chemical used to treat the
wood, typically chromated copper arsenate-
not something you want in your body. Here
again, use dust collection if you have it and wear
a dust mask; whenever possible, wear gloves
when handling pressure-treated lumber to keep
your skin from absorbing the chemicals within.
SOURCES
and Jntormation
Drying lumber Mail-order wood Sawmill
information and veneer manufacturers

Forest Products Society Constantine's Granberg International

608 231-1361 800 223-8087 (chainsaw mill)
www.forestprod.org www.constantines.com 510 237-2099
www.granberg.com
Rockier Woodworking and
Engineered products Hardware Logosol
information (formerly The Woodworkers' Store) (chainsaw mill)
800 279-4441 877 564-6765
Composite Panel Association
www.rockler.com www.logosolusa.com
301 670-0604
www.pbmd£org
Woodcraft Timberking
800 225-11S3 (handsaw mill)
Structural Board Association
www.woodcraft.com 800 942-4406
U.S.: 218 829-3055
www.timberking.com
Canada: 416 730-9090
Woodworker's Supply. Inc.
www.osbguide.com
800 645-9292 Woodmizer
(bandsaw mill)
Grading supplies 800 553-0182
Plywood www.woodmizer.com
and information
and information
Conway Cleveland
APA (Engineered Wood
(lumber-grading sticks)
Association)
616 458-0056
Western U.S.: 206 565-6600
Eastern U.S.: 770 427 9371
National Hardwood Lumber
www.apawood.org
Association
901 377-1818
Hardwood Plywood & Veneer
www.natlhardwood.org
Association
703 435-2900
Western Wood Products
www.hpva.org
Association
503 224-3930
States Industries
www.wwpa.org
(ApplePly. prefinished plywood)
800 843-2753
www.statesind.com

SOURCES
Wood
GLOSSARY
air-dried lumber - lumber that cant- a log that has been debarked diffuse-porous - hardwoods
has reached its equilibrium moisture and sawn square. where the vessels formed throughout
content by being exposed to air. the growing are of uniform size and
case-hardening - a drying defect
evenly distributed.
annual growth ring - the visible where the surface of wood dries faster
layer of growth that a tree gains in a than the wetter inner core; this causes earlywood - a layer of sap-
single year, comprised of one layer of permanent set and stresses that conducting wood cells that form
earlywood and one layer of latewood. release when the board is cut. early in the growing season.
bandsaw mill - a type of portable chainsaw mill - an accessory for a end checks - a drying defect
saw mill that uses a continuous band chainsaw that allows logs to be rough- caused by the ends of boards drying
to cut the log. cut into lumber on site. faster than the rest of the wood; can
usually be preventing by sealing the
bark - the outermost layer of a tree's compression strength - how
end grain.
trunk, which protects the inner wood; well a wood holds together when
composed of an outer, dead cork layer sustained stress is applied. end-coating - the process of seal-
and an inner, living layer. ing the ends of boards to prevent
compression wood - a type of
checking caused by unrestrained
bird's-eye - a much sought-after reaction wood that forms in soft-
evaporation of moisture.
type of figure that's caused by indenta- woods on the underside of a leaning
tions in the cambium layers of some trunk or limb. equilibrium moisture content -
wood species, most notably maple. the point at which no moisture enters
conifer - a type of tree that's charac-
or leaves a piece of wood.
board foot- a unit of wood terized by needle-like or scale-like
volume equal to 144 square inches; foliage, usually evergreen. extractive - resins and other sub-
a board that's 1" thick and 12" inches stances deposited in the heartwood
crotch - the highly figured wood
square measures 1 board foot. during a tree's growth that impart
that occurs where a limb joins a
both color and resistance to decay.
bookmatch - a way to match trunk; the grain swirls dramatically
veneer where alternating pieces of where the wood fibers have crowded FAS - an acronym for "firsts and sec-
veneer sliced from a log are turned and twisted together. onds;' the top grade for hardwood
over like the pages of a book and lumber; an FAS board will yield at
crook - a form of warp that is an
joined together. least 83 1/3%defect-free lumber.
end-to-end curve along the edge of a
bound water - the moisture board. fiber saturation point (FSP) -
present in wood found within the a condition of wood cells where they
cup - a form of warp that is an edge-
cell walls. are free from all water, but the cell
to-edge curve across the face of a
walls remain fully saturated.
bow- a form of warp that is an end- board.
to-end curve along the length of a fiddleback - a type of washboard-
de barker - a large machine at a
board. like figure that occurs in some species
sawmill that removes the bark from a
of wood with wavy grain.
burl - a wartlike growth that forms tree by grinding or chipping it off.
on a tree and that, when sliced, pro- figure - the pattern on a wood's sur-
deciduous - a type of tree where
duces extremely disoriented grain face, resulting from the combination
the leaves fall off every autumn;
patterns that are quite attractive. of its natural features and the way the
typically a hardwood, but not always.
log was cut.
cambium - a 1-cell-thick layer of Some hardwoods in tropical regions
cells located between the phloem and keep their leaves all year long. grade - a designation of the quality
the sapwood that is the active-growing of a log or wood product such as lum-
part of a tree. ber, veneer, or plywood.

G LOSSARY
grade stamp - a stamp applied to kiln-dried lumber - lumber that parenchyma - a type of special-
lumber and other wood products that has dried in a kiln to a specific mois- ized wood cell that serves primarily as
indicates the product's grade, strength ture content. storage for fluids and other materials.
properties, species, and mill where it
knot - the section of a branch or particleboard - a wood-panel
was cut or manufactured.
limb that has been overgrown by product that is produced mechan-
grading stick - a special ruler expanding girth of a tree; may be ically by reducing wood to small
used by hardwood-lumber graders loose or tight. particles, applying adhesive to the
to quickly determine the surface particles, and pressing a mat of part-
latewood - a layer of smalL thick-
measure of a board so that the grade icles under heat and pressure.
walled wood cells that form late in
can be determined.
the growing season. phenolic - a durable, strong plastic
grain - the direction of wood fibers that's made of paper and resins; useful
medium-density fiberboard
in a tree or piece of wood with for making jigs.
(MDF) - an engineered panel where
respect to the axis of the trunk.
wood chips are further reduced to pith - the small, soft core occurring
half-round veneer- veneer that's tiny fibers that are coated with resin in the center of a tree trunk.
produced by moving a log in an and hot-pressed to create a homoge-
pits - recess~s in portions of wood
abbreviated arc against a knife held nous panel of uniform density.
cells that allow fluids to flow from
roughly parallel to the center of a log.
medium-density overlay cell to cell.
hardboard - often referred by (MOO) - B-grade plywood that's
plain-sawn - the most common
the trade name Masonite, it's an been covered with a smooth resin-
way to cut a log, where the cut is
engineered panel made up of finely impregnated paper overlay.
made tangential to the growth rings;
ground processed wood fibers and
melamine - a type ofparticleboard also know as flat-sawn.
resins bonded together under heat
with a thin layer of plastic bonded to
and pressure. plain-sliced veneer - veneer pro-
both faces.
duced by slicing a log with the knife
hardwood - wood cut from
modulus of elasticity - the mea- parallel to the center of the log.
broad-leaved, mostly deciduous trees
sure of a wood's ability to spring back
that belong to the botanical group plastic laminate - known by the
after a load is removed.
Angiospermae. brand names Formica and Wilsonart,
modulus of rupture - the maxi- it is a thin, almost indestructible sheet
head rig - a moving carriage on a
mum load a wood can support with- of plastic that's most often bonded to
circular-saw mill that cradles a log
out breaking. a surface with contact cement.
and presents it to the blade to cut
planks or timbers. moisture content - the amount pleasing match- a way of joining
of water in a piece of wood expressed veneer where attention is paid to the
heartwood - mature wood that
as a percentage of the green weight color of the pieces but not necessarily
forms the spine of a tree.
minus the dry weight times 100, the grain.
honeycomb - a drying defect that divided by the green weight.
plywood - panels made up of thin
occurs when lumber undergoes severe
moisture meter - an electronic sheets of veneer or plies glued togeth-
case-hardening in the early stages of
device used to measure the moisture er so the grain is perpendicular; may
drying; appears as deep. internal
content of lumber. also have a core made of particleboard
checks.
or other composite material.
nominal dimensions - dimen-
impact bending - how well a
sions based on rough-cut (unplaned) quarter designation - a rough
wood handles impact.
softwood; a 2x4 is nominally 2" x 4"- thickness designation used for hard-
juvenile wood - the wood in it's actually 11/2'' x 31/2". woods based on 1/4'' increments; a
every tree that forms within its first 10 51 4 or five-quarter board is 11/4" thick
oriented-strand board (OSB) -
years or so; usually has undesirable before planing or surfacing.
an engineered panel that's made from
characteristics such as low strength
strands of wood bonded together with quartersawn - lumber that has
and shrinkage along the grain.
a waterproof resin under heat and been cut so that the growth rings are
kiln - a heated chamber of a build- pressure; the oriented strands create between 45° and 90° to the face of the
ing used to dry lumber; humidity and cross-banding somewhat similar to board; quartersawing some species
air circulation are constantly moni- plywood. results in ray fleck or silver grain.
tored and adjusted as the wood dries.

G LOSSARY
quarter-sliced veneer- veneer 525 or 545 - an acronym for "sur- stripe - a stripe or ribbon pattern
produced by slicing a log with the faced two sides" or "surfaced four that occurs when woods with inter-
knife perpendicular to the growth sides"; describes which faces of rough locked grain (which slopes in alter-
rings. lumber have been surfaced smooth. nate directions) are quartersawn.
random match- a way of joining sapwood - new wood surrounding substrate - a piece of plywood,
pieces of veneer where no attention is the denser heartwood. softwood, hardwood, or engineered
paid to color or grain of the pieces panel that's used in veneering as a core
sawyer - a skilled professional who
being joined. or foundation.
reads a log, determines the best way to
ray - a ribbon-shaped strand of cut it, and via a set of controls has the surface checks - a drying defect
wood cells that extends from the mill make the cuts. that occurs when the surface dries too
inner bark to the pith perpendicular quickly in relation to the core.
shake - a lumber defect that is
to the axis of a tree trunk; rays appear
a lengthwise separation of wood, tension wood - a type of reaction
as fleck on quartersawn surfaces of
usually along the growth rings. wood, found in hardwoods, that
some species.
forms on the upper side of a leaning
shear strength - a wood's ability
reaction wood - wood that a tree trunk or limb.
to resist internal slipping of one part
forms to try to bring a leaning trunk
along another, along the grain. texture - the size of the cells in a
or branch back to vertical; can be
wood, described as ranging from
compression wood or tension wood. shrinkage - changes in the dimen-
coarse to fine; often confused with
sions of wood due to loss of moisture
reclaimed wood - lumber that grain.
below the fiber saturation point.
has been sawn from used timbers,
twist - a form of warp where one
often harvested from old barns and slip-match - a way of joining
corner of a board is not aligned with
commercial buildings. veneer where successive pieces are
the others.
slipped out in sequence and joined
relative humidity - the ratio of
together. veneer - a thin layer or sheet of
water vapor present in the air to the
wood sawn, sliced, or cut from a log;
amount that the air would hold at its softwood - wood cut from conifer-
paper backing may be applied to
saturation point, usually expressed as ous trees belonging to the botanical
create flexible veneer.
a percentage. group Gymnospermae.
vessels - large wood cells found
resin canals - spaces between soft- spalting - an attractive dark brown
only in hardwoods, which connect to
wood cells caused by separation of or black stain in some woods caused
form a continuous path for fluid.
adjacent cells; they serve as a defense by decay.
mechanism by transporting resin to wane - the presence of bark or a
specific gravity - the ratio of the
an injury. lack of wood from any cause along
density of a wood to the density of the
the edge or corner of a piece of
rift-sawn - wood that has been cut water stored in it at a specified tem-
lumber.
so the growth rings are at an angle perature.
between 30° and 60° to the face of the warp - any deviation of the face or
speck - a defect that's caused by a
board. edge of a board from flatness, or any
fungus living in a tree, which appears
edge that is not at right angles to the
ring-porous - hardwoods where as small white pits or spots.
adjacent face or edge; the most com-
vessels that form early in the season
split- a separation of wood fibers mon forms of warp are bow, cup,
are much larger than pores formed
that extends completely through a twist..and crook.
later; this forms a distinct zone of
piece of lumber, usually at the ends.
earlywood and latewood, easily seen
with the naked eye. sticker- a piece of wood, typically
3/ 4"
square, that's inserted at regular
rotary-sliced veneer - veneer
intervals between layers of green
produced by pressing a broad cutting
wood to assist the drying process.
knife set at a slight angle against a
rotating log. sticker stain - sometimes called
shadow, it's a stain that forms under
the stickers in a stack of drying wood.
 INDEX
A Buying lumber Cordia spp., 30 Epithelial cells, 14
Acacia koa, 42 estimating amounts, Countertops, material for, 155 Equilibrium moisture content
Acacia melanoxyfon, 29 120-122 Crates, material for, 163 (EMC), 104
Acer ne~undo, 30 saving money, 124-125, Crook, 96 Eucalyptus marginata, 40
Acer ru rum, 46, 179 145 Crotchwood, 99
Acer saccharum, 20, 45 selecting, 126-127, 145 Cup, 96, 109 F
Adhesives, for veneer, 177 Curv-A-Boord, 147 Fagus grandifolia, 28
Alder, red (Alnus rubra}, 26
Alnus rubra, 26
c
Cambium layer, 1Q-11
Cuts
bowl blanks, 80-81
FAS grades, 88, 124-125
Fasteners, for composites, 161
Angios~erms, 9 Cardwellia sublimis, 42 types, 60-61 Featherboards, 172, 183
AppleP y, 146- 147 Carya illinoinensis, 49 Cypress, bald (Taxodium dis- • FeAce, for cutting veneer, 172
Ash, American (Fraxius ameri- Carya spp., 38 tichum}, 35 Fiber saturation point, 102
cana), 26, 179 Castanea dentata, 35 Fiddleback figure, 98
Aspen, American (Populus Cedar D Figure
tremuloides), 27 eastern red (Juniperus vir- Dalbergia cearensis, 41 in lumber, 61 , 98-99
Astronium fraxinifolium, 37 giniana), 19, 32 Dalbergia nigra, 52 in veneer, 171
Spanish (Cedrela odor- Decd;-97 Fill, 150
B atea}, 32 Deci uous trees, 9 Fine-textured, defined, 16
Balsa (Ochroma pyramidale}, western red (Thuja plicata}, Defects Flake, 61, 98
27 33 from drying, 116-117 Flitch cut, 60, 72-73
Baltic Birch plywood, 146-147 Cedrela odoratea, 32 lumber grades and, 96-97 Formica, 182
Bandsaw mills, 70-72 Cell structure in softwood plywood, 150 Framing lumber, grades of, 94
Basswood (Tilia americana}, hardwood, 16-18 in veneer, 141 Fraxinus americana, 26, 179
28 softwood, 14-15 Diffuse-porous, defined, 17
"Bastard" cut, 61 Certified Forest Products Dimensions G
Beech, American (Fagus gran- Council (CFPC), 178 hardwood , 62-63 Gon~alo olves {Astronium frax-
difolia}, 28 Chain saw mills, 74-76 softwood, 64-65 inifolium}, 37
Bending ffclywood, 147 Chokte kok (Sickingia sal- Dimpling, 98 Grades and types of lumber
Birch, ye low (Betula vadorensis), 33 Diospyros spp., 36 ~uidelines for, 84, 90
alleghaniensis), 29, 179 Chechem (Metopium brownei}, Dote, 97 ordwood, 84-89
Bird's-eye figure, 98 34 Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga men- MDF, 158
Biscuit joiners, 161 Checks ziesii), 20, 36 OSB, 162
Blackwood, Australian (Acacia in lumber, 102, 116 Doze, 97 particleboard, 154
melanoxyfon}, 29 in veneer, 170-171 Drying techniques plywood, 144-145,
Bfeditsia triacanthos, 44 Cherry, black (Prunus serotina}, air-, 107- 111 148- 149
Boord feet, calculating, 62-63, 20, 34 defects from , 116-117 softwood, 90-95
65 Chestnut, American (Castanea kiln- , 112-115 steps in, 86-87
Board rules, 84 dentata}, 35 Dust control, 160, 184-185 Grade stomps, 90
Bacote (Cordia spp.), 30 Chforoxyfon swietenia, 53 Grading sticks, 84
Bound water, 102 ChoiceDek, 183 E Grain
Bow, 96, 109 Coarse-textured, defined, 16 Earlywood, 15 defined, 13
Bowl blanks, cutting, 80-81 Color matchiJe, 126 Ebony (Diospyros spp.), 36 as design element, 123
Box elder (Acer negundo), 30 Common gra es, 89, 95, 124 Edge-banding, 161 fuzzy, 23
Breadboard ends, 105 Composites, working with, Elasticity, 20-21 selecting lumber for, 127
Brosimum guianense, 54 160-161 . See also specific Elm, American white (Ulmus Greviffea robusta, 47
Bubinga (Guibourtia demeu - materials americana}, 37 Growth rings, 12, 15, 60-61
sei}, 31 Compression, defined, 20-21 EMC, 104 Guibourtia demeusei, 31
Burls, 99 Comression wood, 23 Engineered products, working Gum, sweet (Liquidambar
Butternut (Juglans cinerea}, 31 Coni ers, 8 with , 160-161. See also styraciflua}, 38
Buttons, 105 Cordia dodecandra, 57 specific materials Gymnosperms, 8

1111111 INDEX
H Lorch, European {Larix
decidua}, 43
Modulus of rupture, 20-21
Moisture content, 102
Plastics, 182-183
Plywood
Hardboard, 166
Hardwood Larix decidua, 43 Moisture meters, 117 construction of, 136-137
cell structure, 16-18 Latewood, 15 grades of, 144-145,
dimensions, 62-63 Lauan {Shorea spp.), 43
Liquidambar styraciflua, 38
N 148-149
hardwood, 144-147
wades, 84-89 Narrow stock, 125
esser-known, 178-179 Liriodendron tulipifera, 51 , National Hardwood Lumber softwood, 148-151
tree type, 9 179 Association (NHLA), 84 specialty, 146-147, 151
HDPE plastic, 182 Locust, honey (Bieditsia friacan - veneer on, 138-143
thos), 44 Polyvinyl chloride pipe (PVC),
Heartwood, 11-12, 126-127
Hickory Lumber-core plywood, 137 0 183
Lumber racks, 130-133 Oak Poplar,~ellow (Liriodendron
Carya spp., 38 American red {Quercus
shagbark, 20 Lumber rules, 84 tulipi era}, 51 , 179
rubra}, 46 Populus fremuloides, 27
High-denst polyethylene
(HDPE) p ostic, 182 M American white {Quercus
alba}, 17, 20, 47
Porosity, 16-17
Holly (flex spp.), 39 Madura pomifera, 48 Pressure-treated lumber, 151
Mahofrony red northern, 20 Prunus serafina, 20, 34
Honeycomb, 117 silky {Grevillea robusfa},
Hymenaea courbaril, 41 A ricon (Khaya spp.), 44 Pseudotsuga menziesii, 20,
big leaf {Swiefenia macro- 47 36
phylla}, 45 Ochroma pyramidale, 27 Pterocarpus soyauxii, 48
I vessels in, 17 Octea porosa, 39 Purpleheart {Peltogyne panicu-
/lex spp., 39 Maple Oriented-strand board (OSB) lata), 51
lmbuya {Octea porosa), 39 described, 162-163
hard {Acer saccharum}, PVC, 183
Impact bending, 20-21 20, 45 grades of, 162
International Wood Collectors
Pyrus communis, 49
soh {Acer rubrum}, 46, manufacture of, 164-165
Society (IWSC), 25
lroko (Milicia excelsa), 40
179 Osage orange (Madura
pomifera}, 48
Q
Masonite, 166 Quartersawing, 60-61 ,
IWCS, 25 OSB. See Oriented-strand
Matching 72-73
color, 126 board Quercus alba, 17, 20, 47
J veneer, 139-140, 172, Quercus rubra, 46
Jarrah {Eucalyptus marginafa), 175 p
40
Jatoba (Hymenaea courbaril},
MDF. See Medium-density Padauk, African {Pferocarpus R
fiberboard soyauxii), 48 Racks
41 MDO, 151 Panels, floating , 106 lumber, 130-131
Jigs Medium-density fiberboard Parenchyma, 18 sheet good, 132-133
for cuttinrc veneer, 172 (MDF) Particleboard Ray fleck, 61 , 98
material or, 146, 151 , described, 136-137, described, 136-137, Rays, 15, 18
159, 166, 183 158-159 154-155 Reaction wood, 23
Joints, wood movement and, grades of, 158 grades of, 154 Reel aimed wood, 180-1 81
106 working with, 160-161 manufacture of, 156-157 Redwood, California {Sequoia
Juglans cinerea, 31 Medium-density overlay working with, 160-161 sempervirens), 52
Juglans nigra, 20, 55 (MDO), 151 Patches, 150 Resin canals, 14
Juniperus virginiana, 19, 32 Melamine, 155 Pear (Pyrus communis), 49 Rih-sawing, 60-61
Juvenile wood, 22 Mefopium brownei, 34 Pecan {Carya illinoinensis), Ring-porous, defined, 17
Microberlinia brazzavillensis, 49 Roe, 99
K 57 Peltog(ne paniculata, 51 Roey figure, 99
Khaya spp., 44 Micro-thin lumber, 125 Pheno ic, 182 Rosewood, Brazilian
Kilns, 112-115 Milicia excelsa, 40 Picea sitchensis, 54 {Dalbergia nigra), 52
Kingwood {Dalbergia cearen- Millettia laurenfii, 56 Pine Rot, 97
sis}, 4 1 Milling techniques, veneer, eastern white (Pinus Rupture, 20-21
Knots, 19, 92, 127 138 141-143
I strobus}, 20, 50
Koa {Acacia koa}, 42 Mills kno'Je' 19 5
bandsaw, 70-72 pen erosa (Pinus pon- Salix nigra, 56
L chainsaw, 74-76 derosa}, 50 Sapwood, 11-12, 126-127
Lacewood (Cardwellia sub- in-shop, 77-79 Pinus ponderosa, 50 Sassafras {Sassafras albidum},
limis}, 42 sawmills, 66-69 Pinus strobus, 20, 50 53
Laminate, 182 Mock-ups, material for, 163 Pits, 14 Satinwood, Ceylon
Landscape figure, 61 Modulus of elasticity, 20-21 Plain-sawing, 60-61 , 72-73 (Chloroxylon swiefenia), 53
 Sawmills, 66-69
Select grades, 88, 94-95,
Tension wood, 23
Through-and-through cut, 60,
v
Veneer
Warp, 96, 102, 109
Web frames, 105
125 72-73 Wenge {Millettia laurentii}, 56
cutting, 172-174
Sequoia sempervirens, 52 Thuia plicata, 33 described, 170-171 Willow, black {Salix nigra), 56
Shadow, 97 Tilia americana, 28 Wilsonart, 182
matching, 139-140, 172,
Shake, 93 Trees Winding sticks, 127
175
Shear strength, 20-21 growth of, 1Q-12 Wood movement
milling, 138, 141-143
Sheet goods. See also specific types of, 8-9 coping with , 105-1 06
workingwith, 176-177
materials Trex, 183 Veneer-core plywood, 137 described, 102-1 04
storing, 132-133 Twist, 96, 109, 127 Vessles, 16-17
transporting, 167
%
Shooting boxes, 77
Shorea spp. , 43
u
UHMW plastic, 182
Voids, 150

w Zebrawood {Microberlinia
brazzavillensis), 57
Shorts, 124 Ulmus americana, 37 Walnut, black {Juglans nigra}, Zircote {Cordia dodecandra},
Shrinkage, du ring drying, Ultra-high molecular weight 20, 55 57
103
(UHMW) plastic, 182 Wane, 93, 127 Zone lines, 97
Sickingia salvadorensis, 33
Siding, 151
Silver grain , 61 , 98
Snakewood {Brosimum guia- METRIC EQUIVALENCY CHART
nense}, 54
Snipe, 121 Inches to millimeters and centimeters
Softwood
cell structure, 14-15 inches mm em inches em inches em
characteristics, 92-93 1/s 3 0.3 9 22.9 30 76.2
dimensions, 64-65
grades, 90-95 1/4 6 0.6 10 25.4 31 78.7
tree type, 8 3jg 10 1.0 11 27.9 32 81 .3
Spalting, 97
Span ratings, OSB, 162-163 112 13 1.3 12 30.5 33 83.8
Specific gravity, 20-21 5jg 16 1.6 13 33.0 34 86.4
Speck, 93
Splits, 93, 116 3!4 19 1.9 14 35.6 35 88.9
Spruce, sitka (Picea sitchensis}, 7jg 22 2.2 15 38.1 36 91.4
54
Stain (defect), 97 1 25 2.5 16 40.6 37 94.0
Stickers, 79, 108, 111 11/4 32 3.2 17 43 .2 38 96.5
Storage
lumber, 128-131 1112 38 3.8 18 45.7 39 99.1
sheet goods, 132-133 P /4 44 4.4 19 48.3 40 101.6
Stripe, 99
Structural light framing lumber, 2 51 5.1 20 50.8 41 104.1
grades of, 94 2 112 64 6.4 21 53.3 42 106.7
Stub tenon-and-groove joints,
106 3 76 7.6 22 55.9 43 109.2
Substrate 3 112 89 8.9 23 58.4 44 111.8
attaching veneer to, 177
material for, 155, 159 4 102 10.2 24 61.0 45 114.3
Surfacing treatments, 63, 4 112 114 11.4 25 63.5 46 116.8
65
Swietenia macrophylla, 45 5 127 12.7 26 66.0 47 119.4
Sycamore, 17 6 152 15.2 27 68.6 48 121.9
T 7 178 17.8 28 71.1 49 124.5
Taxodium distichum, 35 8 203 20.3 29 73.7 50 127.0
Teak {Tectono grandis), 55
Tectona grandis, 55 mm = millimeters em = centimeters
Tenons, multiple, 106

~~~~~~ INDEX
 WOODWORKING/ HOME REFERENCE

T
he more you know about wood, the more
success you'll have with it in the shop and the
better everything you build will turn out.
Written specifically for woodworkers, this fully illus-
trated encyclopedia is packed with practical informa-
tion and insider tips on:

• The characteristics of more than 60 different

woods and how best to use them

• How lumber is milled and graded and what it

means to you

• Drying. buying. and storing wood

• Making informed choices about MDE hardwood

plywood, and other alternative wood materials, such
as veneer, to suit different projects and techniques

Elevate your woodworking to the next step with all of

the shop experience of Rick Peters and a host of
experts behind you.

ISBN 0-8069-3687-8
90000>
c:
Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. "0
n

New York
9 7 0 49725 03687 1