Theory Into Practice

ISSN: 0040-5841 (Print) 1543-0421 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/htip20

Equity pedagogy: An essential component of

multicultural education

Cherry A. McGee Banks & James A. Banks

To cite this article: Cherry A. McGee Banks & James A. Banks (1995) Equity pedagogy:
An essential component of multicultural education, Theory Into Practice, 34:3, 152-158, DOI:
10.1080/00405849509543674

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849509543674

Published online: 05 Nov 2009.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 688

Citing articles: 104 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=htip20
Cherry A. McGee Banks
James A. Banks

Equity Pedagogy: An Essential

Component of Multicultural Education

T HE WIDESPREAD MISCONCEPTIONS about multicul-

tural education have slowed its implementation
and contributed to the contentious debate about its
learning. We also describe the characteristics that
are needed by teachers to actualize this dimension of
multicultural education in the classroom.
nature and purposes (D'Souza, 1991; Schlesinger,
1991). One of the most prevalent of these misconcep- Equity Pedagogy: Meaning and Assumptions
tions is that the integration of content about diverse We define equity pedagogy as teaching strate-
cultural, ethnic, and racial groups into the mainstream gies and classroom environments that help students
curriculum is both its essence and its totality. Thus from diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural groups at-
the debate about multicultural education has focused tain the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to
primarily on content integration (e.g., the nature of function effectively within, and help create and per-
the canon) and has largely ignored other important petuate, a just, humane, and democratic society. This
dimensions of multicultural education (Sleeter, 1995). definition suggests that it is not sufficient to help
To be effectively implemented in schools, col- students learn to read, write, and compute within the
leges, and universities, multicultural education must dominant canon without learning also to question its
be broadly conceptualized and its various dimensions assumptions, paradigms, and hegemonic characteris-
must be more carefully delineated. In previous pub- tics. Helping students become reflective and active
lications, J.A. Banks (1993b, 1993c, 1994b) has con- citizens of a democratic society is at the essence of
ceptualized multicultural education as consisting of our conception of equity pedagogy.
five dimensions: content integration, the knowledge Pedagogies that merely prepare students to fit
construction process, prejudice reduction, an equity into society and to experience social class mobility
pedagogy, and an empowering school culture and within existing structures—which are characterized
social structure.1 by pernicious class divisions and racial, ethnic, and
In this article, we further explicate the concept gender stratification—are not helpful in building a
of equity pedagogy, describe how it intersects with democratic and just society. An education for equity
the other four dimensions, and clarify what it means enables students not only to acquire basic skills but
for curriculum reform and classroom teaching and to use those skills to become effective agents for
social change. We believe education within a plural-
istic democratic society should help students to gain
Cherry A. McGee Banks is assistant professor of education
the content, attitudes, and skills needed to know re-
at the University of Washington, Bothell; James A. Banks is
professor and director of the Center for Multicultural Edu- flectively, to care deeply, and to act thoughtfully
cation at the University of Washington, Seattle. (Banks, 1994a).

THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995

Copyright 1995 College of Education, The Ohio State University
0040-5841/95$!. 25
 Banks and Banks
Equity Pedagogy

The implementation of strategies such as coop- use of effective instructional techniques and methods
erative learning and culturally relevant instruction but also on the context in which they are used. Co-
within the context of existing assumptions and struc- operative learning, for example, can be an effective
tures will not result in equity pedagogy. Instead cur- instructional technique (Cohen, 1994; Slavin, 1983).
rent assumptions about teaching, students, learning, However, when it is used without an awareness of
and the nature of U.S. society must be interrogated contextual issues such as status differences among
and reconstructed. Equity pedagogy also requires the students, it can reinforce stereotypes and inequality
dismantling of existing school structures that foster in the classroom (Cohen & Roper, 1972).
inequality. It cannot occur within a social and polit- Equity pedagogy challenges teachers to use
ical context embedded with racism, sexism, and ine- teaching strategies that facilitate the learning process.
quality. Instead of focusing on the memorization of knowl-
Equity pedagogy actively involves students in edge constructed by authorities, students in classrooms
a process of knowledge construction and production. where equity pedagogy is used learn to generate
It challenges the idea of instruction as transmission knowledge and create new understandings (Banks,
of facts and the image of the teacher as a citadel of 1993a; Brooks & Brooks, 1993). Students make con-
knowledge and students as passive recipients of nections between the autobiographical experiences
knowledge. Equity pedagogy alters the traditional of knowers and the knowledge they create. In class-
power relationship between teachers and students. rooms where knowledge construction takes place,
Most importantly, it assumes an integral relationship teachers enable students to identify and interrogate
between knowledge and reflective action. Equity ped- the positionality of knowers and to construct their
agogy creates an environment in which students can own interpretations of reality (Brooks & Brooks,
acquire, interrogate, and produce knowledge and en- 1993; Code, 1991; Tetreault, 1993).
vision new possibilities for the use of that knowl- During the knowledge construction process, stu-
edge for societal change (Banks, 1994b). dents relate ideas and perspectives and make judg-
Our perspectives on equity pedagogy are guided ments and evaluations. Instead of looking for the
by these assumptions: (a) There is an identifiable single answer to a problem, students are encouraged
body of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that consti- to generate multiple solutions and perspectives. They
tute critical attributes of equity pedagogy; (b) criti- also explore how problems arise and how they are
cal attributes of equity pedagogy can be identified, related to other problems, issues, and concepts.
taught, and learned; (c) competencies in equity ped- Like the other dimensions of multicultural educa-
agogy can be developed through formal instruction, tion, equity pedagogy provides a basis for addressing
reflection on life experiences, and opportunities to critical aspects of schooling and for transforming
work with students and colleagues from diverse popu- curricula and schools. The discussion that follows
lations; (d) all teachers need to be able to competently relates equity pedagogy to two dimensions of multi-
implement equity pedagogy and related teaching strat- cultural education: content integration and an em-
egies because all students benefit from them; (e) in- powering school culture and social structure.
depth knowledge of an academic discipline, pedagogy,
and their students' cultures are prerequisites for teach- School Culture and Social Structure
ers to successfully implement equity pedagogy; (f) A serious examination of the culture and social
competency in equity pedagogy requires a process structure of the school raises significant questions
of reflection and growth; and (g) equity pedagogy about institutional characteristics such as tracking
cannot be implemented in isolation from the other and the power relationships between students and
four dimensions of multicultural education described teachers, and between teachers and administrators.
above. It is interrelated in a complex way with the The school culture and social structure are powerful
other dimensions (Banks, 1993c). determinants of how students learn to perceive them-
selves. These factors influence the social interactions
Characteristics of Equity Pedagogy that take place between students and teachers and
Equity pedagogy is a dynamic instructional proc- among students, both inside and outside the class-
ess that not only focuses on the identification and room.

153
THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Summer 1995
Culturally Relevant Teaching

Tracking and power relationships within a are learning? If there are gaps, why? If not, why
school are important components of its deep struc- not?
ture (Tye, 1987). The deep structure includes the Significant adult-student interactions often oc-
bell schedule, the physical uniformity of classrooms, cur within the context of the hidden curriculum. The
test scores, and various factors that allow teachers to number of people available to work with students in
maintain control in the classroom (Tye, 1987). Equi- the classroom is an important part of the hidden cur-
ty pedagogy challenges the deep structure of schools riculum. Some classes—often differentiated by des-
because its requirements for scheduling, arrangement ignations such as gifted and accelerated—have many
of physical space, and control are frequently at odds parent and community volunteers available to pro-
with traditional instructional methods that reinforce vide classroom help and to implement enrichment
the structure of schools. programs. The adults in these classes are able to
If students are to be involved in the production provide students with individualized instruction. This
of knowledge, they need class schedules that allow communicates the implicit message that the students
time for these activities. The 50-minute time slot are special and important. Teachers who work in
usually does not allow students the time they need schools in which some classes have multiple adult
for reflection, content integration, and synthesis. Fur- helpers and other classes have only one adult should
thermore, students who are involved in producing realize that such factors can severely limit the effec-
knowledge may need to work in places other than tiveness of culturally sensitive pedagogy and coop-
the classroom. Teachers may not be able to exercise erative learning.
as much control over students who are working in When used in isolation, instructional strategies
other areas of the school building, such as the li- such as cooperative learning and constructivist tech-
brary, or at sites off campus. niques cannot sufficiently deal with the problems
These elements of the deep structure of schools embedded in the hidden curriculum. To transform
are important components of the hidden curriculum. pedagogy, the adults in schools must address the
When teachers use equity pedagogy that challenges social-class, racial, and ethnic inequalities embedded in
the deep structure of schools, important aspects of the differential levels of support given to different
the hidden curriculum are often revealed. Becoming classes and schools. The construction of equity in
aware of the relationship between the school culture, schools as well as the implementation of culturally-
the social structure, and the deep structure of schools sensitive teaching methods are necessary to actual-
can heighten the teacher's awareness of the power ize equity pedagogy in classrooms and schools.
of the hidden curriculum, or what Jackson (1992) The physical arrangement of space in a class-
calls the "untaught lessons." room is also a cogent factor in the hidden curricu-
lum. It communicates implicit messages to students.
The Hidden Curriculum When chairs in a classroom are lined up in straight
School teaching and learning take place prima- rows facing the teacher, the implicit message is that
rily in groups and through social interactions. Inter- all students are expected to participate in the same
actions between teachers and students and among activities simultaneously and to learn in identical
students are important parts of the relationship be- ways as directed by the teacher (Tye, 1987).
tween equity pedagogy and the hidden curriculum. Learning centers, on the other hand, suggest that
Implementing equity pedagogy requires teachers to students can legitimately engage in different activities,
understand how students perceive social interactions that the students are the focus in the classroom, and
with their teachers, what they learn from them, and that learning can be interesting and rewarding. Teach-
the extent to which students perceive their teachers ers who try to implement equity pedagogy without
as caring persons. Equity pedagogy can help reveal attending to factors such as the physical arrange-
the nature of the hidden curriculum by encouraging ment of space in the classroom and the control in-
teachers to raise questions such as: Is this class mean- herent in certain types of physical conditions will
ingful for my students? Would my students like a rarely experience success.
different teacher? Why or why not? What gaps exist Students also learn from their peers, as they are
between what I am teaching and what my students actively engaged in interactions with other students

154
 Banks and Banks
Equity Pedagogy

throughout the school day. Peer relationships are an Transformative curricula provide a rich context
important part of the social context of the classroom, for equity pedagogy because both transformative cur-
and teachers need to understand these interactions. ricula and equity pedagogy promote knowledge
They can become potent elements in the hidden cur- construction and curriculum reform. Transformative cur-
riculum. Implementing group work without making ricula and equity pedagogy also assume that the cul-
provisions for dealing with the status differences tures of students are valid, that effective teaching
among students based on race, gender, and social must reflect the lives and interests of students (Ladson-
class may result in marginalizing low-status-group Billings, 1990), and that students must be provided
students rather than providing opportunities for them opportunities to construct meaningful knowledge. In
to learn from their peers (Cohen, 1994; Cohen & this sense, equity pedagogy is directly related to cur-
Roper, 1972). riculum reform.
Students learn about themselves as they acquire Information is increasing at an astronomical rate.
academic knowledge. The academic self-concept of What was once packaged in a one-volume text now
students is highly related to their general self-con- requires two or more. Teachers are finding it in-
cept, their ability to perform academic work, and creasingly difficult to cover all the information they
their ability to function competently among peers are expected to include in the curriculum. Equity
(Brookover, Beady, Flood, Schweitzer, & Wisenbaker, pedagogy provides a rationale and a process that can
1979). Equity pedagogy requires teachers to deal with help teachers focus on the essence of the curriculum
the dynamics of peer interactions in classroom life. rather than on isolated and rapidly changing facts.
Students are not one-dimensional; therefore, equity Students in the 21st century, unlike those in
pedagogy has to reflect the complexity of student earlier times, will have to address complex issues
interactions and relationships. that cannot be answered with discrete facts. To be
effective, students must know where to get the infor-
Content Integration and Assessment mation they need, how to formulate questions that
Equity pedagogy is tightly intertwined with con- will provide access to the appropriate information,
tent integration. How an instructor teaches is in- how to evaluate the information from a cognitive as
formed and shaped by what is taught. Both equity well as a value perspective, how to integrate it with
pedagogy and curriculum influence the form and other information, and how to make reflective deci-
function of learning (Vygotsky, 1978). Equity peda- sions based on the best information they can construct.
gogy is most powerful when it is integrated with Equity pedagogy helps students to acquire these skills.
transformative curricula. Most mainstream curricula Equity pedagogy is student focused. It incorpo-
do not actualize the full power of equity pedagogy. rates issues, concepts, principles, and problems that
They limit equity pedagogy to incremental strategies are real and meaningful to students. Teachers who
that are characterized by ideological constraints. embrace equity pedagogy assume that all students
Required content, however, can be taught using can learn. They work to develop student potential
a transformative pedagogy, as was done by a high and to create a classroom environment that is en-
school physics teacher in a Seattle suburban school. couraging and filled with opportunities for success.
He transformed a unit on torques by asking the students Equity pedagogy has important implications for
to identify a bridge that had collapsed, investigate why assessment. Educators who embrace it must interro-
it collapsed, and determine how the collapse of the gate traditional tests and letter grades. Assessment
bridge affected people in the community. Working strategies based on the assumption that all students
in groups, the students designed bridges that could can learn provide opportunities for students to im-
withstand designated wind speeds and weights. This prove their performances. The teacher who embraces
unit provided opportunities for students to connect equity pedagogy frequently gives students detailed
their study of torques to a real event, draw on the feedback on poorly prepared assignments and asks
strengths of their peers by working in groups, and students to "revisit" their work. Written comments
actively engage in constructing knowledge by trans- instead of letter grades provide opportunities for
lating the information they collected on bridges into teachers to identify areas of competence as well as
new designs. to suggest strategies for improvement and remediation.

155
THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Summer 1995
Culturally Relevant Teaching

Portfolio assessment also gives students an op- and a commitment to maintaining multicultural
portunity to demonstrate their growth over time, and awareness and action.
for teachers to give students ongoing support and Equity pedagogy cannot be implemented in a
encouragement (Valencia, Hiebert, & Afflerbach, vacuum. It requires more than good will and good
1994). Students can use portfolios to document the intentions. It requires multicultural, pedagogical, and
complexity and individuality of their work and to subject area knowledge (Banks, 1991,1994a, 1994b;
reflect on their progress and areas that need improve- Banks & Banks, 1995). Our discussion focuses on
ment. Portfolios contribute to sound assessment de- multicultural knowledge. However, teachers will not
cisions and to student development. They describe be able to use it effectively without a strong back-
and provide materials that collectively suggest the ground in their subject area and a sophisticated un-
scope and quality of a student's performance. Port- derstanding of pedagogy.
folios also provide the structure needed for teachers Multicultural knowledge includes key concepts
and students to better understand and make connec- in multicultural education such as culture, immigra-
tions between teaching and learning. tion, racism, sexism, cultural assimilation, structural
assimilation, ethnic groups, stereotypes, prejudice,
Teacher Characteristics and institutional racism (Banks, 1991,1994a). Teach-
Teachers who successfully implement equity ers will use their understandings of these concepts to
pedagogy draw upon a sophisticated knowledge base. weave them into classroom discourse, help students
They can enlist a broad range of pedagogical skills describe their feelings and experiences, and draw
and have a keen understanding of their cultural ex- linkages among different topics.
periences, values, and attitudes toward people who Teachers must also be able to recognize, com-
are culturally, racially, and ethnically different from pare, and contrast examples of various theories related
themselves. The skills, knowledge, and attitudes nec- to diversity, such as cultural difference, cultural def-
essary to successfully implement equity pedagogy icit, genetics, and cultural ecology (Banks, 1994b).
are the result of study, practical experience, and re- Each of these theories has been used to explain poor
flective self-analysis. academic achievement among low-income students
Reflective self-analysis requires teachers to iden- and students of color (Baratz & Baratz, 1970). Cul-
tify, examine, and reflect on their attitudes toward tural deficit theory, for example, has been used to
different ethnic, racial, gender, and social-class guide the development of many early childhood in-
groups. Many teachers are unaware of the extent to tervention programs such as Head Start and Distar.
which they embrace racist and sexist attitudes and An important goal of these programs is to improve
behaviors that are institutionalized within society as the academic achievement of low-status groups.
well as how they benefit from these societal practices It is not uncommon for teachers to select as-
(King, 1992). Reflecting on their own life journeys— pects from several theories to guide their work with
by writing their life stories—can be a powerful tool students. An eclectic theoretical approach may some-
for helping teachers gain a better understanding of times be effective, but it can also be counterproduc-
the ways in which institutionalized conceptions of tive. For example, after reading the book, Making
race, class, and gender have influenced their person- Connections, by Gilligan, Lyons, and Hanmer (1990)
al lives. a teacher may become aware that girls often equate
Autobiographical accounts and episodes provide fairness with listening. That teacher may then make
an opportunity for teachers to reflect on times in a special effort to call on women and men on an
their lives when they were the "other" who experi- equal basis. Multicultural theory, however, reveals
enced discrimination or a sense of isolation because that equity may not always mean treating different
of their race, class, gender, culture, or personal char- groups the same (Gay, 1993). It may sometimes be
acteristics. Reflective self-analysis cannot be a one- necessary to treat groups differently in order to cre-
time event. Multicultural awareness can result only ate equal-status situations for marginalized students.
from in-depth work on self. It requires the unravel- Providing an equal voice for women may sometimes
ing of myths that perpetuate social class, gender, require an unequal focus on women's views and issues
and racial privilege (King, 1992; Mclntosh, 1990) in classroom discourse. Equity pedagogy requires

156
 Banks and Banks
Equity Pedagogy

teachers to be able to recognize and respond to mul- gender, race, and ethnicity. Teachers who are skilled
tiple student characteristics, including race, social in equity pedagogy are able to use diversity to en-
class, and gender. rich instruction instead of fearing or ignoring it. They
The effective implementation of equity peda- are able to use diversity successfully because they
gogy requires teachers to understand the histories, understand its meaning in both their own and their
modal characteristics, and intragroup differences of students' lives. They are able to analyze, clarify, and
the major racial and ethnic groups (Banks, 1991). state their personal values related to cultural diversi-
This content and conceptual knowledge can provide ty and to act in ways consistent with their beliefs.
a foundation to help teachers design and select ap- Self-understanding, and knowledge of the his-
propriate instructional materials for their students tories, modal characteristics, and intragroup differ-
(Ladson-Billings, 1990, 1994,1995), make informed ences of ethnic groups are important competencies
decisions about when to use culturally sensitive ped- required for teachers to implement equity pedagogy.
agogy, and decide when to focus on the individual They provide a foundation for teachers to identify,
characteristics of students (Nieto, 1994). create, and implement teaching strategies that en-
For example, research summarized by Shade hance the academic achievement of students from
(1982) indicates that Latino and African-American both gender groups and from diverse racial, ethnic,
students often prefer a learning environment that is and cultural groups. Equity pedagogy is not embod-
more personalized and contextual than that preferred ied in specific strategies. It is a process that locates
by many middle-class, White students. While the the student at the center of schooling. When effec-
learning style literature suggests that certain learn- tively implemented, equity pedagogy enriches the
ing environments are more appropriate for various lives of both teachers and students and enables them
groups of students, it also suggests that students from to envision and to help create a more humane and
all ethnic and racial groups can be found in each of caring society.
the categories identified by learning style theorists
(Shade & New, 1993). When reading and using learn- Notes
ing style theories, teachers should question and analyze 1. Content integration consists of using examples and
them carefully. The learning style paradigm is a com- content from a variety of cultures and groups to teach
plex one that defies simplistic classroom applications key concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories in
a subject area or discipline. In the knowledge construc-
(Irvine & York, 1995). The paradigm has been criti- tion process, students are helped to understand, investi-
cized by researchers such as Kleinfeld and Nelson gate, and determine how implicit cultural assumptions,
(1991), who believe it may result in the construction of frames of reference, perspectives, and biases within a
new stereotypes about low-achieving students. discipline influence the ways that knowledge is constructed
within it. The prejudice reduction dimension focuses on
Teachers should look beyond the physical char- helping students to develop more positive racial, gender,
acteristics of students and consider the complexity and ethnic attitudes (Banks, 1993c). Equity pedagogy
of their individual and group experiences. A Latino consists of "techniques and methods that facilitate the
student's biographical journey, social class, and academic achievement of students from diverse racial,
geographical location may indicate that a teacher ethnic, and social-class groups" (p. 6). An empowering
school culture and social structure describes the process
should not focus on modal characteristics of Latinos in of "restructuring the culture and organization of the
determining appropriate pedagogy for the student. In- school so that students from diverse racial, ethnic, and
stead, the teacher may need to focus on the individual social-class groups will experience equality and cultural
characteristics of the student. Teachers must make in- empowerment" (p. 7). For a comprehensive discussion
formed decisions about when and how to use knowl- of the dimensions and their interrelationships, see Banks
(1993c).
edge about the cultural and ethnic backgrounds of
students when making pedagogical decisions.
References
Banks, J.A. (1991). Teaching strategies for ethnic stud-
Teaching as a Multicultural Encounter
ies (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Teaching is a multicultural encounter. Both Banks, J.A. (1993a). The canon debate, knowledge con-
teachers and students belong to diverse groups dif- struction, and multicultural education. Educational
ferentiated by variables such as age, social class, Researcher, 22(3), 4-14.

157
THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Summer 1995
Culturally Relevant Teaching

Banks, J.A. (1993b). Integrating the curriculum with eth- King, J.E. (1992). Diaspora literacy and consciousness in
nic content: Approaches and guidelines. In J.A. the struggle against miseducation in the Black commu-
Banks & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural edu- nity. The Journal of Negro Education, 61(3), 317-340.
cation: Issues and perspectives (pp. 3-28). Boston: Kleinfeld, J., & Nelson, P. (1991). Adapting instruction
Allyn & Bacon. to Native Americans' learning style: An iconoclas-
Banks, J.A. (1993c). Multicultural education: Historical tic view. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 22,
development, dimensions, and practice. In L.D. 273-282.
Hammond (Ed.), Review of research in education Ladson-Billings, G. (1990). Like lightning in a bottle:
(pp. 3-49). Washington, DC: American Educational Attempting to capture the pedagogical excellence
Research Association. of successful teachers of Black students. Qualita-
Banks, J.A. (1994a). An introduction to multicultural tive Studies in Education, 3(4), 335-344.
education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Success-
Banks, J.A. (1994b). Multiethnic education: Theory and ful teachers of African American children. San Fran-
practice (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. cisco: Jossey-Bass.
Banks, J.A., & Banks, C.A.M. (Eds.). (1995). Handbook Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Multicultural teacher educa-
of research on multicultural education. New York: tion: Research, practice, and policy. In J.A. Banks
Macmillan. & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on
Baratz, S.S., & Baratz, J.C. (1970). Early childhood in- multicultural education (pp. 747-759). New York:
tervention: The social science base of institutional Macmillan.
racism. Harvard Educational Review, 40, 29-50. McIntosh, P. (1990). Interactive phases of curricular and
Brooks, J.G., & Brooks, M.G. (1993). In search of un- personal re-vision with regard to race. Wellesley,
derstanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. MA: Wellesley College, Center for Research on
Arlington, VA: Association for Supervision and Women.
Curriculum Development. Nieto, S. (1994). Lesson from students on creating a
Brookover, W., Beady, C., Flood, P., Schweitzer, J., & chance to dream. Harvard Educational Review,
Wisenbaker, J. (1979). School social systems and 64(4), 392-415.
student achievement: Schools can make a difference. Schlesinger, Jr., A.M. (1991). The disuniting of Ameri-
New York: Praeger. ca. Knoxville, TN: Whittle Direct Books.
Cohen, E.G. (1994). Designing groupwork: Strategies Shade, B.J. (1982). Afro-American cognitive style: A
for the heterogeneous classrooms (2nd ed.). New variable in school success? Review of Educational
York: Teachers College Press. Research, 52, 219-244.
Cohen, E.G., & Roper, S.S. (1972). Modification of in- Shade, B.J., & New, C.A. (1993). Cultural influences on
terracial interaction disability: An application of sta- learning. In J.A. Banks & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.),
tus characteristics theory. American Sociological Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives
Review, 37, 643-657. (2nd ed.; pp. 317-331). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Code, L. (1991). What can she know? Feminist theory Slavin, R.E. (1983). Cooperative learning. New York:
and the construction of knowledge. Ithaca, NY: Cor- Longman.
nell University Press. Sleeter, C.E. (1995). An analysis of the critiques of mul-
D'Souza, D. (1991). Illiberal education: The politics of ticultural education. In J.A. Banks & C.A.M. Banks
race and sex on campus. New York: The Free Press. (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural edu-
Gay, G. (1993). Ethnic minorities and educational equal- cation (pp. 81-94). New York: Macmillan.
ity. In J.A. Banks & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Multi- Tetreault, M.K.T. (1993). Classrooms for diversity: Re-
cultural education: Issues and Perspectives (pp. 171- thinking curriculum and pedagogy. In J.A. Banks &
194). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural Education: Is-
Gilligan, C., Lyons, N.P., & Hanmer, T. J. (Eds.). (1990). sues and perspectives (2nd ed.; pp. 129-148). Bos-
Making connections: The relational words of ado- ton: Allyn & Bacon.
lescent girls at Emma Willard School. Cambridge, Tye, B.B. (1987). The deep structure of schooling. Phi
MA: Harvard University Press. Delta Kappan, 69(4), 281-284.
Irvine, J.J., & York, E.D. (1995). Learning styles and Valencia, S., Hiebert, E.H., & Afflerbach, P.P. (Eds.).
culturally diverse students: A literature review. In (1994). Authentic reading assessment: Practices and
J.A. Banks & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of possibilities. Newark, DE: International Reading
research on multicultural education (pp. 484-497). Association.
New York: Macmillan. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The develop-
Jackson, P.W. (1992). Untaught lessons. New York: ment of higher psychological processes. Cambridge,
Teachers College Press. MA: Harvard University Press.

158