C About Writing A Guide
C About Writing A Guide
Revised Edition
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CONTENTS
COMPOSING
Constructing an Outline 11
Transitions 13
ACADEMIC WRITING
Active Reading 21
Analyzing a Text 23
Rhetorical Concepts 25
RESEARCHING
Evaluating Sources 41
Avoiding Plagiarism 46
MLA/APA/CMS
BASIC GRAMMAR
Subject-Verb Agreement 73
Nouns 100
EXPOSITORY
• Textbooks
• How-to articles
• Recipes
• Poetry
• Journal/diary writing
• Descriptions of Nature
PERSUASIVE
• Cover letters
• Reviews of items
• Letters of complaint
• Advertisements
• Letters of recommendation
NARRATIVE
• Oral histories
• Novels/Novellas
• Short Stories
• Anecdotes
• Summarizing information
• Analyzing ideas and concepts
• Taking a position and defending it
• Combining ideas from several sources and creating your own
original argument.
You’ve come up with what you hope will be a great thesis for
your paper. Want to make sure before you get started with it? Ask
yourself the following questions:
but, however, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, still, even though,
Contrast
on the contrary, yet, although
Summarize/
in other words, in short, in conclusion, to sum up, therefore
Conclude
after, as, before, next, during, later, finally, meanwhile, since, then, when,
Time
while, immediately
Place/
above, below, beyond, farther on, nearby, opposite, close, to the left
Direction
Logical if, so, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, for this reason, because,
Relationship since
PIE CHART
LINE GRAPH
BAR GRAPH
Sun 5/1 Mon 5/2 Tue 5/3 Wed 5/4 Thu 5/5 Fri 5/6 Sat 5/7
Brown,
9am-6pm 9am-6pm 9am-1pm
M.
Gordon,
11am-8pm 11am-8pm 7am-11am 9am-6pm 9am-6pm
A.
Lawton,
11am-8pm 11am-8pm 7am-11am
N.
Vasquez,
11am-8pm 11am-8pm 7am-11am
A.
PHOTOGRAPH
“Tugboat diagram” by Al2 with minor modifications by Lycaon – Own work. Licensed
under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Commons.
FLOWCHART
MAP
“Oregon Trail wikivoyage map” by Gorilla Jones is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
Start by getting familiar with the basic parts and structure of the
text:
• Are there things you didn’t notice the first time reading the
text?
• Does the text leave some questions open-ended?
• Imagine the author is sitting across from you: what would you
ask them about the text? Why?
WRITTEN TEXTS
TEXT (LOGOS)
Texts can come in all shapes and sizes, such as those listed earlier.
But in this context, text is not limited to something written
down. The text in a rhetorical situation could be a film, or a
photograph, or a recording of a song or history. The important
thing to ask yourself when faced with a text, no matter what it
is, is what is gained by having the text composed in this format/
genre. What are the relevant characteristics of a book versus a
song? What might an oral history version of a text communicate
that a book version would not?
AUTHOR (ETHOS)
AUDIENCE (PATHOS)
PURPOSES (TELOS)
SETTING (KAIROS)
Nothing happens in a vacuum, and that includes the text you are
HUMANITIES: HISTORY
BIAS
Identify the author’s main claim. What are they arguing is true
or untrue? Pay attention to what the author uses to support
their claim – do you find relevant evidence or just emotional
examples? Statistics should be used consistently and fairly, with
an explanation of where they came from. Check for logical
fallacies in the author’s argument and make sure the author
considers opposing viewpoints.
AUTHOR
Once you find the name of the author, see what else you can find
out about them, including their background in the area they are
writing about. If these author’s qualifications are not listed on
the site itself, search on author sites or in other sources.
SPONSORSHIP
PURPOSE
Determine why the site was created and who it was meant to
RELEVANCE
FOR BOOKS
• Author(s)
• Editors/translators
• Edition (if not first)
• Name, date, and city of publication/publisher
FOR ARTICLES
• Author(s)
• Title and Subtitle
• Name of source (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.)
• Date of publication
• Volume, issue, and page numbers
• Name of database
• Author(s)
• Editors/Creators
• Title of source
• Title of site
• Publication information
• Date of publication or latest update
• Site sponsor
• Date source accessed
• Source URL
This chart follows MLA style. For information on other styles see those
sections (APA and CMS).
Using something word-for-word from McGuffin and Cross have said, “No one should ever eat
another source? cake without frosting” (22).
Or
Using something from a source but DON’T. This is plagiarism, even if you use a signal
substituting in some synonyms? phrase and include a parenthetical citation.
SUMMARIES (PARAPHRASING)
MODEL PHRASES
VERBS
Confirms Notes
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
These citations need to include the author’s last name and the
page/paragraph number on which the information was found.
If a signal phrase is used earlier in the sentence which includes
the author’s name, the name does not need to be included in the
citation.
These citations need to include the authors’ last names and the
page/paragraph number on which the information was found. If
a signal phrase is used earlier in the sentence which includes the
authors’ last names, the names do not need to be included in the
citation. If the source has three or fewer authors, all the authors’
last names need to be listed in the citation.
Ip, Greg. The Little Book of Economics. Hoboken: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2010. Book.
MODEL PHRASES
VERBS
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
These citations need to include the author’s last name, date that
the information was published, and the page (p.) /paragraph
(para.) number on which you found the information. If a signal
phrase is used earlier in the sentence which includes the author’s
name, the name does not need to be included in the citation.
These citations need to include the authors’ last names, the date
when the information was published, and the page/paragraph
number on which the information was found. If a signal phrase
is used earlier in the sentence which includes the authors’ last
names, the names do not need to be included in the citation. If
the source has two authors, both authors’ last names need to be
listed in the citation.
If the source has three – five authors, all the authors’ last names
need to be used in either a signal phrase or in the citation the
If the source has six or more authors, you only need to use the
first author’s last name in either a signal phrase or in the citation.
Willig et al. (1998) were the first group of researchers to take the
issue seriously and perform in-depth research to identify potential
negative effects of such events (p. 52).
MODEL PHRASES
VERBS
Although If Unless
As if Since When
Which Whom
Which Whom
Whatever Whoever
If Where Why
When Wherever
Singular Plural
Singular Plural
Singular Plural
Singular Plural
Singular Plural
Verb’s subject is he, she, it, or one: He loves going to watch musical
theater.
Having finished setting up the tables, the Having finished setting up the tables, the seniors
party started. could finally start the party.
Without knowing the street address, it Because the band didn’t know the street
was impossible to find the party. address, the party was impossible to find.
To improve his results, the placement test Jake improved his results by taking the
was taken again. placement test again.
SIMPLE TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT
Examples
SIMPLE PAST
• When she was young, my sister played with me all the time.
SIMPLE FUTURE
Examples
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
Examples
PAST PROGRESSIVE
Examples
PERFECT TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT
Repetitive or constant actions that began in the past but are still
happening or actions that happened at an unspecified time in
the past
=
has, have + past participle
Examples
Example
Continuous actions that began in the past but are still occurring
=
has, have + been + past participle
Example
Actions that began and continued in the past until some other
action in the past occurred
=
had + been + present participle
Example
• By the time I moved to Klamath Falls, I had been writing for ten years.
SIMPLE TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT
Examples
SIMPLE PAST
Example
Example
SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
Future actions (paired with go, leave, move, etc.) or actions that
are currently in progress
=
am, is, are + being + past participle
Examples
PAST PROGRESSIVE
PERFECT TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT
Examples
• The boat has been delayed because of the hurricane in the Atlantic.
PAST PERFECT
Example
• She had been searching for clues for hours before bedtime.
CAN
Examples
• I can write a grammar book. George can sing better than his brother.
COULD
Examples
Examples
MIGHT
Example
MUST
Examples
• For the best result, you must mix the batter for five minutes.
Examples
WILL
Examples
WOULD
Examples
• Would you help me finish this pie? I would like some milk.
COMMON
Examples
PROPER
Examples
COUNT
NON-COUNT
Examples
SINGULAR
Singular nouns are any nouns that represent only one person,
place, or thing.
Examples
PLURAL
Examples
Specific (or definite) nouns are words that name people, places,
or things that can be identified within a group of the same type.
Examples
GENERAL (INDEFINITE)
Examples
Examples
• Please turn off the lights. We’re not going to the museum tomorrow.
(Count)
Use a/an if the noun refers to a single item that is not specific.
Never use a/an with plural or non-count nouns.
Example
Examples
• Teachers can attend the game for free. Actors must report backstage
by 5:00 p.m. (Count)
FOOD
NONFOOD
Gasoline Silver
Gold Snow
ABSTRACT
Employment Intelligence
Luggage Research
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
USE ‘THE’
Groups of Islands
Example
Examples
Peninsulas
Examples
Mountain Ranges
Examples
Examples
Examples
1. Article (or other Noun Marker) – a, an, the, her, this, my Joe’s,
two, many, some
2. Evaluative Word – repulsive, lazy, gross, beautiful, magical
3. Size – miniscule, small, large, gargantuan
4. Length/Shape – short, oval, long, diamond
5. Age – new, young, old, ancient
6. Color – orange, cerulean, red
7. Nationality – German, Chilean, Korean
8. Material – pewter, wood, silk, granite
9. Noun/Adjective – safe (as in safe room), mobile (as in mobile
home)
Example
These three words can help you show either time or place.
Time Place
Accustomed to Guilty of
Addicted to Interested in
Afraid of Involved in
Ashamed of Known as
Committed to Made of
Connected to Opposed to
Dedicated to Proud of
Engaged in Scared of
Engaged to Similar to
Full of
Count on Reply to
Here are some steps for re-reading and revising your essays in
a reasonably objective way. These steps may seem formulaic and
mechanical, but you need a way to diagnose your own prose so
that you have some sense of how others will read it.
This first step is intended to ensure that the beginning and end of
your paper cohere with each other, that they “frame” your paper
is an appropriate way.
Draw a line after the end of your introduction and just before the
beginning of your conclusion.
From an introduction:
From a conclusion:
While many were eager to slash the culture’s ties to its primitive
history, Armstrong and Motley created art which included elements
of the community’s history and which made this history a central
part of African-American urban identity.
For example:
Note that this sentence does not conclude that Armstrong and
Motley did include primitive history in their art. But it does
introduce some implicit questions that anticipate that
conclusion: did these artists use their historical experience? If so,
how? Those implicit question set up the explicit point.
The risk is that you might do exactly that! For nearly all of us, the
process of our thinking is messy, inefficient, and hard to follow.
If you write a paper that in fact tracks what you thought about
at 1 AM, then 3 AM, the 6 AM, you’re likely to write a messy,
inefficient and hard to follow paper. Few instructors want to see
that. They want to see a coherent, ordered, analytical account
of your thinking that may seem to be a narrative, but in fact is
always an artful invention, something that requires writing skills
of a high order.
Now, analyze and revise each section as you did your whole
paper:
Try to explain to yourself why you put the parts of the paper in
the order you did. If you arranged the parts of your paper in the
order you did because that’s the order in which they occurred to
you, your readers are likely not to see any rationale for moving
through your paper in the order they do.
Well, it’s not. After it has been explained, it may or may not be
persuasive (after all, the author of “all men are created equal” was
himself a slave owner). But it isn’t obvious. Quotations rarely
speak for themselves; most have to be “unpacked.” If you offer
only quotes without interpreting those quotes, your reader will
likely have trouble understanding how the quote, as evidence,
supports your claim. Your paper will seem to be a pastiche of
strung-together quotations, suggesting that your data never
passed through the critical analysis of a working mind.
For more than a century now, every liberal has vehemently argued
against any kind of censorship of art and/or entertainment. And in
the last 20 years, the courts and the legislatures of Western nations
have found these arguments so persuasive that no one remembers
any rebuttals to these arguments. Censorship has simply ceased to
exist.
For almost a century now, many liberals have argued against the
censorship of art and/or entertainment, and in the last 20 years,
courts and the legislatures in most Western nations have found
these arguments fairly persuasive. Few people now clearly
remember what the rebuttals to these arguments were. Today, in
the United States and other democracies, censorship has just about
ceased to exist.
Lincoln may have been willing to let his readers associate the
Founders with the North, but it is not clear that he actually believed
that they would have supported the Union. He does not specifically
say so. Although he describes what the founders did in the past
(“Four score and seven years ago”), he does not say what they would
do in the present.